1:IntroductionOrganizationofthehumanbody

1.1

Anatomyandphysiology

Anatomy=sciencethatstudiesthedifferentstructuresoflivingorganisms&thephysical
relationshipsbetweenstructures
Physiology=sciencethatdealswiththefunctionsoflifeorlivingmatters(ex:organs,cells,
tissues)howlivingorganismsperformtheirvitalfunctions
Anatomyandphysiologyareinseparablebecausewhatastructuredoes(itsphysiology)
dependsonitsform/shape/structure(anatomy).

Bonesprovidesupport+protectiontointernalorgans(function)becausebones
containhardmineraldeposits.

Lungsextractoxygenfromtheairwebreathe(function)becausethelungsaremade
upofabronchialtreeandalveoli(structure),whichallowfortheexchangeof
oxygenandCO2.

1.2

Levelsofstructuralorganization

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Atoms
Molecules
Cells
Tissue
Organs
Organsystem
Organism

1) Atom=thesmallestparticleofasubstancethatcanexistbyitselforbecombinedwith
otheratomstoformamolecule
Carbon,Hydrogen,Oxygen,Nitrogen,Phosphorus
2) Molecule=substancemadeupof1ormoreatomsthatinteractwitheachother
carbohydrates,proteins,lipids,nucleicacids,fat,vitamins
3) Cells=thousandsofmoleculesinteractingtogethermakeuporganelleswhichmake
upcells
basicunitofstructure&functionofalllivingthingsalllivingorganismsaremade
upof1ormorecells
Mitochondria,lysosomes,golgibodies
Somelivingorganismssuchasbacteriaaremadeupofonecelltheyareunicellular.
Otherorganisms,suchashumansandplantsaremadeupofbillionsofcellsweare
multicellular.Inmulticellularorganismsthecellsarefurtherorganizedintodifferentlevels
oforganization.
4) Tissue=groupofsimilarcells
thatcarryoutaspecializedjob

a.
b.
c.
d.

Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

5) Organ=structuremadeupof1ormoretissuesthatcarriesout1ormorespecific
functions

Yourstomachisanorganthathelpstobreakdownyourfood.Itismadeupof
epithelialtissue,smoothmuscletissue,andconnectivetissue.

Yourheartisanorganthatpumpsbloodsothatthebloodwillreachallcornersofthe
body.Itismadeupofepithelialtissue,cardiacmuscletissue,nervoustissue,etc
6) Organsystem=severalorgansworkingtogethertocarryoutaspecificfunction

Yourdigestivesystemismadeupofthefollowingorgansallworkingtogetherto
breakdownfoodsothatitcanbeabsorbedbythebody:mouth,esophagus,stomach,
smallintestine,largeintestine,etc

Allorgansystemsinteractandareinterdependent.

Therespiratorysystemneedsthecardiovascularsystemtocarryoxygenfromthe
lungstothebody'scells.

Adysfunctioninonesystemcancausetheothersystemstomalfunctionaswell.

Diabetesisamalfunctionoftheendocrinesystem.Diabetescausesabnormalincreases
inbloodsugarlevels,whichcanresultinblindness,kidneyshutdownandcirculation
problems.Thisisallduetosideeffectsbroughtonbytheabnormalincreaseofblood
sugarlevels.

7) Organism=alloftheorgansystemsworkingtogethertoformatotalfunctioningunit

1. TheIntegumentarySystemtheskin,protectstheinternalstructuresofthebody
fromdamage,preventsdehydration,storesfatandproducesvitaminsandhormones.
Italsohelpstomaintainhomeostasiswithinthebodybyassistingintheregulationof
bodytemperatureandwaterbalance.
Bodysfirstlineofdefenseagainstbacteria,virusesandothermicrobes.
2. TheSkeletalSystembones+cartilage+joints,providestheshapeandformforour
bodiesinadditiontosupportingandprotectingourbodies,allowingbodily
movement,producingbloodcells,andstoringminerals.

