WWW.IPPR.

ORG

WaterSecurity:
Global,regionalandlocalchallenges
PatriciaWouters

May2010
©ippr2010

InstituteforPublicPolicyResearch
Challengingideas– Changingpolicy
2 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

Aboutippr
TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUK’sleadingprogressivethinktank,
producingcutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticand
sustainableworld.
Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakinginthe
UK.Throughourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeand
providepracticalsolutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues.
WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedas
possible,whileourGlobalChangeprogrammeextendsourpartnershipsandinfluence
beyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch.
ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:info@ippr.org
www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065

ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinMay2010.©ippr2010

Abouttheauthor
ProfessorPatriciaWoutersleadsaninterdisciplinaryteamofwaterlaw,policyandscience
expertsattheUniversityofDundee,Scotland.TheDundeeUNESCOIHP-HELPCentrefor
WaterLaw,PolicyandScienceisthefirstUNESCOCentreintheUKandtheonlyoneofits
kindintheworld.
www.dundee.ac.uk

Acknowledgements
ThispolicybriefisoneofaseriessupportedbytheEconomicandSocialResearchCouncil
(ESRC).
Forinformationontheworkofippr’sCommissiononNationalSecurityinthe21stCentury
pleasegotowww.ippr.org/security
Theviewsinthispaperarethoseoftheauthoraloneandarebeingpublishedhereinthe
hopeofadvancingpublicdebate.TheydonotrepresenttheviewsoftheCommissionpanel
ortheviewsofanysponsoringorganisation.
3 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

Introduction
Withinageneration,therecouldbewholesalemigrationsofpeoples
whoselandshavebecomeunviableorwhohavebeendisplacedby
resourcewars;andtherewillbewidespreadlossoflifethroughflood,
droughtandepidemic.Editorial,TheGuardian,30November2009
Wearelivinginawater‘bubble’asunsustainableandfragileasthat
whichprecipitatedthecollapseinworldfinancialmarkets.Wearenow
onthevergeofbankruptcyinmanyplaceswithnowayofpayingthe
debtback. WorldEconomicForumReport(2009)
Aroundtheworld,globalwaterproblemscontinuetogrow,adverselyaffectingpeople,
prosperityandnationalsecurity.Thispolicybriefexaminesthescopeoftheproblemand
identifiesanumberofimportantpolicyconsiderationsforaddressingtheissuesrelatedto
thiscomplexmatter.Whilethemanagementoftheworld’swaterresourcestakesplace
primarilyatthelocallevel,thispaperfocusesonmorecomplicatedissuesrelatingtothe
internationalmanagementoftrans-boundarywaterresources,anareaofwatersecuritythat
doesnotcurrentlyreceiveenoughattentionintheliterature.Giventheinterconnectedness
ofglobalwaterresourcesmanagementwithnationalsecurity,andthestrongrolethatthe
UKplaysininternationaldevelopmentandinensuringadherencetotheinternationalruleof
law,thetopicisparticularlyrelevantforconsiderationbypolicymakers(seeAstleetal 2007).
Itisnowclearthatmilitarythreatsarenottheonlysecuritychallengesweface,withpoverty,
climatechangeandtherecentglobalfinancialcrisishavingprovidedpotentialtippingpoints
aroundtheworld.Theconvergenceofthisrangeofseriousproblemsacrossthesecuritytriad
ofwater–food–energyhasbeenreferredtoasthe‘perfectstorm’,byJohnBeddington,the
UKGovernmentChiefScientificAdviser.AccordingtoBeddington,thedemandforenergy
andfoodwillincreaseby50percentby2030,whilethedemandforfreshwaterwillincrease
by30percent(seeMcGourty2009).
Thisconcernisbroadlyshared–forexample,theWorldEconomicForum’sannualmeetingin
January2010plannedtolookathowexistingglobalgovernancearrangementsmightbe
reformedinawaythatbetteraddressesthefullspectrumofinternationalchallenges,
includingwater–energy–foodsecurityissues.ThecreationofaGlobalAgendaCouncilon
watersecurityhasbeenapplaudedbytheUNSecretaryGeneralBanKi-Moon,whohas
recognisedwaterinsecurityashavingthepotentialtoexacerbateregionalconflicts(Ki-Moon
2008).
Thispaperbeginswithanoverviewofthecurrentglobalwaterproblem,consideringitfrom
social,economicandenvironmentalperspectives,andfocusingonthechallengingissueof
trans-boundarywaters.Asecondsectionconsiderstheglobalpolicyframeworkinplaceto
addresstheissueofwaterinsecurity,beforeafinalsectionevaluatesvariouspolicy
alternatives,includingruleoflawinitiativesthatmighthelptostrengthenthisframework.
4 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

