Neurobiological Basis of Psychology

GROUP 1
BSA 1-22
Abulencia, Riener
Agron, Francesca Emlyn E.
Alanis, Mary Grace V.
Alisuag, Jayson B.
Aquino, Kimberly
Arcenas, Manuel Jr. A.
Avenida, Ma. Concepcion D.

A. Components of Neural functioning

Neurons
Neurons are highly specialized cells that have accentuated the basic characteristics of other cells,
which include transmembrane potential, the ability to form extensions of its cytoplasm, and so on. The
extensions of neurons have also become specialized, so that the ion channels and receptors in dendrite
membranes are different from those in axon membranes.
Types of Neurons
Functional Classification:

Morphological classification based on the

number of extensions from the body cell:

Sensory Neurons that receive sensory

Pseudo-unipolar Neurons with a short

with a short signals from sensory organs

extension that quickly divides into two

and send them via short axons to the CNS.

branches, one of which functions as a

dentrite, the other as an axon.

Motor Neurons that conduct

motor

Multipolar

neurons that have short

commands from the cortex to the spinal

dendrites emanating from the cell body

cord or from the spinal cord to the muscels. and one long axon.
Interneurons that interconnect
various

Bipolar

Neurons that have two main

neurons within the brain or the
spinal

extensions

of

the similar lengths.

cord.
Type

Location

Function

Over secretion

Under Secretion

Effects

Effects

SEROTONIN

Raphe

It is an inhibitory

Depression, suicide,

Low serotonin levels

nucleus

neurotransmitter which

impulsive

are also associated

means that it does not

behaviour, and

with decreased

stimulate the brain.

agressiveness all

immune system

It contributes to various

appear to involve

function.

functions, such as regulating

certain imbalances

body temperature, sleep,

in serotonin.

mood, appetite, and pain.

Gamma-

Nucleus

It is an inhibitory

Some drugs that

aminobutyric acid

accumbens

neurotransmitter that is very

increase the level of

widely distributed in the

GABA in the brain

neurons of the cortex. GABA

are used to treat

contributes to motor control,

epilepsy and to

vision, and many other

calm the trembling

cortical functions. It also

of people suffering

regulates anxiety.

from Huntingtons

or GABA

disease.
DOPAMINE

Ventral

A neurotransmitter associated

The loss of dopamine

tegmentum

with movement, attention,

in certain parts of the

learning, and the brain's

brain causes the

pleasure and reward system.

muscle rigidity
typical of Parkinsons

Acetylcholine

Glutamate

Basal nucleus

It is a very widely distributed

disease.
Alzheimers disease

of Meynert

excitatory neurotransmitter

is associated with a

that triggers muscle

lack of acetylcholine

contraction and stimulates the

in certain regions of

excretion of certain hormones.

the brain.

It is a major excitatory

It is also thought to

neurotransmitter that is

be associated with

associated with learning and

Alzheimers disease,

memory .

whose first symptoms

Neuronal Cell

include memory
malfunctions.

Norepinephrine

Locus

It is a neurotransmitter that is

Can cause severe

ceruleus

important for attentiveness,

brain injury, spinal

emotions, sleeping, dreaming,

cord damage, high

and learning. Norepinephrine

blood pressure and

is also released as a hormone

stress

into the blood, where it causes

blood vessels to contract and
Epinephrine

Endorphins

Adrenal

heart rate to increase.

Epinephrine (also known as

It can cause tremor,

Heart failure of

Gland

adrenaline) is an excitatory

headache, and panic

cardiac arrest is a

neurotransmitter, that controls

attack.

result of under

attention, arousal, cognition,

secretion of

and mental focus

Transmits electrical signals

epinephrine

Pituitary
gland

within the nervous system. It

is for the communication of all
the nerves in our body

Images:

