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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Zx
of g(0), g(1), g(2), g(3), g(4), and g(5). Then sketch a rough graph of g.
Z0
Z1
1
f (t)dt = (1 2) = 1
2
Z2
0
f (t)dt =
Z1
f (t)dt +
Z2
f (t)dt = 1 + (1 2) = 3
Z3
Z4
g(5) = g(4) +
Z5
4
Zx
f (t)dt, where a = 0 and f (t) = sin t, find a formula for g(x) and
calculate g (x).
Solution: By the Evaluation Theorem we have:
g(x) =
Zx
d
( cos x + 1) = sin x.
dx
REMARK: To see why this might be generally true we consider a continuous function f with
f (x) 0. Then
Zx
g(x) = f (t)dt
Then g (x) =
To compute g (x) from the definition of derivative we first observe that, for h > 0, g(x+h)g(x)
is obtained by subtracting areas, so it is the area under the graph of f from x to x + h (the
gold area). For small h you can see that this area is approximately equal to the area of the
rectangle with height f (x) and width h:
g(x + h) g(x) hf (x)
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x)
h
g (x) = lim
The fact that this is true, even when f is not necessarily positive, is the first part of the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
2
THEOREM (The Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus, Part I): If f is continuous on [a, b], then
the function g defined by
Zx
axb
g(x) = f (t)dt
a
x
x+h
x+h
x+h
Z
Zx
Z
Z
Zx
Z
f (t)dt
f (t)dt f (t)dt =
f (t)dt f (t)dt = f (t)dt +
g(x + h) g(x) =
a
x+h
Z
f (t)dt
(1)
For now lets assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x+h], the Extreme Value Theorem
says that there are numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where
m and Mare the absolute minimum and maximum
values of f on [x, x + h]. By Property 8 of
Zb
integrals m(b a) f (x)dx M (b a) we have
a
x+h
Z
mh
f (t)dt M h
x+h
Z
f (u)h
f (t)dt f (v)h
x
x+h
Z
f (t)dt f (v)
x
h0
ux
h0
vx
because f is continuous at x. We conclude, from (2) and the Squeeze Theorem, that
g(x + h) g(x)
= f (x)
(3)
h0
h
If x = a or b, then (3) can be interpreted as a one-sided limit. We know that if f is differentiable
at a, then f is continuous at a. If we adopt this theorem for one-sided limits, we obtain that
g is continuous on [a, b].
g (x) = lim
Zx
t4 dt.
Solution: Since f (t) = t4 is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
g (x) = x4
EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =
Zx
et dt.
1
2
Solution: Since f (t) = et is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
g (x) = ex
Zx2
et dt.
1
2
Solution: Since f (t) = et is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
d
dx
Zx2
1
et dt =
d
dx
Zu
et dt =
d
du
Zu
et dt
du
2 du
2 2
4
= eu
= e(x ) 2x = 2xex
dx
dx
In short,
d
dx
Zx2
et dt = e(x
2 )2
(x2 ) = 2xex
sin x
Z
tdt.
Z1
sec tdt.
x4
tdt.
u
sin x
Z
Z
Zu
d
d 3 du
du
d
3
3
3
= 3u
= sin x cos x
tdt =
tdt =
tdt
dx
dx
du
dx
dx
2
In short,
d
dx
sin x
Z
tdt =
sin x(sin x) =
sin x cos x
Z1
sec tdt.
x4
Solution: By Property 1 of the Definite Integral and Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus we have
u
Z
Z1
Zx4
Zu
d
du
du
d
d
d
= sec u
sec tdt =
sec tdt = sec tdt
sec tdt =
dx
dx
dx
du
dx
dx
1
x4
= sec(x4 ) 4x3
= 4x3 sec(x4 )
In short,
d
dx
Z1
x4
sec tdt =
d
dx
Zx4
cos
Z x
t2 dt.
sin x
cos
Z x
t2 dt.
sin x
Solution: We have
cos
Z x
Z0
t dt =
t dt +
sin x
sin x
cos
sin x
Z x
Z
2
t2 dt
t dt +
t dt =
cos
Z x
therefore
d
dx
cos
Z x
d
t dt =
dx
2
sin x
cos
Z
Z x
d
2
t dt +
t2 dt
dx
0
sin x
Zx
f (t)dt
Zx
f (t)dt + C
It follows that
F (a) =
Za
f (t)dt + C = 0 + C = C
F (b) =
Zb
f (t)dt + C =
thus
F (b) =
Zb
f (t)dt + F (a)
F (b) F (a) =
Zb
a
f (t)dt + F (a)
Zb
f (t)dt
THEOREM (The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals): If f is continuous on [a, b], then there
exists a number c in [a, b] such that
f (c) = fave
1
=
ba
Zb
f (x)dx
Zb
or
f (x)dx = f (c)(b a)
Solution: We have
fave
1
=
41
Z4
1
xdx =
3
Z4
1/2
1 x1/2+1
dx =
3 1/2 + 1
4
1
1 2
= x3/2
3 3
4
1
1
=
3
2 3/2 2 3/2
4 1
3
3
We now find c:
f (c) = fave
14
=
9
14
c=
9
c=
14
9
2
196
142
=
2
9
81
EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) = 1 + x2 on the interval [1, 2].
14
9
EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) = 1 + x2 on the interval [1, 2].
Solution: We have
fave
1
=
2 (1)
Z2
2
1
x3
(1 + x )dx =
x+
=2
3
3 1
2
We now find c:
f (c) = fave = 2
1 + c2 = 2
c2 = 1
1
=
2 (2)
Z2
4 x2 dx =
c = 1
1 22
=
4
2
2
We now find c:
f (c) = fave
=
2
4 c2 =
2
2
4c =
4
2
c=
2
4
1.23798
4