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Chapter 3 First Order DEs (Fluid Mechanics)
Chapter 3 First Order DEs (Fluid Mechanics)
Chapter 3
Chapter Outlines
Review solution method of first order ordinary differential equations
Applications in fluid dynamics
- Design of containers and funnels
Applications in heat conduction analysis
- Design of heat spreaders in microelectronics
Applications in combined heat conduction and convection
- Design of heating and cooling chambers
Applications in rigid-body dynamic analysis
Part 1
Review of Solution Methods for
First Order Differential Equations
In real-world, there are many physical quantities that can be represented by functions
involving only one of the four variables e.g., (x, y, z, t)
Equations involving highest order derivatives of order one = 1st order differential equations
Examples:
Function (x)= the stress in a uni-axial stretched tapered metal rod (Fig. a), or
Function v(x)=the velocity of fluid flowing a straight channel with varying cross-section (Fig. b):
Fig. b
Fig. a
v(x)
(x)
x
Mathematical modeling using differential equations involving these functions are classified as
First Order Differential Equations
du ( x )
+ p ( x) u ( x) = 0
dx
(3.3)
K
u (x ) =
F (x )
(3.4)
F ( x) = e
(3.5)
in which the function p(x) is given in the differential equation in Equation (3.3)
du ( x)
+ p ( x) u ( x) = g ( x)
dx
(3.6)
u ( x) =
1
K
F
(
x
)
g
(
x
)
dx
+
F ( x)
F ( x)
(3.7)
du ( x)
(Sin x )u ( x) = 0
dx
with condition u(0) = 2
Solution:
By comparing terms in Equation (a) and (3.6), we have: p(x) = -sin x and g(x) = 0.
Thus by using Equation (3.7), we have the solution:
u (x ) =
K
F (x )
u ( x ) = Ke Cos x
( )
K
K
=
e
2.7183
du ( x )
+ 2u ( x) = 2
dx
(a)
(b)
By comparing the terms in Equation (a) and those in Equation (3.6), we will have:
p(x) = 2 and g(x) = 2, which leads to:
p ( x ) dx
2 dx
F ( x) = e
= e = e2x
u ( x) =
K
1
1
F
x
g
x
dx
+
=
(
)
(
)
F ( x)
F ( x) e 2 x
(e )(2)dx +
2x
K
K
=
1
+
e2x
e2x
u ( x ) x =0 = 2 = 1 +
K
e2 x
= 1+ K K = 1
x =0
Hence, the solution of Equation (a) with the condition in (b) is:
u ( x) = 1 +
1
2 x
=
1
+
e
e2x
Part 2
Application of First Order Differential Equation to
Fluid Mechanics Analysis
v1
A1
A2
q = A1v1 = A2v2
m3/s
Cross-sectional
Area, A
Q = A v t
Q
= Av
t
Q&
&
Total volumetric flow rate, V =
= Av
Fluid flow
(g )
(3.8a)
(g / sec)
(m 3 / sec)
(m 3 )
(3.8b)
(3.8c)
(3.8d)
(3.8e)
(State 1)
Pressure, p2
Ve
ity,
l oc
v2
ath
Flow P
Pressure, p1
Velocity, v1
Elevation, y2
Elevation, y1
Reference plane
Using the Law of conservation of energy, or the First Law of Thermodynamics, for the
energies of the fluid at State 1 and State 2, we can derive the following expression relating
driving pressure (p) and the resultant velocity of the flow (v):
The Bernoullis Equation:
v12
p1
v 22
p
+
+ y1 =
+ 2 + y2
2g
g
2g
g
(3.10)
v1, p1
Large
Reservoir
Tap exit
Water tank
Head, h
Elevation, y1
Fluid level
v2, p2
State 2
y2
Reference plane
Tap exit
v12 v 22
p p2
(3.10)
+ 1
+ ( y1 y 2 ) = 0
2g
g
If the difference of elevations between State 1 and 2 is not too large, we can have: p1 p2
Also, because it is a LARGE reservoir (or tank), we realize that v1 << v2, or v1 0
v 22
+0+h = 0
with h = y1 y 2
Equation (3.10) can be reduced to the form:
2g
from which, we may express the exit velocity of the liquid at the tap to be:
v2 =
2 gh
(3.11)
ho
ho
se
X-
H2O
Velocity, v(t)
i
ct
h(t)
al
on
ea
ar
,A
Tap Exit
Vexit
with v(t ) =
d 2
2 g h(t ) t
= A v(t ) t =
4
(a)
ho
h(t)
H2O
d
Velocity, v(t)
Vtan k =
D 2
4
h(t )
(b)
(Caution: a - sign is given to Vtank b/c of the LOSS of water volume during t)
The total volume of water leaving the tank during t (Vexit) in Equation (a) =
The total volume of water supplied by the tank during t (Vtank) in Equation (b):
Equation (a):
4
By re-arranging the above:
Equation (b):
2 g h(t ) t =
D 2
4
2
h(t )
1/ 2 d
= [h(t )] 2
t
D
h(t )
2 g
(c)
(d)
d2
dh(t )
= 2 g 2 h(t )
dt
D
(3.13)
(f)
with an initial condition of h(0) = ho
Equation (3.13) is the 1st order differential equation for the draining of a water tank.
