S3333599999393999999SS559SSS9SSSS59TSFCTTITVGISGIGS ILLUSTRATED GENERA OF IMPERFECT FUNGI FOURTH EDITION H. L. Barnett Division of Plant and Soil Sciences West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia Barry B. Hunter Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences California University of Pennsylvania California, Pennsylvania APS PRESS The American Phytopathological Society St. Paul, MinnesotaThis book has been reproduced directly from copy submitted In final form to APS Press. No e« hhas been done by the Press. ing oF proofreading Reference in this publication to a trademark, proprietary product, ‘or company name by personnel of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or anyone else is intended for explicit description only and does not imply approval or recommendation to the exclusion of others that ‘may be suitable. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 98-72362 Intemational Standard Book Number: 0-89054-192-2 ‘© 1998 by The American Phytopathological Sociaty Second printing, 1939 ‘Third printing, 2003 ‘This book was previously published by Prentice-Hall, Inc. ‘Scanning electron micrographs (pages 41~44) are from Brown, M. F., and Brotzman, H. G., 1979, Phytopathogenic Fungi: A Scanning Electron Stereoscope Survey, University of Missouri Press, Columbia. All rights reserved. 'No par of this book may be reproduced in any form, including photo- ‘copy, microfilm, information storage and retrieval system, computer data~ base, or software, or by any means, including electronic of mechanical, without written permission from the publisher. Copyright is not claimed in any portion of this work written by U.S. government employees as part oftheir official duties. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper ‘The American Phytopathological Society ‘9340 Pilot Knob Road St. Paul, Minnesota 55121-2097, U.S.A. AEMALAADBADADAAABAAAAAAAAABAMAABAAAAAAAAAAAAABAABRABA®’PL LRAQ AMA MAMMA MH OMEM OM MOMCOOCOOC COC CCE EC CC COCE ECE TRIBUTE TO DR. H. L. BARNETT Few mycologists will leave a legacy of teaching and research of fungi such as that of H. L. Barnett. His love of mycology that he shared with his stadents and peers is legendary at West Virginia University ‘and elsewhere. He authored numerous research publications, and his book with Dr. V. G. Lilly, Physiology of the Fungi and published in 1951, was a standard for decades. He also wrote the Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi, which continues to be an important publication for those needing to identify and study imperfect fungi. He was President of The American Phytopathological Society, the Myco- logical Society of America and Chairperson of.the Department of Plant Pathology and Agricultural Microbiology at West Virginia University. He edited and reviewed numerous books and journal papers and was awarded many research grants. His outstanding accomplishments in mycology and plant pathology have spanned five decades. His retirement in 1974 did not end his dedication to fungal esearch and publication because for the next 15 years he was most active in pursuing his love of mycology. However, his contributions were not limited to academic achievements and scholarship, but were even more obvious by his interactions and deep concems for all students. ‘No matter how busy, he Found time to counsel and teach students, He did not do it with flair but with a sense of sharing his knowledge with them and for them, He was always a gentleman and a scholar, and, yet, was so humble and caring for those he taught and advised. Those who knew him, found him to be without peer. Someone to emulate, but not possible to duplicate. He never thought of himself as a special or out- standing scientist or person, but how, very, very wrong he was. Barry B. Hunter May 1998PREFACE ‘As in pres ious editions, this book is intended to provide the necessary information for recognizing, identifying, and leaming various aspects of the reproductive and somatic morphologies of imperfect fungi. It should be considered primarily as a teaching tool and for use in practical applications such as identifying imperfect fungi. The book does not provide a taxonomic treatment of imperfect fungi ‘The major reason for preparing this new printing of the fourth edition is to improve the quality of the manual. Several changes, modifications, additions and deletions have been made: 1. A general introduction to the imperfect fungi has been added (pages ix-xxii and 1-5) ). The introduction provides information concerning the use of the Saccardoan System as a basis for identifying imperfect fungi and for studying their ubiquitous nature and diversity. Additional topics include fungal structure, cytology, nutrition, sporulation and physiology. A few exercises are also provided that illustrate biological principles. 2. Fifty-two genera that are infrequently isolated and of little economic importance have been omitted from this printing. 3. A simplified key of selected common genera has been added, which should prove useful to students as well as to those who are familiar with the imperfects. We have included those fungi that are usually found in air, soil, decaying vegetation; some of which are pathogens. The simplified key can also be used to verify identifications made from the extended keys in this book. 4, Keys have been modified to eliminate errors and to make them more usable. 5. Scanning electron micrographs illustrating each method of conidial formation in the Hughes- ‘Tubaki- Barron System are included (pages 41~44). 6. The reference section has been expanded to include literature related to the new narrative sections. We would like to acknowledge our appreciation to Drs. William Kimmel and Joseph Newhouse of California University of Pennsylvania for their careful review of the manuscript and their many beneficial suggestions. We are also indebted to Drs. M. F. Brown and H. G. Brotzman for allowing us to use their electron micrographs from their book, Phytopathogenic Fungi: A Scanning Electron Stereoscope Survey, as pact of our presentation of the Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System of imperfect fungal lentification and classification. Our appreciation is also extended to Dr. Thomas Burr, Comell University, Geneva Campus, Dr. James MacDonald, University of California at Davis and Dr. Sharon Douglas, Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station for their encouragement and assistance in the publication of this special reprinted Fourth Edition. Finally, to our wives, Alice and Darlene, we thank you for your encouragement, support, patience and devotion. Without it, this edition and earlier editions of this book would not have been possible. We also extend our gratitude to Jan Baxter, Graduate Research Assistant, and Dr. Joseph Newhouse, Adjunct Professor, both from California University of Pennsylvania, for their scanning electron micrographs, which were incorporated into the added narrative at the beginning of the text.9009980098998 HH9DHDHHDHHHHH8HHHHH9HH9HOH8HH9HOHHOHO( CONTENTS Introduction ... Major Groupings of imperfect Fungi and Their Importance in the Biosphere .. Cytological and Morphological Features of Imperfect Fungi . Factors Affecting Growth and Sporuiation of imperfect Fungi .. References Cited PART |. PHYSIOLOGY ISOLATION .. CULTURE MEDIA MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES .. PHYSIOLOGY: NUTRITION AND ENVIRONMENT .. USE OF IMPERFECT FUNGI TO ILLUSTRATE BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES . BONnae PART II. TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION .. ‘THE SACCARDO SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION FAMILIES OF MONILIALES ... KEY TO GENERA MUCORALES MONILIALES HELICOSPORES: NOT HELICOSPORES: MONILIACEAE DEMATIACEAE .. ‘TUBERCULARIACEAE .. 25 STILBACEAE 26 ‘SPHAEROPSIDALES. 7 28 MELANCONIALES .. - MYCELIA STERILIA .. SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA THE HUGHES-TUBAKI-BARRON SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION coamaryr9 o 10 10 7 34 35 vitALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA .. a ARTHROSPORAE .. 44 MERISTEM ARTHROSPORAE. 44 ALEURIOSPORAE, 45 ANNELLOSPORAE 48 BLASTOSPOAAE ... 48 BOTRYOBLASTOSPORAE 50 POROSPORAE ... 51 SYMPODULOSPORAE .. 52 PHIALOSPORAE 55 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 59 REFERENCES 198 GLOSSARY .. 212 INDEX TO GENERA .. 216 villSPHHHPHHHSHHHHHHHSHHHDHHOHHHHHSOHHHOHHHHSHHSHHDHHPHHOOHDOOHTDIDO( INTRODUCTION ‘The Deuteromycetes or Fungi Imperfecti (former taxonomic designations) are an anomalous, heterogeneous assemblage of asexual ascomycetes and basidiomycetes which no longer have formal taxonomic status. These fungi were traditionally considered as lesser fungi because they lacked the perfect stage—sexual reproduction. The absence of asci (ascomycetes) and basidia (basidiomycetes) prevented their assignment to a natural taxon and necessitated artificial non-sexual characteristics to describe and classify them. This genetic inability of many imperfects to reproduce sexually is considered ‘a primitive condition and in contemporary mycology presents a taxonomic quandary, Alexopoulus et al., 1996, provide excellent scientific rationale for excluding imperfect fungi from contemporary fungal systematics, and discuss considerations needed to develop logical and valid taxonomic approaches to determine their phylogeny (1). Consequently, the taxons which previously were recognized as taxonomically valid for the deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi), are used in this book only to facilitate their identification. ‘The imperfects are important evcaryotic microorganisms (possessing nuclei and organelles) which affect humans and most other life forms in a myriad of ways. The need to determine their identities is paramount in research, industry, medicine, plant pathology and in many other disciplines. Imperfect fungi are identified according to their conidial or non-sexual states. Nevertheless, many imperfects possess sexual structures of known ascomycetes or basidiomycetes, whereas others produce no conidia and/or sexual structures. Roper, 1966, described a parasexual cycle in which genetic recombination can occur in hyphae (16). This observation suggests that some fungi may never have possessed sexual structures or required sexual reproduction for genetic exchange. However, while there is little data which substantiates that parasexuality occurs under natural conditions today, it could have occurred during the origin and evolution of these fungi. ‘When sexual structures are associated with the conidial state, a valid taxonomic status can be ascribed. However, this often does not occur, and for practical purposes is not important. Although the scientific name of the sexual state constitutes a valid taxonomic designation, the imperfect name is retained for practicality and for conventional use. Therefore, to identify the imperfect fungi, it is necessary to know their conidial morphologies regardless of whether the sexual state is also present in culture or in nature. ‘The deuteromycetes constitute an important group of fungi which require continued study despite their obscure and confounding systematic relationships both to themselves and to other fungi. Barron, 1968 (2), Hunter and Barnett, 1973 (10), Hunter ef al., 1978 (11), and Alexopoulus et al. (1) provide additional information on many aspects of the morphology, sporulation, growth, ecology and economie importance of imperfect fungi. Scanning electron and light photomicrographs are provided on several of the following pages. They show conidia, conidiophores, and hyphal structures found on many different kinds of imperfect fungi. ‘Compare them with like illustrations in the book to better understand how these structures are important in identifying imperfect fungi. coMAJOR GROUPINGS OF IMPERFECT FUNGI AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN THE BIOSPHERE ‘The imperfect fungi or deuteromycetes have been classified according to principles established by Saccardo in Sylloge fungorum (17). While this taxonomic system is no longer valid, it is still the best way to lear the mycology that is necessary for identifying the imperfect fungi. It is also the primary means used in this book to identify imperfect fungi. The scientific names of imperfect fungi are still used, albeit, only in a non-taxonomic sense, and as a necessity to know their practical importance in the biosphere. ‘The Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System (conidial ontogeny) has also been used as a way of classifying and ng these fungi (2, 9, 18). Details pertaining to this system are provided on pages 40-44 and tification keys are found on pages 44-57. The use of conidial and conidiophore ontogeny for related identifying deuteromycetes should be used by individuals who are well versed in mycology. The shape, pigmentation, and septation of conidia are important characteristics in the Saccardo System but reduced to secondary importance in the Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System, To better understand the Saccardo System, common and economically-important imperfect fungi of the four form orders will be presented. Following the Saccardoan System, the species of the form orders can be separated into four distinct groups of fungi. This provides a basis from which to begin a search (appropriate key) for the identity of an unknown fungus. The form orders are as follows: (1) Moniliales - Conidiophores and conidia occurring free and distributed over the mycelium. Conidiophores may be separate, in clusters, or in tightly-packed groups. Illustrative examples and accompanying descriptions of ‘many of the diverse genera in this group are provided from pages 68 through 161; (2) Sphaeropsidales - Conidiophores and conidia contained within asexual fruiting bodies called pycnidia. See pages 162 through 187 for descriptions and illustrations of pycnidia-producing fungi. (3) Melanconiales - Conidia typically produced under natural conditions in an acervulus, an open saucer-shaped fruiting body. In culture, conidiophores may be single or in compact groups similar to sporodochia of the Moniliales. ‘These fungi can be found on pages 188 through 194; (4) Mycelia Sterilia - Species in this form order are genetically incapable of producing conidia or any kind of reproductive cells. Sclerotia or other survival structures occur in the mycelium, Descriptions and illustrations of the three species depicted in this book are provided on pages 196 and 197. Conldiophores of Paeciiomyces sp. with typleal flask+ Conidia of Trichoderma sp. emerging trom shaped phlalides and calenulate conidia, cconidlophores. 000088 OOOO COOOO84HAGAAAALAAALAAAALAALALAADAAHAAAAA:0009080080080 0888990998 HH9909HHFHHHHH9SHSHH8HOHHHSHHO( ‘Two of the sporulating form orders, Moniliales and Sphaeropsidales can be separated into several form families. Characteristics are predicated upon such artificial features as color, shape, and consistency of the pycnidium in the Sphacropsidales, or color of the conidia and presence of synnemata or sporodochia in the Moniliales. The form family taxon is not used in Mycelia Sterilia and only one form family exists in the Melanconiales. ‘There are at least 1,400 form genera of imperfect fungi and several thousand species. The most ‘common in nature and the most economically important are found in the form order Moniliales. Some are pathogens of plants, animals and humans, some produce toxins, while others are important in the production of antibiotics and other chemicals. In the Saccardo System, it is the color and morphology of the conidia which are used to separate form genera into sections. For example, one-celled hyaline (devoid ‘of any color) conidia are called hyalospores; colored, one-celled conidia are phaeospores; didymospores are two-celled; and transversely septate conidia with three or more cells are phragmospores. Add hyalo to phragmospore (hyalophragmospore) and it is a hyaline, transversely septate conidium; cylindrically- spiraled, one to several cell formations are helicospores, regardless of the presence or absence of color. Problems encountered when using the Saccardo system ate Variations in type of fruiting body (acervulus, sporodochium, and pycnidium), conidium color and conidium morphology. These structures can vary on different media and in their response to varying environmental conditions. Consequently, what is described in the keys may differ slightly to significantly when the fungus in question is grown on different media or when it is incubated at different temperatures, Nevertheless, time and experience will negate these factors. Therefore, because of its simplicity and practicality, the Saccardo System is stil the best way for students and others to study and identify imperfect fungi. SACCARDOAN FORM ORDERS FORM ORDER MONILIALES ‘Most species of deuteromycetes reside in this form order and are grouped into four form families (see page 7). This is the only form order in which form families are described in this book. Form families Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae have species which are delimited by one or more of the following CConidia In baspetal chains radiating from the apex of an ‘Aspergillus ep conidlophore. xtcharacteristics: conidial septation; conidiophore appearance and branching; conidial morphology; true and pseudomycelium (some imperfects are yeasts without true hyphae); the manner in which the conidia are produced; presence of chlamydospores and morphology; conidia produced in chains or in a head; presence or absence of mucilage; conidial number and arrangement at apex of the conidiophore; conidia produced on conidiophore or mycelium; and exogenous or endogenous production of conidia. Refer to page 68 through page 145 for numerous examples of the Moniliaceae and the Dematiaceae. Note that imperfects in this form order with hyaline conidia are members of the Moniliaceae; those with pigmented conidia and/or conidiophores reside in form family Dematiaceae. The reason that the fungi of these two form families are discussed together is because the only difference between the species is the color of their conidia and conidiophores. This seemingly obvious color difference is at times difficult to determine in culture and under the microscope. However, careful use of the microscope, diligence and experience in identifying these and other fungi, will in time allow one to make accurate determinations of pigmentation, along with many other pertinent fungal characteristics. ‘Many of the more common fungi are found in the form families Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae. Species of Aspergillus (page 95), Penicillium (page 95), Alternaria (page 132) and Stemphylium (page 132) are routinely isolated from the air and numerous other substrates. These genera and several other species of the Moniliaceae are discussed here, Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic pathogen of humans and other animals and is responsible for the human disease aspergillosis, a pulmonary disorder. Penicillium chrysogenum and closely related species are the sources of penicillin, an’ important antibacterial antibiotic, which has saved countless humans from death and serious illness for many decades. Other species of Penicillium are responsible for the contamination of food and clothing. Gliocladium spp. (page 93) are similar to the penicillia, but differ at maturity by having the spore mass ‘encompassed by mucilage. One species, G. roseum is a good example where identification is confusing because it produces two different conidial types, one being the Gliocladium type and the other that of Verticillium albo-atrum (page 92). Fortunately, this is unusual, but warns one to not always consider fungal cultures contaminated when two distinct conidial types occur in the same culture. Verticillium albo-atrum is a destructive plant pathogen that causes a wilt of some economically-important plants. Monilia (page 73) cinerea var, americana, the pathogen of brown rot of peach and other fruits, is often found as a contaminant of microbial cultures. Geotrichum candidum (page 68) is the causative agent of geotrichosis, a human disease which can occur orally, in the intestine and as a pulmonary disease. Species of the genus Candida (page 71) are common in the Moniliaceae, Note that this fungus is not always filamentous, but can possess yeast-like cells. An important species C. albicans, is an opportunistic human pathogen causing oral and vaginal diseases and may become systemic. This filamentous yeast can be differentiated from other Candida spp. by the production of 8 to 12 um spherical chlamydospores on corn meal agar. ©2808 882 HHHHOEG 02280244 400482240440048 0284800448040 4000844881"2299888080080 HF8HHHHOHHHHHGFHHHSHO0HHH9HSHHHHHHHH9888 Oi ‘Many species having pigmented conidia and/or conidiophores, reside in the form family Dematiaceae. ‘Many of these species are also common and/or economically-important fungi. Stachybotrys (page 89), a soilbome saprotroph, has pigmented single-celled conidia and conidiophores that slime down to form glistening beads. Cladosporium (page 107) is prevalent in the air, and some species are plant or human pathogens. This fungus has a highly branched conidiophore and one-or two-celled conidia that occur in chains. Since all conidia of one species are not always of the same cell number or size, purity of a culture cannot be determined by this means. Aureobasidiwm (page 71) is a filamentous yeast, hyaline when young, becoming dark with age. Aureobasidium is often confused with species of Candida, but Pigmentation appears in its hyphae which is not found in Candida, One species, A. pullalans is ‘saprotrophic, but can become an opportunistic pathogen of plants. This same fungus is also known to be ‘a