Training Report

On
220 kV Substation, Vasant Kunj

Submitted By: Vishal Kaushik (8EE131)

Yogendra Krishan (8EE133)
Sec. B
7th Semester
Jun-Jul 11
Dept. of Elec. & Elect. Engg.
Lingayas Instt. Of Mgmt. & Tech.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of
gratitude and respect to all those who helped me throughout the duration of
my training. I acknowledge the efforts of those who have contributed
significantly to my training. I feel privileged to offer my sincere thanks and
deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Sameer Bidani, Astt. Manager, 220 kV
substation, Vasant Kunj, Delhi Transco Limited for helping and guiding me
throughout my training period.

ABSTRACT
A well planned, systematically executed industrial training helps a great
deal in inculcating a good work culture. It provides a linkage between
students and the industry in order to develop awareness of the industrial
approach to problem solving based on broad understanding of operations
of the industrial organizations.
During my training in NHPC I learned a lot about the various aspects
of power generation and came to know about the techniques used
practically for generating the electrical energy.
My training has been an enriching experience for me in the field of power
generation and I learned a lot about the practical application of my
knowledge of various subjects of electrical engineering in industry.

INDEX
Introduction to electricity..
.
1

1. Introduction To
DTL
..2
1.1DTL at a
glance
.2
1.2Quality
Policy
...3
1.3Quality
Objective
...3
1.4Transmission Network of DTL.
3
1.5Proposed
Substations
....6

2. Transmission and distribution in

India.7
2.1Transmission
....7
2.2Distribution
.8
2.3Mission-Power for all by
2012.
.9

2.3.1 Objectives
9
2.3.2 Strategies
9

3. 220 kV Substation Vasant

Kunj..
11
3.1Salient
Features
.11
3.2Technical
Specifications
..12
3.3Layout
Plan
..15

4. Equipments of Substation..
..16
4.1Main Transformer.
..
16
4.2Lightning
Arrestor
23
4.3Isolator
...27
4.4Circuit
Breaker
..28
4.5Current
Transformer
..37

4.6Wavetrap
42
4.7Power Transformer & Capacitive Voltage
Transformer...43
4.8Busbar
.46
4.10 Battery Charger & Battery
Bank..47

INTRODUCTION
Electricity means only one thing: its the electrons and protons, the
electric charge as described by the scientists.
The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne
in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica. The word electricity was
derived from a latin word electricus which itself was derived from a word
elektron(a greek word for amber).
But electricity in everyday life can be described as the electromagnetic field
energy sent out by batteries and generators or we can say it is just a
directional flow of electronsor simply electrical energy.
This movement of electrons is used by us as a source of energy in a large
number of ways like1) These electrons can produce heat and light while passing through
tungsten wires.
2) These electrons can run electric motors using the principle of
electro-magnetics which are used in fans, water pumps, lifts, etc.
3) These moving electrons can turn on various LEDs, processors, etc.
which are used in various appliances ranging from sign boards to
TVs to computers.

So we need to produce electricity for our daily requirement of

energy.
This
electricity
is
generally
produced
by
the
principle
of
electromagnetism in which some mechanical energy (which may be
obtained from steam, running water, wind, etc.) is converted into electrical
energy with the help of generators. These generating units cant be
constructed just with the load always due to many reasons like safety or
sources providing mechanical energy are not available there or there
may be many other reasons. So to distribute the electrical energy in
an economic and efficient manner we always need a well developed
transmission and distribution system.

This electrical energy is supplied to the load end from the generating
unit with the help of conductors. To reduce the transmission losses, the
electrical energy is sent at very high values from the generating units and
then again these voltage levels are stepped down to lower voltages at
the consumer end. Transformers are used for this purpose.
The substations are constructed at different places to check the proper
functioning of such transmission and distribution networks.