3. TheMuscularSystemmadeupofmuscletissuethathelpsmovethebody&
materialsthroughthebody+maintainposture+produceheat
Musclesarebundlesofcellsandfibersthatworkinasimpleway:theytightenupand
relax

Skeletalmuscleshelpthemodymove
Smoothmusclesinvoluntary,locaatedinsideorgans(stomach,intestins)
Cardiacmuscleintheheart,involuntarymotion

4. TheNervousSystembrain+spinalcord+nerves,sends,receives&processes
nerveimpulsesthroughoutthebodywhichtellthemusclesandorganshowtorespond
tointernalandexternalchanges
5. TheEndocrineSystemGlandssecretehormonesthatregulategrowth,
reproduction,&metabolism
6. TheCardiovascularSystembloodvesselstransportblood,carriesoxygenand
carbondioxide,alsocarriesnutrientsandwastes,heartpumpsbloodthroughblood
vessels
7. TheLymphaticSystemnetworkofvesselsthathelpcirculatebodyfluids,defense
systemforthebody

Itfiltersoutorganismsthatcausedisease,produceswhitebloodcells,and
generatesdiseasefightingantibodies+distributesfluidsandnutrientsinthebody
anddrainsexcessfluidsandproteinsothattissuesdonotswell.
8. TheRespiratorySystemnose+mouth+trachea+lungs,keepsbloodsupplied
withoxygen,removesCO2,gasexchangeoccursthroughwallsofairsacsinthe
lungs
9. TheDigestiveSystembreaksdownfoodintoabsorbableunits,eleminatesthe
excessfood
10. TheUrinarySystemkidneys,eliminateswastefromthebody(urine)
Thekidneysremovewastefromtheblood(waste+water=urine)
Fromthekidneys,urinetravelsdowntwothintubescalledureterstothebladder.
Whenthebladderisfull,urineisdischargedthroughtheurethra.
11. TheReproductiveSystempenis+testes/uterus+ovaries+vulva+lavia+
clitoris,ensuresthathumansareabletoreproduceandsurviveasaspecies

1.3

Characteristicsofthelivinghumanorganism
Basicvitalprocess:

1. Movement:
Livingthingsmove
2. Metabolism:
chemicalprocessestakingplaceinanorganism(catabolism+anabolism)necessary
forthemaintenanceoflife

3. Sensitivity/Responsiveness:
abilityofanorganismtosensechangesinitsexternalenvironment+adjustingto
changes

4. Growth:
increaseinsize/numberofcellsenlargmentoforganism

5. Differentiation:
developmentofacellfromunspecializedtospecializedstate

6. Reproduction:
abilitytoreproduce+passgeneticinformationontotheiroffsprings=sexual
reproduction
formationofnewcellsforgrowth+repair+replacement

7. Respiration:
releaseofenergyfromfoodmolecules

8. Excration:
gettingridofwastethatwasinsidethecell

9. Nutrition

Homeostasis:
Homeostasis=
Homeo=similar;Estasis=condition
Theabilityofthebodyoracelltoseekandmaintainaconditionof
equilibriumorstabilitywithinitsinternalenvironmentwhendealingwith
externalchanges

asystemthatregulatesitsinternalenvironmentandtendstomaintainastable,
relativelyconstantconditionofproperties.

Abilityofanorganismtomaintainconstantinternalconditions

Homeostasishappenswhen:
Thebodyregulatesbodytemperaturetomaintainaninternaltemperaturearound
37C:
o Wesweattocooloffduringthehotsummerdays,weshivertoproduceheatduring
thecoldwinterseason.
o Thepancreasproducesinsulin+glucagontocontrolbloodsugarconcentration.

o Thelungstakeinoxygenandgiveoffcarbondioxide.