The solution of Equation (3.13) can be done by separating the function h(t) and the
variable t by re-arranging the terms in the following way:
d2
= 2 g 2
h(t )
D
dh(t )
dt
d2
dh = 2 g 2 dt + c where c = integration constant
Upon integrating on both sides: h
D
d2
1/ 2
= 2 g 2 t + c
from which, we obtain the solution of Equation (3.13) to be: 2h
D
1 / 2
The constant
c = 2 ho
The complete solution of Equation (3.13) with the initial condition in Equation (f) is thus:
h(t ) =
g
2
d2
2
D
t + ho
(g)
The solution in Equation (g) will allow us to determine the water level in the tank at any
given instant, t.
The time required to drain the tank is the time te.
Mathematically, it is expressed as h(te) = 0:
0 =
g d
2 t e + ho
2 D
Numerical example:
D2
te = 2
d
2ho
g
1
=
1
12
2 x1
= 35.89
32.2
sec onds
So, now you know how to determine the time required to drain a fish tank
a process tank or a swimming pool, Or do you?
Diameter D
a
b
y(t)
A
Small (negligible)
o
Funnel opening
diameter d
Funnel exit
We will use the same principle to formulate the expression for y(t) as in the straight tank:
Drop water
level
r(y)
-y
y(t)
o
Funnel opening
diameter d
Funnel exit
velocity ve
()
Vexit =
Small
d 2
4
(a)
r(y)
r( y) =
y (t )
tan
(c)
Hence by equating (a) and (b) with r(y) given in (c), we have:
y(t)
d 2
4
2 g y (t ) t
2 g y (t ) t
2
[
y (t )]
=
y
(d)
tan
2
[ y(t )]2
dy (t )
d
=
tan 2 dt
4
2g
(e)
45o
Volume loss
in t = -V
r(y)
small
Opening dia, d = 6 mm
vexit
with condition:
[ y(t )]3
y (t )
dy (t ) d 2
+
2g = 0
4
dt
y (t ) t =0 = H = 150 mm
(a)
(b)
Equation (a) is a 1st order DE, and its solution is obtained by integrating both sides w.r.t variable t:
2 5/2
d2
y
=
5
4
(c)
2g t + c
[ y(t )]
5
2
= H2
5d
8
2g t
(d)
If we let time required to empty (drain) the funnel to be te with y(te) = 0, we will solve Equation (e)
With these conditions to be:
5/ 2
te =
8H
5d
2g
(e)
Example on the drainage of a funnel in a winery: To design a funnel that will fill a wine bottle
Design objective: To provide SHORTEST time in draining the funnel for fastest bottling process
Given
?
?
Diameter Given
Part 3
Applications of First Order Differential Equations to
Heat Transfer Analysis
The Three Modes of Heat Transmission:
Heat conduction in solids
Heat convection in fluids
Radiation of heat in space
With the left surface maintained at temperature Ta and the right surface at Tb
Heat will flow from the left to the right surface if
Tb
Amount of
heat flow, Q
Ta > Tb
Area, A
Ta
d
A(T a T b )t
d
where A = the area to which heat flows; t = time allowing heat flow; and d = the distance of heat flow
Replacing the
Q=k
A(T a T b )t
d
(3.14)
The constant k in Equation (3.14) is thermal conductivity treated as a property of the solid material
with a unit: Btu/in-s-oF of W/m-oC
The amount of total heat flow in a solid as expressed in Equation (3.14) is useful, but make less
engineering sense without specifying the area A and time t in the heat transfer process.