1. Introduction to DTL
1.1 DTL at a glance
Delhi Transco Limited is the State Transmission Utility for the National
Capital Territory of Delhi. It is responsible for the transmission of power at
220 kV and 400 kV level and for upgrading, operating and maintaining the
high voltage network.
On July 1, 2002, The Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB) was unbundled into six
successor companies: Delhi Power Supply Company Limited (DPCL) - Holding
Company; Delhi Transco Limited (DTL) - TRANSCO; Indraprastha Power
Generation Company Limited (IPGCL) - GENCO; BSES Rajdhani Power Limited
(BRPL) - DISCOM; BSES Yamuna Power Limited (BYPL) - DISCOM; North Delhi
Power Limited (NDPL) - DISCOM. DTL and IPGCL, are wholly owned by the
Delhi Government. Delhi Transco Limited is a 'State Transmission Utility of
the National Capital of Delhi.
Over the years, DTL has evolved as a most dynamic performer, keeping pace
with the many-fold challenges that confront the ever increasing demandsupply-power-situation and achieving functional superiority on all fronts. The
Transmission losses have been brought down from 3.84% in 2002-03 to
0.83% in 2006-07, and are the lowest in the country. Delhi, being the capital
of India and the hub of commercial activities in the Northern Region, coupled
with the prosperity of population, the load requirement has been growing at
a much faster pace. Added to that, being the focus of socio-economic and
political life of India, Delhi is assuming increasing eminence among the great
cities of the world. Plus the vision-2021, aiming to make Delhi a global
Metropolitan and world class city demands greater infrastructure to enrich
many services of infrastructure development.
DTL, has been responsibly playing its role in establishing, upgrading,
operating and maintaining the EHV (Extra High Voltage) network. DTL has

also been assigned the responsibility of running the State Load Dispatch
Centre which is an apex body to ensure integrated operations of power
systems in Delhi.
Care for Environment
DTL operates its obligations in a clean, green pollution free environment and,
has been providing more green coverage to the National Capital. It is
spreading awareness among the masses to use eco-friendly electrical
appliances. DTL is also introducing Energy Conservation Building Code in
Delhi to maximize the use of natural resources and minimize the use, of
electricity. Its proposed corporate office at 400 KV Sub Station Maharani
Bagh will be a Green Building. The building is aimed to be a Platinum Rated
Green Building. More than one lakh sq meter land has been earmarked for
plantation in the ensuing year.

1.2 Quality Policy

Delhi Transco Limited is committed to:

Establish and maintain an efficient, effective and reliable EHV Grid

network for Transmission of power in Delhi to the satisfaction of
Licensees and stake holders.
Continual improvement in capacity, performance and availability of the
system.
Employing advance technology and management practices in a cost
effective manner with due social concern.
Ensuring quality standards of the work and in conformity to be
applicable Statutory and Regulatory requirements.

1.3 Quality Objective

Delhi Transco Limited has set following quality objectives:

To
To
To
To
To

ensure grid safety and stability.

enhance capacity and performance of the system.
improve availability of the system.
ensure the quality standard of the work.
enhance competency and productivity of employees.

To maximize stake holders delight.

1.4 Transmission Network of DTL

Existing Transmission Network
The existing network of DTL consists of a 400KV ring around the periphery of
Delhi interlinked with the 220KV network spread all over the city. Summary
of Transmission of DTL is as given below.
400KV
Level

Parameters
No. of Substations

220KV Level
26

Transmission Capacity (in MVA) 3465

7860

Transmission Lines (length in

Ckt. Km.)

574.2 + 40.206
(underground)

227

Power Arrangements of Delhi

DTL had been arranging power from various sources for all the five
distribution licensees since 1 July 2002. Keeping in mind the Commonwealth
Games 2010 it had signed Power Purchase Agreements for more than 9000
MW of power. This arrangement continued till 31 March 2007. From 1 April
2007 onwards all the distribution agencies are directly purchasing power and
all the long and short term Power Purchase Agreements have been
transferred to these agencies by Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission
(DERC) on the basis of their consumption. Now it is the responsibility of the
distribution companies to arrange power for their respective areas. However
a Power Procurement Group has been formed to coordinate the procurement
and sale of power which is headed by a DTL Officer. Now DTL is responsible
only for efficient transmission of power.
Power Supply Position of Delhi Over the Years
There has been considerable improvement in the power supply position at
the end of five years of restructuring of power sector of Delhi. The peak
demand is increasing every year while the load shedding has reduced
tremendously.