Allorganismshavewaysofdealingwithachangingenvironment.Anythingthatprovokes
aresponseinanorganismiscalledastimulus.
Astimuluscanbeinternal(=fromwithintheorganismitself)orexternal(=occursoutside
theorganism.
Bothinternalandexternalstimulicancausearesponse,orresultingreaction,
inanorganism.Aresponsecanbebehavioral(physicalmovements)orbiological.
Externalstimuli:

Intenseheat
Cold
Levelofoxygen
Infection

Internalstimuli:

Psychologicalstress
Exercise
Immuneresponse

Endocrine+nervoussystemsworktogethertomaintaintheregulatorymechanisms

Homeostaticfluids:
Themainmechanismsofhomeostasisarebodytemperature,bodyfluidcomposition,blood
sugar,gasconcentrations,andbloodpressure.
Animportantpartinmaintainingabalanceinthebodyisthemaintenanceofbodyfluidsthat
containdissolvedchemicalsfoundinsidecellsandthesurroundingsofthem.
Forthebodycellstosurvive,thecompositionofthesurroundingfluidsmustbekept
constantatalltimes.
Insidethecellsitiscalledintracellularfluid;outsideofthecellsitiscalled
extracellularfluid(interstitialfluid+plasma).

A. Typesofliquidcompartments

2/3isIFand1/3isECF
5060%ofthebodyweightisliquid,dividedindifferentcompartments:
Intracellularfluid(ICF):
-

liquid(cytosol)foundinsidecellcytoplasm
cytosol=substancethatcontainsproteins+ions+organellesdissolvedinwater
40%ofbodywieght

Extracellularfluid(ECF):
-

liquidoutsideofcells
plasma+interstitialfluid+lymph(ecfbetweencellsandtissues)=subcompartments

B. Compositionofthedifferentliquidcompartments
Wateristhemaincomponentoftheorganism:60%ofthebodyweight.
CellularfunctiondependsontheregulationofthecompositionoftheIF.
CompositionofIFchangesassubstancesmovebetweenplasmaandtheIF
Movementbackandforthaccrosscapillarywallsprovidenutrients(glucose,oxygen,
ions)totissuecellsandremoveswaste(CO2)

C. CompositionofICF&ECF

D. Electricneutrality

1.4

Anatomicterminolgy

Allfunctionsthattakeplacewithinourorganismaimatkeepingaconstantinternal
medium.
Homeostasismeansmaintainingthedifferentvariableconditionsoftheinternalmedium
withinconstantlimits,withinadynamicequilibrium(pH,temperature,ionconcentration,
oxygen,carbondioxide,glucose,volumen...).

Feedbacksystems:
Feedbacksystem=cycleofeventsinwhichinformationaboutthestatusofa
conditioniscontinuallymonitoredandfedback(reported)toacentralcontrolregion
torestore/regulatetogettheoptimalcondition.
Anydisruptionthatchangesacontrolledconditioniscalledastimulus.

Threebasiccomponents:
1. Receptormonitors
2. Controlcenter
3. Effector

Feedbackloop:

Themainbodysystemsinvolvedinhormoneregulationbyfeedbackmechanismsare:

thenervoussystem
...signalsinputtoandoutput
fromthecontrolcentreare
eithernerveimpulseswhich
arepartofthenervous
system,orchemicalsignals

theendocrinesystem
...whichproducesand
secreteshormones

Negativefeedbacksystem:
-

reversesachangeinacontrolledcondition
regulationofbloodpressure(HomeostasisofBloodPressure:theactivityofthe
effectorproducesaresult(dropinbloodpressure)thatopposesthestimulus(increase
inBP))

 Positivefeedbacksystem:
-

doesnotmaintainhomeostasis
amplifiesresponsesmovingthesystemawayfromstartingconditions

laborinchildbirth

hormoneslevel
regulatedby
feedback
mechanisms
negativefeedbackif
hormoneproduction
ishigh/positive
feedbackif
hormoneproduction
islow

 Anticipation=bodypreparingbeforethestimulus

productionofsalivabeforeeating