major agent in the deterioration of painted surfaces. Many species of Helminthosporium (page 125) are well known to plant pathologists as pathogens of grasses. These fungi produce dark cylindrical conidia, which are multiseptate and usually have rounded ends. The conidia of Bipolaris (page 127) and Dreschlera (page 123) are nearly identical to those of Helminthosporium but differ in the mode of conidial formation. The ends of the conidia vary only slightly making the differentiation of species between Bipolaris, Dreschlera and Helminthosporium difficult. Hustrations along with the keys are most heipful in correctly identifying species of these three genera. The most commonly encountered fungus in the Dematiaceae is Alternaria (page 133), which produces large muriform conidia, often bore acropetally in chains. Isolates of this fungus are readily recovered from air, soil, decaying vegetation and from diseased potatoes and tomatoes. Imperfect species which have conidiophores united in columns or clusters reside in the form family Stilbaceae (pages 152 - 161). These multiple fused conidiophores are called synnemata or coremia and tend to be more plentiful in aging cultures. The conidia are produced on the upper portions of the synnemata. Some isolates of the Stilbaceae do not form synnemata on all media making identification most difficult. Jsaria spp. (page 157) are frequently isolated from soil and grow profusely on most mycological agar media, One species, Pesotum uni, is well known to plant pathologists because itis the imperfect form of the fungal pathogen that causes Dutch elm disease, The synnemata of P. ulmi are tall and have a rounded mass of light-colored conidia embedded in mucilage. ‘The presence of sporodochia in the mycelium distinguishes form family Tuberculariaceae from the other three form families of form order Moniliales. Refer to pages 146 - 151 and observe the many different types of sporodochial fungi. A sporodochium is a cushioned-shaped structure made up of closely grouped conidiophores. Definitive identification of sporodochial-producing fungi is often difficult because the structures often vary with cultural conditions. Some, but not alll species of Fusarium (page 131), produce sporodochia. Species of Fusarium are pathogens of humans, insects, plants and are Catenulate conidia of Penielilum sp. on phialldes of 8 Arthrospores of Geotrichum conidiophore. xlabundant in the air and soil. It is easy to identify isolates to genus because of their characteristic banana- shaped conidia. However the tremendous variability in conidial size, microconidia and macroconidia, make them difficult to speciate. Species in the genus Epicoccum (page 151) are frequently isolated from soil and decaying wood. This fungus has dark sporodochia, from which compact or loose conidiophores igive rise to dark, globose dictyospores (conidium has both oblique and transverse septa). FORM ORDER SPHAEROPSIDALES ‘There are four form families in this form order and all of the species have well defined asexual fruiting bodies i.e. pycnidia (page 162 through 187). Pyenidia are easily seen at low magnifications with a ‘compound or stereo-microscope. They have conidia which are either endogenously produced (inside the pycnidium), or that differ from most other imperfect fungi and are exogenously produced. According to Saccardo, the form families are differentiated as follows. Sphacropsidaceae - dark pycnidia, leathery to carbonaceous, which may or may not be produced on a stroma, usually having a circular opening; ‘Zythiaceae - physical characteristics as in form order Sphaeropsidaceae, but the pycnidia are bright- colored and waxy; Leptostromataceae - upper half of pycnidium fully developed, rather than in the basal portion; Excipulaceae - Pycnidia are cupped or saucer-shaped. In this book, we do not separate pycnidia - producing fungi using the four form families, although we may use a particular characteristic from a given form family as part of the key composition. ‘Many members of the form order Sphaeropsidales are saprotrophic, although some are plant pathogens and others infect insects and other fungi. Among the more common form genera are Phoma, (page 163), Phyllosticta (page 163), Sphaeropsis (page 177), Coniothyrium (page 177) and Septoria (page 183). Many of the species of these five genera are pathogens of plant stems and leaves. Problems in identifying these fungi are obvious when comparing Phoma and Phyllosticta. ‘Their pycnidia and conidia are so iar that distinctions are at best arbitrary. Both have dark, erumpent pycnidia enclosing short conidiophores that produce hyaline, non-septate conidia. Sphaeropsis is another form genus which is similar to Phoma. Septoria (page 183) is a form genus with approximately 1,000 species, most being plant pathogens. Many of the species names come from their hosts. Obviously, using the host to name the fungal species leads (o confusion, the proliferation of species, and questionable scientific designations. ‘The pycnidia of Septoria are dark, globose, ostiolate, erumpent; they enclose short conidiophores bearing ong, thin scolecospores. Therefore, the dark pycnidia are round, have an opening, and break out through the surface of the substratum and produce endogenous narrow-elongate conid -382 A404 84224244046 864404444424244480248 282280044240 6460082804848 41POSS SCHOCFSPTCHOSGSHO SHOSOSHHOSOHOHOTHSSOSOSVHOHSHSSVGPOHHOHHOGOGETO( FORM ORDER MELANCONIALES Species in this form order are recognized by a saucer-shaped fruiting body, the acervulus (page 188 through 195). There is only one form family, Melanconiaceae. Two common form genera are Gloeosporium (page 189) and Colletotrichum (page 189). They are both very similar in appearance, except that the latter has prominent dark setae associated with the conidiophores. The many species of the two genera have conidia which are hyaline, one-celled, and ovoid to oblong. Under certain cultural conditions, however, the setae of Colletotrichum fail to form, thereby making it impossible to distinguish between the two genera, Glomerella, an ascomycete, is the teleomorph of both form genera which indicates that, because of their similar anamorphic states, they should really be in one genus. Another which produces multiseptate conidia with pointed ends and apical appendages (page 193). Species can be either pathogenic or saprotrophic. Careful scrutiny will show that species of Cylindrosporium (page 193) are difficult to differentiate from species of Gloeosporium. Similar appearing species of different genera present problems even to those who are familiar with the fungi. FORM ORDER MYCELIA STERILIA Species placed here have no known anamorphic or teleomorphic states. They do however, produce somatic sporodochium-like bodies, chlamydospores, sclerotia or bulbils. These diversified fungi are ‘grouped into approximately 20 genera and because of their heterogeneity there are no form families. No asexual or sexual structures are found in these fungi, and therefore they are identified solely by mycelial characteristics. Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium (page 197) are two common form genera, both containing plant pathogenic species. Clamp connections on their hyphae provide evidence to basidiomycetous affinities. Papulospora, another frequently encountered member of this form order produces bulbils (shown on page 197) which are sclerotiumlike and serve in survival and reproduction. Species of Papulospora are saprotrophs of decaying vegetation and are pathogenic to storage structures of some plants. “The imperfect fungi include a diverse array of fungi which occupy every conceivable ecosystem within the Biosphere. There are aquatic and terrestrial species; some are saprotrophic, and some are pathogenic to humans, animals, plants, microorganisms and to even other fungi. Their many spore and somatic types have led to dispersal and invasion of may environments resulting in the evolution of this highly diverse group of fungi.CYTOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF IMPERFECT FUNGI The eucaryotic cellular structure, composition and ultrastructure of the imperfect fungi (Deutero- mycetes) have been thoroughly investigated using light and electron microscopy (4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12). Cells of imperfect fungi, like most fungi, are arranged in filaments or threads called hyphae. One filament of the hyphae is a hypha, and all hyphae of one fungus constitutes the mycelium. Fungal hyphal cells vary in size, color and in their exiraceliular matrix, when present. However, since hyphae among different kinds of fungi are more alike than different, they usually cannot be used as a differentiating character. The cells of a hypha are separated from one another by crosswalls called septa, Imperfect fungi have ‘one, two or more nuclei in their septate hyphal cells and can possess mitochondria, endoplasmic reticuli with ribosomes, microtubules, Golgi bodies, vacuoles, glycogen and lipid. Woronin bodies and Spitzen- Korpers (8), which are unique structures involved in apical hyphal growth may also be present. Often, mitochondria and Golgi bodies are found to be closely associated in the cytoplasm. This ultrastructural feature has been seen only in imperfect fungi and ascomycetes. Consequently, this association suggests a relationship unique to these fungi that differentiates them from other fungi and other life forms (13). Therefore, they have cells, organelles and inclusions similar to, yet different in some respects, from protists, metaphytans and metazoans. The asexual spores of deuteromycetes, the conidia, contain similar organelies and inclusions. Under light microscopy however, the cytoplasm of the typical imperfect fungus appears translucent and granular and lacking discernible nuclei, organelles or other inclusions. The hyphae and conidia of Verticillium albo-atrum and V. nigrescens arc representative of imperfect fungi since they are uninucleate and possess most of the aforementioned intracellular structures within their plasma membranes (3). Newhouse er al. found these typical organelles, along with mycovinuses in the hyphal cells of Cryphonectria parasitica (14). The majority of fungal viruses do not appear to have any deleterious affect upon fungi, but some can debilitate their hosts and cause changes in colony morphology, growth rate and pigmentation. This can result in an infected fungal isolate having a cultural appearance far different from other fungi of the same species. This is an important consideration in fungal identification. Light microscopy of fungal cells reveals little cytological detail; however, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) show with clarity the ‘organelles, some inclusions, and nuclei within the fungal cell. ‘Alexopoulus ef al. provide excellent information on fungal ultrastructure and cellular relationships of many and diverse fungi (1). Under light microscopy, the nuclei and organelles of the imperfects are minute and difficult to observe without killing the cells and applying one or more cytological stains. Consequently, intracellular characteristics of the cell(s) are of no value for identification. There is one notable feature of the hyphae that is easily seen with the light microscope and enables differentiation of an imperfect fungus from a typical phycomycete. This structure is the septum which separates individual hyphal cells. All imperfect fungi have septa, unlike most phycomycetes which are coenocytic (lack septa and are multinucleate). Ascomycetous and basidiomycetous fungi also possess septa. Within the septurn there may be one or several pores which provide cytoplasmic continuity between cells. The pores are easily observed via TEM but not with light microscopy. Transmission electron micrographs demonstrate that nuclei and various organelles can traverse the pores thus moving from cell to cell. Woronin bodies or septal pore plugs are known to block pores, especially in hyphal cells that are old or damaged. Imperfect fungi with known ascomycetous teleomorphs usually have simple septa, whereas basidiomycetous teleomorphs have much more elaborate and complex dolipore septa. Extemal to the plasma membrane of the hyphal cell is the cell wall. This is apparent by light microscopy and by TEM. This of course is a major difference between metazoans and most protists which lack cell walls. Metaphytans also possess cell walls, but the chemical composition of the xvi 2ADADABALAAAAAHAA LAAAAALAAAAAABALAAAALADAAAAAAALADRAGBA‘POPCHTSOSTSSSCUTSSSPOSSTVIGOSVVVUTVISCOOVVVPVVSSTSVVOVEOOHGOSODO: microbibrils is different. The imperfect fungal cell wall, in conjunction with microtubules and micro- filaments that comprise the cytoskeleton, preserve the cytoplasmic integrity of cells and also determines the shape of the hyphal cell. Hyphal cells of Sclerotium rolfsit possess an actin cytoskeleton (15). Cell growth of the filamentous fungi occurs almost exclusively at the hyphal tip. Transmission, electron micrographs of the hyphal apex by Grove, 1978 (6), and Grove and Bracker, 1970 (7), show apical vesicles which are spherical and membrane bound. The apical vesicles contain the necessary elements for plasma membrane extension and cell wall synthesis. More recent studies by Wessels in 1986 (19) and 1988 (20) provide evidence that the hyphal tip is elastic but ultimately becomes rigid with age. Hyphae are the microscopic somatic structures of fungi which are embedded in various organic substrates or in soils. It is the hyphae that absorb nutrients required for growth and reproduction. The ‘organization and size of the mycelium is predicated upon substrate availability and nutrient status. While additional structures are not usually formed by growing hyphae, some fungi form discrete microscopic and/or macroscopic somatic and reproductive structures. Hyphae of some fungi can develop two dlifferent kinds of fungal tissues (plectenchyma). These tissues develop from the apical growth of the hyphae. Prosenchyma tissue are evident by their loosely woven organization in which the hyphae are still mostly discemible. When the hyphae are not discernible and the cells become plant-like, the tissue is pseudoparenchyma. Many resistant and reproductive structures develop from the two types of plecten- chymous tissue. ‘One type of somatic tissue structure is the. rhizomorph which results from the thickening of the hyphae. Sclerotia (page 97) and microsclerotia are other structures in which the hyphae lose their typical thread-like appearance and become a mass of cells which are resistant to various adverse conditions. ‘Another somatic structure, the stroma, is formed as a mass of fungal cells that usually supports various types of reproductive structures. Rhizomorphs, sclerotia, microsclerotia and stroma are important struc- tures in determining the type and, in some few instances, the identity of an unknown fungus. The more identifiable structures (mainly reproductive, but also somatic) that can be determined for an unknown fungus, the easier it will be to identify. ‘The conidial cells, theit conidiophores, acervuli, pycnidia, sporodochia, synnemata and chlamydo- spores are other cellular structures of imperfect fungi which are easily discemible with the light micro- scope, and are routinely used in identification. These structures are illustrated and discussed throughout this book. Complete familiarity with these structures will facilitate use of the keys for identifying unknown imperfect fungi.FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND SPORULATION OF IMPERFECT FUNGI ‘The imperfect fungi are adapted to live under diverse environmental and nutritional conditions. Conidia of some species often survive for years in a cold or dry environment and germinate upon exposure to favorable conditions. The conditions that favor or inhibit growth and sporulation of a given fungus are correlated with its habitat. For example, Bispora, which obtains its nutrients from decaying ‘wood, is limited in growth only by temperature and moisture, whereas, other fungi have more precise requirements, such as for living tissue or preformed vitamins. In fact, the dissemination of plant pathogenic conidia is often limited to the growing season of the host plant, and the production of conidia at that time. This and other types of adaptation have led to the survival of the deuteromycetes that exist today. Several types of fungal responses to nutrition and environment are presented. TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature and moisture are universal factors that affect all organisms and must be favorable for them to survive, grow and reproduce. The cardinal temperatures i.c. 1m, optimum, and maximum, are used to describe the range at which individual imperfect fungi can grow. The exact ranges are influenced by other factors. There is a great variation among the responses to temperature of the imperfect fungi; however, they all produce some growth at mesophilic temperatures. When growing. unknown fungi it is best to select a temperature between 20 and 30 degrees Centigrade for their initial incubation. MOISTURE Imperfect fungi are capable of growing in liquid nutrient solutions provided that sufficient oxygen is present. However, many deuteromycetes can grow in the absence of liquid water. Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum are plant pathogens which cause rots of plant parts and obtain moisture from the decomposing plant cells. Species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, and Aureobasidium arc ‘common decomposing agents of cloth, paper, leather, wood and even painted surfaces where there is no free moisture. Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. proliferate in stored grains when the moisture content is. greater than 14%. Another Aspergillus sp., A. glaucas and its close relatives are well known for their ability to grow under conditions of severe physiological drought. Tn contrast there are the many imperfect species that cannot grow without liquid water or a saturated atmosphere. Spores of most denteromycetes require moisture for germination. LIGHT . Imperfect fungi respond to light (radiation) in a myriad of ways, but are not photosynthetic. Like all fungi they are incapable of reducing COs to carbohydrate via radiation. Nevertheless, phototropic growth of conidiophores has been amply demonstrated for Aspergillus giganteus, A. clavatus, Penicillium claviforme and numerous other fungi. When cultures receive unilateral illumination, the conidiophores grow toward the white light, irrespective of the position of the culture. Certain frequencies of radiation are also known to enhance or be necessary for the induction of sexual structures of imperfects having known teleomorphic states. Radiation also may affect the chemical composition of media thereby promoting growth patterns different from those that would occur when the media were stored in the dark. 24222482244 4424424444448444444482444844482484688244288'POSSESS HSOSHSSHSHSOSOSTSSHSSHSOSOSOHSVSSHSSSSSHVPUSSOVHOSSOGOSVHSO( Radiation has the greatest impact on sporulation of imperfect fungi. Sporulation of imperfects is either induced (i., light is necessary) or enhanced by exposure to different wavelengths of radiation. Ultraviolet, near ultraviolet, blue (most common), a wide band of blue-green-yellow and far red all affect fungal sporulation, albeit, quite differently. The red band is seldom effective for inducing sporulation. White light may be as effective as any given color if the intensity is nearly equal. The intensity of white light necessary for sporulation by Epicoccum nigrunt varied inversely with duration of exposure. ‘An exposure of mycelial cultures on agar to sunlight (7,000 ft. candles) for 15 minutes induced the production of about as many conidia as a single exposure of 24 hours at 50 ft candles or 6 hours at 100 ft. candles. Spores were produced only in the zone of young hyphae at the time of exposure. it is well known that ultraviolet radiation is inhibitory, yet there are few concrete examples of inhibition of imperfect fungi by visible light. Remember, when growing imperfects which do not sporulate in culture, the absence of light or too little of it, may be an important factor. In general, expose fungal cultures to alternating periods of light and dark to induce sporulation. HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION (pH) Most fungi grow optimally when the substrate is slightly acid between pH 5.0 and 6.0. However, they will generally achieve fair to good growth over much wider range, from about pH 3.0 to 8.0. Certain species are able to tolerate even greater ranges: Aspergillus niger, pH 2.8 to 8.8; A. oryzae, 1.6 to 9.3; Penicillium italicum, 1.9 to 9.3; Fusarium oxysporum, 1.8 to 11.1; Botrytis cinerea, 2.8 to 7.4; and Rhizoctonia solani, 2.5 to 8.5. When fungi are growing on most culture media, they alter the pH of the substrate. The extent of the pH change depends on the composition of the substrate as well as on the ‘genetics of the imperfect fungus. CARBON AND NITROGEN SOURCES: ‘The requirement of fungi for carbon is greater than any other nutrient, however a source of nitrogen must also provided. The ubiquitous nature of most deuteromycetes indicates that they possess the genetic determinants (synthesis of enzymes) to utilize carbon from many different sources; among these, cellulose is the most abundant utilizable source, Seldom does a fungus in nature encounter a pure carbon source, but rather will preferentially select from what is available. ‘To determine the ability of specific fungi to utilize single carbon sources, experiments in the laboratory must be conducted under controlled conditions, using a medium that is complete for all nutrients except carbon. Imperfect fungi respond to different carbon sources, and their preferred source is. usually associated with the niche they occupy in the ecosystem. Growth on glucose, fructose and ‘mannose are approximately the same for all fungi. Most natural media have more than one carbon source from which a fungus can obtain carbon requirements for growth and reproduction. ‘In nature, organic materials provide the nitrogen needed for growth; however, most fungi can use sources of inorganic nitrogen as well. Most imperfect fungi wtilize nitrate, ammonium and amino acids as sources of nitrogen. Growth on inorganic nitrogen is often less than on a mixture of amino acids or on a complex organic nitrogen source. If one merely desires to cultivate deuteromycetes on a laboratory medium, yeast extract or casein hydrolysate is excellent. To study the relative rate of utilization of nitrogen sources, one should use single amino acids, such as asparagine, aspartic acid or glutamic acid. VITAMINS: Most imperfect fungi are capable of synthesizing required vitamins from living or non-living substrates. Some imperfects, however, are deficient and cannot synthesize certain vitamins. Such deficiencies can be determined only by cultivation in suitable synthetic media with and without added vitarnins. When imperfects are vitamin-deficient, itis usually thiamine that they are unable to synthesize. A deficiency may be single or multiple, complete ot partial. Most species of Aspergillus synthesize all xixrequired vitamins. Botrytis cinerea, species of Penicillium, Cylindrocladium scoparium, Gliocladium roseum and other imperfect fungi are also able to synthesize their vitamin requirements. The pycnidial producer, Dendrophoma obscurans, must have a preformed source of thiamine as do some species of the dermatophyte genus, Trichophyton. Biotin is needed for Diplodia macrospora and for Stachybotrys atra. INORGANIC SALTS AND MICROELEMENTS Natural organic compounds often furnish all of the inorganic salts necessary for growth. However, if ‘one needs to culture imperfects on synthetic or semi-synthetic media, it is necessary to add certain ‘compounds. Monobasic potassium phosphate (KH;PO,) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO,) will supply potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulfur. The microelements Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu and Ca are frequently added to synthetic media to supply addition: rganic elements needed for optimal fungal growth. ISOLATION, CULTURE MEDIA, MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES, AND PHYSIOLOGY Information on these topics can be found on pages 1-3. 