Parameters
Peak Demand
met in MW

2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 20072008-09 2009-10

03
04
05
06
07
08
3097

3289 3490 3626 3736 4030

4034

4408

Energy
consumption in 19686 20385 20810 21184 21977 22372 22006
MUs

23349

Shedding, in
MUs

450

185

Shedding
as %age of
Energy
Consumption

2.29% 1.12% 0.84% 1.50% 1.87% 0.61% 0.58%

Transmission
losses
(in %age)

3.84 % 1.69% 1.30% 0.72% 0.83% 0.95%

229

176

322

411

136

128

0.80%

Data not Data not

available available

Revenue Statistics
Year

200405

200506

200607

20072008-09
08

Revenue (INR billions) 46.61

52.10

57.39

2.45

3.92

Profit after tax (INR

billions)

0.94

0.35

0.52

0.63

(9.55)

Transmission Load Forecast for 11th Plan

As per the projections made by Central Electricity Authority in its 17th EPS
report and the recommendations for the transmission requirements for Delhi
systems in the 11th Plan System Studies report of Central Electricity
Authority for the period 2007-2012.
Transmission Load Forecast for Delhi
As per Statistics published on DTL's website:

Year

Anticipated Demand as per 17th Electric

200809

2009- 2010- 201110

11
12

(MW)

(MW) (MW) (MW)

4877

5253

5657

6092

4034

4425

4626

4837

4034

4255

4489

4735

Power Survey of CEA

Anticipated Demand calculated as per CEAs
Grid Monitoring
Methodology on the basis of previous years
Data
Anticipated Demand calculated as per the
Trend of
Actual of last 10 years
Anticipated Demand as per 17th Electric Power survey (MW)
The year wise anticipated demand of Delhi as per 17th Electric Power survey
of CEA is indicated in the above mentioned table from which it is evident that
there is a 7 to 8 % increase yearly in the demand of power in Delhi during
2008-12.

Existing Substations

Bawana 400kV
Mundka 400kV
Bamnauli 400kV
Narela 220kV
Rohini 220kV
Subzi Mandi 220kV

Ridge Valley 220kV

Najafgarh 220kV
Sarita Vihar 220kV
Geeta Colony 220kV
DAIL 220kV
Mehrauli 220kV
Vasant Kunj 220kV
Pappankalan - I 220kV
IP Estate 220kV
Gazipur 220kV
Lodhi Road 220kV
Patparganj 220kV
South of Wazirabad 220kV
Kashmere Gate 220kV
AIIMS 220kV
Okhla 220kV
Naraina 220kV
DSIDC Bawana 220kV
Gopalpur 220kV
Pappankalan - II 220kV
Parkstreet 220kV
Shalimar Bagh 220kV
Kanjhwala 220kV

1.5 Proposed Substations

East of Loni (Harsh Vihar) 400 kV

Electric Lane 220 kV
Masjid Moth 220 kV
Peeragarhi 220 kV
Wazirpur 220 kV
Rohini 220 kV

2. Transmission and Distribution in India

2.1 Transmission

Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over a long

distance at high voltage, generally of 132kV and above. In India bulk
transmission has increased from 3,708ckm in 1950 to more than
165,000ckm today(as stated by Power Grid Corporation of India). The entire
country has been divided into five regions for transmission systems, namely,
Northern Region, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern Region
and Western Region. The Interconnected transmission system within each
region is also called the regional grid.

The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had

traditionally been linked to generation projects as part of the evacuation
system. Ability of the power system to safely withstand a contingency
without generation rescheduling or load-shedding was the main criteria for
planning the transmission system. However, due to various reasons such as
spatial development of load in the network, non-commissioning of load
center generating units originally planned and deficit in reactive
compensation, certain pockets in the power system could not safely operate
even under normal conditions. This had necessitated backing down of
generation and operating at a lower load generation balance in the past.
Transmission planning has therefore moved away from the earlier
generation evacuation system planning to integrate system planning.
While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and
distribution has been Alternating Current (AC) technology, High Voltage
Direct Current (HVDC) technology has also been used for interconnection of
all regional grids across the country and for bulk transmission of power over
long distances.
Certain provisions in the Electricity Act 2003 such as open access to the
transmission and distribution network, recognition of power trading as a
distinct activity, the liberal definition of a captive generating plant and

provision for supply in rural areas are expected to introduce and encourage
competition in the electricity sector. It is expected that all the above
measures on the generation, transmission and distribution front would result
in formation of a robust electricity grid in the country.