Serotorin
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid

Dopamine

Glutamate

Epinephrine

Acetylcholine

Norepinephrine

Endorphins

Reference(s):
http://www.minddisorders.com/Kau-Nu/Neurotransmitters.html
http://www.uni.edu/walsh/neurotransmitters.html
http://www.brainchannels.com/evolution/neurotransmitters.html
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/nerves.php
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_01/i_01_m/i_01_m_ana/i_01_m_ana.html
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/neurotransmitters-and-their-functions.html
https://www.neurogistics.com/TheScience/WhatareNeurotransmi09CE.asp
http://mybrainnotes.com/serotonin-dopamine-epinephrine.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorphins
http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=55001
https://www.google.com.ph/imghp?hl=en&tab=wi&ei=7E9IVsYCYaHmgXSx7LoDw&ved=0CBEQqi4oAQ

B. Organization of Nervous System

Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves
and specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals
between different parts of the body. It is essentially the
bodys electrical wiring.
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the
central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
According to the National Institutes of Health, the central
nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and
nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory
neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that
connect to one another and to the central nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is the
processing center for the nervous system. It receives
information from and sends information to the
peripheral nervous system. The two main organs of

the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes and interprets sensory information sent
from the spinal cord. Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by three layers of connective tissue
called the meninges.
Central Nervous System: Brain
The brain is the control center of the body. It
consists of three main components: the
forebrain, the brainstem, and the hindbrain.
The forebrain
is responsible for a variety of functions
including receiving and processing sensory
information, thinking, perceiving, producing
and understanding language, and controlling
motor function.
The midbrain and the hindbrain together
make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and
the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor
function.
The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum.
These regions assist in maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the
conduction of sensory information. The hindbrain also contains the medulla oblongata which is
responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
http://biology.about.com/od/organsystems/ss/central-nervous-system.htm
Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are responsible for most
of the brain's function. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe, parietal
lobe and frontal lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are connected by
axons that relay messages from one to the other.
Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is one of four lobes in the cerebral hemisphere. This lobe controls a
several elements including creative thought, problem solving, intellect, judgment, behavior, attention,
abstract thinking, physical reactions, muscle movements, coordinated movements, smell and
personality.
Parietal Lobe:Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual

functions, language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and sensory comprehension will be
monitored here.
Sensory Cortex- The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the parietal lobe, receives
information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of various body parts and how they are
moving. This middle area of the brain can also be used to relay information from the sense of touch,
including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the body.
Motor Cortex- This helps the brain monitor and control movement throughout the body. It is located
in the top, middle portion of the brain.
Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes areas that help
manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral elements, and language. It is located in the
cerebral hemisphere.
Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex. While
scientists have a limited understanding of the function of this area, it is known that it helps the body
formulate or understand speech.
Occipital Lobe: The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the head. It helps
to control vision.
Broca's Area- This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as the understanding of speech
and language. It is located in the triangular and opercular section of the inferior frontal gyrus.
Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be older than the cerebrum
on the evolutionary scale. The cerebellum controls essential body functions such as balance, posture
and coordination, allowing humans to move properly and maintain their structure.
Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that the
body generates are initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus,
hypothalamus and thalamus.
Amygdala:The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear. It is a large
portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe which can be seen from the surface of
the brain. This visible bulge is known as the uncus.
Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically converting
temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored within the brain. The
hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial relationships, allowing for accurate
movements. This portion of the brain is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Hypothalamus:The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and temperature.

It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the body.
Thalamus:The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention span,
sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the sensations the
body is feeling.
Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and
breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is commonly referred to
as the simplest part of the brain, as most creatures on the evolutionary scale have some form of brain
creation that resembles the brain stem. The brain stem consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.
Midbrain:The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and tectum.
These parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The anterior portion of the
midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that transfer messages from the
cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor function to take place.
Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to the cerebellum to
help with posture and movement. It interprets information that is used in sensory analysis or motor
control. The pons also creates the level of consciousness necessary for sleep.
Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain stem which maintains
vital body functions such as the heart rate and breathing.
http://www.md-health.com/Parts-Of-The-Brain-And-Function.html
Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is
connected to the brain. The spinal cord runs down the center of the
protective spinal column extending from the neck to the lower back.
Spinal cord nerves transmit information from body organs and
external stimuli to the brain and send information from the brain to
other areas of the body. The nerves of the spinal cord are grouped into
bundles of nerve fibers that travel in two pathways. Ascending nerve
tracts carry sensory information from the body to the brain.
Descending nerve tracts send information pertaining to motor
function from the brain to the rest of the body.
http://biology.about.com/od/organsystems/ss/central-nervoussystem.htm
Parts and Functions