222404488 00424 4444044444444 4442 424484448424 448082808281FIDPVVOSOGSHOGHSOHDHOTHHOGHHHHHTTOG9HHHHHHHHHHHHHHOHHOHHODG: REFERENCES CITED 1, Alexopoulus, C. J., C., W. Mims and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 2, Barron, G. L. 1968. The Genera of Hyphomycetes from Soil. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. 3. Buckley, P. M., T. D. Wyllie and J. E, DeVay. 1969. Fine structure of conidia and conidium formation in Verticillium aibo-atrum and V. nigrescens. Mycologia 61: 240-250. 4, Farley, J.F., R. A. Jersild and D. J. Niederpruem. 1975. Origin and ultrastructure of the intra-hyphal hyphae in Trichophyton terrestre and T. rubrum, Arch. Microbiol. 43: 117-144. 5. Griffiths, D. A. 1973. Fine structure of the chlamydospore wall in Fusarium oxysporum. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 61: 1-7. 6. Grove, S. N. 1978. The cytology of hyphal tip growth, In: The Filamentous Fungi, (Vol. 3). Smith, JE. and D. R. Barry, Eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 7. Grove, S. N. and C. E. Bracker. 1970. Protoplasmic organization of hyphal tips among fungi: ‘Vesicles and Spitzenkorpers. J. Bacteriol. 104: 989-1009. 8. Howard, R. J. 1981. Ultrastructural analysis of hyphal tip growth in fungi: Spitzenkorper, cytoskeleton and endomembranes after freeze substitution. J. Cell Sci. 48: 89-103. 9. Hughes, S. J. 1953. Conidiophores, conidia and classification. Can. J. Bot. 31: 577-659. 10. Hunter, B. B. and H, L. Barnett. 1973. Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti), In: Handbook of Microbiology: (Vol. 1), Organismic Microbiology. Laskin, A. I. and H. A. Lechevalier, Eds. CRC Press, Cleveland, OH. LL. Hunter, B. B. and H, L, Bamett and T. P. Buckelew. 1978. Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti), In: Handbook. of Microbiology: (Vol. 2), Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, and Viruses. Laskin, A. 1. and H. A. Lechevalier, Eds. CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL. 12, Mims, C, W. 1991. Using electron microscopy to study plant pathogenic fungi. Mycologia 83:1-19. 13. Newhouse, J. R., H. C. Hoch and W. L. MacDonald. 1983. The ultrastructure of Endothia parasitica. ‘Comparison of a virulent with a hypovirulent isolate. Can. J. Bot. 61: 389-399. 14, Newhouse, J. R., W. L. MacDonald and H. C. Hoch. 1990. Virus-like particles in hyphae and conidia of European hypovirulent (dsRNA-containing) strains of Cryphonectria parasitica. Can. J. Bot. 68:90-101. 15, Roberson, R. W. 1992. The actin cytoskeleton in hyphal cells of Sclerotium rolfsii. Mycologia 84: 41-51. 16. Roper, J. A. 1966, The parasexual cycle, In The Fungi, (Vol. 2). Ainsworth, G. C. and A. S. ‘Sussman, Eds. Academic Press, New York. vot17, Saccardo, P. A. 1882-1931. Sylloge fungorum omnium cognitorium. 25 Volumes. Pavia, Italy. 18, Tubaki, K. 1963, Taxonomic study of hyphomycetes. Am. Rep. Inst. Ferment, Osaka 1: 25-54. 19. Wessels, J. G. H. 1986. Cell wall synthesis in apical hyphal growth. Int, Rev. Cytol. 104: 37-49. 20. Wessels, J. G. H. 1988. A steady state model for apical wall growth. Acta Bot. Neer. 37: 3-16. wai e e 6 é e @ e e e 6 ¢ @ ¢é e e é @ e 6 e@ e e e 4 ¢ @ a a qa 196. 29¢ 30a 30b MONIUALES Conidial state of powdery mildew; conidia catenulate ... Oidium Conidial state of powdery mildew; conidia not catenulate . «- Ovulariopsis Not conidial state of powdery mildew Conidia distinct in shape from apical cells of conidiophore costes woe Conia (artrospores) gradually become rounded from apical cells of conidiophore.... seieeeetinssseseeseesieessesseesecssessesses allemia Conia (bastoxpore) globose to ais, similar to apical cells of conidiophore. — - Monilia Conidia (blastospores) elongate, slender, ‘much like cells of conidiophore...... TWletiopsis Caniiaphores (or phialde) typically simple or with few tranches; phialides, if present not tightly clustered into heads : Conidiophores mostly branched; phialides, if present, clustered into groups or heads ... Conidia catenulate ...seeseeereeseees ene nneenennatenneetaee re Conidia not catenulate .. eee tne nnereneceeceecemmeetmeanrenerenes Conidia endogenous; phialides prominent, simple ........-sse+sserseseessesseeseesseeess Conidia exogenous; conidiophores simple or branched ....+se+ssesssseersesseeseesseesse Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) present, rounded, usually single........Chalaropsis Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) in short chains of truncate cells, breaking up. sees Thielaviopsis Dark aleuriospores rarely formed .. eeeeeneeeeeeceeeeenceeemeneecenseeeteney Dark setae present .......... Chaetochalara Dark setae absent... Chatara Conidia blastospores or botryoblastospores . ” Conidia otherwise. Conidia in chains on slender conidiophores seseeseeseHyalodendron Conidia on enlarged apex and nodes of conidiophores .. +++ Gonatorrhodiella Conidia phialospores; phialides simple ... Monocillium Conidia arthropsores, nearly globose with a flat base. Basipetospora Conidia arthrospores, rod-shaped . . Oidiodendron Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells short or indefinite . Chrysosporium Coniiophores or eonalogenous cols distinc fete portion rachislike Tritirachium, Beauveria Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells distinct, fertile portion not rachislike .. Conidiophores not inflated or only slightly 0.....s++sessseseessessessesseesseseesseesee Conidiophores or fertile cells distinctly inflated at middle or apex ..... fe u 70 20 2 92 2 2 2 38 2 26 BS egss as 8 7012 3la 3b 32a 32b 320 3a 33b 4a 34b 35a 35b 35¢ 36a 36b 36c 3a 37 Me 3d Be amt 38a 38 39a 39 40a 40b 4la 4tb KEY TO GENERA Conidia curved; aquatic on dead leaves ..... sess Lunulospora Conidia globose to ovoid; not aquatic. Conidia sympodulospores. . Conidia aleuriospores .. Conidia blastospores or phialospores; single. . Conidia blastospores, on long denticles, dry... Olpitrichum Conidia phialospores, in moist heads........2.0..++ Conidiophores clustered .... - Ovularia Conidiophores single, separate Sporothrix Conidiophores single, simple, forked at apex .. sesssees Glomerularia Conidiophores usually have branches arising from an enlarged cell. - Umbelopsis Conidiophores with variable short lateral branches... ses. Staphylotrichum Conidiophores branched verticillately ..... -Verticillium Conidiophores in acervuli in nature; in culture, conidiophores separate or in poorly formed groups . «++ Gloeosporium Conidiophores simple or with few branches, never in acervuli.......... Cephalosporium Fertile cells globose; conidiophores short, stout . sesteeeesseee Phymatotrichum Fertile cells globose, single, apical; conidiophores slender. Ovdocephalum Fertile cells globose, apical and intercalary . seeseeeees Gonatobotrys Fertile cells somewhat elongated; conidia borne on short denticles ....... Rhinotrichum Fertile cells somewhat elongated; conidia borne on long pegs or branches ..... Acladium Fertile cells elongated, cylindrical, enlarged branches of conidiophore; conidia on short denticles = Chromelosporium Conidia in more or less compact heads; ¢: jophores simple ........sesseessesseesesses Conidia not in compact heads; conidiophores simple or branched near the apex .. Conidia in dry heads... Conidia held in heads of slime ......... - Aspergillus ‘Simple diverging sterile arms subtending heads.. sesssses Gliocephalotrichum - Gliocephalis No sterile arms below conidial heads . Conidia in basipetal chains. Conidial chains formed by segmentation of cells or branches of conidiophore ..... 138 2 35 3 ” 36 103 98 86 86 80 92 188 B 16 16 76 16 22444 2444444444444 844464244224442884 0824244448040 460008088'(‘ SPTVTTCTTTCVVIGVTITFTTSOSCTVCTVIOTTTOVOSOFTCTVTOVSIUPIOVSOROSVADE MONIUALES 69a Microconidial state, if present, similar to Aspergillus .. +. Chlamydomyces 69b Microconidial state, if present, similar to Verttcillium . . Mycogone 0a Conidiophores single, not clustered; mostly saprophytic. .. 0b Conidiophores clustered; parasitic on leaves... borne singly on short pegs or denticles at or near apex of conidiophore........+ borne successively at pointed apex of conidiophore.............. Trichothecium ‘7a Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia obovate to oblong coe: Arthrobotrys 72b Conidiophores short; conidia cylindrical to clavate .......... - Dactylaria 73a Conidia cylindrical, often in short chains .. sesseseeesseeseesesesesees Rammularia 73b Conidia ovoid to oblong, not catenulate .. paneeeensesereeretad Didymaria ‘74a Conidia long, cylindrical, often bent or curved; aquatic . 74 Conidia shorter or not cylindrical; aquatic or not ....... 75a Conidiophores branched near apex; conidia I- or few-celled...............Flagellospora 75b Conidiophores simple; conidia single, apical...........+++ssssse+eese+e+++ Anguillospora ia 2- to several-celled, phragmosporous, not branched ..... 76b Conidia branched, staurosporous ... Tia Causing dermatomycoses of man or animals 77 Saprophytic or parasitic on plants .......-+e0+++ Trichophyton -Microsporum 78a Macroconidia clavate, rounded at apex ‘78 Macroconidia spindle-shaped to ellipsoid ..... 79a Macroconidia typically curved, pointed (canoe-shaped), small conidia usually also present 3 79 Other than in macroconidia, not canoe-shaped.. Fusarium 80a Conidiophores short, mostly simple or with few branches 80b Conidiophores tall, simple or branched .. 81a_Conidia cylindrical, mostly straight, or slightly curved......... 81b Conidia ellipsoid or long attenuated... 82a Conidia catenulate; conidiophores clustered sesseeseeeses Septocylindrium 82b Conidia not catenulate (sympodulospores); conidiophores single ...... Scolecobasidium 82c Conidia not catenulate (phialospores); conidiophores single .............Cylindrocarpon 83a Conidia ellipsoid, rounded at apex... «. Fusoma 83b Conidia cylindrical to filiform. 7 - u B 2 108 0 410 40 0 8 16 138 140 6 6 4130 81 85 82 83, 128 a4 130 16 8416 KEY TO GENERA 84a Conidium with apical appendage 84b Conidia without appendages .. sesseseses Spermospora sseseseese Cercosporella 85a Conidiophores mostly simple, seldom branched .... 85b Conidiophores typically branched...... 86a Parasitic on grasses 86d Saprophytic or parasitic on nematode cesses Pyricularia 87a Middle cell of conidium greatly enlarged : - Monacrosporium 876 Middle cell only slightly or not at all enlarged...... 88a Conidia ovoid to clavate to cylindrical ..........2.. - Dactylaria 88> Conidia fusiform to cylindrical........ Seceerereenn eee - Dactylella 89a Branches of conidiophore (phialides) verticillate. + Dactylium 89b Conidiophores terminating in penicilliate branches . + Cylindrocladium 90a True staurosporous conidia formed 905 No true conidia known; “conidial” branches fort structure, similar to a loosly formed sclerotium. 1B a well defined globose or conical seseese Cristulariella 91a Conidiophores reduced, not evident....... -. Thallospora 91b Conidiophores distinct, well formed, length variable .... 92a Conidial branches not greatly divergent . 92b Conidial branches widely divergent .. 93a Conidial branches typically 2-pronged ..... 93b Conidial branches typically 3-pronged 94a Central cell of cor 94b Central cell of cor 9a Conidia pyriform or clavate, with 3 slender branches... -- Clavariopsis 95b Conidia with central globose cell and 4 to 5 slender branches. .............. Actinospora 9c Conidia with 3 to 4 broad cells in main axis and 2 to 4 slender appendages.......... 96a Conidial appendages attenuated, pointed. .. . seceesees Ingoldia 96b Conidial appendages not distinctly attenuated sess Culicidospora 97a Conidia borne on phialides or phialide-like branches of the conidiophore 97 Conidia borne otherwise .......... 98a Conidium with elongated axis and 2 lateral branches arising side by side... Alavospora 98b Conidium with 4 divergent branches arising near base of conidium Lemonniera 128 128 86 95 128 87 ug 88 0 128 130 108 a "4 142 92 93 138 140 95 97 140 140 96 138 140 98, 99, 142 138 22224 02222442244244 444 £42442284842842402 644 08 24000828TEV TVS CCT T TTT TT TT TSCTTVITTTVIVVY VT VOCCTCOHDO9O8OOD: 998 99b 1002 100 1014 101b 102a 102 103a 103b 104a 104 MONIUIALES ‘Conidial branches formed one at a time .. Conidial branches formed simultaneously... Conidial branches 4 or more Conidial branches 3 or less eimeneee Tetracladium ‘Main axis of conidium broader than branches ‘Main axis of conidium about the same width as branches w..cussrsarnm ‘Number of branches variable mostly arising from one side of main axis .. Conidial branches dendroid, not limited to one side of main axis . Varicosporium sm Dendrospora Trictadium 1 Triscelophorus Conidial branches arising from different levels. Conidial branches arising from base of central axis wr s. Anticulaspora snens Tetrachaetumn ‘Conidial branches arising from near apex of main axis ‘Two conidial branches arising about midway of slender axis, DEMATIACEAE 1054 105 105¢ 105d 106 1066 1072 107 1076 107d 1088 108b 109a 109 1100 Conidia typically 1-celled Conidia typically 2-celled wnenemnnne Conidia typically 3- oF more-celled phragmospores. Conidia typically 3- or more-celled dietyospores.. ‘Conidiophores absent or, if present, often poorly developed, consisting of 10 feW CelI5 senrern Conidiophores mostly tall and well developed, cells distinct from conidi simple or branched smn Blastospores bome directly on sides of mycelium, budding freely .. Aureobasidium Dark globose cells of the mycelium breaking up to form 1- to several-celled segments; conidiophorelike structures may also be present svn Conidia appearing as blastospores, not budding, broadly ovoid to lenticular, with a hyaline slit on one side ‘Conidia other than blastospores, not normally budding; conidiophore cells, usually distinct but shoTt 4... Torula swneee Papularia Conidiophores extending slightly in length; conidia formed as meristem arthrospores .. Conidia other than arthrospores . Conidia formed as aleuriospotes nn Conidia formed as phialospores, sympodulospores, or annellospores Conidia globose 7 100 103 101 104 140 102 138 140 138 138 142 140 106 145 156 184 107 122 70 "4 108 2 109 110 114 mi18 110b ia 111d Ile Id 12a 112 13a 113b 13c 4a lab 114e 114d 15a, 115b 115e 16a 6b 16c 17a 17 17e 18a 118 18c 1198 19b 120a 120 KEY TO GENERA, Conidia ellipsoid or pointed at apex ..... Conidia black and shiny, borne sinly, aie ona special flat hyaline cell : . Nigrospora Conidia apical, brown, not on a flat special cell ... Humicola Coniiophore reduced to one cei conidia singe, with ae germ pore ‘on one side . tae eaeeeeeees. ssereees Gilmaniella Conidia ingle 0 on short branch; no germ pore evident; dark setae present. .-Botryotrichum Conidia rough-walled, pointed at apex..... .-Echinobotryum Conidia smooth-walled, ellipsoid........ Conidiophores short, hyaline, repeatedly branched sesesees Wardomyces Conidiophore branches few; conidia borne on slender stalks ssessessAsteromyces Conidiophore branches few; conidia sessile; germ slit evident on one side... Mammaria Conidiophores separate; sympodulospores hyaline, somewhat curved ........... Idriella Conidiophores compacted into sromabike layers; sympodulospores dark, pointed at apex . : -» Fusicladium Conidiophores compacted into stromalike rs annellospores dark, pointed at apex . cee ---Spilocaea Conidia formed as phialospores.. Conidia slightly curved, narrowly cllipsoid; simple curved setae present. . Circinotrichum Conidia slightly curved, narrowly cllipsoid; branched, curved setae present... Gyrothrix Conidia ovoid to rod-shaped; no setae present .. Conidia with slender appendage at cach end; coni «+ Menispora Conidia with slender appendage at each end; coni -- Codinae Conidia without appendage ...... Conidia ovoid, hyaline to dark, often in chains, not in heads Monilochaetes Conidia mostly ovoid, in small slimy heads, not catenulate.... er Conidia rod-shaped, with blunt ends, litle or no slime, often present in long chains .. Phialides often with enlarged base with flaring collar; conidia hyaline ...... Phialophora Phialides slender, collar not noticeably flared; conidia hyaline............... Chloridium Phialides slender, collar not flaring; conidia dark. ceeeeesese Gliomastixe Dark chlamydospores present. No dark chlamydospores present. Chlamydospores nearly globose, mostly single .........s.ecleseesesseesees Chalaropsis Chlamydospores formed in a row, breaking up into single cells... - Thielaviopsis 112 82 84 8 a4 13. 84 84 84 102 412 121 92 aaa 224 4242444444444444448484824864682448880468008008SITCHTCTSSTSTSTCSOVPVP9T FGF SOV P9HHVHHHOHHHHHDHOH9OHH8HHO9OOOO: W2Ia 121b 12a 1228 123, 123 (24a 124 124e 1258 1256 125 126 126 127a 127 12 18a 128b 1298 129 129¢ 1308 130b 13ta 131b 1328 132b 133 133b MONIUALES Dark, simple, pointed setae present ... « Chaetochalara No setae present .... Chalara Conidia, sympodulospores, formed on new growing points on conidiophores ...... Conidia formed in other ways, not sympodulospores......... Conidiophores simple. Conidiophores branched Apex of conidiophores enlarged, rounded, bearing numerous hyaline conidia on short ‘sporogenous cells . Basidiobotrys Conidiophores pointed at apex; conidia hyaline, ovoid, attached at tip and sides of conidiophores....... sess« Rhinocladiella Conidia obconic, pointed at apex, dark . see Beltrania Conidiophore branches or phialides borne on side of conidiophore.. Branches of conidiophore confined to area near apex ... Branches of conidiophores irregular... .-...-sscssssees Branches in whorls; conidia somewhat curved . Conidia in unbranched chains, rod-shaped ‘Selenosporella Sympodiella Branches loosely arranged; conidia dark, without slime Conidiophores repeatedly branched; branches compact; conidia hyaline in slime heads... sesseseseeess Verticicladiella Conidiophores repeatedly branched near apex; conidia not borne in slime heads.. seseseses Periconiella «+ Verticieladium Conidia borne on somewhat enlarged branch tips cesseees Nodulosporium borne on elongated fertile portion of conidiophore branches. Conik Conidiophores with main axis and numerous lateral branches; conidia dark... Conoplea Main axis of conidiophore not evident; conidia hyaline, symmetric. ++ Geniculosporium Main axis of conidiophores not evident; conidia dark, asymmetric seees Virgaria Cori blastospores or appearing to be produced as such .... Other than in conidia, not blastospores ......... Conidia hyaline .......... enna enneeteeeer Conidia dark.........+5 ee eeneereeereeeeee ene Dark special cells (falcs) bearing sporogenous cells .. « Zygosporium Without dark fales on conidiophores........+.ss+0sesse++ -+. Haplographium Dark pointed setae present.....esssssesee+ Seeeenneserceerereres Without dark setae....... 