Waterintheworld:whatishappeningandwhere?
Theearthiscoveredinwater,butonly3percentisfreshwaterandmostofthatisunevenly
distributedandsubjecttogreatvariability,affectingsocialandeconomicdevelopment
aroundtheglobe.Whilenationstatesstruggletocopewithdomesticissuesofwater
insecurity,thematterismorecomplexwherefreshwaterresourcescrosssovereignborders.
Morethan260majorriversaresharedbytwoormorestates,servingmorethan70percent
oftheworld’spopulation.Forexample,theHimalayanglaciersfeedtheIndus,Ganges,
Brahmaputra,Irrawaddy,Mekong,YangtzeandYellowrivers,andservelargepopulationsin
China,IndiaandSouthEastAsia.However,theirflowsarenowdiminishinginqualityand
quantity.ArecentreportbytheNationalCentreforAtmosphericResearch(NCAR)analysing
theflowsof925oftheplanet'slargestriversfoundthatanumberoftrans-boundary
watercourses,includingtheColumbiaRiver(Canada,USA),theGanges(Bangladesh,Nepal,
India),theNiger(Benin,Guinea,Mali,Niger,Nigeria)andtheColorado(Mexico,USA),each
havediminishingflows,potentiallythreateningfuturewaterandfoodsupplies(Daietal
2009).
Theavailabilityofwaterandwaterusepercapitavarieswidelyaroundtheworld.Thetop
fiveusersofwateraretheUnitedStates,Australia,Italy,JapanandMexico–wherethe
averagepersontendstousewellover300litresaday.Thecountrieswherewaterpovertyis
mostpronounced–includingMozambique,Rwanda,Haiti,Ethiopia,andUganda–havea
dailypercapitawateruseof15litresorless.IntheUK,whileScotlandisabundantinwater,
insomepartsofEnglandandWalespercapitawateraveragesarelessthaninthe
MediterraneancountriesofItaly,SpainandEgypt(UNFoodandAgricultureOrganisation
[FAO]2005).Thewaterusedinfoodmustbetakenintoaccounttoo–onekiloofbeef
requiresmorethan15,000litresofwatertoproduceandacupofcoffee1,200litresof
water.Tocompletethepicture,amicrochipuses16,000litres(WaterFootprintNetwork
2010;foragraphicalrepresentationofwaterusage,accessibilityandGDPinselected
countries,seeCircleofBlue2009).
ArecenttechnicalreportfromtheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),
ClimateChangeandWater,surveystheimpactthatclimatechangewillhaveonwater
resourcesandpresentsaseriesofwatermodelsthatprojectseriousshortagesofwaterin
semi-aridregionsoftheworldsuchasAustralia,southernAfrica,CentralAmerica,the
Caribbean,south-westernSouthAmerica,south-westernUnitedStatesandthe
Mediterranean,resultingfromincreasedfrequenciesofdroughtsandwaterscarcityoverthe
next50to100years(Batesetal 2008).Aquicktouroftheworldrevealsgreatdisparitiesin
thenumbersandtypesofdemandsontheworld’swaterresources.Africaappearslikelyto
sufferheavily,withthecombinedeffectsofwaterscarcityandpovertyleadingtoincreased
vulnerabilityformanypeople.A2008reportonAfricabytheUnitedNationsEnvironment
Programme(UNEP)warnedofsevereconsequencesunlessadaptationmeasuresareputin
placetodealwiththreatstofreshwaterresourcesduetopopulationgrowth,foodinsecurity,
urbanisation,industrialisation,pollutionofwaterresources,poorgovernanceand
managementstructuresandlimitedscientificandtechnicalcapabilities(UNEP2008).
TheIPCC’schairman,RajendraK.Pachauri,recentlyobservedthat‘atleast500million
peopleinAsiaand250millionpeopleinChinaareatriskfromdecliningglacialflowsonthe
TibetanPlateau’(SchneiderandPope2008).China’slakesareseverelypollutedandare
rapidlydryingup,withsomeexpertsclaimingthatthecountryloses20lakeseachyeardue
toover-exploitation.ArecentnationalauditrevealedthattheUS$13.3billionspenton
addressingthisissueoverfiveyearshasonlyslightlyimprovedthesituation.
CentralAsiaisalsoshowingsignsofwaterinsecurity,withclimatechangeaffecting
Kazakhstan’sglaciersandwateravailabilityfortheregion.Upstream/downstreamtensions
continueoverdamconstructionandoperationinTajikistanandKyrgyzstan(includingthe
5 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

NurekDam,oneoftheworld’sbiggest),withUzbekistanraisingconcernsabouttheadverse
impactforstatesdownstreamontheAmuDaryaandSyrDaryarivers.Andinresponseto
seriouswaterqualityissues,RussiaandKazakhstanhaveformedajointcommissionto
protecttheUralRiver,whichisheavilypollutedbyoilandgasdrillingindustriesinboth
countries.
InLatinAmerica,anyfuturereductionsinrainfallarelikelytoleadtoseverewater
shortagesinaridandsemi-aridpartsofArgentina,ChileandBrazil,whileBolivia,
Colombia,EcuadorandPeruwillexperiencereducedhydropowercapacityasaresultof
glaciershrinkage.SeverewaterstressalreadyaffectseasternCentralAmerica,Guatemala
(whichsufferedafoodsecuritycrisisinthesummerof2009),andpartsofElSalvador,
CostaRica,HondurasandPanama.
InEurope,forecastsareforextremewinterprecipitation,butwithmillionsofadditional
peoplelivinginwater-stressedwatershedsin17countriesinWesternEurope,andpredictions
ofreducedhydropowerpotentialacrossEurope,witha20–50percentdecreaseexpectedin
theMediterraneanregion(Batesetal 2008).AustraliaandNewZealandwillcontinueto
sufferadverseimpactsfromongoingwatersecurityproblems,whicharepredictedtoworsen
insouthernandeasternAustralia.Thereareanumberofwater-stressedbasinsaroundthe
worldalready,andthislookstoincreaseinthenearfuture.