The spongy spinal cord is protected by the irregular shaped bones of the spinal column called
vertebrae. Spinal vertebrae are components of the axial skeleton and each contain an opening that
serves as a channel for the spinal cord to pass through. Between the stacked vertebrae are discs of
semi-rigid cartilage, and in the narrow spaces between them are passages through which the spinal
nerves exit to the rest of the body. These are places where the spinal cord is vulnerable to direct injury.
The vertebrae can be organized into sections, and are named and numbered from top to bottom
according to their location along the backbone:
Cervical vertebrae (1-7) located in the neck
Thoracic vertebrae (1-12) in the upper back (attached to the ribcage)
Lumbar vertebrae (1-5) in the lower back
Sacral vertebrae (1-5) in the hip area
Coccygeal vertebrae (1-4 fused) in the tail-bone
The spinal cord is also organized into segments and named and numbered from top to bottom.
Each segment marks where spinal nerves emerge from the cord to connect to specific regions of the
body. Locations of spinal cord segments do not correspond exactly to vertebral locations, but they are
roughly equivalent.
Cervical spinal nerves (C1 to C8) control signals to the back of the head, the neck and shoulders, the
arms and hands, and the diaphragm.
Thoracic spinal nerves (T1 to T12) control signals to the chest muscles, some muscles of the back,
and parts of the abdomen.
Lumbar spinal nerves (L1 to L5) control signals to the lower parts of the abdomen and the back, the
buttocks, some parts of the external genital organs, and parts of the leg.
Sacral spinal nerves (S1 to S5) control signals to the thighs and lower parts of the legs, the feet, most
of the external genital organs, and the area around the anus.
The single coccygeal nerve
carries sensory information from the skin of the lower back.
http://biology.about.com/od/Nervous-System/ss/spinal-cord.htm
Reflex Action Of The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the medium by which motor and sensory impressions are conducted to and
from the brain. It receives impressions from all parts of the body by means of the sensory nerves, and
conveys them to the brain, where they produce sensation. It conducts the command of the brain to the
voluntary muscles by the motor nerves, and thus causes movement. In all this the brain is the power,
and the cord the conductor ; but, as well as this, the cord has a special function that of reflex action.
If the connection of the cord with the brain be severed, and the skin supplied by afferent nerves below

the injured part be irritated, movement will be produced in the part supplied by efferent nerves from
the same part of the cord. This is reflex action.
The brain itself gives rise to reflex actionsactions which take place without the will or
consciousness of the individual, such as instinctive shrinking from a threatened blow, or blinking from
a flash of light.
http://chestofbooks.com/health/body/massage/Margaret-D-Palmer/Lessons-on-Massage/ReflexAction-Of-The-Spinal-Cord.html#.VkguM3YrLIU
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the division of the
nervous system containing all the nerves that lie outside of the
central nervous system (CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to
connect the CNS to the organs, limbs and skin. These nerves
extend from the central nervous system to the outermost areas of
the body.

The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous

system are actually the axons or bundles of axons from
neuron cells.
In some cases, these nerves are very small but some nerve bundles are so large that they
can be easily seen by the human eye.
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts:
The Somatic Nervous System

The somatic system is the part of the peripheral

nervous system responsible for carrying sensory and
motor information to and from the central nervous
system. The somatic nervous system derives its name
from the Greek word soma, which means "body." The
somatic system is responsible for transmitting sensory
information as well as for voluntary movement.

This system contains two major types of neurons: sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry
information from the nerves to the central nervous system, and motor neurons (or efferent neurons)
that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.

The Autonomic Nervous

System
The autonomic system is the part of the
peripheral nervous system responsible
for regulating involuntary body
functions, such as blood flow,
heartbeat, digestion and breathing.
This system is further divided into two
branches: the sympathetic
system regulates the flight-or-fight responses, while the parasympathetic system helps
maintain normal body functions and conserves physical resources.
Sympathetic System
The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) is responsible for the fightor-flight response, which
activates breathing, blood flow,
and other bodily processes to
prepare you for action.
Parasympathetic System
The parasympathetic nervous
system is responsible for inhibiting or opposing the effects of the sympathetic
nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the brain stem
and lower part of the spinal cord and increases activity of the intestines and
glands, relaxes sphincter muscles, stimulates digestive secretions, slows the heart
and dilates blood vessels.