100 404 104 126 127 128 102 108 104 104 104 100 129 102 100 100 131 136 132 133, 72 134 13520 1340 134 135a 135b 135c 1360 1360 1374 137 1382 138b 138¢ 1398 139 140 140b I4la 141b 1422 1426 142¢ 143 KEY TO GENERA, Coni Lacellinopsis Conidiophores with slender apical Cells wren - svvone Lacellina Conidia borne on inflated cells ... Conidia borne on inflated cells at apex and intercalary cells of conidiophores .. Conidia bore in acropetal chains of variable size and with scars Periconia Conidia (phialophores) borne at apex of conidiophores.... Conidia not phialospores .... Conidiophores simple, unbranched Conidiophores branched... Conidia in moist (slimy) heads... Conidia in dry chains; apex of conidiophores not enlarged ..... Conidia in dry chains; apex of conidiophores enlarged, rounded Stachybotrys Memnoniella Aspergillus Branches of conidiophores lateral; conidiophores with sterile apex Conidiophore branches clustered at or near apex, without sterile apex Conidia ovoid; phialides dark... Conidia oblong, cylindrical; phialides hyaline ... Gonytrichum « Chaetopsina Conidiophores hyaline; few conidia large, dark, lemon-shaped Conidiophores dark; other than in conidia... w= Phialomyces Conidia rod-shaped, clongate with blunt ends, catenulate .» Phialocephala Conidia elongate fusoid, ends pointed Thysanophora Conidia ovoid, not catenulate Stachylidium Conidia formed as meristem asthrspors cor thick dark Septa enn Conidia and conidiophores not as above Arthrinium Conidia annellospores, conidia in slime heads Conidia aleuriospores; Conidiophore simple with wo dak conidia at apex . Conidia aleuriospores;conidiophoresiregulatly branched. .. Leptographivn swonenn Microclavia . Staphylotrichum Conidia catenulate Conidia not catenulate .. Conidiophores simple, tall, segmenting into rod-shaped arthrospores . Conidia formed in acropetalous unbranched chains (blastospores) . Conidia formed in branched chains, single-celled conidia also Preset (blastospores) . Conidia formed 25 rows of dark chlamydospores (aluriospores) . Ampuliferina Bispora Cladosporium . Trichocladiumn 78 78 74 78 106 137 443 138 139 88 94 140 M1 80 80 146 147 106 106 106 8 2244444444444 4424444444 2444424080082242408280080880080088080'VPETCTTFITTTCTTTGTTCSTTOPTTSOVITTOTVTF ODT OOO VOVHOVOOODOOORD: MONIUALES 1462 Conidia formed as lateral branches through pores (porospores) .......... Diplococcium 147a_ Conidiophores clustered on surface or breaking out from stroma... 147 Other than in conidiophores, mostly single .. 1482 Conidiophores wavy, in loose clusters on surface of leaves . arising from within leaf . seeeeeees Polythrineium 1492 Conidia on stroma, with apical, rounded cells . Asperisporium 149 Conidia on stroma, apical cell pointed . 150a_ Conidiophores very short, on flat stroma. 150 Conidiophores tall ......-.- I51a_ Conidia annellospores ... 151b Conidia sympodulospores. . +++ Spilocoea Fusicladium sesseseeeees Passalora sessenesssseeees Seolecotrichumn 152aConidiophores branched ... 152 Conidiophores unbranched .... 153a Conidiophores simple... 1836 Conidiophores branched ........-.++ . Scolecobasidium -+++Cordana . Spadicoides 1544 Conidiophores short, stout, composed usually of I or 2 cells . 154 Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia clustered at apex ... 154¢ Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia formed from lateral pores .. 155a Branches restricted to apical area where radiating sporogenous cells form. cesses Pseudobotrytis 155b Several lateral branches of conidiophores end in sterile apical point ......... Chaetopsis 155¢ Conidiophore branches short, irregular, on short conidiophore..... +++. Balanium 156a Conidia endogenous; conidiophore with a single swollen, terminal phialide oe co Sporoschisma 156b Conidia exogenous; other than in conidiophores ... 157a Conidiophores typically branched ........+4+0+62++ 157 Conidiophores typically simple, rarely branched ........ 158a_Conidial chains basipetal, conidia not truly end to end .. -»Fusariella 158b Conidial chains acropetal, conidia truly end to end...... Septonema 1592 Conidia slender, much longer than wide Peeeeeerer -. Cladosporiella 159b Conidia much broader, usually length not 3 to 4 times width... 40a Conicia with very thick wall, formed by expansion of apical conidiophore ; srevesesees Muurogenella 2 ud 148, 153, u2 149 un 150 151 4152 106 2 wz u2 154 155 ud 42 u4 106 106 130 157 158 159 130 16 92 160 422 160 16la 161b 1628 162b 162c 1632 163b 164a 164d 165 165b 16a 166b 1672 167 168 168b 168. 1698 169b 170a 170 0c Ma 1b 12a 172 Ia KEY TO GENERA Conidia formed distinct from conidiophore cells ........... peers Conidiophores clustered or fascicled .... Conidiophores single, separate . Conidiophores in tall fascicles...........+4 +++ Phragmocephala Conidiophores in small, compact cushion-shaped structures. ++ Cercosporidium Conidiophores clustered at base; upper portion divergent ... Conidiophores short, bearing annellospores .. sessesesess Stigmnina Conidiophores tall, showing sympodial growth, Conidia dark, oblong Conidia long, slender, hyaline... Heterosporium »- Cercospora Conidiophores short, consisting of } to few cells, or absent. Conidiophores tall, typi lly consisting of several cells Conidia of two kinds, dark phragmospores, and lighter scolecospores.......... Dark phragmospores only . Conidia in acropetalous chains . Cor ssssesess PSeudotorula not in chains .. cesses Dwayabeeja Conidia botryoblastospores ...... Cephaliophora .- Deightoniella Conidia annellospores Conidia aleuriospores . Conidia much longer than broad... Conidia not much longer than broad... Conidia long-cylindrical, separating cell at ti evident . of conidiophore Camposporium Conidia somewhat broader at middle, apical cell attenuated or hooked; no separating call... - Ceratophorum Conidia long, broadest at middle. narrowed toward each end; no separating cell Clasterosporium Conidia rounded. nearly globose (may appear asa chain of chlamydospores).... +. Trichocladieun Conidia broadly ellipsoid. phragmospores and dictyospores may be present. sesoseees Pithomyees Conidiophores determinate. not clongating with successive conidial formation Conidiophores indeterminate. elongating after each successive conidial formation . Conidia produced through pores at sides of conidiophores ............6..+ Spaudicoides 163 120 164 12 128 166 172 167 168 16 6 6 ug 169 170 m 6 HB ue us 4132 173 174 a4 2020222442444 24 22444444444 4448444 2244448848808 88'PIVTTTTTTTCOPTGTVSO SV TUSCVUTVIVPTTSOSOPOTPVGP SOT FOOVOVOGDOOOOOOO 173b I73c 1734 14a 14b° 1758 175 16a 176 1Ma i) 18a 178b 179 179 1808 180b Ista, 181b 1820 182b 183 183b 183¢ 1840 184b 185a 185d 1860 186b MONILIALES Conidia apical, single, several-celled, parasitic on leaves .........+s+.++.+++ Corymespora Conidia apical, several-celled, saprophytic. Sporidesmium Conidia apical, 3- to 5-celled, saprophytic - Endophragmia Conidiophores proliferating at apex, leaving annulate scars . Conidiophores elongating sympodially . Conidia narrowed or pointed at apex Anneliophora . Endophragmia Conidia mostly ovoid with rounded apex Conidia with 1 to 4 slender hyaline appendages ... sss Pleiochaeta Conidia without appendages .......s+sssssssseesessstssssesesseessecessesencscseeseesees Conidia in apical clusters or heads Conidia not confined to apex of conidiophore Conidia borne on slender pedicels........+..se+es005 sesesesees Brachysporium Conidia not borne on slender pedicels......ssessesssesesstscssessssseseeseeesesessersees Conidia hyalinc...essccssersssrsessseerseenssee socseeseseeeseeses Pleurothecium Conidia dark......... Conidia borne on short hyaline projection through apex of ConidIOpHOFE....eseseesssrssesreereesereesesceeenersesterereessesees Cacumisporium Conidia borne near apex but not on special cell of conidiophore ....... Pleurographium Conidia distinctly narrowed at both ends... CConidia straight or only slightly narrowed, ends rounded Conidia porospores, borne in whorls on cells of straight, simple conidiophores. -. Helminthosporium Conidia sympodulospores... - Nakataea Conidia catenulate ....sssscssecesseteseeresssreseeteatesesensnersersseess Dendryphion Conidia not catenulate, usually 4-celled, bent by enlargement of one of middle cells ... Conidia not catenulate, several-celled, straight or slightly curved . 5 Curvularia (Conidia calenuiate weesemmteertnetenaneststsrsrereretansnrrsrarerreresturetnraes Conidia not catenulate.......scsscsssscsesesessseerersseeteseeseneseesess Conidial development basipetal .......-. . Coniosporium Conidial development acropetal. - Alernaria Conidium with large swollen apical cell ......sssssecssscesseeeesesesessseses Acrospeira Apical cell of conidium not distinctly swollen .........ssesessesesseeereeeeeees 23 120 120 U8 175, 176 8 8 128 7 178 181 126 179 126 180 124 126 182 183 124 128 14 122 esses Drechslera, Bipolaris 122, 126 185 186 434 4132 132 18724 1878 187 188a 188b 189a 1896 190a 190b 19ta 191b I9le 1928 192b 193a 193b 194a 194 195 195 1962 196b 196c 1978 197 1988 198b 199 199 199¢ 200a 200b 20la KEY TO GENERA Conidiophores well developed, usually longer than conidia..........« Conidiophores poorly developed or none ........ Conidia apical, single ...........sesseeseeeeee Conidia appearing apical and lateral due to growth of conidiophore .. Conidia sharply attenuated at apex ..-.2...2..cceceececeeeeeeeeeeseneetees Alternaria Conidia somewhat narrower or not at apex... Conidia subglobose, ovoid, or broadly ellipsoid ......... - Stemphylium Conidia elongate, straight to flexuous ...........scssessessseessseseeeserees Sirosporium Conidia with 4 cells, cross-shaped Dictyoarthrinium Conidia several celled, not cross-shaped, broadly elliptical, ends rounded... Ulocladium Conidia several-celled, narrowly elliptical, ends pointed +» Dactylosporium Conidiophores single, not clustered .... Conidiophores clustered, often into a loose sporodochiumlike structure .. On living leaves, parasitic . Stigmella Saprophytic in soil or humus . sence «- Pithomyces Conidia globose to subglobose . .» Epicoccum Conidia very large, oblong to obovoid o .- Borkleasmium Branches of conidium upright, parallel, or slightly divergent................00.0000e0e00e Branches of conidium upright or lateral, widely divergent . Conidial branches connected ceeeeeneee - Dietyosporium Conidial branches separate; conidia catenulate or produced successively s-++++ Ceratosporella Conidial branches separate; conidia apical, single ...... - Speiropsis Conidiophores present, distinct, length variable ........2...00. Conidiophores absent or reduced to short pegs... Conidia (aleuriospores) apical, single. Triposporium Conidia (sympodulospores) apical on new sympodial growing points. .... Diplocladiella Conidia with 2 to 3 straight or curved upright horns cite Conidia with 3 to 4 basal cells, each attenuated above............ Tetraploa Conidia with 4 to 5 divergent arms at wide angles sees Tripospermum Parasitic om leaves ......2..000+ esesesHirudinaria Saprophytic, mostly on wood Ceratosporium Conidiophores united into sporodochia (Tuberculariaceae). Sporodochia may be poorty formed in culture; some species may be similar in appearance to Melanconiaies ....... 150 s34 196 197 144 444 142 198 19 148 H2 200 wa wz 4 4 202 22222 22224444424442444 444244804444 448448084282280888028086CCTCVVTVTVTV VV TT VZFT VT FTV FO VTFTTITTTTOVVVUTTTVVTIVVFITVVYVVOUVE MONIUALES 201b Conidiophores united into synnemata (Stilbaceae); free conidiophores often also present... TUBERCULARIACEAE 202a Conidia I-celled, hyaline oF dark......scesseseeeseesess 202b Conidia 2-celled, dark. : 202c Conidia typically more than 2-celled, hyaline or dark .... ceeseeteeeneseeeteenseesesseseseessesseseesees Pucciniopsis 2032 Conidia hyaline or brightly colored . 203b Conidia or sporodochia with dark pigment . 204a_Sporodochia stromalike, spreading, on developing grain . - Sphacelia 204b Sporodochia cushion-shaped to discoid, not on grain 205a_ Sporodochia with prominent setae or sterile hairs ........e+4. sess Myrothecium 205b Sporodochia without setae or sterile hairs. 2062 Sporodochia developing in rust pustules on plants sees Tuberculina 208 Sporodochia superficial, not in rust pustules ........++.+ catenulate or in pillarlike masses ... Conidia not catenulate or in pillarlike structures ..........+++. 208a Conidia hyaline or yellowish in mass . - Sphaerosporium 208b Conidia usually greenish in mass 209a Conidiophores and conidia in tall columnar aggregates ............+++ 209b Conidiophores and con Metarrhizium in slimy masses or loose colurnns ..............Myrothecium 210a Sporodochia discoid, flattened .. eo cesescesessees Hymenella 210b Sporodachia cushion-shaped to hemispherical .. 21a Conidiophores verticillately branched ......+.+.+s+ses+sseesseeseessee++ Dendrodochium 211b Conidiophore branching irregular. 212a On wood or bark . 212b On leaves... sesseseseseseesseevsseess Tubereularia -Mosporium 213a On scale insects .... seve Aegerita 213b Not on scale insects . 24a Sporodochia erumpent from leaves .....-...e++00+ 214b Sporodochia superficial on bark or wood .. sesteteseseseeeses Hadrotrichum -- Strumella 21Sa_ Conidia hyaline or brightly colored .......+sesesseeseeesseseesseseneeeseseeneess 25 225 203 148 215 213 146 au 146 212 146 146 150 214 146 146 21626 KEY TO GENERA 215b Conidia with dark pigment. aoe 2162 Conidia large, cylindrical to ellipsoid; yellowish in mass...... +» Bactridium 216 Conidia slender, hyaline in mass .. ceemenneaeeee peeeeeeeeerees 217a Macroconidia canoe-shaped; I-celled conidia also may be present... «Fusarium 217 Conidia curved but not canoe-shaped .........sssseseee+ « Ramulispora 218a Conidia branched or lobed... 218b Conidia not branched or lobed........+.sssecseessersees ae 2192 Conidia with short, compact upright branches . Cheiromyces 219b Conidia 4-lobed, cross-shaped - Spegazzinia 220a Conidia (dictyospores) muriform : 2200 Conidia (phragmospores) 3- to several-celled . - 22la_Conidia globose to subglobose .. Epicoccum 221b Conidia broadly cylindrical to ovoid, very large - Berkleasmium 22a Sporodochia without setae. peers pee 222b Sporodochia with dark setae seteseesseese Bxcipularia 23a Conidiophores arising from special enlarged cells ..... seeeseesses Camptomeris 2236 Conidiophores not arising from special enlarged cells . seseseess Bactrodesmium ‘STILBACEAE 25a Not parasitic (or saprophytic) on insects or spiders penne 225 Parasitic (and probably saprophytic) on insects or spiders..........e-+0++ 2264 Conidia I-celled........e.se0e 226b Conidia 2- or more-celled 27a Conidia hyaline .......ssceseseecsesteessesceeeseessessressussnesisssesseeaeeaueeveene 227 Conidia dark.. : 2284 Conidiogenous portion of synnemata located or near apex in more or less globose head ...... ae “ 228b Conidiogenous portion of synnemata elongate to cylindrical .........0..esscccsssseseeee 229a Head composed of loosely arranged conidiogenous hyphae 229) Head composed of compact conidiogenous hyphae . Pome 218 18 217 130 148 219 220 4150 150 221 223 150 134 223 148 150 150 226 243 227 236 228 233 229 232 230 231 aa enn en ene 2222S 22422262 BLO2AEAAEEAADAABMAAALPOCTVT TTC VV TUTTO TTTTSUOTVUTTUVESTVTVUTTTVVIVOTIVTVTOVHUTVVVY( 242 242 2420 243a 243d MONIIALES Head with numerous radiating sterile hyphae . .- Heterocephalum Radiating sterile hyphae not present ......+..e-eses0+ - Tharoopama Stalks of synnemata hyaline......... 5 - Stilbum Stalks of synnemata dark ... Graphium, Pesotum ‘Synnema with tall, central seta. Central seta absent. .. Menisporopsis Harpographium Conidiogenous portion of synnemata confined to compact apical region .......+.+.2+0++ Conidiogenous region cylindrical........ ‘Synnemata funnel-shaped with narrow base... .- Endocalyx - Briosia Synnema slender, uniform, with globose head... Sterile hairs or setae present among conidiophores .. soseeseeesesessees Trlchuerus Sterile hairs not present .. seseses Doratomyces Conidia 2-celled. . Conidia 3- or more-celled . ‘Synnemata and conidia hyaline sessseees Didymostilbe Didymobotryur ‘Synnemata and conidia dark. . Conidiogenous portion of synnema only at or near apex . Conidiogenous portion of synnema longer, cylindrical . Conidial portion in compact, more or less globose heads.......... os Conidial portion with loose conidiophores, not so compact ........s.sessesseseseseseees Conidia with cross walls only (phragmosphores) ..... -Arthrobotryum Conidia with both cross and oblique walls (dictyospores).. Sclerographium Conidial branches at apex, short; conidia pointed at apex Acarocybe Conidiophores in 2 loose fascicle, not branched; conidia pointed at apex ...... Isariopsis Conidiophores compact at base, diverging near apex, conidia rounded at ends . .. Dendrographium Conidia hyaline ...........++ Arthrosporium Conidia dark, borne singly at apex of conidiophore ..........++++e++++++. Podosporium Conidia dark, borne on sympodial conidiophore .........-ssse+seseesseseseeos Spiropes Phialides in globose or wedge-shaped heads seeesesse Gibellula Phialides not in definite heads... 7 152 156 152 152 152 4156 234 235 152 4152 156 454 237 238 154 156 239 242, 240 2at I54 158 158 154 154 454 154 158 160 24428 2440 244b 2450 245b 245 2460 246b 247 2470 1b 2a 2b 2e 3a 3b 4a 4b Sa 3b 6a 6b Ta 7b 8a 8b 9a 9b KEY TO GENERA Phialides short, in compact layer... Phialides usually large, not in compact layer ‘Synnemata cylindrical; phialides obtuse at apex .........0004 Hymenostilbe Insecticola ‘Synnemata clavate; phialides pointed at apex . ‘Synnemata cylindrical to attenuated; phialides pointed .............+1.+, Akanthomyces Phialides elongate, slender; conidia covered with slime Phialides not elongate; conidia dry ... oe Isaria Phialides enlarged at base; conidia not in heads Hirsurella Phialides not enlarged at base; conidia in heads Synnematium SPHAEROPSIDALES Conidia globose to oblong or ellipsoid, not filiform .. Conidia filiform, at least several times longer than wide, I- to several-celled (scolecosporous) . Conidia I-celled. Conidia typically 2-celled ... Conidia typically 3-to severabcelled . Conidia hyaline, or sometimes brightly pigmented in mass .. Conidia with dark pigment, evident at least in mass ..... Pycnidia complete, or with well developed base Pycnidia not complete, with only the upper portion well developed ...... Pycnidia separate, not in stromata «. Pycnidia in stromata, frequently evident only by pycnidial cavities ......+.-+.e+00+ Pycnidia mostly ovoid; parasitic on powdery mildews .. .. Ampelomyces Pycnidia with long beak or neck; not parasiti on powdery mildews... Pycnidial beak short or absent; not parasitic on powdery mildews. Pyenidial walls dark sse+ Sphaeronaema Pyenidial wall hyaline or light colored Pycnidial wall composed of long parallel hyphae ........ Hyalopycnis Pycnidial wall composed of short, angled pseudoparenchymetous cells. . Bleutheromyces Pycnidia breaking open irregularly, without a distinct ostiole... Pycnidia opening by distinct ostioles . ener Pycnidia with dark setae .... 245 246 158 4158 158 247 156 160 160 168 22224222222 OA ADAAEAAAAAMRAAAAADALAAASLAAAAADRALAD:SPCCSCVT TTT FO VTTTTTTTVTVTVUTVTVTVUUTTV FTV VTVTVUTOVUTVUUH'( 10b Ha 1b 1a 120 1a 13b Ma lab 15a 15b 16a 16> Ma 17 18a 18b 19a 190 20 2la 2Ib 2 23b 24a 24 25a 25b ‘SPHAEROPSIDALES Pycnidia without dark setae... Conidia with a slender appendage at each end .. . Dinemasporium Conidia without appendages .. Amerosporium Pycnidia superficial, on surface of substratum... Pycnidia at least partially within substratum ...... Pycnidia soft, leathery, subglobose, not on subiculum . Pycnidia hard, irregular, on subiculum Pycnidia large, resembling sclerotia; conidia ellipsoid. Pycnidia not resembling sclerotia; conidia ovoid to ellipsoid. Catinula - Chaetophoma - Sclerotiopsis Pyenidia fleshy, bright colored when fresh ..... Pycnidia hard, dark... Pycnidia subcortical, on woody twigs . Pycnidia subepidermal, on fleshy tissue or leaves..........+0+ Pycnidia discoid, dehiscing radiately Pyenidia globose, opening at apex Pycnidia on subiculum of radiating hyphae ......... . Asteromella Pycnidia not on subiculum..........ssssseeesseseseseeeesene Conidia of 2 kinds: short-ovoid and long-curved or bent ........+.+.+++++++ Phomopsis Conidia all of one kind ... Conidia typically lunate.............. --Selenophoma -Peyronellaea Conidia ovoid; dark dictyosporous chlamydosphores present . chlamydospores Conidiophores branched .. Conidiophores simple. Conidia with apical appendages........ssssesseseseesesteseesneseenes Bleutherompeella Conidia without appendages + Dendrophoma Conidia with hyaline membraneous appendages.......sssssessesnersesesreseestseensenes Conidia without appendages .......++0.+ Conidial appendage apical, obconical ..........ssssssseesseeeesseseesess Neoltiospora Conidial appendage slender, turned back. +» Anthasthoopa Pycnidia superfici Pycnidia embedded in natural substratum. on natural substratum .. 29 12 i722 172 m2 162 164 19 164 162 164 2 2 2B 168 162 25 166 174 2Bla 3b 32a 32b 33a 33b 35a 35 36a 36b 36 37a 37 38a 38b 39a 39 406 dla KEY TO GENERA Pycnidia tapering below into a short stalk. Rhizosphaera Pycnidia not tapering at base .. -Aposphaeria Conidia longer than 15 microns Macrophoma Conidia 15 microns or shorter . ‘Setae present on pycnidia No setae present on pyci Pyrenochaeta Phyllosticia, Phoma Conidia having one or more apical appendages Conidia without appendages... seseesesesssess Shanoria Conidia with an apical and a basal appendage ........ Conidia with short branched appendages at both ends .. sesseseses Dilophospora Stromata superficial, soft, brightly colored ........+.2++ sesesseseees Aschersonia Stromata subepidermal or subcortical, dark.......++++ - Fusicoccum Conidia fusoid, ends pointed ... Conidia not fusoid, ends rounded .. Cor Conidiophores short, seldom septate pphores tall, slender, septate . Cor Conidia borne apically and laterally on conidiophore . ia borne apically only on conidiophores. . +++ Rabenhorstia cesses Pleurostromella Conidia ovoid to broadly ellipsoid; pycnidial cavaties globose Dothiorella Conidia narrow, ovoid to filiform; pycnidial cavities irregular Conidia mostly filiform, bent or curved = Cytosporina Conidia short, curved . Conidia short, not curved = Cytospora ... Cytosporella Pyenidia shield-shaped, with or without ostiole. Pycnidia flat, opening wide at maturity . Pycnidia borne on a short stalk or column ......2+6+0+ soeeseeresees Aetinopelte Pycnidia without stalk or column . - Leptothyriura Stroma present . + Melasmia Stroma absent . . Leptostroma Pycnidia with prominent dark bristles (Setae).........esss0ese0s - Chaetomella Pycnidia without bristles (setae) ..........