2.2 Distribution
The total installed generating capacity in the country is over 148,700MW
and the total number of consumers is over 144 million. Apart from an
extensive transmission system network at 500kV HVDC, 400kV, 220kV,
132kV and 66kV which has developed to transmit the power from generating
station to the grid substations, a vast network of sub transmission in
distribution system has also come up for utilization of the power by the
ultimate consumers.
However, due to lack of adequate investment on transmission and
distribution (T&D) works, the T&D losses have been consistently on higher
side, and reached to the level of 32.86% in the year 2000-01.The reduction
of these losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State Utilities.
As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net work,
concept of Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) loss was
introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as well as commercial losses in the
network and is a true indicator of total losses in the system.
High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate
investments over the years for system improvement works, which has
resulted in unplanned extensions of the distribution lines, overloading of the
system elements like transformers and conductors, and lack of adequate
reactive power support.
The commercial losses are mainly due to low metering efficiency, theft &
pilferages. This may be eliminated by improving metering efficiency, proper
energy accounting & auditing and improved billing & collection efficiency.
Fixing of accountability of the personnel / feeder managers may help
considerably in reduction of AT&C loss.
With the initiative of the Government of India and of the States, the
Accelerated Power Development & Reform Programme (APDRP) was
launched in 2001, for the strengthening of Sub Transmission and
Distribution network and reduction in AT&C losses.

The main objective of the programme was to bring Aggregate Technical &
Commercial (AT&C) losses below 15% in five years in urban and in highdensity areas. The programme, along with other initiatives of the
Government of India and of the States, has led to reduction in the overall
AT&C loss from 38.86% in 2001-02 to 34.54% in 2005-06. The commercial
loss of the State Power Utilities reduced significantly during this period from
Rs. 29331 Crore to Rs. 19546 Crore. The loss as percentage of turnover was
reduced from 33% in 2000-01 to 16.60% in 2005-06.
The APDRP programme is being restructured by the Government of India, so
that the desired level of 15% AT&C loss could be achieved by the end of
11th plan.

2.3 Mission- Power for ALL by 2012

The Government of India has an ambitious mission of POWER FOR ALL BY
2012. This mission would require that the installed generation capacity
should be at least 200,000 MW by 2012 from the present level of 144,564.97
MW. Power requirement will double by 2020 to 400,000MW.

2.3.1 Objectives

Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth rate of 8%

Reliable power
Quality power
Optimum power cost
Commercial viability of power industry
Power for all

2.3.2 Strategies

Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation,

optimization of capacity utilization, controlling the input cost,
optimization of fuel mix, Technology up gradation and utilization of
Non Conventional energy sources.

Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid

including Interstate connections, Technology up gradation &
optimization of transmission cost.

Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on

System up gradation, loss reduction, theft control, consumer service

orientation, quality power supply commercialization, Decentralized

distributed generation and supply for rural areas.

Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and

making the sector commercially viable.

Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the

power sector.

Conservation Strategy to optimize the utilization of electricity with

focus on Demand Side management, Load management and
Technology up gradation to provide energy efficient equipment /
gadgets.

Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to

enhance the general public awareness.

3. 220 kV Substation Vasant Kunj

3.1 Salient Features

3.2 Technical Specifications

3.2.1 Transformers
Sub-Station transformer is used in sub stations to transfer the incoming
voltage to the next voltage level. It can be system or auto transformer with
two/three windings. In general it is equipped with On load tap changers and
are connected to transmission grids by bushings and cables.
The system/auto transformer is built in core form. HV/LV windings are
galvanically separated for system transformer while they are Auto connected
for auto transformer.
Type of Transformer used: Auto Transformer
Power: 160MVA
Type of Connection: Primary winding- Star connection
Secondary winding- Star connection
Tertiary winding- Delta connection
Percentage impedance: Tap no. 1- 10.47%
Tap no. 5- 11.79% (Used most widely)
Tap no. 17- 16.5%
Capacity:
OFAF

ONAN
96000MVA

160000MVA
Vector Symbol: YNynod11
Manufactured by: Bharat Bijlee Ltd.