Enteric System
The enteric nervous
system (ENS) is the intrinsic
nervous system of the
gastrointestinal tract. It
contains complete reflex
circuits that detect the
physiological condition of the
gastrointestinal tract, integrate
information about the state of
the gastrointestinal tract, and
provide outputs to control gut movement, fluid exchange between the gut and its
lumen, and local blood flow (Gershon 2005; Furness 2006). It is the only part of
the peripheral nervous system that contains extensive neuralcircuits that are
capable of local, autonomous function. The ENS has extensive, two-way,
connections with the central nervous system (CNS), and works in concert with the
CNS to control the digestive system in the context of local and whole body
physiological demands. Because of its extent and its degree of autonomy, the ENS
has been referred to as a second brain. The roles of the ENS are much more
restricted than the actual brain, and so this analogy has limited utility.
References:
http://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/f/peripheral-nervous-system.htm
http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/od/glossarys/g/sympatheticnerv.htm
http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/od/glossaryp/g/parasympathetic.htm
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Enteric_nervous_system
C. The Human Brain Its Hierarchical Structure, Parts, and Functions

Brain

The brain is one of the most complex and magnificent organs in the human body.
Our brain gives us awareness of ourselves and of our environment, processing a constant
stream of sensory data. It controls our muscle movements, the secretions of our glands,
and even our breathing and internal temperature. Every creative thought, feeling, and plan
is developed by our brain. The brains neurons record the memory of every event in our
lives.
Brain stem
The brain stem is one of the most basic regions of the human brain, yet it is one of the most
vital regions for our bodys survival. It forms the connection between the brain and the spinal cord,
maintains vital control of the heart and lungs, and coordinates many important reflexes.

The cerebellum
is a rounded structure located behind the
brain stem, to which it is linked by thick
nerve tracts. It accounts for about 11% of the
whole brain weight and appears similar to the
cerebrum (the main mass of the brain). It is
concerned mainly with the maintenance of
posture and balance and the coordination of
movement.
The cerebrum
is the most superior and anterior of the brains major regions. It is the seat of reason,
planning, memory, and sensory integration. All conscious thought originates in the
cerebrum and can influence the subconscious functions of the lower regions of the brain.
The cerebrum is a large, folded mass of nervous tissue that makes up the majority of the
human brain. Many ridges of cerebral tissue, called gyri (singular: gyrus), extend from
the surface of the cerebrum and are bordered by grooves in the cerebrum....
Each cerebral hemisphere is further subdivided into four lobes that are named for the
covering bones of the cranium.

The frontal lobe is the most anterior region of the cerebrum that extends posteriorly to the central
sulcus.

Posterior to the central sulcus is the parietal lobe, which forms the center of the cerebrum.

The temporal lobe extends laterally and inferiorly from the parietal lobe and is separated from the
frontal and parietal lobes by the lateral sulcus.

Posterior to the temporal and parietal lobes is the occipital lobe, which forms the most posterior region
of the cerebrum.

The lateral sulcus widens at the bottom like an upside down letter T to form a region of
cerebrum known as the insula. Often referred to as the 5th lobe of the brain, the insula is
made of deep cortical material that is covered by regions of the temporal, parietal, and
frontal lobes.
The cerebral cortex provides most of the functions of the cerebrum and is organized into
three major regions: sensory, association, and motor areas.

Sensory neurons carry signals to the cerebrum from billions of sensory receptors found throughout the
body. These neurons end at the sensory areas of the cerebrum, where the information is received,
processed, and passed on to association areas.

Association areas make up a large portion of the cerebrum and are involved in the integration,
interpretation, and complex thought about information obtained from the senses. Association areas are
also involved in memory, planning, and evaluation.

Motor areas are involved in the coordination and execution of muscle movements. Information from
association areas passes to motor areas to create appropriate responses to stimuli.