-.2.. Pycnidia light colored; conidiophores long, filiform ....... ceeeeee Harknessia 164 162 164 162 162 30 31 472 166 14 32 470 33 35 470 170 166 36 166 470 470 38 39 1 ims I 176 16 41 176 ASABE ADAADADMRADAAAAAAAADAADAADAABADAALAAAEDAAAAD:PCOS TCVTTOTTVIVTTVUTITVVOVFTUTFTTUTTVUVVUTUTVTVTTVTTVYUTUUSY lb 42a 4a Ba 43b 44 45a 45b 46a, 46b ala 47 49a, 49 50a, 50b Sla Sib 52a 5b 53a 53b Sab 55a 55b 55e 56a ‘SPHAEROPSIDALES Pycnidia dark; conidiophores short .... Parasitic on powdery mildews. « Ampelomyces Not parasitic on powdery mildews ‘Stromata embedded in bark or WOOd ........esseccssseeeeseesesees Pycnidia not in stromata « Haplosporella Conidia large, ovoid to elongate Conidia small, globose to ovoid; Conidia small, ovoid; dark dictyosporous chlamydospores present .... - Sphaeropsis « Coniothyrium ++ Peyronellaea jithout dark chlamydospores Conidia hyaline Conidia with distinet dark pigment Pycnidia in rust pustules; parasitic on rusts Not parasitic on rusts . Conidia without appendages ....... Conidia with appendages . Pycnidia in necrotic spots on leaves, etc. .. Pycnidia not in necrotic spots... Pycnidia with dist Rhynchophoma Pycnidia without distinct beaks ......s+essseseeeessees - Diplodina Conidia with an apical awl-shaped unbranched appendage...........+.+++ Kellermannia Conidia with 3 to 4 hyaline appendages at one end.....ssesesssssesseeresesee Robillard, Pycnidia separate, not in stroma .....eessessereseeeesneenees ” Diplodia Pycnidia clustered in stroma .......scsssssessessseseesseeesesseesseeene Botryodiplodia Conidia with transverse septa only (phragmosporous) a Conidia dictyosporous or staurosporous .. Bemeenee Conidia with apical appendages Pee . Conidia without appendages peer Pycnidia flattened; conidia with | appendage at each end ... . Discosia Pycnidia globose; conidia with 3 to 4 appendages ... Bartilinia Pycnidia brightly colored with cushionlike stroma .......ssesseeseesseseres Aschersonia Pycnidia brown or black, without stroma peeeeee Pycnidia dark, in stroma, ra Pycnidia with dark spines near ostiole; conidia hyaline ..... - Aristatoma 31 42 166 43 178 176 176 164 46 st 178 47 48 50 178 49 178 178 v8 18 180 180 53 9 55. 182 182 174 58 18032 6b 56 57a ST 58a 58 59a 59b 60b 61a 61b 62a 62b 62¢ 63a 63b 65a 65b 66a, 66 6a 67 68b 69a 69 70a 70b Ta KEY TO GENERA Pycnidia without spines; conidia hyaline . - Stagonospora Pycnidia without spines; conidia dark when mature Conidia single on conidiophores . Hendersonula Conidia grouped at apex of conidiophores . Prosthemium Conidia dark... - Hendersonia Conidia hyaline ...........8+ Dothistroma Conidia dictyosporous, globose to ellipsoid ......+6..:sseseereee Conidia staurosporous....... Pycnidia within a stroma. wes .. Dichomera Pycnidia not in a stroma... seveeseeses Camarosporium Conidia typically with 4 equal radiating arms .. vee +» Tetranacrium Conidia with 3 to 5 equal arms. .« Prosthemium Pycnidia in dark hard stroma . Pycnidia not in stroma, not gelatinous .. Pycnidia gelatinous or with gelatinous stroma... Conidia I-celled, bent or curved Conidia several-celled, long, cylindrical, straight.......-.-.- --- Cytosporina - Dothistroma Pycnidia clavate or with long beak Pycnidia globose or flattened .. peeeeerereeese Conidia hyaline, I- 10 2-celled, filiform-fusoid « Sphaerographium Conidia dark, several-celled, elongate . Perret s+ Cornularia Pycnidia with distinct ostiole........ Pycnidia opening by wide mouth or slit ... Conidia pigmented, yellow to light brown. Phaeoseptoria Conidia hyaline... Pycnidia in necrotic spots on leaves, CIC. .........seeeeneee we seeee, Pycnidia not in necrotic spots ... Rhabdospora Pycnidia with setae near ostiole ...........5 .» Chaetoseptoria Pycnidia without setae ......-csceceseesseesseesseessseerseeeesecsteesseseneess Septoria Conidia I-celled, bent or curved. Phlyctaena Conidia several-celled, straight or curved. Pycnidia flattened, irregular, opening by a slit; conidia not segmenting .. Leptostromella 180 37 180 186 184 180 61 186 186 182 186 63 nD 166 180 65 66 184 186 188 182 186 n 184 22022222 22442082024202024444260442802 0682022020220 822282080488)CPOCVCT TTT VET FO VU TUTE VUOVTUZ TUT TU TUUUTVTUTVUVTUTETVUUTUUUY! nb Ta 72 Ta 73b Tha 74 ib Ic Id 2a 2 3b 4a 4b Sa 5b 6b Ta oy 8a 8b 8c 9a 9% 10a SPHAEROPSIDALES Pyenidia globose or cupulate, opening by a wide mouth..........+s+e+.+++++ Phleospora Conidia |-celled; stroma smutlike, on grass +++ Ephelis Conidia several-celled; stroma not smutlike, on wood or bark. Stroma elongate, stalked .. s++e+-Chondropodium Stroma rounded to irregular, not stalked ....... Stromal tissue waxy .... seseeesss Micropera +++ Gelatinosporium Stromal tissue carl inous MELANCONIALES Conidia |-celled, short, not filiform Conidia 2-to several-celled, not filiform, didymosporous or phragmosporous .... ‘Conidia filiform, 1- to several-celled. Conidia dictyosporous or staurosporous Conidia with distinct dark pigment. Melanconium Conidia hyaline Conidia produced laterally on conidiophore.. Catenophora Conidia produced apically on conidiophore . Conidia with apical, hyaline branched appendages ..........s.csssesseesee Pestalozziella Conidia without appendages .....+..ssesssecssessecsesssessesssecsssseesssesssnesseeses Dark setae present in acervulls .......0.ceseeseescseseeseesee - Colletotrichurn Dark setae absent .. eee Conidiophores arising from a stromalike base.........+c0.0 -. Sphaceloma ‘Stromalike base absent or poorly developed.......+sssssss+cssisseseese++ Glocosporium Conidia 2-celled, didymospores ........ Conidia 3- to several-celled, phragmospores... Conidia unequally 2-celled, hyaline, without appendages .... Marssonina Conidia equally 2-celled, hyaline, with one appendage at each end .... Mycoleptodiscus Conidia typically 2-celled, dark, with basal appendages eves Polynema Conidia hyaline .. wee - Septogloeum Conidia with distinct dark pigment. All cells of conidia dark...... seteseeeseessseeeersneseseecscsserssess COnyneUum 33 186 184 2 186 14 182 18234 1ob Ha Hb He Va 12b 13a 13b Ma Mb 15a 15b 16a 16b tb 2a 2b KEY TO GENERA End cells of conidia hyaline, middle cells dark, Single beaklike appendages at apex of conidia .. cesses Monochaetia ‘With 2 to 3 appendages at apex of conidia setensesessenee eee Pertalotia Conidia with single apical and basal appendages ... -- Seimatosporium Saprophytic on wood or bark... pereseeeerestt Libertella Parasitic on leaves ...... Conidia becoming septate. Conidia remaining I-celled . -- Cylindrosporium -- Cryptosporium Conidia dictyosporous; some phragmospores may be present .. Conidia straurosporous . Cor Co catenulate ...... +» Phragmotrichum - Steganosporium not catenulate .. Conidia hyaline tinct dark pigment sess Entomosporium Conidia with sessses Asterosporium MYCELIA STERILIA Entire “conidiophore” (except stalk) closely branched, forming a globose or pyramidal yeproduetive coed Lanne dark sclerotia in culture and often on leaves . -Cristulariella Conidiophorelike structures absent. Sclerotia variable in form, pale to dark brown or black; usually formed on loosely woven, dark hyphae ... . Rhizoctonia Sclerotia rounded, variable in size, black; myc Sclerotium Dark brown bulbils or small clusters of compact cells present; hyphae becoming dark brown. .......s.cse0e0s sesesesessPapulospora 4192 192 192 190 13 192 190 15 16 194 194 194 194 4 196 196 196 aan een eee eee eee See 2S 2S 2282244024288 24 828282244224 88)PITT VF VTC VT VUVT FTV FTTVVUVUUTTTVVUVUTTUTVUVVUTTVUTUVUVVUTUUY! 3a 3b 3d 4a 4b 4c 4d Sa 5b 6b Ta 7 8a 8b 9a SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA Having characteristics of the Mucorales; coenocytic mycelium and sporangioles that segment or otherwise appear as conidia . Having septate mycelium and other characteristies of the imperfect fungi...... Conidiophores (sporangiophores) unbranched except near apex where loose heads of dark spores are Borne ......essessee ‘Choanephora Conidiophores (sporangiophores) unbranched, bearing an sical cluster of elongate sporangioles that break up into I-celled spores ... sees Syncephalastrum Conidiophores (sporangiophores) very slender, dichotomously branched, bearing a cluster of slender sporangioles that segment into short rod-shaped spores... Piptocephalis Conidiophores distinct although short or reduced to pegs in some genera; conidia typically I-celled, occasionally 2-celled eeeeeeren Conidiophores distinct or reduced to pegs; conidia ypicaly ane predominately with 2 or more CellS.....e.cees Conidiophores indefinite or absent; conidia rod-shaped with truncate nds, formed by fragmentation of the mycelium. Geotrichum No true conidiophores or conidia present; reproduction by sclerotia or similar structures.......c.cesessesees Conidiophores contained within a pycnidium . Conidiophores compacted into an acervulus or sporodochium in nature, but aye evident as loosely arranged structure in culture... Conidiophore stalks compacted into synnemata. Conidiophores separate, not tightly clustered in any manner Pycnidia separate, not in a stroma ... Pycnidia embedded in a stroma.........+. Conidia relatively large, with dark pigment ++ Sphaeropsis Conidia small, hyaline, no pigment present... pooner Conidiophores with a few upright branches .........se++0+ .-Dendrophoma Conidiophores short, simple, unbranched ....... «+s Phoma or Phyllosticta Pycnidia formed as irregular cavities in a stroma; conidia small ... = Cytospora Dothiorella Pycnidia rounded, regular; conidia large ...... Conidia held together in moist, slimy masses........se000 35 66 6636 9b 10a 10b 10c ia Mb 2b 0 Ba 13b Ia 14b 15a Ib 16a 16> Wa 1b 18a 18b I8e 19a 19 20a 20b 2la 2Ib 22a SIMPUFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA Conidia dry, without slime . Conidia with dark pigment, more evident in mass... -. Melanconium Conidia hyaline; dark setae present .......ssesseeereeees . Colletotrichum Conidia hyaline; setae absent....... Gloeosportum ‘On leaves, twigs, or fruit; conidia dark, with pointed apex. ssvssee Spilocaea ‘On wood or bark; conidia hyaline, ovoid.. sess Tubercularia Both stalks or synnemata and conidia hyali ia dark Stalks of synnemata dark; conidia hyaline .. Both stalks of synnemata and coni Graphium, Pesotum Conidia held in moist, slimy heads . =» Stilbum Conidia in dry clusters, not slimy ......+. Isaria Conidial heads rounded, ovoid to subglobose; parasitic on buds of Azalea or Rhododendron . Ens : soe Briosia Conidial portion elongated, usually narrowed at apex and base, saprophytic . fo . Doratomyces Conidiophores branched or bearing a cluster of branches or phialides near or at (he apex Conidiophores typically simple or only occasionally branched. .. Conidia remaining together in chains of two or more Conidia not remaining together in chains ...... Conidia acropetal, with youngest at the apex of chain... Conidia basipctal, with the youngest at the base of chain... ..s+.sse00e Conidia dark, variable in shape, ovoid, lemon-shaped to oblong, mostly I-celled, some may be 2- to 3-celled....... Conidia dark, uniformly globose, and I-celled s+» Cladosporium Periconia Monilia Conidia hyaline, uniformly ovoid to short cylindrical... Conidiogenous cells (phialides) borne on apex or swollen apex of conidiophores cose Aspergillus Conidiogenous cells borne on slender branches, not on swollen apex of conidiophore ... Conidiogenous cells bearing annulate scars of previous conidia. -Scopulariopsis Annulate scars not present on conidiogenous cells... Conidiogenous cells (phialides) closely arranged in a brushlike head......... Penicillium Conidiogenous cells divergent, not in a close head. . Paecilomyces Conidia in small clusters held together by slime ... 190 188 188 106 146 13 14 4152 152 156 152 454 16 26 ” 18 19 106 "4 RQ 94 98 ai 94 23 222422222222 OOOOH AAAAAAAAAAMAABAADALCOCO T VTEC FTC FTTVZUT TFT FTTVFTTVZUTTTTVVUSUUUTTVUTVVUVGVTUSTVYUUIUUY! 2b Ba 23 24d 25a 25 26a 26b 2 28a 28 29a 29 30b 3la 3ib 32a 32 320 Ba 33b 34a 34b 35a 35b 36a SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA Conidia dry, not held in slime . Conidiophore branches verticillate, often 3 or more branches arise from the same level... a sees Verticilium Conidiophore branches irregular, not verticillate .... «Trichoderma Conidia formed successively at apex of conidiophore, which continues to elongate... aa sore Nodulosporium Conidia formed in a head on the more or less swollen apex of the 1 conidiophor. Apical sporogenous ell of conidiophore or branches stanly enlarged, globose ........2..+5 oo Apical conitiogenous portion and branches distinctly enlarged, svn, or club-shaped ....... ‘sis+s Chromelosporium Conidia (chlamydospores, ateurospores) terminal, single, globose.........0. Conidia otherwise. « Botrytis: Conidia black, shiny, smooth, peeereeeree +++ Nigrospora Conidia with yellow pigment, rough-walled ... «. Sepedonium Parasitic on plants, conidial states of powdery mildews. ... = Oidium Not conidial states of powdery mildews Conidiophores indeterminate, apex elongating as new conidia are produced. Conidiophores determinate, not elongating as new conidia are produced . Conidiogenous potion of conidiophore zigzag, longing to appear rachislike ........... teeta: “ Beauveria Conidiogenous portion of conidiophore limited, not rachistte Sporothrix: Conidia produced simultaneously on swollen apex of conidiophore ..... Oedocephalum Conidia produced single or successively at apex of conidiophore or phialide. Conia exogenous, ovoid to globose, bone singly or in pais ona dark hook (ae) of conidiophore.... tenes ++e+ Zygosporium Conidia endogenous, rod-shaped, often catenulate; no fales present . Chalara Conidia ovoid to globose, held together in small apical clusters by slime; fales absent ... Conidiophores or phialides slender, hyaline ... Cephalosporium Conidiophores or phialides slender or somewhat inflated, with some dark pigment. Conidiophores tall, slender, uniform in width . Chloridium Phialophora Conidiophores short or sometimes absent, often somewhat inflated Conidia typically and uniformly 2-celled, seldom with fewer or more cells Conidia typically has more than 3 cells, sometimes variable . Conidia hyaline, no pigment in walls......... 37 24 92 92 100 28 76 30 31 100 6 32 2 33 94 4 a 88 43 3738 36b 37a 37 38a 38b 3a 39 40a 40b dla 41b 4le aa 42 ‘SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA, Conidia with dark pigment in walls Cor Conidiophores separate, not clustered or compacted ..... jophores compacted into an acervulus in nature. Conidiophores branched, with a sterile terminal branch and swollen apex; ‘ylindrocladium Conidia borne singly, apical on sympodial growing points... a produced basipealy in regular groups, not on sympa growing points... Trichothecium Conidia ellipsoid-elongate, cells equal eevee - Dactylaria Conidia ovoid to elongate, apical cell somewhat larger .... . Arthrobotrys Diplodia Conidiophores and conidia in an acervulus or a stroma in nature .... Spilocaca Conidiophores and conidia borne in 2 typical pycnidium.... Conidiophores separate or in loose clusters. . Conidiophores slender, conidia in short acropetalous chains. .Bispora Conidiophores rather stout, zig-zag in appearance; conidia apical, not in chains. . . Polythrincium Coni coves Helicomyces Coni Coni spiral or in coi ia phragmosporous, with cross but not oblique walls... ia dictyosporous, with both cross and oblique walls Coni + Pestalotia oni with slender appendages, at least at apex. ia without appendages. Conidia dark... Conidia hyaline ........ Conidia borne in acervuli in bark ........ . Coryneum Conidia not borne in acervuli Cori Conidia single, not in chains .. acropetalous chains; some conidia with t or 2 cells....-..+.+«+ Cladosporium Conidiophores with several upright branches. Dendryphiopsis Conidiophores simple, without branches .. Conidia produced through pores on sides of conidiophores ......... Helntinthosporium Conidia borne apically on new sympodial growing points .. Conidia straight or slightly curved; cells nearly equal ........2+0s+000e - Bipolaris Conidia, with one median cell larger than others .......+..000sssseeeeee --Curvularia 41 190 38 108 9 40 108 110 0 180 106 42 106 a2 136 52 192 45 46 51 194 a7 +106 48 120 9 124 50 126 122 Amann ne eae eee 2 222422222 OS244 8484684282442 48442428)COVE CPT VE VF VV FF EU F VEU VU UE TUT VZVVTVUTVVTVTTVTVVUVUUUUY! Sla Sib Sle Sid Sa 52b $2c 53a 53 Sta Sb S4e SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA Conidiophores simple, clustered, dark; conidia long, attenuated ............. Cercospora Conidiophores hyaline, branched; conidia long, cylindrical . Cylindrocladium Conidiophores short, simple or branched, hyaline; larger conidia typically canoe-shaped, |-celled conidia usually present. — seers Fusarium Conidiophore tall, slender, simple; conidia with pointed apex and rounded base......... a a Pyricularia Conidia borne in acerv in bark ..... Conidia borne typically in small sporodochia, ‘Steganosporum -- Epicoccum Conidia borne on separate conidiophores ... Conidia attenuate or pointed at apex, often in chains ........ Conidia rounded, borne singly ........+..s0++ ++ Alternaria Stemphylium No conidiophores, no conidia formed; sclerotia more or less globose, compact . cesses Sclerotium No conidiophores, no conidia formed; sclerotia mostly flattened or irregular, often loose... . Rhizoctonia Large conidiophorelike structures present on leaves; many branches compacted into globose or pointed structures -Cristulariella 39 128 108 4130 128 194 150 33 132 4132 196 196 4THE HUGHES-TUBAKI-BARRON SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION This newer system is based primarily on the development of the conidia and to a lesser extent on the development of the conidiophores. Shape, pigmentation, and septation of conidia are reduced 10 secondary characteristics. Although this classification, followed by Barron (1968), is not complete for all genera of imperfect fungi, it is well established and accepted by many mycologists and can be applied accurately to most of the Moniliales. The authors do not dispute the validity of the more recent system of classification proposed by the Kananaskis Conference (1971) and followed by Ellis (1971), but do not believe the time has come to shift to that system for the identification of genera by the student. The following key to series, sections, and genera of the two largest families (Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae) is included for the convenience of those who can easily recognize and distinguish the types of conidia. It may not be helpful in identifying those genera in which the mode of conidial formation is unclear or indefinite. In these eases, use of the key based on the Saccardo System is recommended, 40 aman nnn nnn nen eee ane ee eee See 2e22S2L 226442848248 82824)ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA (Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae) Tuberculariaceae and Stilbaceae, as well as some gencra in which there is inadequate knowledge of conidial formation, are excluded from this key. la Conidia (arthrospores) formed by segmentation of vegetative hy- phae or branches of nonmeris- tematic conidiophores; mature usually with ‘truncate ends, ellipsoid or cylindrical ... (Examples: Geotrichum, Ambly- osporium) ... Series ARTHRO- POODOCOOOHOOSOOOE oS SPORAE, 2 ® ® ® ry Arthrosporae, Geotrichum PY ia (arthrospores) develop- ® basipetal succession by f D> meristemic growth of the special i » ‘ion of conidiophore, result- f = a gradual change from a D conidiophore to conidium; coni: a > dia usually, but not necessa a bd hanging together in chains. . . a D (Examples: Oidium, Basipeto- 3 5 spora) . . . Series MERISTEM a ARTHROSPORAE. 7 D D Meristem Arthrosporse, Okdium a > > 4td AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidia (eleuriospores) usually single and apical on conidio- phore or sporogenous cells, often thick-walled and pigmen- ted but may be hyaline, often not easily deciduous or decid- uous by means of a special cell at apex of conidiophore; acces- sory conidial states often present Examples: Humicola, Sepe- donium, Microsporum)... Series ALEURIOSPORAE. 10 Aleviiosporae, Nigrospora Conidia (annellospores) produced successively on apex of conidio- genous cells or conidiophore which increases slightly in length by percurrent proliferation through previous conidial scars; successive scars appear as faint annellations at apex of conidio- genous cell... (Examples: Spilo- vaca, Scopulariopsis) ... Series ANNELLOSPORAE.......... 52 Annellosporae, Spilocaca Conidia (blastospores) develop- ing as buds from simple or branched conidiophores, or dir- ectly from vegetative cells or previous conidia, often forming simple o branched acropetalous chains... (Examples: Aureo- haxidium, Monilia, Cladospor- ium) ... Series. BLASTO- SPORAE oe. essecscseeees 59 Blastosporae, Monilia eeeoeace @ee6 2242244408828 88 aa aanae aaweer rw ee eer were wwrwvrrwvuee sewer ew vv VV UV UT UE STU UEUUUY: ts Conidia (blastospores) pro- duced on well differentiated swollen cells which bear many conidia simultaneously, forming clusters or heads. solitary or in simple or branched acropetalous chains, mature conidia easily deciduous revealing small den- ticles on sporogenous cells (Examples: Oedocephalum, inyuis, Gonaroborrys)... Series BO- TRYOBLASTOSPORAE... 