Consequently, the Heat flux (q) a sense of the intensity of heat conduction is used more frequently
in engineering analyses. From Equation (3.14), we may define the heat flux as:
q=
Q
(T T b )
=k a
At
d
(3.15)
d
T(x + x)
T(x)
Ta
x
x + x
0
T(x)
Tb
q =k
T ( x ) T ( x + x )
T ( x + x ) T ( x )
=k
x
x
q(x ) =
x
(3.16)
dT ( x )
T ( x + x ) T ( x )
k
k
lim
dx
x
x 0
(3.17)
Temperature, T(x)
Heat flow
X=0
X=2m
T(2m) = 50oC
Solution:
The total heat flow Q per unit time t (Q/t) in the rod is given by the heat source to the left end, i.e. 10 kW.
Because heat flux is q = Q/(At) as shown in Equation (3.15), we have (Q/t) = qA = 10 kW
dT ( x )
as in Equation (3.17), we thus have:
But the Fourier Law of heat conduction requires q (x ) = k
dx
Q = qA = kA
dT ( x)
dx
dT ( x)
Q
10
=
=
= 83.33 o C / m
6
dx
kA
100(1200 x10 )
Expression in (a) is a 1st order differential equation, and its solution is:
T(x) = -83.33x + c
If we use the condition: T(2) = 50oC, we will find c = 216.67, which leads to the complete solution:
T ( x) = 216.67 83.33 x
(a)
(b)
E
x
Heat flows in the direction
p of decreasing temperature in a solid
In solids with temperaturer variations in all direction, heat will flow in ALL directions
So, in general, there canebe 3-dimensional heat flow in solids
s formulation of heat flux
This leads to 3-dimensional
s
Heat flux q(r,t) is a vectorial quantity, with r = position vector, representing (x, y, z)
i
o
The magnitude of vector q(r,t) is:
n
qz
s
2
2
2
(3.21)
q(r,t)
i
n
qy
3
-
qx
q( x , y , z , t ) = q x + q y + q z
Position vector:
r: (x,y,z)
T ( x, y , z, t )
x
T ( x, y , z, t )
qy = k y
y
T ( x, y , z , t )
qz = k z
z
qx = k x
In general, the heat flux vector in the Fourier Law of heat conduction can be expressed as:
q(r,t) = -kT(r,t)
(3.20)
Cool
HOT
Cold
Cooling fins
Hot
q
Heat Source
e.g., IC chip
dT ( x )
q(x ) = k
dx
T(x)
q(x ) = + k
dT ( x )
dx
T(x)
NOTE: The sign attached to q(x) changes with change of direction of heat flow!!
For two-dimensional heat flow:
q heat flux
qy
Temp:
T(x,y)
qx
in or out in the
solid plane
q(r,t) = kT(r,t)
x
Question: How to assign the CORRECT sign in heat flux??
qy
q heat flux
in or out in the
solid plane
qx
Temp:
T(x,y)
x
Sign of Outward Normal (n)
q along n?
Yes
No
Yes
No
q3
Given temp.
T(x,y)
q1
q2
q4
Solution:
Sign of outward normal, n
q along n?
Sign of q in
Fourier law
Case 1:
yes
Case 2:
no
Case 3:
yes
Case 4:
no
+n
q1 = k
T ( x, y )
x
-n
q3 = k
T ( x, y )
y
Temperature in solid:
T(x,y)
-n
q4 = + k
q2 = k
T ( x, y )
x
+n
T ( x, y )
y
X
Example 3.8 Heat fluxes leaving a heat spreader of half-triangular cross-section. (p.66)
A
oC
4 cm
Ambient temp.
= 20oC
Heat
Spreader
T(x,y)
B
T(x,y)
2 cm
IC-Chip:
Heat Source
Solution:
Set coordinate system and Identify outward normals:
A
-nx
y
q AC
qAB
C
qBC
-ny
-ve n
T ( x, y )
q bc = k
y
(100 + 5 xy 2 3 x 2 y )
= 0.021
y
y =0
y =0
y =0
= 0.063 x 2 w / cm 2
T ( x, y )
q ab = k
x
-nx
qab
T(x,y)
B
x =0
(100 + 5 xy 2 3 x 2 y )
= 0.021
x
= 0.105 y 2 w / cm 2
x =0
+ny
qac,y
q ac
+nx
qac,x
B
C
q ac , x = k
and
q ac , y = k
T ( x, y )
x
T ( x, y )
y
x =1
y =2
x =1
y =2
r
r
r
q ac = q ac , x + q ac , y = (0.168) 2 + (0.357) 2 = 0.3945 w / cm 2
Heat flows from Ta to Tb with Ta > Tb. The heat flux between
A and B can be expressed by:
Tb
B
q (Ta Tb ) = h(Ta Tb )
(3.22)
Heat Treatment:
Cool
Enclosure
Hot Solid
T(r,t)
q
Bulk Fluid
Temp: Tf
Cool
Solid
Hot
Enclosure
T(r,t)
Bulk Fluid
Temp: Tf
In such cases, there is heat flow between the contacting solid and fluid.