Protection System: Nitrogen Injection Fire Protection System

ONAF
128000MVA

Supply Voltage: 230V AC

Cylinder Capacity: 10 m3
Drain Pipe Size: DN 125
Manufactured by: CTR MFG. IND. LTD.

3.2.2 Lightning arrestor

A lightning arrestor (or surge protector) is an appliance designed to
protect electrical devices from voltage spikes. A surge protector attempts to
limit the voltage supplied to an electric device by either blocking or by
shorting to ground any unwanted voltages above a safe threshold.
Type of LA used: Metal Oxide (Zinc Oxide)
Ratings: 198 kV, 10 kA for 220 MVA
60 kV, 10 kA for 66 MVA
Winding Voltage:
ONAF
336.0
1139.7

ONAN
OFAF
HV Side-

252.0

LV Side-

839.7

420.0
1399.6
Tertiary Side-

2799.3

2799.3

2799.3

3.2.3 Isolator
High-voltage isolators are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of
apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines,
for maintenance. The major difference between an isolator and a circuit
breaker is that an isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only
after current has been interrupted by some other control device.
Type of Isolator used: HLM (In both 220 and 66 MVA)
SMC (In 66 MVA)

Type of Break used: Central Break (In 220 MVA)

Twin Break (In 66 MVA)

3.2.4 Circuit Breaker

Type of CB used: Sulphor Hexafluoride
Rated Voltage: 245 kV
Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage: 1050 kV
Rated Breaking Current: 40 kA
Gas Pressure: 7 kg/cm2 at 20C
Rated Normal Current: 3150 A

3.2.5 Current Transformer

A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.
Current transformer is also known as instrument transformers. When current
in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current
transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the
current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit.
Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective
relays in the electrical power industry.
Type of CT used: Dead Tank CT
Number of Cores: 5 Cores
Quantity of Oil used: 240 L
Rated Current: 800 A

3.3 Layout Plan

4.

Equipments of Substation

4.1 Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding.
This
varying
magnetic
field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding.
Autotransformer
An autotransformer (sometimes
called autoformer) is
an
electrical transformer with only one winding. The auto prefix refers to the
single coil acting on itself rather than any automatic mechanism. In an
autotransformer
portions
of
the
same
winding
act
as
both
the primary and secondary. The winding has at least three taps where
electrical connections are made. An autotransformer can be smaller, lighter
and cheaper than a standard dual-winding transformer however the
autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation.
Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the
110-117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range.

An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or
more terminals at intermediate tap points. The primary voltage is applied
across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from two

terminals, almost always having one terminal in common with the primary
voltage. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of
windings turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both
windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an
autotransformer part of the current flows directly from the input to the
output, and only part is transferred inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter,
cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding.
One end of the winding is usually connected in common to both the voltage
source and the electrical load. The other end of the source and load are
connected to taps along the winding. Different taps on the winding
correspond to different voltages, measured from the common end. In a stepdown transformer the source is usually connected across the entire winding
while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding. In a
step-up transformer, conversely, the load is attached across the full winding
while the source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding.
Advantages of autotransformer

Saving of conductor material if autotransformer is used, K times saving

with respect to two-winding transformer.

The losses are reduced by (1-K) factor.

Superior voltage reduction and has lower value of leakage impedance.

Rating is increased by 1/ (1-K) times.

Impedance is decreased by (1-K) factor.

Short circuit test

The purpose of short circuit test is to determine the series branch
parameters of the equivalent circuit. As the name suggests, in this test
primary applied voltage, the current and power input are measured keeping
the secondary terminals short circuited. Let these values be Vsc, Isc and
Wsc respectively. The supply voltage required to circulate rated current
through the transformer is usually very small and is of the order of a few
percent of the nominal voltage. The excitation current which is only 1% or
less even at rated voltage becomes negligibly small during this test and

hence is neglected. The shunt branch is thus assumed to be absent. Wsc is

the sum of the copper losses in primary and secondary put together.
The reactive power consumed is that absorbed by the leakage reactance of
the two windings.
For carrying short circuit test on power transformer:

Isolate the power transformer from service.

Remove HV/LV jumps and disconnect neutral from earth/ground.

Short LV phases and connect these short circuited terminals to neutral.

Energize HV side by LV supply.