81 Bottyoblestosporae, Botrytis Conidia (porospores) developing through pores in outer wall at apex or side of conidiophore, single or in some genera produced ‘on successive new growing points formed by sympodial prolifera- tion... (Examples: Helmin- thosporium, Bipolaris, Stemphy- lium) ... Series. PORO- SPORAE ....csccceeee a) Porosporae, Bipolaris Conidia (sympodulospores) de- veloping at tips of conidiophores or conidiogenous cells (not from pores in outer wall) and forming successively on new growing tips by sympodial proliferation; in- crease may be slight but conidia are of different ages; (this key includes some genera placed by some authors in the Porosporae) --. (Examples: Fusicladium, Tritirachium, Cercospora) ... Series SYMPODULO- SPORAE . soca 102 Sympedulosporae, Sporothrix AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA44 ti AITERNNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidia (phialospores) formed successively from open apex of conidiophore or conidiogenous cell (phialide), which ordinarily does not increase in length; coni- dia often collect in droplet of mucilage or slime at apex or remain attached in basipetal cchains; in a few genera the sim- ple conidiophore proliferates percurrently and forms new phialides ... (Examples: Cha- lara, Phialophora, Verticillium, Aspergillus)... Series PHIALO- ARTHROSPORAE 2a 2b 3a, 3b 4a 4b 5a 5b 6a 6b Conidiophores poorly developed or none Conidiophores distinct and well developed .. Conidia truncate at both ends, formed by segmentation of mycelium....... Geotrichum Conidia rounded with truncate base, formed by segmentation of mycelium Chrysosporium Conidiophores simple ........c0-eessseeeeeee Conidiophores branched .. Conidia globose Conidia cylindrical with truncate ends .. - Wallemia . Ampulliferina Conidiophores stout, branched only near apex ...........+ Conidiophores slender with both apical and lateral branches .... .., Amblyosporium - Oidiodendron MERISTEM ARTHROSPORAE Ta Tb 8a 8 9a 9b 9e Parasitic on plants, powdery mildews .. Saprophytic or weakly parasitic, not powdery mildews... Conidia in basipetal chains... 0... ste tee te teseeseesees Oldie Older conidia falling off before new one is formed .........-.2+.e+e-e++e+++ Ovulariopsis Conidia I-celled, hyaline ... - Basipetospora Conidia 2-celled, hyaline... Trichothecium Conidia dictyosporous, dark .. Coniosporium ° 68 0 70 108 134 ee eee ene eeS2easeaeeeae:SPOTTCSTSTTTOSTSTSOVTFTVSPUSPUSTFVPVSOTFHOPVPVOSCP9SOTIT SO SOSVSVOVSPSFHOOOVVOOGD: AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA ALEURIOSPORAE 10a Conidia long, slender (scolecosporous), I- to severab-celled ...........+... Anguillospora 10b Conidia typically 1- to 2-celled, globose to oblong......-.2+ss-ssessseeseeseseeeseeeee 1c Conidia typically 3-to several-celled .........2+++ 1a Conidia hyaline or subhyatine (with slight pigment) 11 Conidia with distinct dark pigment...... 12a Pathogenic to man; macroconidia tuberculate... Histoplasma 12b Pathogenic to man; macroconidia smooth soeees Blastomyces 12c Saprophytic or parasitic on plants or fungi. peeeeneneemennes 13a Conidia I-cclled, in small groups at apex of forked conidiophores... Glomerularia 13b Conidia I- or 2-celled, not in clusters at apex of conidiophores ... oer 14a Conidiogenous cells slender, radiating from swollen cell - Umbelopsis 14 Conidiogenous cells short, stout; conidia smooth... Botryoderma Ide Conidiogenous cells slender; conidia rough-walled or with attached smooth cells .....-+. 15a Conidia with attached small smooth cells . seseseeStephanoma 15b Conidia I-celled, without attached smooth cells ....... «+ Sepedonium 15 Conidia with large apical rough-walled cell and smaller smooth basal cell ........+.+00+- 16a Basal cell of conidia rounded........-se++se+0+ coeeseseese Myeogone 16b Basal cell wedge-shaped ......s.seseeseeeeesnee seseesesseees Chlamydomyces 17a Conidiophores short, poorly developed, or missing.......s.+ssseesesseseerneeeeneeneeess 17 Conidiophores usvally well developed... peusereteaseenenerseeens fa 18a Conidia with broad truncate base and pointed apex .........+e.ses+++++Eehinobotryum 18b Conidia ovoid to obclavate with rounded apex... sosesseeessAsterompees 18¢ Conidia globose to broadly ellipsoid ......+..e+ss+004 coe 19a Conidia I-celled, subglobose, shiny black, situated on a flat hyaline vesicle .. Nigrospora 19 Conidia 2- or more-celled .....ssse+eseesees peeeeennceeenes 2 19¢ Conidia I-celled, light to dark, not on vesicle... 20a _Conidiophores tall, slender, simple, dark .......+. Endophragmia 20b Conidiophores mostly short, simple hyaline - Tichocladium 20 Conidiophores well developed, branched ..... cseese- Balanium 2la Setze present.. peeereeeseeeneesenees -Botryotrichum 2Ib Setae absent .........see0e Humicola 22a Conidia with small hyaline cells attached . . Stephanoma 45 140 " 24 12 n ug 8 106 8446 2 23a 2Be 2a 28a 28b 29a 29b 30a 30 30c 3la 3b 3le 32a 32b 33a 3b 3a 34b AITERNNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidia without attached hyaline cells ... Conidiophores short, thick, branched .. : Conidiophores tall, slender, repeatedly branched .......s.ssessessesee+ Staphylotrichum Conidiophores tall, simple . Wardomyces Ser teree eee nnarneenrersrerereeere UcrOcIavI Conidia typically 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) .. Conidia with cross and oblique septa (dictyosporous .. Conidia (or propagules) branched (staurosporous) Conidia curved or coiled (helicosporous) . sosseeeXenosporium Conidia hyaline or subhyaline,....... Conidia with distinct dark pigment...........cssssssesseesesseseseeeseseetereeeesesneees Parasitic on plants Fusoma Causing dermatomycoses of man or animals ........ ‘Saprophytic or trapping nematodes .. Macroconidia spindle-shaped or ellipsoid ..........4-+. - Microsporum Conidia ellipsoid, with broad enlarged middle cel sseesees Monacrosporium Conidia cylindrical to long and sometimes tapering, with distinctly enlarged middle cell. a — Dactylella Conidia ovoid to ellipsoid to oblong : Conidia much longer than wide ... Conidiophores tall, simple, single or clustered . Conidiophores short, poorly developed, clustered Conidiophores usually short, single - Endophragmia, Phragmocephala - Bactrodesmium Conidia mostly 2- to 3-celled; ovoid to clavate .......2..+..ssse+s2.2+0+-+ Trichocladium Conidia 3- to several-celled; broadly ellipsoid wall not unusually thick ...... Pithomyces Conidia several-celled, ellipsoid, wall very thick ............s.-0+seesese++.Murogenella Conidia cylindrical... peers - Camposporium Conidia narrower at ends, especially at apex ... Apical cell of conidia attenuated, hooked or pointed . Apical cell of conidia rounded, not attenuated ssss++Ceratophorum sessseesess Clasterosporium Conik iophores clustered, sometimes in loose sporodochi Conidiophores single, not clustered .. 23 84 80 80 25 38 136 26 16 27 28 16 8 128 30 32 18 150 31 u8 132 44 46 33 us us 35, 36Cee ev ver wer ve VU VU VV UV VUZE TUVUUVUVUVZTUVVVVVUUTVVUVUUY 35a 35 36a 36b 37a 37 38a 38 39a 39b 38c 4a 41b 42a 42 420 43a 43 49a, 49 50a AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidia globose or subglobose .. Epicoccum Conidia large, elongate to obovoi Berkleasmium Apical cell of conidia darker, much enlarged .. Acrospeira Apical cell of conidia not enlarged, equally pigmented .... Conidia broadly ellipsoid, most septa transverse nnn Conidia globose to ovoid, most septa oblique seme Pithomyces Stigmella Conidia hyaline or subhyaline ... Conidia with distinct dark pigment Propagule with many branches compacted into a large globoid or conical structure; no true conidia produced ... Conidia with few branches, symmetrical or nearly so Conidia with few branches distinctly asymmetric Cristulariella ‘Main axis of conidia distinctly swollen, with large cell ‘Main axis of conidia slender or short, without swollen cel. Central cell of conidia globose, with 4 slender radiating arms.. Main axis of conidia 2-celled, with 3 slender radiating arms... Clavariopsis smonnnen Tetrachaeturn Triscelophorus svn Tridentaria Main axis of conidia long, slender ..... Main axis of conidia short; arms widely divergent. ‘Main axis of conidia short; arms not widely divergent Not aquatic, parasitic on higher plants ‘Aquatic, in fresh water on decaying leaves nnn Branches of conidia developed one at a time Branches of conidia developed simultaneously ‘Conidia with 3 slender branches on slender main axis, Conidia with 3 slender branches on thick main axis sw Articulospora . Culicidospora Conidia with 2 branches arising from primary axis.. Conidia with 3 or more branches arising from primary axis Branches of conidia long, tapering to fine point . wx Ingoldia Branches of conidia slender but not tapering to fine point. Tricladium Branches of conidia more or less upright .. Tetracladium Branches of conidia widely divergent, irregular... Dendrospora Conidiophores distinct; conidia triangular or with several uprightbranches Conidiophores reduced to a short peg; conidia with 2 to 3 upright or spreading “horns” ... Conidia triangular, with 3 short, radiating arms ...... Triposporium 150 134 132 37 132 134 39 49 7” 3 41 42 440 140 140 138 140 142 & ae 142 140 41 48 138 138 140 140 50 st 14448 ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 50b Conidia with several close upright branches ... seresesseesees Dietyosporium Sta Mostly parasitic on leaves........sesceseesessesesssststeseesesseseseeseeseseMirudinaria Slb Mostly saprophytic on WOOd........secsesecrercesersesesseesesesersense CePatosporium ANNELLOSPORAE 52a Conidia typically 1- to 2-celled 52b Conidia mostly 3- to several-celled . 53a Conidiophores hyaline Semen Scopulariopsis 3b Conidiophores dark... - ‘54a Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia in moist heads ............+-+++.-Leptographium ‘S4b_ Conidiophores short, simple, not in heads, seseseseesesseeeesesSpilocaea 55a Conidia with 2 or more upright branches . -Ceratosporella 55b Conidia unbranched . severe Eoneeneeeenenenrenenes 56a Mostly parasitic; mycelium within leaves; conidiophores short... 56b Saprophytic or with external mycelium; conidiophores short 57a Conidiophores single, arising from epidermal cells .. - Deightoniella 57 Conidiophores clustered, arising through stomata Stigmina 58a Conidiophore apex with distinct cuplike structures ....... . Endophragmia 58b Conidiophore apex with conidial scars or rings, not cuplike.. Annellophora BLASTOSPORAE 59a Conidiophores arising from basal globose mother cells, with thick dark septa, i in length only in basal region... a 59b Conidiophores, if present, not as above ... sees 60a Conidia I-celled - Arthrinium 60b Conidia 4-celled, cross-shaped Dictyoarthriniwm 6la_Conidia more or less coiled (helicosporous) .. 61b Conidia branched (staurosporous) ... 6le Conidia neither coiled nor branched . 62a Small conidia produced by budding of large conidia « Helicodendron 62b Conidia not budding... . Helicoon 63a Conidiophores present, distinct .........+. 63b Conidiophores absent ......... 144 144 14 33 35 98 34 98. 106 144 56 37 8 120 48 8 61 74 434 62 63 66 136 136 aan nn nn nner eee eee eee 2 O22 2222240242222 482464208VSCTCSTTVVIVTGTVGHGHHHFHGHHHHHHHHHHHHHDHHDDHHHHHHOORHOO®E [ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 64a Conidia hyaline, with slender divergent arms Varicosporium 64b Conidia dark, branches more or less upright ss+++ Speiropsis 65a Conidia with 3 t0 4 upright to spreading branches .. . Tetraploa 656 Conidia with 4 to 5 widely divergent branches....... Tripospermum 66a “Conidiophores” (propagules) compactly branched, globose to conical, ultimate cells globose, conidialike; no true conidia produced .. cesceseseeses Cristulariella 66 Conidiophores poorly formed or reduced to pegs or short conidiogenous cells 66c Conidiophores distinct, simple or loosely branched... 67a Mycelium with clamp connections; conidia forcibly discharged - Hersonilia 67 With neither clamp connections nor forcibly discharged conidia. 68a Parasitic on grasses; conidia 2-celled, not buddin, 68b Usually saprophytic; conidia I-celled, budding ..........se+-++ sessesesesses Rhynchosporium cesses Candida - Aureobasidium 69a Mycelium and conidia hyaline 696 Mycelium and conidia with dark pigment cesses Thichothecium 70a Conidia hyaline, 2-celled 70b Conidia hyaline or subhyaline, L-celled ... Tc Conidia with distinct dark pigment. Ta Conidia borne in acropetalous chains ..... 7b Conidia not in chains .. ‘2a Conidiophores dark; conidia in moist heads. . Haplographium 72> Conidiophores hyaline; conidia uniform globose to short ellipsoid, in long branched chains. teseesnneee . : weve .- Monilia Te Conidiophores hyaline branched; conidia variable, in short chains ....... Hyalodendron 724 Conidiophores subhyaline, conidia elongate, slender .. -- Tilletiopsis 73a Conidiophores dark; conidia ovoid, 2 to 3 on each swollen dark cell ...... Zygosporium vsess Lunulospora 73b Conidiophores hyaline; conidia lunulate, not clustered .. 73e Conidiophores hyaline; conidia globose to broad ellipsoid, single, apical on long denticles . - Olpiirichum 74a Conidia all or mostly I-celled ....... 74 Conidia mostly 2-celled ‘de Conidia 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) . . Cladosporium 75a Conidia variable, some typically lemon-shaped . 75b Conidia uniform, mostly ovoid to ellipsoid. 75c Conidia uniformly globose ... Papularia 49 138 142 142 182 ” 6 70 70 68 108 0 70 70 108 n 4 2 B 2 2 138 7 15 1 B 106 82 1650 _AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 76a Setae present; apex of conidiophore globose .. sssees Lacellinopsis ‘6b Setae present; apex of conidiophore not enlarged Lacellina 6c Setae absent ......... 5 : Periconia Tia Conidiophores branched; conidia variable.........6++e-++ Cladosporium 77 Conidiophores mostly simple; conidia uniformly ellipsoid . Bispora 78a Conidia borne on special globose cells ... 78b Conidia not borne on special globose cells .. on 79a Conidia catenulate Pseudotorula 79> Conidia not catenulate.... - Dwayabeeja 80a Conidia catenutate, cylindrical ..........+. seesssesseess Septonema 80b Conidia catenutate, cells strongly rounded pee tteneeeemnnmneeey Toil 80c Conidia not catenulate.......... - Gonatophragmium BOTRYOBLASTOSPORAE Bla Conidia in simple or branched chains of 2 or more. eeeeeemneneree B1b Conidia not catenulate...., . 82a Conidiophores tall, dark; conidia dark Gonaroboiryum 82b Conidiophores variable, hyaline; conidia hyaline . - Gonatorrhodiella 83a Conidia dark, phragmosporous .. poe Cephaliophora 83b Conidia hyaline, [celled ..........ces00e 84a_Conidiophores short, reduced to | or few cells ..... seeeeneees Phymototrichum 84b Conidiophores tall, well developed .. 7 cee 85a Conidiogenous cells globose or with globose lobes ...........ce++ 85b Conidiogenous cells or fertile portion of conidiophore elongated to irregular 86a Conidiophores simple or with few branches .. oes 86b Conidiophores with several branches, at least near apex. 87a Conidiophores determinate, with a single head of conidia ... Oedocephalum 87 Conidiophores proliferating percurrently, with several clusters of conidia... ee... - aon sittisssesessees Gonatobotrys 88a Conidiophore branches many, lateral on main axis..............0.....1. Botryosporium 88b Conidiophore branches regularly dichotomous ........2..0+.0:+ssscsssss+ee Dichobotrys 88c Conidiophore branches irregular .... Botrytis 89a Conidiophore branches dichotomous near apex ses ecsssseess Chromelosporlum 89b Conidiophore branches irregular........sc.c..05 Acladium 78 78 "8 106 106 80 46 w6 16 ce 12 82 83 78 8 46 8 85 86 89 87 88 76 76 76 78 16 80 76wevevevewwevrvvv ev Vv wv Vw V Ee VU EV UU EV eV UV UU TEU TUE! AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA POROSPORAE 90a 90b 94 95a 95b 96a, 1002 1006 100¢ 10la 1olb Conidia with transverse and oblique septa (dictyosporous) ... Conidia with transverse septa only (phragmosporous) Conidia 2-celled, catenulate .. Diplocoecium Conidia long-beaked, obclavate, of OVOid ........ssssseeeseseetseeseessesee++ Alternaria Conidia not beaked, globose to broadly ellipsoid Conidiophores elongating sympodially ....... Conidiophores elongating percurrently ........+..0sse+e+++ -. Ulocladium Stemphylium Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia catenulate . Dendryphion Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia not catenulate .. Conidiophores mostly simple .. Conidiophores dichotomous near apex; conidia mostly several- celled . seeessessees Dichotomophthora Conidiophores not dichotomous near apex . endear eeeneeeeestceeee Conidia mostly 3-celled . Spondylocladiella Conidia 4- to several-celled -Dendryphiopsis Conidia in acropetalous chains, often breaking up into 1I- to severalcelled fragments ...... : Cor Torula ia not catenulate .... Conidiophores indeterminate, extending sympodially .. Conidiophores determinate . Conidia bent by enlargement of one cell Conidia not bent by enlarged cell, straight or slightly curved .. Mid-cells of conidia larger than end cells; germ tubes originate from any cell. --Drechslera Mid-cells of conidia not distinctly larger than others; germ tubes only from end cells Bipolaris Conidiophores clustered; conidia apical .. Conidiophores single; conidia apical and lateral. Conidiophores single; conidia single, apical . seesesesess Exosporium « Corynespora, Sporidesmium Conidia several-celled, cylindrical to obclavate .........+4s++s++e+1++ Helminthosporium Conidia often less than 4-celled, ellipsoid to obovOid .......++++4+++++4+++++ Spadicoides 51 91 93 44 132 92 132 132 124 04 96 120 95 120 120 122 126 148 to 120 J24 u452 AITERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA SYMPODULOSPORAE Note: The key to this section includes some genera described as producing porospores and in which the conidiophores commonly extend by sympodial growth. 12a Conidia coiled, helicosporous. perenne 103 102b Conidia not coiled ...........+ Sete 106 103a Conidia thick in proportion to length, not hygroscopic los 103b Conidia thin in proportion to length, hygroscopic .. os 14a Parasitic on higher plants; some conidia nearly straight ............-......-Helicomina 136 104b Saprophytic on wood or bark; conidia uniformly coiled . ses+-Helicoma 136 105a .-Helicomyces 136 105b .- Helicosporium 136 106a sees 107 060 sevessseeees 122 106c Saprophytic on various substrata... sevcesseeeee 12D 107a Conidia hyaline or subhyaline . se aseeeen 108 107b Conidia distinctly pigmented, pale brown to dark ......... 116 108a Conidia predominantly I-celled...... 109 108b Conidia typically 2- to several-celled un 109a Conidiophores relatively short, simple . Idriella 102 10 109b Conidiophores tall, repeatedly branched near apex .. 10a Conidia coliccting in moist slimy heads...... 110b Conidia dry, not in moist heads........ - Verticicladiella 104 Verticicladium — 104 412 113 11a Conidia catenulate in acropetalous chains 111b Conidia not catenulate.. 112a Conidia mostly 2-celled, with some l-cclled. 112b Conidia mostly with 3 or more cells . Ramularia 110 Sepiocylindrium 128 13a Conidia filiform to cylindrical or long ellipsoid . 113b Conidia shorter, ovoid to pyriform or short ellipsoid ........ oe 14 us 114a_ Conidiophores hyaline; conidia with attenuated apical cell . Il4b Conidiophores hyaline; conidial cell not attenuated..........++- I4e -Spermospora 128 Cercosporella, 128 attenuated - Cercospora, Cercosporidium 128,122 115a_Conidia broader near base; cells unequal . Pyricularia 128 a 2 2 2 2G9OG99GHHHHHHHHHDHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHSHHHHHHOHDOOOO: AUTERIVATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 115b Conidia oblong; cells nearly equal..... Didymaria 116a_ Conidiophores tall, dark, simple below, branched near apex and bearing a number of conidiogenous cells . soe Periconiella 116b Conidiophores and conidiogenous c cells not as ABOVE... .sseseeees 117a Conidia mostly I- to 2-celled ..... 117 Conidia 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) ... 1182 Conidia rough-walled, cells equal .. 118b Conidia smooth, cells unequal ..... pene 119a Conidiophores distinctly wavy in appearance, we =» Polythrincium 1196 Conidiophores often irregular but not distinctly wavy ...... 120a Conidiophores usually arise from beneath cutical layer 120b Conidiophores emerging through stomata or from surface of leaves .. Fusicladium -Scolecotrichum, Passalora 12la Conidia with 1 to 4 hyaline appendages on apical cells .. Pleiochaeta 121b Conidia without appendages .......2..scseeceeseeeeesreeeeetiseenessseies + Nakataea 12a Conidiophores and conidia hyaline; conidia I-celled... . Calcarisporium 122b Conidiophores and conidia hyaline; conidia 3- to 4-celled, mostly ovoid....... Dactylium 122¢ Conidiophores and conidia dark; conidia long, slender. Cladosporiella 123a Conidia hyaline to subhyaline (slightly pigmented) . 123b Conidia with distinct dark pigment. 1244 Conidia typically I-celled.. 124b Conidia typically 2-celled . 124¢ Conidia 3- to several-celled. 125a Conidiophores variously branched, rarely simple .. 125b Conidiophores typicolly simple, rarely branched . 1262 Conidiophores branched only near apex .. 126b Conidiophore branches lower or lateral on main axis 127a Conidia in moist heads of slime... cesses Verticicladiella vs Verticicladium 127 Conidia dry, not in moist heads ... 1282 Conidiophore branches verticillate on main axis ...... 1286 Conidiophore branches irregular; conidiogenous cells may be verticillate 1292 Conidiophores hyaline; conidia ovoid .....+...ecssesseeeereenes . Tritirachium 129 Conidiophores pigmented; conidia long, slender.......+.+e0++ «. Selenosporella 53 m0 104 7 18. 121 2 ng m2 120 42 42 128 128 102 130 92 124 139 125 135 137 126 131 127 128 104 104 129 130 100 10254 130a 130b 130¢ 13la 131b 132a 1320 1330 133b 134a 134 134e 1352 135b 1360 1366 136c 1372 137 1382 138b 138e 1398 139 140a 140b Ila 14Ib 1428 1420 143a 143 AMTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Fertile area of conidiogenous cell slender, not enlarged ...... cess Hansfordia Fertile area of conidiogenous cell somewhat enlarged, at least at apex .. Nodulosporium Fertile area of conidiogenous cell much elongated; not enlarged ....... Geniculosporium Conidia catenulate .........sceseeeceeseeseeeeeteeee cocseeseseeseese Symnpodiella Conidia not catenulate...... Fertile area of conidiogenous cell slender, rachislike ..........sssssscsessesseesseesesees Fertile area of conidiogenous cell not slender or rachistike Base of conidiophore enlarged; mostly on insects. cesesessees Beauveria Base of conidiophore not enlarged; saprophytic .........0csecscseeseseesees Tritirachium Conidiophores slender, hyaline, single, only slightly enlarged at apex Sporothrix Conidiophores pigmented, single, greatly enlarged at apex Basidiobotrys Conidiophores hyaline, in clusters - Ovularia Apical cell of conidium equal to or smaller than basal cell, sometimes elongated .... aes = Dactylaria Apical cell of conidium larger or wider than basal cell, rounded Conidia in loose clusters, on short dentictes .. .