All three of the cerebral areas must work together as a team to produce appropriate
responses and control of the body. For example, when someone asks you a question, the
sounds of speech are detected by the ear and sent to the primary auditory area. The
primary auditory area processes the sound information and delivers it to the auditory
association area, which translates sounds into words and considers the meaning of those
words. Another association area receives information from the auditory association area
and plans a response. Finally, the information passes to the motor area, which executes
the appropriate response by stimulating skeletal muscles to produce speech to answer the
question.

left & right hemisphere

The left side of the brain is responsible for
controlling the right sideof the body. It also
performs tasks that have to do with logic, such as in
science and mathematics. On the other hand, the
right hemisphere coordinates the left side of the
body, and performs tasks that have do with creativity and the arts. Both hemispheres are
connected by the corpus callosum and serve the
body in different ways .

You use your frontal lobe nearly

everyday. You use it to make decisions,
such as what to eat or drink for
breakfast in the morning, as well as for
thinking or studying for a test. The
frontal lobe is also where our personality is formed and where we can carry out higher
mental processes such as planning. In addition, the frontal lobe is necessary to being able
to speak fluently(without fault) and meaningfully.
The parietal lobe carries out some very specific functions. As a part of the cortex, it has a
lot of responsibilities and has to be able to process sensory information within seconds.
The parietal lobe is where information such as taste, temperature and touch
are integrated, or processed. Humans would not be able to to feel sensations of touch, if

the parietal lobe was damaged.

The Temporal Lobe mainly revolves around hearing and selective listening.
It receives sensory information such as sounds and speech from the ears. It is also key to
being able to comprehend,or understand
meaningful speech. In fact, we would not be
able to understand someone talking to us, if it
wasn't for the temporal lobe. This lobe is
special because it makes sense of the all the
different sounds and pitches (different types
of sound) being transmitted from the sensory
receptors of the ears.
The occiptial lobe is important to being able to correctly understand what your eyes are
seeing. These lobes have to be very fast to process the rapid information that our eyes are
sending. Similar to how the temporal lobe makes sense of auditory information, the
occipital lobe makes sense of visual information so that we are able to understand it. If
our occipital lobe was impaired, or injured we would not be able to correctly process
visual signals, thus visual confusion would result

The Corpus Callosum is the part of the mind that allows communication between the two
hemispheres of the brain. It is responsible for transmitting neural messages between both
the right and left hemispheres.

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/know_your_brain.htm
http://brainmadesimple.com/frontal-lobe.html
http://www.innerbody.com/

D. Autonomic Nervous System and Its Two Divisions And Enteric Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous

System
The autonomic system is the part of the
peripheral nervous system responsible
for regulating involuntary body
functions, such as blood flow,
heartbeat, digestion and breathing.
This system is further divided into two
branches: the sympathetic
system regulates the flight-or-fight responses, while the parasympathetic system helps
maintain normal body functions and conserves physical resources.
Sympathetic System
The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) is responsible for the fightor-flight response, which
activates breathing, blood flow,
and other bodily processes to
prepare you for action.
Parasympathetic System
The parasympathetic nervous
system is responsible for inhibiting or opposing the effects of the sympathetic
nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the brain stem
and lower part of the spinal cord and increases activity of the intestines and
glands, relaxes sphincter muscles, stimulates digestive secretions, slows the heart
and dilates blood vessels.

Enteric System
The enteric nervous
system (ENS) is the intrinsic
nervous system of the
gastrointestinal tract. It
contains complete reflex
circuits that detect the
physiological condition of the
gastrointestinal tract, integrate
information about the state of
the gastrointestinal tract, and
provide outputs to control gut movement, fluid exchange between the gut and its
lumen, and local blood flow (Gershon 2005; Furness 2006). It is the only part of
the peripheral nervous system that contains extensive neuralcircuits that are
capable of local, autonomous function. The ENS has extensive, two-way,
connections with the central nervous system (CNS), and works in concert with the
CNS to control the digestive system in the context of local and whole body
physiological demands. Because of its extent and its degree of autonomy, the ENS
has been referred to as a second brain. The roles of the ENS are much more
restricted than the actual brain, and so this analogy has limited utility.

E.Endocrine System
F. Exocrine System