Box1:Whatconstitutes‘waterstress’?
TheIPPCdefineswater-stressedbasinsasthosehavingeitherapercapitawater
availabilitybelow1,000m3 peryear(basedonlong-termaveragerunoff)oraratioof
withdrawalstolong-termaverageannualrunoffabove0.4.Awatervolumeof1,000m3
percapitaperyearistypicallymorethanisrequiredfordomestic,industrialand
agriculturalwateruses.Suchwater-stressedbasinsarelocatedinnorthernAfrica,the
Mediterraneanregion,theMiddleEast,theNearEast,southernAsia,northernChina,
Australia,theUSA,Mexico,north-easternBrazilandthewestcoastofSouthAmerica.
Theestimatesforthepopulationlivinginsuchwater-stressedbasinsrangebetween1.4
billionand2.1billion(seeBatesetal 2008).

OneoftheconclusionsoftheIPPCreportClimateChangeandWaterwasthatchangesin
waterquantityandqualityduetoclimatechangewillaffectfoodavailability,stability,access
anduse,whichinturnwillexacerbatefoodinsecurityandleadtotheincreasedvulnerability
ofpoorruralfarmers,especiallyinaridpartsofAsiaandAfrica.Anotherkeyfindingwasthat
althoughthemanagementofwaterresourcesclearlyimpactsonmanyotherpolicyareas,
suchasenergy,health,foodandnatureconservation,thereislittleevidenceofagenuinely
cross-sectoralapproachtofindingsolutionsforthesecomplexissues.

Watersecurity:theparametersoftheproblem
Watersecurityissuesariseattwo(ofteninterconnected)levels:localand
regional/international.Atthelocallevel,securityofaccesstotheresourceisthemost
pressingproblem;attheregionalorinternationallevel,theprimaryfocusisonmilitary-
relatedthreats(amoretraditionalsecurityapproach).Thus,workbytheEast-WestCentre,
theInstituteforStrategicStudiesandtheUSCorpofEngineers(interalia)areconcerned
primarilywiththreatstoregionalpeaceandsecuritythatmightbecausedbydisputesover
water.Forexample,hotspotssuchastheMiddleEast,theHimalayas,andCentralAsia
representseriousregionalsecurityissuesandarenowbeingtackledthroughpreventive
diplomacyeffortsalongsidetechnicalsolutions.Underthisrubric,trans-boundarywater
cooperationisahigh-levelobjectivepursuedthroughconfidence-buildingmeasures,usually
throughregionalmeetings,diplomaticinterventionsanddiscussions.Arecentexample
6 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

includesthereneweddiplomatictalksbetweenPakistanandIndia,wherethewaterissuewas
raisedandlinkeddirectlytoterrorismandtensionsintheregion.1
Overthepastdecade,theWorldBank–withassistancefromabroadrangeofbilateral
donors,includingDFID–hasfacilitatedaseriesofmeetingsontheNile(involvingall10
basinstates).MorerecentlyithasalsocoordinatedinformaltalksinAsia,withafocusonthe
Himalayanwatertowers,bringingtogetherrelevantcountriesfromSouthernAsia
(Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,India,NepalandPakistan).Otherorganisations,
suchastheEastWestInstituteamongothers,aretakingforwardsimilarinitiativesinregional
contexts,suchastheMiddleEastandSouthAsia.
Atthesecurity-of-accesstotheresourcelevel,thelocaluseristheprimaryfocalpoint,with
arangeofstakeholdersrequiredtoberoundthetable–includingfarmers,thecorporate
sector,2 andanentirerangeofdomesticgovernmentpublicsectors.Atthisscale,the
challengeisensuringadequatesuppliesofgoodqualitywatertomeettheneedsofallusers
withinthenationstate.Issuesrelatedtonationaleconomicpolicy,includingfoodsecurity
andassigningandenforcingpriorityofusewhenthereisinsufficientsupplyorexcessive
supply(i.e.floods)tomeetdemandaremattersfordomesticgovernmentregulation.
Therearechallengesrelatedtocompetitionforfreshwaterresourcesacrosssectorsand
aroundtheworld.Whiletheremaybeenoughwatertomeetmanyneeds,thereare
problemswithquality,quantityanddistribution.Oftenitisthosewhoneeditthemostwho
sufferthemost–watertraditionallyflowsupstreamtomoney.Forexample,whenthecityof
Barcelonaranshortofwaterin2008,itpurchasedshiploadsofwaterfromMarseille.Cyprus
hadtankersofwatersentfromGreeceinthesameyear.Inaninternationalcontext,the
richeststatesaregenerallyabletobuytheirwayintotheresourcemarket(andnow
internationalland-grabsareoccurringforagriculturalproductionbeyondnationalborders),
butgravequestionsariseinthecaseofpoorerstates,leavinglocalusersinthesesituations
atrisk.Indeedatthelocallevel,wheredemandmightexceedsupply,conflicts-of-useare
widespread,andholdthepotentialtoaggravateregionalstabilitythroughlocalised
hostilities.
Despitethefactthatthelastwaroverwateroccurredsome4,500yearsago3,disputesover
internationalwatersarebothcommonandcurrent(seeGleick2008).Whilewaterhasnever
beenthesolereasonforaninternationalarmedconfrontation,ithasbeenusedonnumerous
occasionsasamilitarytargetortool(Gleick2006).Thepotentialforwaterwarsmightseem
low,butconflictsofuseoverwaterarealiveandwell.
Theinternationalcommunityhasattemptedtoresolvesomeoftheseissues.Atthesecond
WorldWaterForumconvenedatTheHagueinMarch2000,theMinisterialDeclaration
entitled‘WaterSecurityintheTwenty-FirstCentury’listedseven‘mainchallenges’to
achievingwatersecurity:
1.Meetingbasicneeds
2.Securingfoodsupply
3.Protectingecosystems
4.Sharingwaterresources
5.Managingrisks