But the physical laws governing heat flow in solids is the Fourier Law and that in fluids by
the Newtons Cooling Law
So, mathematical modeling for the contacting surface in this situation requires the use of
both Fourier Law and Newtons Cooling Law:
Mathematical Modeling of Small Solids in Refrigeration and Heating
We will formulate a simplified case with assumptions on:
Bulk environmental
temperature = Tf
Surface area, A
Solid
T(t)
Initial solid temperature, To
Bulk environmental
temperature = Tf
Surface area, A
Solid
T(t)
Ts(t)
Heat flows in the fluid follows the Newton Cooling Law expressed in Equation (3.22), i.e.:
q = h [Ts(t) Tf] = h [T(t) Tf]
(a)
where h = heat transfer coefficient between the solid and the bulk fluid
From the First Law of Thermodynamics, the heat required to produce temperature change in a solid T(t)
during time period t can be obtained by the principle:
Change in internal energy
of the small solid during t
- cV T(t)
where = mass density of the solid;
V = volume of the solid;
=
=
Q = q As t = h As[ T(t) Tf ] t
(b)
From Equation (b), we express the rate of temperature change in the solid to be:
h
T (t )
=
As T (t ) T f
t
cV
Bulk environmental
temperature = Tf
(c)
Surface area, A
Solid
T(t)
h
cV
(d)
T (t )
= As T (t ) T f
t
(e)
Since the change of the temperature of the submerged solid T(t) is CONTINOUS with respect to time t,
i.e., t o , and if we replace the contact surface area As to a generic symbol A, we can express
Equation (e) in the form of a 1st order differential equation:
dT (t )
= A T (t ) T f
dt
T (t ) t =0 = T (o ) = T0
(3.23)
(3.23a)
Example 3.9: Determine the time required to cool down a solid object initially at 80oC to 8oC. It is
placed in a refrigerator with its interior air maintained at 5oC. If the coefficient = 0.002/m2-s and the
contact area between the solid and the cool air in the refrigerator is A = 0.2 m2.
Solution:
Bulk environmental
temperature = Tf
Surface area, A
Solid
T(t)
dT (t )
= (0.002)(0.2)[T (t ) 5] = 0.0004[T (t ) 5]
dt
(a)
(b)
dT (t )
= 0.0004 dt
T (t ) 5
dT (t )
(
b
)
T (t ) 5 = e 0.0004t + c1 = ce 0.0004t
(c)
(d)
(e)
The integration constant c in Equation (e) can be obtained by the condition T(0) = 80oC in Equation (b)
with c = 75. consequently, the solution T(t) is:
(f)
T (t ) = 5 + 75 e 0.0004t
If te = required time for the solid to drop its temperature from 80oC to 8oC, we should have:
T (t e ) = 8 = 5 + 75 e 0.0004 te
(g)
Part 4
Applications of First Order Differential Equations to
Kinematic Analysis of Rigid Body Dynamics
F = ma
The helicopter
Rocket launch
The paratroopers
Galileo Galilei
Thrown-up
(Deceleration by
Gravitation)
Velocity v(t)
R(t)
F(t)
F(t)
R(t)
Math
W
Modeling
Velocity v(t)
W
X=0
Solution sought:
The instantaneous position x(t)
The instantaneous velocity v(t)
The maximum height the body can reach, and the required time
with initial velocity vo in the thrown-up situation
These solutions can be obtained by first deriving the mathematical expression (a differential equation
in this case), and solve for the solutions
By kinematics of a moving solid:
dx(t ) to be the
If the instantaneous position of the solid is expressed as x(t), we will have: v(t ) =
dt
instantaneous velocity, and a(t ) = dv(t ) to be the instantaneous acceleration (or deceleration)
dt
Thrown-up
Velocity v(t)
R(t)
F(t)
F(t)
R(t)
W
W
X=0
W = the weight
R(t) = the resistance of the air on the falling solid
F(t) = the dynamic (inertia) force due to changing
velocity of the fall under gravitational
acceleration (g)
(1) The weight of the body, w = mg, in which m = mass of the body, and g = gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.81 m/s2). This force always points towards the Earth.
