Chapter 14: The brain and cranial nerves

The brain and spinal cord develop from the ectodermal neural tube
Anterior part of neural tube expands along with associated neural crest tissue
Constriction from expanded tube appear creating three regions; primary brain

vesicles; preosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon

Prosencephalon and rhombencephalon divide further forming secondary brain

vesicles
The telencephalon develops into the cerebrum and lateral ventricles.
The diencephalon forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and third ventricle.
The mesencephalon, or midbrain, gives rise to the midbrain and aqueduct of the

midbrain (cerebral aqueduct).

The metencephalon becomes the pons, cerebellum, and upper part of the fourth

ventricle.
The myelencephalon (forms the medulla oblongata and lower part of the fourth
ventricle

Major parts of the brain

Adult brain consists of four parts

- Brain stem continuous with the spinal cord made up of medulla oblongata,
pons, and midbrain

Cerebellum posterior to the brain stem

Diencephalon superior to brain stem. Consists of thalamus, hypothalamus and

epithalamus
Cerebrum largest part of the brain

Protective Coverings of the Brain

cranium and cranial meninges protect and surround brain

cranial meninges continuous with spinal meninges.
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
- Cranial dura mater has 2 layers posterior layer (external) meningeal layer
(internal) spinal only one

Brain blood flow brain blood barrier

blood flows to the brain mainly via the internal carotid and vertebral arteries
blood brain barrier (BBB) consists mainly of tight junctions that sea together
endothelial cells of brain blood capillaries and a thick basement membrane and

surrounds the capillaries

astrocytes are one type of neuroglia; processes of many astrocytes press up against the
capillaries and secrete chemicals that maintain the permeability characteristics of the

tight junctions
few water soluble substances like glucose cross BBB by active transport
substances such as creatinine, urea and most ions cross BBB slowly
proteins & antibiotics do not pass
lipid soluble substances; oxygen, CO2, alcohol and most anesthetic can access brain
tissue freely

Cerebrospinal Fluid:

clear colourless liquid composed of mainly water protects brain and spinal cord

from chemical and physical injury

small amount of oxygen and glucose and other needed chemicals from blood to

neurons and neuroglia

continuously circulates through cavities of brain and spinal cord and around them in
subarachnoid space (between arachnoid mater and pia mater)

Functions of CSF
1. Mechanical protection: serve as shock absorbing medium protecting delicate tissues
of brain and spinal cord from jolts brain float in cranial cavity
2. Homeostatic function: pH affects pulmonary ventilation and cerebral blood flow
(important in maintaining homeostatic controls for brain tissue) serve as transport
system for polypeptide hormones secreted by hypothalamic neurons that act as remote
sites in brain
3. Circulation: medium for minor exchange of nutrients and wastes products between the
blood and adjacent nervous tissue
Formation of CSF in Ventricles

Majority of CSF production is choroid plexuses (CP) network of blood capillaries

in wall of ventricles
Ependymal cells joined by tight junctions cover capillaries of CP
Select substance (mainly water) from blood plasma are filtered from capillaries to be

secreted by ependymal cells producing CSF

Blood-CSF barrier permits certain substances entering the CSF excluding others to

protect brain and spinal cord from potentially harmful blood-borne substances
BBB formed by tight junctions of endothelial cels
BCSFB titght junctions of ependymal cells
FIG 14.4

Brain stem and reticular formation

Brain stem is part of brain between spinal cord and diencephalon. Consists of:
1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons
3. Midbrain
Extended through brain stem is reticular formation ( netlike region of interspersed
grey and white matter

Medulla oblongata (medulla)

Continuous with superior part of spinal cord

Forms inferior part of brain stem
Begins at foramen magnum extends to inferior border of pons
3cm
white matter contains all sensory (ascending) tracts and motor (descending) tracts

extended between spinal cord and other parts of brain

white matter forms bulges on anterior aspect of medulla called pyramids

formed by large corticospinal tracts that pass from cerebrum to spinal cord
corticospinal tracts control voluntary movements of limbs and trunk
decussation of pyramids: 90% of axons on left pyramids cross to right side & 90%
cross from right to left explains why each side of brain control voluntary

movements on opposite side of body

cardiovascular centre regulates rate and force of heartbeat and diameter of blood
vessels

medullary respiratory centre adjusts basic rhythm of breathing

inferior olivary nucleus, receives input from cerebral cortex, red nucleus of midbrain

Medulla contains nuclei associated with the following five pairs of cranial nerves
1

Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves. Several nuclei in the medulla receive sensory input
from and provide motor output to the cochlea of the internal ear via the
vestibulocochlear nerves. These nerves convey impulses related to hearing.

Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerves. Nuclei in the medulla relay sensory and motor
impulses related to taste, swallowing, and salivation via the glossopharyngeal nerves.

Vagus (X) nerves. Nuclei in the medulla receive sensory impulses from and provide
motor impulses to the pharynx and larynx and many thoracic and abdominal viscera
via the vagus nerves.

Accessory (XI) nerves (cranial portion). These fibres are actually part of the vagus
(X) nerves. Nuclei in the medulla are the origin for nerve impulses that control
swallowing via the vagus nerves (cranial portion of the accessory nerves).

Hypoglossal (XII) nerves. Nuclei in the medulla are the origin for nerve impulses that
control tongue movements during speech and swallowing via the hypoglossal nerves.

Pons

Pons (bridge)
Lies directly superior to medulla and anterior to cerebellum
2.5 cm
consists of nuclei and tracts
bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another
connection provided by bundles of axons
some axons of pons connect the right and left side of cerebellum
others part of ascending sensory and descending motor tract
2 main structural components
- ventral & dorsal region
ventral large synaptic relay station
dorsal contains ascending and descending tract
The pons also contains nuclei associated with the following four pairs of cranial
nerves: (fig 14.5)

1. Trigeminal (V) nerves. Nuclei in the pons receive sensory impulses for somatic
sensations from the head and face and provide motor impulses that govern chewing
via the trigeminal nerves.
2. Abducens (VI) nerves. Nuclei in the pons provide motor impulses that control eyeball
movement via the abducens nerves.
3. Facial (VII) nerves. Nuclei in the pons receive sensory impulses for taste and provide
motor impulses to regulate secretion of saliva and tears and contraction of muscles of
facial expression via the facial nerves.
4. Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves. Nuclei in the pons receive sensory impulses from and
provide motor impulses to the vestibular apparatus via the vestibulocochlear nerves.
These nerves convey impulses related to balance and equilibrium.
Midbrain

Extends from pons to diencephalon

2.5 cm

Cerebellum

second only to cerebrum in size

primary function is to assess how well movement initiated by motor tract are carried

out
when movements not carried out correctly the cerebellum detects discrepancies
sends feedback signal to motor areas of the cerebral cortex via connections to

thalamus
feedback signals correct errors, smooth movements and coordinate complex
sequences of skeletal muscle contractions

The Diencephalon

forms central core of brain tissue just superior to midbrain