1.‘“YetPakistanobserversarguethatthewaterissueisarecruitmenttoolforterroristgroupsintheircountry.Theleadershipof
Lashkar-e-Taiba,whichcarriedouttheMumbaiattacks,haswarnedthat“MuslimsdyingofthirstwoulddrinkthebloodofIndia,”
accordingtotheHindustanTimes’(CircleofBlue2010).
2.AccordingtoDilleyandHikisch(2009),wateris‘essentialtoalmosteveryproductandserviceoursocietyrelieson.Bythe
sametoken,waterisarisktobusiness.Waterinsecuritycancauserisingmaterialcosts,disruptionsinthesupplychain,increased
competition,andregionalconflict.’
3.AtreatyendedthewaterwarbetweentheancientMesopotamiancitystatesofLagashandUmma(seePostelandWolf2001).
7 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

6.Valuingwater
7.Governingwaterwisely.(WorldWaterCouncil2000)
Thisdeclarationwasthefirstinter-governmental,high-levelpronouncementontheterm
‘watersecurity,’anditbuiltonalargenumberofglobalwaterinitiatives,beginningwiththe
1977MarDelPlataconferenceandincluding,interalia,the1992DublinPrinciples,Chapter
18ofAgenda21,theWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment,theMillennium
DevelopmentGoals,andtheongoingWorldWaterForumsconvenedbytheWorldWater
Council4 (seeUN1977,InternationalConferenceonWaterandtheEnvironment1992,
UNDESA1992,UN2000,andWorldWaterCouncil2009).
Internationalinterestinthisissuehasdeepened:therearenowsome24UNagencies
involvedwithwater-relatedissues,andin2003,theUN-Waterorganisationwasestablished
tocoordinateUNactiononfreshwaterandsanitation.Therearealsoseveralnon-
governmentalorganisationsthatengageonwatersecurityissues,includingtheWorld
EconomicForum(seeWEFGlobalAgendaCouncilonWaterSecurity2009)andtheGlobal
WaterPartnership(seeGlobalWaterPartnership2010).

Aframeworkforunderstandingwatersecurity:thethree‘As’
Anumberofdefinitionsof‘watersecurity’havebeenproffered,including:
•Asafewatersupplyandsanitation,waterforfoodproduction,hydro-solidarity(see
below)betweenthoselivingupstreamandthoselivingdownstreaminariverbasin,
andwaterpollutionavoidancesothatthewaterinaquifersandriversremainsuseable
–thatis,nottoopollutedforuseforwatersupply,industrialproduction,agricultural
useortheprotectionofbiodiversity,wetlands,andaquaticsystemsinriversand
coastalwaters(Falkenmark2001).
•Adequateprotectionfromwater-relateddisastersanddiseasesandaccessto
sufficientquantityandqualityofwater,ataffordablecost,tomeetthebasicfood,
energyandotherrequirementsessentialforleadingahealthyandproductivelife
withoutcompromisingthesustainabilityofvitalecosystems(Janskyetal 2008).
•Thereliableavailabilityofanacceptablequantityandqualityofwaterforhealth,
livelihoodsandproduction,coupledwithanacceptablelevelofwater-relatedrisks
(seeGreyandSadoff2005,Wouters2005andGlobalWaterPartnership2000).
ArecentworkhasdevisedaLegalAnalyticalFrameworkthatidentifiesthethreecore
constituentelementsofwatersecurity(Woutersetal 2009):
(i)Availability (controlledsupplyofqualityandsafewater)
(ii)Access (enforceablerightstowaterforarangeofstakeholders)
(iii)Addressingconflicts-of-use (wherecompetingusesoccur,amechanismtoavoid
and/oraddressdisputesisneeded).
Inaddressingtheglobal,regionalandlocalchallengesrelatingtowatersecurity,this
frameworkhighlightsissuesthatrequirecloserscrutinywhenassessingthelevelofsecurity
orinsecurityassociatedwithwaterresources.Thus,whetherornot:(i)adequatequantity
andqualityofwateris available foruse;(ii)individualsandecosystemshaveaccess to
adequatewater,and,(iii)intheeventofaconflict-of-usescenario,thereexistsarobust
mechanismforaddressing/avoidingconflicts, thesearemattersthatmustbedeterminedon
acasebycasebasis.Attheleveloftheusers,whethertheyarefarmers,industrialistsor
nationstates,eachoftheseelementsiscrucialandmaymeanthedifferencebetweenwater
securityandwaterinsecurity(seeBox2below).