- Arthrobotrys Conidia in loose clusters, on long pegs Candelabrella Conidia single on sympodial branches of conidiophore, «- Genicularia Conidia forked, with 2 parallet prongs . « Dicranidion Conidia not forked. . Conidiophores short, hyaline; conidia cylindric to clavate . - Dactylaria Conidiophores tall, hyaline; conidia cylindric to fusoid Conidiophores tall, dark; conidia fusoid...... » Dactylella - Pleurothecium Coniiophores tl dark, slender, bearing at apex several divergent conidiogenous cells. . sevsctesesersene Pseudobotrytis Conidiophores and conidiogenous cells not as above ... Conidia t-celled . Atleast some conidia 2- or more-celled Conidia biconic, tapering toward both ends... - Beltrania Conidia otherwise... Conidia oblong-clongate .. Conidia mostly globose or ovoid Conidia symmetric, both sides rounded .........eccceseseeseseeseseeseeeess Conidia asymmetric, one side flat or concave .. - Virgaria 98. 100 100 104 132 133 1B4 100 100 98 100 104 10 136 10 110 110 138 138 10 128 126VVUVUVU VV VV VO UUM UV UV VV VM Ve TVET UBT Veer Tere wer Ter wwe: AITERINATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 1442 Conidiophores branched regulary; conidiogenous eels somewhat enlarged atleast at apex eens sees Nodulosporium 144 Conidiophores simple or branched; conidiogenous cells not enlarged at apex. 145a_Conidiophore branches somewhat spiral, appearing WaVy ......+...++++..+++++ Conoplea 145 Conidiophores or branches more or less straight, not wavy... sess Rhinocladiella 146 Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells, short, mostly I- to 3-celled... perenne 1466 Conidiophores tall, well developed . peceeeneereenes peereeneeeerereeee 147a_Conidia |- to 2-celled, ovate, oblong or T-shaped ......- s+. Scolecobasidium 147 Conidia staurosporous, several-celled, Y-shaped, with 2 pointed arms .... Diplocladiella 147¢ Conidia staurosporous, with 3 or more branches ore . Speiropsis 148a_ Conidia dictyosporous, some phragmospores present .... Dactylosporium, Sirosporium 148b Conidia typically phragmosphorous oc eseeennseee 1492 Conidia often catenulate . Heterosporium 1490 Conidia not catenulate Beseeeeemcees ooo nomen) 150a_ Conidia attached by slender pedicels to apex of conidiophores +++ Brachysporium 150b Conidia attached directly to hyaline apex of conidiophore ++ Cacumisporium PHIALOSPORAE I5la_ Normally aquatic, growing on decaying vegetation....... 151b Not normally aquatic peereereeees ponecenseereees 152a Conidia or branches long, slender ........+e++4++ Beseeereencer) 152b Conidia unbranched ........ Bema cosseeesess Heliscus 153a Conidia long, slender, unbranched seceeees Flagellospora 153b Conidia each with 4 slender arms .... .. Lemonniera 154a_Conidia typically 2- to several-celled . 154% Conidia typically I-celled eames 155a Conidiophores with dark pigment......+s+sesseve+ Pees 195 Conidiophores (or conidiogenous cells) hyalin« 1562 Conidiophores tall with lateral branches and sterile apex; conidia not catenulate.........+ vee es sesseese Chaetopsis: 1566 Conidiophores with few branches near apex; conidia catenulate but not end to end Seen etenteeeesresessasenre cena -Fusariella 156 Conidiophores simple; conidia endogenous in end-to-end chains .. - Sporochismma 157 Conidiophore repeatedly branched; one sterile branch typically with swollen apex Cylindrocladium 55 100 145 102 04 147 148 a4 142 142 134 149 122 150 126 12d 152 154 153 108 138 138 155 159 156 157 96 130 130 10856 157 158 158 158¢ 158d 1598 159b 160a 160 I6la 161d 1623 1626 163a 163 164a 164 165a t65b 166a 1666 167a 167% 168a 1686 1692 169 1703 170 170e la ITERATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidiophores simple or irregularly branched; without sterile branches .......... Conidia mostly cylindrical, straight, 2-to several-celled .... +-Cylindrocarpon Conidia ovoid, 2-celled, not in slime heads ..........4+ -Cladobotryum Conidia ovoid, 2-celled, in small slime heads . - Diplosporium Macroconidia typically canoe-shaped, several-celled; microconidia !-celled .... Fusarium Apex of conidiophore much enlarged, covered with Ataskchaped phiaies; conidia in dry chains. - Aspergillus Conidiophores, phi Conidia hyaline or subhyaline....... Conidia distinctly pigmented, at least in mass Conidia crescent-shaped, typically with hyaline apical appendages. .. Conidia globose, ovoid, oblong, or hooked, without appendages ....... Apical collarette of phialide small, inconspicuous .... -Menispora Apical collareite of phialide large, flaring .. - Codinaea Conidia produced well within phialide (endogenous), mostly rod-shaped . Conidia produced at apex of phialide, not rod-shaped . Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) also present Dark aleuriospores absent .... Aleuriospores rounded, I-celled, single or in short chains... Chalaropsis Aleuriospores cylindrical, breaking up into I-celled fragments Thielaviopsis Tall dark setae present ........... Dark setae absent Chaetochalara Chalara Conidiophores short or mostly reduced to a single phialide. Conidiophores well developed, simple or branched Conidia in dry chains, no slime present .........ccccceseseeees « Monocillium Cephalosporium Conidia in small, moist, slimy heads Conidia dry, not in moist heads ... Conidia held together in moist slimy heads Conidiophores mostly simple, dark; conidia single or catenulate..... Conidiophores branched, dark; conidia catenulate .-Monilochaetes ‘Thysanophora Conidiophores branched, hyaline; conidia catenulate, Conidia cylindrical, aggregated into dry columns. . Metarrhizium 130 170 m 86 96 m 94 AANA ARAAAHAARABRBRAR MADD ARA MRR DD ARR RR DRDO n:VUTVVVUVUTUEUUUUWUU UV US VV UYU EST VU VV VU VTT BVT VV VV VEE Te IIb MMe Ia 172 13a 173b 1Be 14a 174b 15a 175b 175c 1760 176 Ma 17 IT1e 178 178b 1798 179b 1808 180b 180 18la 181b AMTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA Conidia globose, ovoid or rod-shaped; conidiophore “brush” compact ...... Penicillium Conidia fusiform to lemon-shaped; conidiophore “brush” loose .. - Paecilomyces Conidiophores simple or reduced to short, H-celled phialides ......sseseeseseeseseeseeree Conidiophores variously branched, at least at apeX.....ssesscseesessereeressereneeseene Conidiophores dark; coiled setae absent.........csesessssseesseseesseeeseess Chloridium Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline; coiled setae present, unbranched ..... Circinotrichum Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline; with coiled branched setae Gyrothrix Conidial masses large, only at apex of conidiophore .. Conidial masses small, at apex of conidiophor Conidiophores hyaline, apex often enlarged, branches Aspergillus-like ......... Conidiophores hyaline, branches Penicillium-ike .......+..s+.scecse+++14+ Glioeladiuim Conidiophores dark, branches Penicillium-like ......+e+sesecsesssseesess+ Phialocephala Conidia! mass subtended by sterile arms .....+.+4+ssssse+1ee0s++0++ Gliocephalotrichum Conidial mass not subtended by sterile arms .......+.:sssesessesesesessee+ Gliocephalis «- Verticiliam Conidiophores hyaline, branches irregular . +» Trichoderma Conidiophores hyaline, branches (or phialides) verticillate. . Conidiophores dark, branches arising at points on main axis.............. Gonytrichum Conidiophores mostly reduced to phialides.... Conidiophores well developed . Phialides slender, tapering upward; collarette not evident... seeceseeees Gllomastix - Phialophora Phialides cylindrical to inflated; collarette often flaring . Upper portion of conidiophores branched; phialides long, slender; conidia dark, in small, moist heads ‘Stachylidium Upper portion of conidiophores branched; conidia dry, dark, lemon-shaped, CateNUate sssereeeeene - Phialomyces Conidiophores unbranched; short thick phialides at base of simple conidiophores........ Conidia in moist stimy heads, not catenulate Stachybotrys Memnoniella Conidia not in slimy heads, catenulate 37 95 94 13 74 88 90 90 175 7 176 92 96 94 94 2 92 119 180 86 92 181 88ver wr re we ww wrwwrwrwowwerrwerw ve w UT VETS VW TWEET VT V VV e UUDESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA IM AMANAABALAABAALAAALADASLA A&LAAAAABAAGAADAALAAALZALAAABAAAALAAA60 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA HELICOCEPHALUM Thaxt. Conidiophores upright, long, slender, simple, nonseptate; conidia pro- duced in a spiral, forming a head held in a slime drop, I-celled, ellipsoid, hyaline or slightly pigmented; saprophytic on dung or decaying wood. IMustration: (A) H. sarcophilum; redrawn from Thaxter (438); (B) H. oligosporum; original, from material on decayed wood. Other reference (98). RHOPALOMYCES Corda. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores upright, slender, simple; conidia borne on enlarged tip of conidiophore, which is hexagonally aerolate, I-celled, hyaline, ellipsoid; saprophytic on plant material, or destroying nematode eggs. Mlustration: R. sirangularus; redrawn from Thaxter (436). (A) conidiophore and head of conidia; (B) head of conidia enlarged; (C) conidia. References (36). CUNNINGHAMELLA Mats, Mycelium white, extensive in culture, nonseptate; conidiophores (sporangiophores) simple or branched, with enlarged tips bearing heads of conidia (sporangioles), conidia hyaline, I-celled, globose; common saprophytes in soil. Mlustration: C. elegans; original, from pure culture. (A) simple conidiophore and head of conidia; (B) branched conidiophore; (C) detail of tip of conidiophore showing denticles; (D) conidia. References (20,171), MYCOTYPHA Fenner. Mycelium at first nonseptate, later becoming septate, hyaline; conidiophores (Sporangiophores) erect, tall, simple, septate; head of spores cylindrical; conidia (sporangioles) I-celled, borne singly on short denticles; saprophytic. Mlustration: M. microspora; original, from culture, (A) group of conidiophores; (B) head of conidia enlarged; (C) conidia, Reference (132). MORTIERELLA Coemans. Mycelium typically appressed to substrate, fine; conidiophores (sporangio- phores) hyaline, simple or branched, typically tapering upward; conidia (sporangioles) globose, hyaline, single, apical; typical multispored sporangia present in some species, absent in others; common in soil, saprophytic. Mustration: Mortierella sp; original from culture, Reference (136). AMAAAMAAMAADAALALABMMA*SEASAAAAAADMALAAAAADAAABRABAABAADRABRAD:POST TVTCOVTUITOTTTSTOTOV TEU USFVTTUTT SFT SVPPUFIVVOPVI9G OD TG( HELICOCEPHALUM °. oo 0° ogo . ‘CUNNINGHAMELLA DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA, (MORTIERELLA, 6162 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA SYNCEPHALIS Van Teigh. and Le Monn, Conidiophores (sporangiophores) upright, straight or bent near the apex, with prominent rhizoids at the base; apex enlarged, producing branches, bearing rodiike sporangioles which break up to form short conidia; parasitic on other Mucorales. Mlustration: S. pycnosperma, (A) general habit of nearly mature fertile hypha; (B) formation of separate spores; redrawn from Thaxter (440), Other reference (17). PIPTOCEPHALIS de Bary. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, repeatedly dichotomously branched, tips more or less swollen, deciduous, bearing cylindrical, rodlike sporangjoles; sporangioles break up into short conidia at maturity; haustorial parasites on other fungi, principally Mucorales, IMustration: P. virginiana; original, from a culture on Mucor. (A) conidiophore and sporangioles; (B) heads of spores; (C) chains of spores breaking apart; (D) haustorium of parasite in host mycelium. References (22, 256). ‘COEMANSIA Van Tiegh and Le Monn. Mycelium sparse, nonseptate; conidiophores upright, slender, septate, sparingly branched, at intervals bearing sporocladia that produce conidia only on the lower (outer) surface; conidia hyaline, I-celled, ovoid to fusoid; saprophytic on dung, Mlustration: C. erecta; (A) conidiophores; (B) sporocladia and conidia; redrawn from Linder (268). Other reference (22). DIMARGARIS Van Ticghem. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, at first simple, becoming irregularly cymosely or verticillately branched and producing fertile terminal heads; sterile branches absent; conidial heads composed of many sporogenous branchlets, consisting of short chains of cells formed by budding, each cell giving rise to a whorl of 2-spored sporangioles; conidia finally separating, immersed in liquid at maturity, ellipsoid or rod-shaped; parasitic on other Mucorales, producing branched haustoria, Ilustration: D. verticillaia; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) upper portion of sporangiophore; (B) enlarged branch apex; (C) branchlet with several 2-spored sporangioles; (D) conidia. TIEGHEMIOMYCES Benjamin. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, simple below, giving rise above to fertile branch systems; branches sepiate, several repeatedly, irregularly branched, the ends consisting of fertile cells bearing whorls of 2-spored sporangioles; conidia finally separating, smooth subglobose to ovoid, dry at maturity; parasitic on other Mucorales, producing branched haustoria. Mustration: 7: californicus; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) habit of sporangiophores; (B) branch of sporangiophore; (C) branchlets with 2-spored sporangioles; (D) conidia. R22 222A O2OHEDADADAMAAAASAAALAAAAAAZAAAAAAAAAAADAAAAALSCSCPCT UU TT UU VUUUUSETOUVUVUTUUTUTTEVTVUTFVYUTVFTVFVUTSTVTVTTY DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA PIPTOCEPHAUS. DIMARGARIS TIEGHEMIOMYCES 6364 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA RADIOMYCES Embree. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) borne singly or sometimes in pairs near the ‘ends of stolons that terminate in rhizoid systems; conidiophores dark brown, terminating in primary vesicles bearing radiate stalks and secondary vesicles; conidia borne on tertiary stalks, subglobose to ellipsoid, conidia hyaline, reniform to oblong-ellipsoid; saprophytic. Illustration: R embreei; (A) apex of conidiophore with conidial head; (B) single branch of conidial head; (©) single branch void of conidia; (D) conidia; redrawn from Benjamin (24). Other reference (127). MARTENSELLA Coemans. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores upright, simple, bearing lateral or apical sporocladia; conidia borne on upper surface of sporocladia, hyaline, I-celed; saprophytic. Ilustration: M. corticii; (A) conidiophores; (B) sporocladia and conidia; redrawn from Jackson and Dearden (240). Other references (22, 268). KICKXELLA Coemans. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores simple with an apical disk bearing sporocladia; conidia produced on the upper surface of sporocladia, hyaline, I-celled; saprophytic on horse dung. Illustration: K. alabastrina; (A) conidiophore; (B) sporociadium and conidia redrawn from Benjamin (22), Other reference (268). LINDERINA Raper and Fennell. Conidiophores long, septate, branched, bearing several domelike sporociadia with pseudophialides and conidia on the upper surface; conidia hyaline, I-celled, elongated; saprophytic in soil. Mlustration: L. pennispora; (A) diagram showing habit of growth; (B) a single sporocladium; redrawn from Raper and Fennell (348). MARTENSIOMYCES Meyer. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect or ascending, becoming irregu- larly cymosely branched; sporocladia stalked, borne in umbels on recurved branchlets, producing pseudo- phialides on one side (resembling Coemansia), pseudophialides ellipsoid, each bearing a single conidium (sporangiole); conidia obclavate, hyaline, enveloped in liquid at maturity; saprophytic, from soil, Ilustration: Af. prerosporus; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) conidiophore; (B) group of sporocladia; (C) sporocladium; (D) conidium. SPIRODACTYLON Benjamin. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect or ascending, septate, giving rise above to coiled, fertile branches; sporocladia borne successively on the lower surface of the coils, sept \with narrowed apices, producing laterally pseudophialides that bear single sporangioles (conidia); conidia short-cllipsoid, not enveloped in liquid at maturity; saprophytic on dung. Mlustration: S. aurewm; redrawn from Benjamin (22). (A) conidiophore; (B) group of sporocladia; (©) sporoctadium bearing conidia. 2224224244444 4224480844440 828244482484440244024886248869 0s CHRYSOSPORIUM DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA ‘o1DiluM, AMBLYOSPORIUM, 1\@AMAAMADALAAAAAAAAALAAMAAAALAAAMAADLADAAADAAALADAAA ABABA”70 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA SPOROBOLOMYCES Kluyver and van Niel. Cultures usually pink; reproduction principally by budding (blastospores); some cells producing sterigmata, each bearing an asymmetrical conidium that is discharged forcibly; saprophytic. Wustration: S. salmonicolor; original, from culture. (A) hyphae with conidia produced on sterigmata; (B) budding cells. Reference (45). ITERSONILIA Derx. Mycelium forming clamp connections; aerial hyphae simple, forming a sterigma bearing a single cor im (blastospore); conidia asymmetrical, smooth, hyaline, discharged forcibly; saprophytic or pathogenic on plants. Mlustration: /. perlexans; redrawn from Tubaki (446). (A) mycelium with clamp connections; (B) conidia and secondary conidia, BASIPETOSPORA Cole and Kendrick. Conidiophores simple, resembling vegetative hyphae elongating slightly at apex as conidia are formed; conidia (meristem arthrospores) globose, with truncate base, hyaline to pale brown, !-celled in simple basipetal chains; saprophytic; B. rubra is conidial state of Monascus rubra. Mlustration: B. rubra; original from culture. (A) stages in development of chain of conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (57). OVULARIOPSIS Pat. and Har. Mycelium and conidiophores as in Oidium; conidia (meristem arthrospores) I-celled, hyaline, pyriform to clavate, single at apex or sometimes in short chains; imperfect state of certain powdery mildews, in: O. erysiphiodes (conidial state of Phyllactinia corulea), redrawn from Salmon (363). phore bearing single conidium; (B) conidia. CANDIDA Berkhout. Mycelium, not extensive; conidia (blastophores) hyaline, I-celled, ovoid to fusoid, forming short chains by budding; produced apically or laterally on mycelium; mostly common saprophytes; C. albicans is described as causing moniliasis of man; frequently considered as a filamentous yeast. Minstration: C. albicans; original, from culture, (A, B) hyphae and coni (© lateral production of : (D) conidia budding, References (17, 59). AUREOBASIDIUM Viola and Boyer. Mycelium not extensive, hyaline when young, becoming dark with age, black and shiny in old cultures, bearing abundant conidia laterally; conidia (blastospores) subhyaline to dark, I-celled, ovoid, producing other conidia by budding, saprophytic or weakly parasitic; common in Mustration: A. (Pullularia) pullutans; original from culture, (A, B) hyphae and conidia. References (17, 63). aman nn enn nen eee eenneeeeeeeneeeseeeeaeSeenaeeaanaaaea:65 MARTENSELLA ‘SPIRODACTYLON s g z SF DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA, MARTENSIOMYCES 10900000 OOO 0 OOO OOO OO OOOOOOKAAMAMG2MDAMMAMAAnBAm220866 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA SYNCEPHALASTRUM Schroet, Mycelium growing rapidly, abundantly branched; conidiophores Gporangiophores) erect, branched, tips enlarged, bearing a head of rod-shaped sporangioles, each producing a row of nearly spherical conidia; wall of sporangiole dissolving to release conidia; saprophytic. Illustration: S. racemosum; original, from pure culture, (A) conidiophore and head of spores; (B, C) heads of sporangioles and developing conidia, (D-G) stages in formation and release of conidia. References (23, 439). DISPIRA Van Tiegh. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, branched, the sterile branches slender and spiral, fertile branches enlarged, bearing a head of cylindrical sporangioles that produce rows of short conidia, parasitic on other Mucorales and one species on Chaeiomium. Iustration: D. cornuta. (A) terminal portion of fertile hypha; (B) portion of fertile head showing conidia; redrawn from Thaxter (438). Other references (26). CHOANEPHORA Currey. Mycelium white, extensive and growing rapidly in culture; conidiophores (Gporangiophores) long, enlarged, and branched at the apex, each branch bearing a head of conidia (porangioles); conidia t-celled, brown or purplish, ellipsoid; sporangia typical of the Mucorales formed in culture; parasitic on flowers and fruits, or saprophytic, principally curcurbits. Mustration: C. curcurbitarum; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores; (B, D) portion of head of conidia; (D) conidia, References (136, 172, 335, 474, 475). SPIROMYCES Benjamin. Conidiophores arising from substrate hyphae, forming a loose spiral as they develop upward, septate, cach segment giving rise to 2 to 3 short, stout sporocladia, each of which forms a oose cluster of conidia (sporangioles) on terminal globose enlargements on denticles; conidia subglobose to globose; saprophytic. Illustration: S. minutus; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) portion of conidiophore; (B) enlarged fertile branches. 