Measure current in neutral, LV line voltages, HV voltage and HV line

currents.

If neutral current is near to zero transformer windings are operational.

If neutral current is higher or equal to line current between LV phases one of
the winding is open.
Open circuit test
The Open circuit test, or "no-load test", is one of the methods used
in electrical engineering to determine the impedance in the excitation
branch of a real transformer.
The secondary windings of the transformer are left open-circuited while a
full-rated voltage is applied to the primary winding. A wattmeter is
connected to the primary. An ammeter is connected in series with the
primary winding.
Since the secondary of the transformer is open, the primary draws only no
load current. This no load current is negligible. As the copper losses depend
on current they can be neglected. But as the rated voltage is applied, the
iron loss will be present and is maximum. Since the impedance of
the series winding of the transformer is very small compared to that of the
excitation branch, all of the input voltage is dropped across the excitation
branch. Thus the wattmeter measures only the iron loss.

Current, voltage and power are

measured
at
ascertain the admittance and power factor angle.

the primary

winding to

Tan delta test

The tan delta test is a diagnostic procedure to assess the deterioration of the
insulation of a medium- or high-voltage cable. Due to the well known watertree effect the conductivity of the insulation increases, this reflects in an
increase of tan delta values. So, the interpretation of tan delta test results
gives an idea about the aging process in the cable-insulation and hence,
allows an assessment of the operational reliability of the cable. The test
engineer is able to distinguish between new, strongly aged and faulty cables
and appropriate maintenance and repair measures may be planned. When a
voltage is applied, any cable with a perfect insulation works as a capacitor
without loss! Theoretically there is an angle of 90 between voltage and
current. If however the insulation deteriorates due to moisture the current
will also show a resistive component, and the angle between voltage and
current will decrease. By a highly accurate measurement of the phase lag
between current and voltage the dissipation factor tan d can be determined.
The dissipation factor tan delta is defined as the ratio between active current
and ideal capacitive current. As a low frequency voltage causes higher
values of capacitive reactance leading to a lower power requirement during
the test, a tan delta test is performed using 0.1 Hz very low
frequency sinusoidal voltages. That prevents the device under test from
damages during the tan delta test and guarantees damage-free
measurement.
The tan delta test procedure comprises measurement at nominal voltage Vo
and measurement at twice the nominal voltage 2 Vo. A drastic increase of the
dissipation factor at increasing measurement voltages indicates a strong
ageing of the cable insulation. The tan delta test gives an indication of the
general condition of the insulation for the entire length of the measured
cable, but it will not detect much localized problems in a cable system.
Therefore, like many other diagnostic tests, a single tan delta test will not
provide a good indication of whether a cable is good or bad unless the
condition of the cable is really very bad. Usually the measurements have to

be repeated at different times to determine if there is a trend of

deterioration.
Comparison of the gathered measurement values with the data of the same
cable collected during the acceptance-test helps to classify the dielectric
condition (new, strongly aged, faulty) of the cable.
Oil testing
The insulation oil of voltage- and current-transformers fulfills the purpose of
insulating as well as cooling. Thus, the dielectric quality of transformer oil is
a matter of secure operation of a transformer.
Since transformer oil deteriorates in its isolation and cooling behavior due to
ageing and pollution by dust particles or humidity, and due to its vital role,
transformer oil must be subject to oil tests on a regular basis.
In most countries such tests are even mandatory. Transformer oil testing
sequences and procedures are defined by various international standards.
Periodic execution of transformer oil testing is as well in the very interest of
energy supplying companies, as potential damage to the transformer
insulation can be avoided by well timed substitution of the transformer oil.
Lifetime of plant can be substantially increased and the requirement for new
investment may be delayed. To assess the insulating property of dielectric
transformer oil, a sample of the transformer oil is taken and its breakdown
voltage is measured.
The transformer oil is filled in the vessel of the testing device. Two
standard-compliant test electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are
surrounded by the dielectric oil.

A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously

increased up to the breakdown voltage with a constant, standardcompliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s.

At a certain voltage level breakdown occurs in an electric arc, leading

to a collapse of the test voltage.

An instant after ignition of the arc, the test voltage is switched off
automatically by the testing device. Ultra fast switch off is highly
desirable, as the carbonization due to the electric are must be limited to
keep the additional pollution as low as possible.