4.TheWorldWaterCouncilhasorganisedfiveWorldWaterForums,themostrecentlyconvenedinIstanbul.Togetherthese
meetingshaveattractedmorethan80,000delegates,withsignificantglobalimpact(seeWorldWaterCouncil2009).
8 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

Box2:Thewatersecurityanalyticalframework
Watersecurity Waterinsecurity
Availability Earlywarningsystemonentire Nowarningsystemand
riverbasinsystemwithtreaty downstream(e.g.Mozambique
provisions(e.g.UNEconomic duringZambeziriverfloods)
CommissionforEurope1992
HelsinkiConvention)
Access Constitutionalprovisionfor Nolegalrighttowaterand
accesstowater(e.g.South insufficientfreshwatertomeet
Africaconstitution) allneeds
Addressing Functioningdisputeavoidance Nodisputeavoidance/
conflicts-of-use /settlementmechanisms settlementmechanisms

Towardsgreaterwatersecurity:policyproposals
Inthissection,anumberofpolicyproblemsandconcomitantproposalstoenhanceglobal
watersecurityareassessed.

1.Theneedtodealwithrampantuncertainty,emergingtippingpointsand
competitionforwater
Thewatersecurityissueisfraughtwithuncertaintyandcomplexity,withtherecentIPPC
reportonclimatechangenotingsignificantgapsininformation,includingalackofrobust
forward-planningmodels,whichrendersdecision-makingdifficult(Batesetal 2008).Itwas
alsoobservedthatthemanagementofwaterresourceshasanimpactonmanyotherareas
ofpolicy(suchasenergyprojections,landuse,foodsecurityandnatureconservation)and
thattheavailabletoolstoappraiseadaptationandmitigationoptionsacrossmultiplewater-
dependentsectorsremaininadequate(ibid).
Thereisaclearneedforbetterdataandinformation,whichcouldassistwithreducing
uncertainty.TheGlobalAgendaCouncilonWaterSecuritycallsforanimprovedand
universallyaccessibledata-setonwater,coveringabroadrangeofindicatorsand
information,availabletoallstakeholders.Someworkhasbeendoneinthisarea,withthe
WorldBusinessCouncilonSustainableDevelopmentproducingaGlobalWaterToolaimedat
improvingknowledgeoflocalwatersituationsasanimportantfoundationforimproved
globalwatermanagement(WorldBusinessCouncilonSustainableDevelopment2009).
Additionalbusinessintelligenceisofferedundera2009McKinsey&Companyreport,which
predictsthat42percentoftheglobalwaterdemandin2030willcomefromfourcountries
(China,India,SouthAfricaandBrazil)andsuggeststhatcompetinguseswillresultina40
percentshortageinsupplyinthesameperiod.Suchascenariothreatensalreadyrisk-
burdenedeconomicstrategiesbynationalgovernmentsaroundtheworld–oneIndian
financeministerassertedthateachofhisbudgetswasagambleonrain,asituationrecurring
throughoutaridandsemi-aridcountriesaroundtheglobe.

2.Thebigpicture:understandingandworkingwithcross-sectoral
connections
Watersecurityconcernscutacrosssectorsandarelinkedintrinsicallyindynamicwaysto
energy,foodandtheenvironment.Asoneanalystnotes,‘acomprehensiveviewofwater
securityinvolvestakingintoaccountthewaterneedsofallthesectorsthatconsumeor
harnesswater,includingindustry,agriculture,andenergy,anddomesticwateruseinboth
9 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

urbanandruralsettings’(Grobicki2009).Nationalgovernmentswillhavetoaddressthis
challengeandrecognisetheneedtolinkupthespectrumofrelatednationalpolicyissues.A
recentlandmarkdecisioninChileusedaninternationalconvention(art.ILO169)togranta
waterflowtoindigenouscommunities,followinga14-year-longbattlebetweentheAymara
communitiesandAguaMineralChusmiza,acompanyseekingtherightstobottleandsell
freshwaterfromasourceusedhistoricallybyAymaraindigenousresidents.Thedecision
supportingindigenouscommunities’rightstoreclaimprivateresourcerights(albeitgranted
bylicencebythestate)mayaffectChile’sminingindustry,whichaccountsformorethan50
percentofallexports.
TheIPCCreportsummarisesthepolicyimplicationsforarangeofsectorsresultingfrom
waterchallengeslinkedwithclimatechange,including:
•Waterresourcemanagement(moredroughtandmoreextremeprecipitation)
•Ecosystems(declineinresilienceandadaptability)
•Agricultureandforests(increasedfloodsanddroughtswilladverselyimpact
significantlycropyieldsandlivestock)
•Coastalsystemsandlow-lyingareas(sea-levelriseandincreasedsalinitywillresultin
decreasedfreshwateravailability)
•Industry(adverseimpactoninfrastructure,suchasurbanwatersupplysystemsand
transportroutes),settlementandsociety(adverseimpactsfromfloodingdamage)
•Sanitationandhumanhealth(adverseimpactsfromdecreasedwaterqualityand
availability).(Batesetal 2009)
Ithasbeensuggestedthatglobaltradeoffersonewayofmanagingwatersecurityissues,
althoughtheglobaltradesystemforagricultureisoutdatedandinurgentneedofreform.
Trading‘virtualwater’thereforepresentsitsownsetofchallenges(includingtrade
inequities).Thereisalsoalinkwithenergysecurityneeds.TheUnitedStatesandtheEUare
greatlyconcernedwithimprovingenergysecurity,andthesetypesofpolicydecisionsmust
takeintoaccountlinkageswithwater,aswellasclimateandfood.Growingurbanisationwill
drivetheneedforincreasedandbetterinfrastructure,andalsomakegreaterdemandson
consumption,mostofwhichislinkedtowater.Aspopulationsbecomericher,theirdemands
forhigh-endproducts–manyofwhicharewater-intensivetomakeand/oruse–will
increase.Thistrendisalreadyleadingtowaterinsecurityinsomeregions.
However,despitethecomplexityoftheseinterconnectedproblems,thereisaclarioncallto
engage:
Ratherthanretreatinginthefaceofallthesechallengestohuman
security,itisessentialthatnations,organisations,businessandcivil
societyseeknewwaystotackletheirsharedconcerns.Openingup
intersectoraldialogueanddebatearoundwatersecuritywillcontribute
tofindingthesolutions. (Grobicki2009)
Governmentsmusttakeactionbothontheirownandincoordinationwithothers,and
indeedtherecentlyconcludedAmmanDeclarationonRegionalCooperationonWatercalls
onparliamentarianstotakethelead,toshowcourageandbuildthepoliticalwillnecessaryto
addresstheseissuesatthelocal,regionalandinternationallevels(EastWestInstitute2009).