22222224244 2424 2244444428 024248408 006000008 008000867 ‘SPIROMYCES é z & 8 2 Q = 3 3 3 2 2 Q 3 a SYNCEPHALASTRUM 2QDADAARL*DAAAADAAADAALRAALAALAAABAAMAAAADAAABARALABAAD68 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA, GEOTRICHUM Link. Mycelium white, septate; conidiophores absent; conidia (arthrospores) hyaline, celled, short cylindrical with truncate ends, formed by segmentation of hyphae; mostly saprophytic, common in soil. Some basidiomycetes form conidia in this manner. Ilustration: (A) G. candidum; original, from agar culture; (B) conidial state of Polyporus adusius; original from culture. Reference (50). OIDIODENDRON Robak. Mycelium hyaline to brown; conidiophores sparsely branched only on portion, rebranched irregularly, branches segmenting into rod-shaped or rounded conidia, remaining in chains; conidia (arthrospores) I-celled, hyaline or subhyaline; saprophytic. Mlustration:0. grisewm; original, from culture. (A) branched conidiophore; (B) segmenting branch; (©) conidia. Reference (15). AMBLYOSPORIUM Fres. Mycelium pale to yellow-orange; conidiophores erect, septate, lower portion unbranched, bearing a number of irregular branches near or at the apex, from which conidial chains are formed by segmentation; conidia (arthrospores) I-celled, hyaline or yellow-orange in mass, barrel-shaped, catenulate; saprophytic in soil or often growing on fleshy or woody basidiomycetes. Mlustration: A. spongiosum; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) stages in development of conidial branches; (C) conidia. References (313, 332). CHRYSOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores poorly differentiated, much like vegetative hyphae, mostly erect and branching irregularly, hyaline; conidia (aleuriospores or arthrospores) hyaline, I-celled, globose to pytiform, terminal or intercalary, single or in short chains, usually with a broad basal scar; saprophytic. Carmichael (51) describes conidia as aleuriospores. Chrysosporium sp.; original from culture. (A) portions of conidiophores and conidia; dia. Reference (51). OIDIUM Sace. Mycelium external on host, white; conidiophores upright, simple; upper portion increases in length as conidia are formed; conidia (meristem anthrospores) cylindrical, I-celled, hyaline, produced in basipetal chains; parasitic on higher plants, producing powdery mildews. See Bisby (35) for relation of Oidium Link., Oidium Sace. and Acrosporium Nees. IMustration: O. monilioides (Erysiphe graminis): original, from fresh material. (A, B) mycelium with conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. DAA 2A RA AAAAAAAAASDMAAAAAAADAABRAADABABAAALAAALALAALRAALn ‘OVULARIOPSIS: AUREOBASIDIUM A 8 ITERSONILIA, DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 8 A SPOROBOLOMYCES BASIPETOSPORA A | . 7 O © @ @ @ @ © OOO 0 2OHA4844 G4AM2OHA4A4AHAM4A444444424402482224872 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILUSTRATIONS OF GENERA TILLETIOPSIS Derx. Colonies restricted, white to cream colored, mycelium fine; conidiophores short or indefinite; conidia (blastospores) !-celled, hyaline, curved, catenulate, acropetal; common on surface of leaves; saprophytic, but one species parasitic on powdery mildew. Similar to Sporobolomyces in appearance. Illustration: Tilletiopsis sp. original from culture. Reference (315). HYALODENDRON Diddens. Mycelium white; conidiophores erect, variable in length, simple or branched, bearing one to a few conidia at the apex of the branches; conidia (blastospores) frequently in small clusters, becoming catenulate by acropetalous formation of new conidia, chains often branched, i-celled, hyaline, variable in shape, ovoid to cylindrical or oblong; saprophytic or parasitic, mostly on wood; mostly imperfect states of species of Ceratocystis, This genus is like Cladosporium except for lack of pigmentation, Ilustration: Hyalodendron sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) conidia. References (17, 149). MONILIA Pers. ex Fr, Mycelium white or gray, abundant in culture; conidiophore branched, its cells differing litle from the older conidia; conidia (blastospores) pink, gray, or tan in mass, I-celled, short cylindric to rounded, in acropetalous branched chains. Some species are imperfect states of Neuropspora and are common saprophytes; others, whose perfect states are Moliniia (Sclerotinia) spp., cause brown rots of fruits, Mlustration: (A) M. (Neurospora) sitophilia; (B) M. americana (Monilinia fructicola): original, from pure culture. ZNGOSPORIUM Mont. Conidiophores erect, main axis usually simple, brown at base with hyaline or subhyaline apex, bearing special cells (falces), thick-walled, dark, and reflexed, each bearing 2 short hyaline conidiogenous cells; conidia (blastospores) I-celled, hyaline, globose to ellipsoid; saprophytic. Mlustration: Z. masoni al, from culture. (A) conidiophores showing falces and conidia; (B) conidia; (C) Z. gibbum; original, from culture, References (188, 462). 2224424444444 44804444 44 BAS ALADAAAAAALAADAADAGZAAAAADAA(73 HYALODENDRON Oo DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 8 oO B © ZYGOSPORIUM MONILIA, TILETIOPSIS 1 @ @ @@ O @ @ @ B © HBADDDAAA ADADADAVAABDBAADAADADAAAAAAAABAADAADA74 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA TORULA Pers. Conidiophores short, dark, simple, branched or absent; conidia (porospores, blasto- spores) I- to several-celled, cells rounded, dark, in acropetalous chains; saprophytic. Barron (I7) describes conidia as porospores. Mlustration: 7: herbarum; original from culture, Reference (365). OLPITRICHUM Atkinson, Conidiophores stout, simple or irregularly branched in upper portion; method of branching irregular, often as extensions of the denticles; denticles medium to long, at nearly right angles; fertile portions of conidiophore not swollen as in Aciadium; conidia I-celled, hyaline to pale brown, globose or ovoid to ellipsoid, borne singly on the denticles or branches; saprophytic or parasitic on other fungi. Relation to Acladium is not clear but separated here because of loose branching and Jong “denticles.” See Subramanian (409) for his views. Ilustration: 0. macrosporum; original, from culture. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) phialide state, References (17, 409, 414). PERICONIA Bon. Conidiophores dark, tall, upright, stout, simple, determinate, somewhat enlarged at apex, which bears a loose head of conidia; conidia (blastospores) dark, [-celled, globose, in dry chains, arising from globose conidiogenous cells; parasitic or saprophytic. Mlustration: Periconia sp.; original from fresh material on dead stem. (A) group of conidiophorcs; (B) conidiophore enlarged; (C) tip of conidiophores bearing conidia; (D) conidium. References (282, 401). CRISTULARIELLA Hochn. Conidiophore-like structures hyaline, consisting of basal stalk and much branched upper portion that forms a globose or pyramidial head; branches compact and dichotomously or trichotomously rebranched; cells irregular, thick; conidia not produced, although ultimate cells resemble conidia; entire structure disseminated as a propagule; small phialides and microconidia produced in culture, as well as large black sclerotia; causing targetlike spots on living leaves. Niedbalski et al. (314) consider the entire branched structure as a conidium. Mustration: (A-C, E) C. pyramidalis; (D), C. depraedans: original from fresh material on Acer leaves; (E), microconidia from culture, References (352, 464). ARTHRINIUM Kunze ex. Fr. Conidiophore mother cells subspherical; conidiophores simple, mostly hyaline except for thick dark septa, increasing in length near base; conidia (meristem blastospores) dark, I-elled, broadly fusoid, ovoid, curved to cuspidate, attached on side and apex of conidiophore, often with slight germ slit on one side; saprophytic on plant materia. Mustration: (A-C) A. cuspidatum; (A) cluster of conidiophores; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia; (D) A. sphaerospermum, showing basal conidiophore mother cell; redrawn from Ellis (120). References (62, 118, 120, 125) AMAL4AAAALZAAALALAALALALAAAABAABAAARAABAAAALABAGABAAGB:75 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA | c A ARTHRINIUM PERICONIA 5900000900000 OO0HOH 0800000082 AAOOOAHHALAA4002000076 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA BOTRYTIS Pers. Conidiophores tall, slender, determinate, hyaline or pigmented, branched irregularly in upper portion, apical cells cnlarged or rounded, bearing clusters of conidia simultancously on short denticles; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline or gray in mass, I-celled, ovoid; black irregular sclerotia often present; causing “gray mold” on many plants or saprophytic. See Hennebert (167) for recent classification, Mlustration: B. cinerea; original from culture. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C, D) upper portion of conidiophore showing enlarged conidiogenous cells; (E) conidia. References (17, 167, 294, 295). OEDOCEPHALUM Preuss. Conidiophores simple, hyaline, enlarged and globose at the apex, bearing a head of dry conidia formed simultaneously, conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, L-celled, globose to ovoid; usually saprophytic on plant materials or in soil. Some species are conidial states of Discomycetes and one species is the conidial state of Fornes annosus. Ilustration: Oedocephalum sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidophores and conidial heads; (B) enlarged apex of conidiophore void of conidia; (C) conidia. References (17, 427, 448). BOTRYOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores tall, slender, hyaline, composed of elongated axis and numerous, lateral branches of nearly equal length, these branches producing two or more secondary branches that are enlarged at the tips and bear heads of conidia; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, I-elled, ovoid; saprophytic on decaying plant material. Mlustration: Botryosporium sp.; original, from decayed leaf in greenhouse. (A) entire conidiophore: (B-F) stages in development of conidiophore branch and production of conidia; (G) conidia. Reference (17) RHINOTRICHUM Corda (Gidium Link). Mycelium often forming a loose or dense substratum; conidiophores erect or suberect, simple or branched; conidium-bearing cells sometimes enlarged; conidia (blastospores) I-celled, globose to ovoid, hyaline or slightly colored, borne on denticles; saprophytic, mostly on decayed wood. Not Rhinorrichum Auct Mlustration: R. curtisif; original, drawn from herbarium material, (A, B) mycelium, conidiophores and conidia. References (17, 35, 267, 409, 414), GONATOBOTRYS Corda. Conidiophores erect, sometimes tall, septate, simple or sparingly branched, percurrent with terminal and intercatary, inflated, denticulate cells bearing conidia simultaneously; conidia {botryoblastospores) borne singly on the tccth, I-celled, hyaline, ovoid to subglobose; saprophytic or parasitic on other fungi. This genus differs from Gonatobotrywm in being hyaline throughout, and from Gonatorrhodiella in having conidia not in chains. G. simplex is a mycoparasite Mlustration: G. simplex; original, from culture, (A) conidiophore with clusters of conidia; (B) cluster of conidia; (C) portion of conidiophore void of conidia; (D) conidia, References (17, 469).. ACLADIUM Link ex Pers. Conidiophores stout, simple or irregularly branched in upper portion, often extending percurrently, resulting in a row of fertile cells; fertile cells irregular, somewhat inflated (not globose); conidia (blastospores) hyalinc to pale brown, I-elled, globose to ellipsoid, borne singly on short or medium denticles; saprophytic or closely associated with other fungi. Isolates are variable, some producing Aspergillus-like heads of microconidia. The relationship to Olpisrichum Atkinson and Rhinotrichum Auct. is not clear. Mlustration: A. tenellum; (A) young conidiophore and conidia; (B) chain of fertile cells with prominent denticles; (C) phialide state; original, from culture. Reference (409).a a RHINOTRICHUM DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 77 ) ‘ACLADIUM.78 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA DICHOBOTRYS Hennebert. Conidiophores tall, slender, dichotomously branched twice or more from upper half, terminal fertile cells somewhat inflated, globose, producing conidia simultaneously, then collapsing, conidia (botryoblastospores) nearly globose, hyaline, I-celled, nearly sessile or on short denticles Mustration: D. abundans (conidial state of Trichophaea abundans). (A) upper portion of conidiophore; (B) cluster of conidia; (C) conidia. Original from culture, Reference (167,) PHYMATOTRICHUM Bon. Conidiophores rather short, stout, simple or branched, with inflated or lobed tips, bearing loose heads of dry conidia; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, I-celled, produced on mats on surface of soil, globose or ovoid; saprophytic or parasitic on soil, causing root rots; large black sclerotia produced in soil; branched setae often present on mycelium. Hennebert (167. 394, 432) places this genus in the newly formed genus Phymatotrichopsis. Mustration: 2 omnivorum; redrawn from photographs by J. Baniecki. (A) rope of hyphae; (B) ‘mycelium, conidiophores and conidia. Reference (6. GONATOBOTRYUM Sace. Conidiophores dark, tal, stout, upright, typically simple, septate, forming a head of dry conidia on an inflated terminal cell, proliferating to form successive conidiogenous node: conidia (botryoblastospores) dark, I-celled, ovoid to short cylindrical. @. apiculaium bears coni branched chains of several conidia; saprophytic or causing leaf spots of Hamamelis. Mlustration: original, from culture. (A) B. appiculatum, conidiophores and conidia; (B) G. fuscum, conidiophore and conidia. References (255, 459). GONATORRHODIELLA Thaxter. Conidiophores stout, upright, hyaliné, simple or sparingly branched, septate, with inflated apex and intercalary cells that bear loose dry heads of conidia; conidia (botryoblasto- spores) hyaline, I-celled, ovoid to ellipsoid, in simple or branched acropetalous chains; frequently associated with Hypocrea, Hypomyees, ot Nectria. G. highlei is parasitic on N. coccinea var faginata, the cause of beech bark disease in New England Mlustration: G. highlei; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) apex of branch showing denticles; (C) conidia. Other references (138, 437, 459). LACELLINA Sacc. Sctac erect, tall, brown, simple; conidiophores determinate, intermixed with setae, shorter, pale, simple; conidia (blastospores) I-celled, globose or ovoid, colored, produced at or near the apex in acropetatous chains; saprophytic. Mlustration: L. graminicola; (A) habit of setae and conidiophores; (B) tip of seta; (C, D) conidiophores and conidia; redrawn from Subramanian (396). LACELLINOPSIS Subramanian, Sctac simple, septate, brown; conidiophores determinate intermixed with setae, with globose fertile apex, becoming cupulate after detachment of conidia; conidia (blasto- spores) |-celled, brown, globose, produced acropetally in chains. IMustration: L sacchari: (A) tip of seta; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) mature conidia; redrawn from Subramanian (397), 22444442 44444444 2242444442 44684442 8244444482 824444444885SOSSCSCSPSTVFO TY TU TTFGTTVUTVVTFTOTSCTVUTUFTVTUTTOTVUVUTTUUGYE thes GONATORHHOUIELLA DESCRIPTIONS AND IILUSTRATIONS OF GENERA LACELLINOPSIS LACELLINA 7980 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA CHROMELOSPORIUM Corda. Mycelium white to cinnamon, growing rapidly; conidiophores stout, hyaline, erect, main axis unbranched but dichotomously branched near apex, producing several clublike divergent branches that are covered by conidia on slender short denticles; conidia (botryoblastospores) globose, I-celled, hyaline or nearly so (tan in mass); saprophytic in soil, common in greenhouses. Illustration: C. ollare; (Ostracoderma state of Peziza ostracoderma); original, from culture, (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) fertile branch with conidia. References (17, 168). HAPLOGRAPHIUM Berk. and Broome. Mycelium dark; conidiophores determinate dark, simple, erect, bearing an apical cluster of pale to hyaline short branches, entire apparatus penicillate; conidia (blastospores) terminal, hyaline, I-celled, ovoid to oblong, collecting in slimy heads under moist conditions; saprophytic on wood or soil. Dlustration: Haplographium sp.; original, from fresh material on decaying wood. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. Reference (17.) MICROCLAVIA FS. Stevens. Mycelium superficial; conidiophores simple, determinate, pale, expanded at apex into an obconical or ellipsoid structure, usually composed of 2 cells, apical cell bearing 2 (Gometimes 3) large, brown, I-celled, thick-walled conidia (aleuriospores), subglobose with flattened base, rarely deciduous; overgrowing and probably hyperparasitic on microthyriaceous fungi on leaves. Mustration: M. bispora; redrawn from Deighton (80). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) portion of mycelium, STAPHYLOTRICHUM Meyer and Nicot. Mycelium hyaline (o lightly pigmented; conidiophores erect, tall, dark brown but paler above, branched irregularly in upper poriton; conidia (aleuriospores) globose, [-celled, thick-walled, light brown, apical and single on branches, saprophytic. Mlustration: S. coccosporum; original, from culture. References (275, 311). BLASTOMYCES Cost. and Roll. Mycelium white in culture, filamentous at room temperature, yeastlike at 37°C; conidia (aleuriospores) thick-walled, budding cells (blastospores) found in lesions; pathogenic in ‘man, causing blastomycosis. Mlustration: 8. dermatiridis; (A) hyphae and thick-walled cells (aleuriospores) produced in culture; (B) bud-

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  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (612)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

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  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1718)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

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  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

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  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1105)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

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  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (898)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

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  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

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  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (349)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1025)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1867)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

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  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (823)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

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  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

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  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

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  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

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  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1948)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

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  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (403)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4771)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

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  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (809)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

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  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

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  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4208)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

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  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

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  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Yes Please

  

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  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1903)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

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  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

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  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

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  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2522)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3973)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

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  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• John Adams

  

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  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

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  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

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  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (880)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

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  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

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  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

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  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

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  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (105)