(2) The resistance encountered by the moving body in the medium such as air, R(t) = c v(t), in
which c is the proportional constant determined by experiments and v(t) is the instantaneous
velocity of the moving body. R(t) act opposite to the direction of motion.
(3) The dynamic (or inertia) force, F(t) = ma(t), in which a(t) is the acceleration (or deceleration with
a negative sign) of the solid at time t the Newtons Second Law
One should notice that F(t) carries a sign that is opposite to the acceleration
(Tell me your personal experience??)
R(t)
F(t)
Leads to:
Fx = -W + R(t) + F(t) = 0
dv(t ) c
+ v(t ) = g
dt
m
with an initial condition:
v(t ) t =0 = v(0 ) = 0
(3.29)
(a)
X
Thrown-up
Velocity v(t)
F(t)
Fx = 0
R(t)
Leads to:
W
X=0
Fx = -W - R(t) - F(t) = 0
dv(t )
dt
dv (t ) c
+ v (t ) = g
dt
m
(3.25)
v(t ) t =0 = v(0 ) = vo
(a)
The solution of Equation (3.25) is obtained by comparing it with the typical 1st order differential equation in
Equation (3.6) with solution in Equation (3.7):
dv (t )
+ p (t ) u (t ) = g (t )
dt
with a solution:
v(t ) =
(3.6)
K
1
F (t ) g (t ) dt +
F (t )
F (t )
p ( t ) dt
, p (t ) =
F (t ) = e
m
(3.7)
g (t ) = g
and
v(t ) =
1
e
ct
m
ct
m
e ( g ) dt +
K
e
ct
m
t
mg
=
+ Ke m
c
(3.26)
In which the constant K is determined by the given initial condition in Equation (a), with:
K = vo +
mg
c
(b)
The complete solution of Equation (3.25) with the substitution of K in Equation (b) into Equation (3.26):
c
mg m t
mg
+ vo +
v(t ) =
e
c
c
(3.27)
The instantaneous position of the rigid body at time t can be obtained by:
x(t ) =
v(t )dt
t
(3.27a)
mg m tm
mg
+ vo +
v(t m ) = 0 =
e
c
c
c
tm =
m vo c
ln1 +
c mg
(3.28)
Example 3.10
An armed paratrooper with ammunitions weighing 322 lbs jumped with initial
velocity from an airplane at an attitude of 10,000 feet with negligible side wind.
Assume the air resistance R(t) the paratrooper encountered with is: R(t)= c[V(t)]2
in which the coefficient c = 15. Determine:
(a) The appropriate equation for the instantaneous descending velocity of
the paratrooper, and
(b) The function of the descending velocity v(t)
(c) The time required to land
(d) The impact velocity upon landing
Solution:
(a) Differential equation for the velocity v(t):
The total mass of the falling body, m = 322/32.2 = 10 slug, and the air resistance, R(t) = cv(t) = 15[v(t)]2
The instantaneous descending velocity, v(t) can be obtained by using Equation (3.29) as:
dv (t ) 15[v(t )]
+
= 32.2
dt
10
dv(t )
2
10
= 322 15[v(t )]
dt
2
or in another form:
with the condition:
v(0) = o
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b) The solution of Equation (b) with the condition in Equation (c) is:
4.634(e13.9t 1)
v(t ) =
e13.9t + 1
(Refer to P. 75 of the printed notes for procedure to the above solution)
(d)
(c) The descending distance of the paratrooper can be obtained by Equation (3.27a):
x(t ) =
v(t ) dt =
4.634(e13.9t 1)
dt
13.9 t
e +1
The above integral is not available in math handbook, and a numerical solution
by computer is required.
Once the expression of x(t) is obtained, we may solve for the tire required for the
paratrooper to reach the ground from a height of 10,000 feet by letting:
x(tg) = 10000
in which tg is the time required to reach the ground.
Another critical solution required in this situation is the velocity of the rigid body upon landing
(i.e. the impact velocity of the paratrooper). It can be obtained by evaluating the velocity in
Equation (d) at time tm:
4.634(e g 1)
v(t g ) =
13.9 t
e g +1
13.9 t