3.Thevulnerabilitychain:waterflowsupstreamtomoneyandtheUK
commitmenttopovertyalleviation
FromthenumerousUnitedNations,NGO,andcorporatereportsonwater,itisevidentthat
thevulnerabilitychainlinkingwaterusersisweakerinsomepartsoftheworld,andforsome
particulargroups(suchaswomenandfarmers),thanothers(seeUNEP2008).
10 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

TheUK,throughtheDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID),iscommittedto
povertyalleviationoverseasandhasincreaseditscontributiontotheinternational
developmentwatersector,seekingtohavearealimpactonachievingtheUNMillennium
DevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Giventhecross-cuttingnatureofwaterandthelinks,direct
andindirect,witheachoftheMDGs(discussedabove),atargetedfocusonassistingpoorer
stateswithmanagingtheirwaterresourceswouldmakealotofsenseandperhapsincrease
theoverallpoverty-alleviationimpact.DFIDappearstohaverecognisedthis,statingina
recentreportonthesector:
…theWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)estimatesthatforevery50
penceinvestedinsafewaterandbasicsanitation,theeconomicreturns
willrangefrom£1.50to£17,dependingontheregionandthe
technology.ThismeansthatwhileachievingtheMDGtargetsonwater
andsanitationwillrequireanannualinvestmentofover£5billion,
doingsowilldelivereconomicbenefitsofaround£42billionayear.
(DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment2010)

Box3:Potentialcontribution(directandindirect)ofthewatersectortoattainspecificMillennium
DevelopmentGoals
Goal1:Eradicateextremepovertyandhunger
•Waterisafactorinmanyproductionactivities(e.g.agriculture,animalhusbandry,cottageindustries)
•Sustainableproductionoffish,treecropsandotherfoodbroughttogetherincommonpropertyresources
•Reducedecosystemdegradationimproveslocal-levelsustainabledevelopment(indirect)
•Reducedurbanhungerbymeansofcheaperfoodfrommorereliablewatersupplies(indirect)
Goal2:Achieveuniversaleducation
•Improvedschoolattendancethroughimprovedhealthandreducedwater-carryingburdens,especiallyfor
girls(indirect)
Goal3:Promotegenderequityandempowerwomen
•Developmentofgender-sensitivewatermanagementprogrammes
•Reducetimewastedandhealthburdensthroughimprovedwaterservice,leadingtomoretimeforincome-
earningandmorebalancedgenderroles
Goal4:Reducechildmortality
•Improvedaccesstodrinkingwaterofmoreadequatequantityandbetterquality,andimprovedsanitation,
toreducethemainfactorsofmorbidityandmortalityinyoungchildren
Goal6:CombatHIV/AIDS,malariaandotherdiseases
•ImprovedaccesstowaterandsanitationsupportsHIV/AIDS-affectedhouseholdsandmayimprovethe
impactofhealthcareprogrammes
•Betterwatermanagementreducesmosquitohabitatsandtheriskofmalariatransmission
Goal7:Ensureenvironmentalsustainability
•Improvedwatermanagementreduceswaterconsumptionandrecyclesnutrientsandorganicmaterial
•Actionstoensureaccesstoimprovedand,possibly,productiveecologicalsanitationsystemsforpoor
households
•Actionstoimprovewatersupplyandsanitationservicesforpoorcommunities
•Actionstoreducewastewaterdischargeandimproveenvironmentalhealthinslumareas
•Developoperation,maintenance,andcostrecoverysystemtoensuresustainabilityofservicedelivery(indirect)
Source:Batesetal 2008:131
11 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

DFID,workingwithpartnersincludingnationalgovernments,statesitsaimtobeamajor
partoftheglobaleffortto‘ensurethatwaterresourcesaremanagedinaneffectiveand
equitablewaythatpromoteseconomicgrowth,improvessecurityandhelpscountriescope
withclimatechange’(DFID2010).Thisobjectivealignsdirectlywithissuesrelatedtowater
securityandacloserexaminationofhowthisisachievedonthegroundiswarranted.

4.Promotingandimplementinghydro-solidarityandhydro-diplomacy
withinandbeyondthewaterbox
Ithasbeenproposedthattheconceptof‘hydro-solidarity’,5 whichisfoundedontheideas
ofcollectiveaction,interdependenceandacommunity-of-interestsapproach,canoffera
freshperspective,orevenaconceptualandpossiblyoperationalplatformforimplementing
theemerginglegalnotionofwatersecurity.
Hydro-solidarityattheinternationallevelinvolvesnationstatessharingandcompetingfor
thesameresourceinacollaborativemanner,andfindsitslegalfoundationintheRiverOder
casedecidedbythePermanentCourtofInternationalJustice(1929),whichreferredtothe
community-of-interestsinaninternationalwatercourse.Collectiveaction,basedon
cooperativemechanisms(reachingandimplementingagreements;establishingand
supportingtrans-boundaryinstitutionalmechanisms;collectingandsharingscientificdata
andinformation;engagingwithcivilsocietyandensuringpublicparticipation),isthe
prerequisiteforachievingregionalwatersecurity,addressingboththeimperativetomaintain
theintegrityoftheresourceandtheneedtomeetsocialandeconomicdevelopment
objectives(Benvenisti1996).6
Thehydro-solidarityparadigmspansthespectrumofactorswithaninterestinwatersecurity
andcallsforanewunderstandingofcollectiveaction,includingthebenefitsofglobal
cooperationandenhancedwatergovernance,especiallywithinthecontextoftrans-
boundarywatercourses.Implementingsuchanapproachraisesmanychallenges,andasone
scholarhasnoted,thetaskfacingan(imaginary)‘watertsar’,evenatjustthenationallevel,
requiresthesage-likeabilityto,atonce,understandfullythebigpictureandhave
information,knowledgeandresourcestoactprudently,takingintoaccounteveryone’s
interest(Briscoe2009).

5.Applyingandbeingseentoapplytheruleoflaw
Geo-politicsdividesnationstatesonanumberoflevels–placingthemupstreamor
downstream(ormid-stream)onsharedwatercourses;providingsomewithmountains,some
withvalleys;somewithabundantnaturalresources(oil)andsomewithbarrendeserts;some
withgreatpopulationsandsomewithsmallones.Thelawofnationsconstructedasa
platformforpeace,prosperityandsecurityfollowingtheSecondWorldWarconsidersall
statestobesovereignequals,witheachobligedtoactinwaysconsistentwiththeUN
charter.ThewarinIraqandtheglobalfinancialcrisis,tonamejusttwoexamples,have
demonstratedhowsovereignstates,andespeciallythemostpowerfulandwealthynations,
haveactedunilaterallyinwaysthatchallengetheuniversalrulesofinternationallaw.Despite
theseactions,theruleoflawcontinuestounderpin(andshouldbeseentounderpin)the
architectureofinternationalrelations,andoffersacompellingframeworkforcooperationin
thefieldofinternationaltrans-boundarywatercourses.
Internationalwaterlawoffersabroadrangeofprinciples,rules,normsandmechanismsthat
areentirelysuitedtoaddressingthewatersecurityconcernsofmostnations,riverbasinsand

5.AccordingtoFalkenmark(whointroducedthisterm):‘hydro-solidarity’describes‘anethicalbasisforwisewatergovernance
andprovidesabackgroundforbalancingbetweenupstreamanddownstreamwateruseandbetweenhumanuseandecosystems
needs.Philosophically,itistheoppositeof‘hydro-egoism,’theall-too-prevalentfragmentedandsectoralapproachtowater
management,wherethestrongestlobbyiststendtowin’(Falkenmarketal 2003).
6.Briscoe(2009:14)relatesthestoryofArthurCotton,aBritishmilitaryengineer,whobuiltabarrageatthetopofIndia’sKrishn
Delta,providingsecureirrigationsuppliesthattransformedthearea,andmadehimalocalhero.
12 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

regions.Asmostoftheworld’spopulationdependsontrans-boundarywaterresources,ideal
solutionswillbebasedoncompromise,fairnessandrationality.Thereisacorrelation
betweenastate’sabilitytoensurethewatersecurityofitspopulationandtheexistenceofa
legalframeworkguidingtheuseofitssharedwaterresources.Theintegralelementsofwater
security–availability,access,andaddressingconflicts-of-use–findexpressionand
normativemeaningininternationalwaterlaw(treatiesandrulesofcustom).
Internationallawmustnotbeconsideredtheonlypossibletoolforaddressingthesecomplex
matters–itisnotapanacea.Scienceandpolicywillalsoplayimportantroles,becausethe
managementoffreshwaterislargelyanissueofallocationand(re)distribution.However,the
importanceofatransparent,credible,andresponsivelegalframeworkcannotbeoverlooked,
sincetheexistenceofanagreedlegalregimecontributestowatersecuritybyprovidinga
clearsystemforaddressingspecificissuesofsharedwaterdevelopmentandmanagement,
basedonidentifying,consideringanddeterminingallrelevantfactors.
Waterlawservesthreekeyfunctions:
•Itdefinesandidentifiesthelegalrightsandobligationstiedtowateruse(broadly
defined)andprovidestheprescriptiveparametersforresourcedevelopmentand
management
•Itprovidestoolsforensuringthecontinuousintegrityoftheregime–thatis,through
monitoringandassessmentofcomplianceandimplementation,disputeprevention,
andsettlement
•Itallowsformodificationsoftheexistingregime,inordertobeabletoadaptto
changingneedsandcircumstances.(Wouters2000)
Basedonitsfirmsupportforthe‘ruleoflaw’,theUKshouldreconsideritsstanceonthe
currentglobalratificationcampaignofthe1997UNWatercoursesConvention(UNWC),
whichoffersausefulframeworkfornationstatesonhowtopeacefullymanagetheirshared
trans-boundaryfreshwaters.TheUNWCwasadoptedin1997bytheUNGeneralAssembly
withsome104statesvotinginsupport(with38statessponsoringtheResolution).Whilethe
UNWChasyettoenterintoforce(formyriad,butnocompelling,reasons),theUKshould
joinothernationalgovernments(Germany,Sweden,theNetherlands,Finland)thatleadthe
globalratificationcampaign,inlinewiththeinitiativesupportedthroughtheUNSecretary
General’sAdvisoryBoard(HashimotoI,HashimotoIIReports).With18statepartiesat
present7,only17moreareneededfortheUNWCtoenterintoforce.Statepracticecertainly
supportstheUNWC,withnumerousregionaltreatiesfollowingitsprovisionsintheir
agreements(forexample,arrangementstomanagetheSavaRiverBasin,Incomatiand
MaputoBasins,LakeVictoria,Zambezi,Mekong),andtheInternationalCourtofJustice
endorsingitinits1997Gabčíkovo-NagymaroscaseregardingtheDanube.Lessthanhalfof
theworld’strans-boundarywatersarecurrentlycoveredbytreaties,whichposeschallenges
foreffectivecooperativemanagementofsharedfreshwaters.Nowwouldthereforebeagood
timefortheUKtoshowitsleadershiponsuchanimportantissue.
TheUKgovernment,underDFID,hastakensomeactiononthisissue,forexampleby
fundingaprojectthatlooksatinternationalarchitectureintheglobalwatersector.Morecan
bedone,however,especiallyifacoherentstoryistobetoldaroundtheruleoflawand
hydro-diplomacynexus.LeadershipfromtheCabinetOffice(onnationalsecurityissues),the
ForeignandCommonwealthOffice(internationaldiplomacy)andtheDepartmentofthe
Environment,FoodandRuralAffairs(environmentalissues),couldconsiderajoined-upUK
Governmentapproachonthisissue–whatweneedisleadershiponthispoint.Aforward-
lookingapproachwouldbebasedontheruleoflaw,coupledwithnationalsecurityconcerns

7.Thesestatesare:Coted’Ivoire,Finland,Germany,Hungary,Iraq,Jordan,Lebanon,Libya,Luxembourg,Namibia,Netherlands,
Norway,Paraguay,Portugal,Qatar,SouthAfrica,Spain,Sweden,Syria,Tunisia,Uzbekistan,VenezuelaandYemen.
13 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

andaimedatpromotingthehigher-levelobjectivesfoundunderthelawofnations
promotingregionalpeaceandsecurityandprecludingunilateralaction(forexample,the
constructionofadamtodivertwater).Thus,trans-boundarywatercoursestatesshouldbe
required(andbeseen)toabidebythelegalregimethatappliestoall–ingoodfaith,and
consistentwiththeoverallprinciplesoftheinternationallaw.

6.Contributingtogood(water)governanceandcapacityissues
Goodwatergovernanceatthelocal,regionalandinternationallevelswouldhelptosolve
globalwaterproblems.Infact,manydescribethewatercrisisasacrisisofgovernance.
However,despiteuniversalrecognitionoftheneedforimprovedgovernanceatthe
internationallevel,onlyonethirdoftheworld’strans-boundarybasinshavetreatiesinplace
togoverntheiruse,accordingtoaUNEPreport(UNEP2002).The2001Declarationof
AfricanMinistershighlightedthefactthatmostofAfrica’strans-boundarybasinslackany
agreementsandlackeffectiveinstitutionalarrangements.Morethanthis,however,isthe
lackofcapacity(humanandfinancial)atthelocallevel todealwiththeextensiverangeof
problemslinkedwitheffectivewaterresourcesmanagement.Itisthiscrisisofgovernance–
thelackoflocalwatercapacity–thatneedstobeaddressedurgently.
TheUKjustifiablypridesitselfonprovidinggloballeadershipineducation,especiallyin
highereducation,anditshouldbeurgedtomakeastrongercontributionintheareaofgood
watergovernance.Theapproachshouldbetwo-prongedandfocusoninvestinginproviding
higher-educationopportunitiesintheUKandabroadintheareaofwaterlaw,policyand
science.TheaimshouldbeforUKleadershipindevelopingthenextgenerationoflocal
waterleadersandenhancingcapacityin-country,basedfundamentallyontheimportanceof
theruleoflaw.Thisisanaturalextensionofthenationalsecurityconcernscurrently
exercisingtheUKandothernationalgovernmentsaroundtheglobe,andprovidesunique
opportunitiesfortheUKtoextenditsleadership-mentoringanddiplomaticoutreachina
criticalarea–regionalpeaceandsecuritythroughtrans-boundarywatersecurity.Indeed,the
roleofaninformedcivilsocietycouldnotbemoreimportantthaninthewayitcontributes
totheplanningonhowweuseourwatermorewisely.
Thechallengeisenormous,butwortheveryeffort–anditisclearthattheUKiswell-placed
todomore.WinstonChurchillhelpedtolaythefoundationforthepeaceofnationsinthe
AtlanticCharter,andtheUKmustreturntosuchfundamentals.Letusrevisithowtherule
mightbetheplatformforconstructingenhancedglobalsecuritythroughaddressingthe
world’swaterproblems.
14 ippr|WaterSecurity:Global,regionalandlocalchallenges

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