The transformer oil testing device measures and reports the root mean
square value of the breakdown voltage.

After the transformer oil test is completed, the insulation oil is stirred
automatically and the test sequence is performed repeatedly. (Typically 5
Repetitions, depending on the standard)

As a result the breakdown voltage is calculated as mean value of the

individual measurements.

Recently time consuming testing procedures in test labs have been replaced
by on-site oil testing procedures. There are various manufacturers of
portable oil testers.
With low weight devices in the range of 20 to 40 kg tests up to 100 kV rms
can be performed and reported on-site automatically. Some of them are
even battery-powered and come with all sorts of accessories.
Results

Breakdown voltage should be equal to 60 kV.

Water content should be less than 10 ppm.

Dissolved gas analysis

Dissolved Gas Analysis or DGA is the study of dissolved gases in transformer
oil. It is the most sensitive and reliable technique which gives an early
indication of abnormal behavior of a transformer.DGA is advanced tool to
diagnose
the
health
of
a
transformer
under
Preventive
Maintenance Programme.
DGA consists of three steps. They are, sampling of transformer oil in an
airtight glass tube, complete extraction of gases from the sample and
subsequent analysis of the extracted gases for their quantity and
combination. Transformer oil is used as a coolant and insulator in a
transformer. It baths every internal component and contains a lot of
diagnostic information in the form of dissolved gases. Since these gases
reveal the faults of a transformer, they are known as Fault Gases. They are
formed in transformer oil, due to natural ageing and as a result of faults

inside
the
transformer.
Formation
of
fault
gases
is
due
to oxidation, vaporization, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown and
electrolytic action. Oil sample tube is used to draw, retain and transport the
oil sample of transformer oil in the same condition as it is inside a
transformer with all fault gases dissolved in it. It is a gas tight borosilicate
glass tube of capacity 150 ml or 250 ml, having two airtight Teflon valves on
both the ends. The outlets of these valves have been provided with a screw
thread which helps in convenient connection of synthetic tubes while
drawing sample from transformer. Also this provision is useful in transferring
the oil into Sample oil burette of the Multiple Gas Extractor without any
exposure to atmosphere, thereby retaining all its dissolved and evolved fault
gases contents. It has got a septum arrangement on one side of the tube for
drawing sample oil to test its moisture content. Thermo foam boxes are used
to transport the above Oil Sample Tubes without any exposure to sunlight.
Complete extraction of fault gases from transformer oil is achieved by
Multiple Gas Extractor. This is a unique glass apparatus designed by Central
Power Research Institute, Bangalore, India and developed by Dakshin Lab
Agencies, Bangalore. In this apparatus, the same sample oil is exposed to
high vacuum many times until there is no further increase in the volume of
extracted fault gases. The entire extraction takes place at very high vacuum
under ambient temperature, without any escape of fault gases in to
atmosphere. A fixed volume of sample oil is directly drawn from sample tube
into degassing vessel under high vacuum, where the gases are released.
These gases are isolated using a mercury piston to measure its volume at
atmospheric pressure (Total Gas Content) and subsequent transfer to Gas
Chromatograph using gas tight syringe or auto sampler. The fault gases are
measured, in milliliter of gases per milliliter of transformer oil and converted
into parts per million. Moreover, in this method small traces of incipient fault
gases are detected at very early stage. This method alone, provides the
repeated accurate results for Total Gas Content.
Atmospheric Gases:

Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Acetylene

Ethylene

Methane

Ethane

The gases extracted from the sample oil are injected into Gas
Chromatograph where the columns separate gases. The separated gases are
detected by Thermal Conductivity Detector for atmospheric gases, by Flame
Ionization Detector for hydro carbons and oxides of carbon. Methanator is
used to detect oxides of carbon, when they are in very low concentration.
When transformer is overloaded it generates more heat and deteriorates the
cellulose insulation. In this case DGA results show high carbon monoxide and
high carbon dioxide. In extreme cases methane and ethylene are at higher
levels. The overheating of insulation liquid results in breakdown of liquid by
heat and formation of high thermal gases. They are methane, ethane and
ethylene.
In a new transformer the levels of hydrocarbons in transformer oil after
vacuum filtration shall be 5 ppm. After commissioning a new transformer
DGA shall be done every month or earlier depending on the DGA results
observed.
In an overhauled and repaired transformer, DGA is to be done a week after
re-commission. Subsequently DGA is required every month or earlier
depending upon the DGA results.
In interpretation of the results obtained for a particular transformer, due
regard should be given to the following factors before arriving at a specific
conclusion:

Date of commissioning of the transformer

Loading cycle of the transformer

Date on which the oil was last filtered

Buchholz relay
In the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz
relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers

and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called

a conservator. The Buchholz Relay is used as a protective device sensitive to
the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment.
Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing
transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload,
gas produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of
the relay and forces the oil level down. A float switch in the relay is used to
initiate an alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float may also serve
to detect slow oil leaks.
If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the
conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in
the path of the moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit
breaker to isolate the apparatus before the fault causes additional damage.
Buchholz relays have a test port to allow the accumulated gas to be
withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates some
internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay
may only indicate low oil level or a leak.
Buchholz relays have been applied to large power transformers at least since
the 1940s. The relay was first developed by Max Buchholz (18751956) in
1921.
Names like Beachwood relay or beech relay are an indication of incorrectly
translated German language manuals.
Types of relay

Voltage selection relay

Trip circuit supervision relay

Alarm annun relay

Bus bar protection trip relay

Protection supply supervision relay

IDMT open circuit relay

IDMT earth fault relay

Master trip relay

Local breaker backup protection relay

Differential protection relay

Restricted earth fault protection relay

Over flux protection relay

4.2 Lightning Arrestor

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect
the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal
oxide varistors (MOVs) have been used for power system protection since
the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also known as surge arrester
has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or
switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester, the current
from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to
earth.
There are several types of lightning arresters in general use. They differ only
in constructional details but operate on the same principle viz, providing low
resistance path for the surges to the round. Following are the different types
of lightning relays:

1. Rod arrester
2. Horn gap arrester
3. Multigap arrester
4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
5. Valve type lightning arrester
Zinc Oxide Surge Arrestor
Zinc Oxide Surge Arrester can be made of semiconductor ceramic materials
composed mainly of zinc oxides. It has excellent non-linearity coefficient,

great withstanding surge current, low clamping voltage, non-renewal of flow

and more function. the MYG11 voltage dependent resistor is recognized as
an advanced over voltage protector which, due to the inherent superior
nonlinear V-A characteristics and steep wave response of zinc oxide varistor,
can suppress over voltages to a low level thus providing a reliable for
insulation of electrical apparatus.
Zinc Oxide Surge Arrester mainly use as surge protection of communication,
measuring or controller instrument and transient voltage surge suppressor
units, protection of railway automatic signals. Compared with the other
lightning protection devices, it can be used in outdoors.
Ratings
For 220 MVA 198 kV and 10 kA
For 66 MVA 60 kV 10 kA
Leakage current should be less than 50 a.
Corona discharge
In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by
the ionization of a fluid surrounding a conductor that is carrying a current.
The discharge will occur when the strength (potential gradient) of the electric
field produced by the current is high enough, but not high enough to
cause electrical breakdown or arcing.
A corona is a process by which a current, perhaps sustained, develops from
an electrode with a high potential in a neutral fluid, usually air, by
ionizing that fluid so as to create a plasma around the electrode. The ions
generated eventually pass charge to nearby areas of lower potential, or
recombine to form neutral gas molecules. When the potential gradient is
large enough at a point in the fluid, the fluid at that point ionizes and it
becomes conductive. If a charged object has a sharp point, the air around
that point will be at a much higher gradient than elsewhere. Air near the
electrode can become ionized (partially conductive), while regions more
distant do not. When the air near the point becomes conductive, it has the
effect of increasing the apparent size of the conductor. Since the new
conductive region is less sharp, the ionization may not extend past this local
region. Outside this region of ionization and conductivity, the charged
particles slowly find their way to an oppositely charged object and are
neutralized.

If the geometry and gradient are such that the ionized region continues to
grow instead of stopping at a certain radius, a completely conductive path
may be formed, resulting in a momentary spark, or a continuous arc.
Corona discharge usually involves two asymmetric electrodes; one highly
curved (such as the tip of a needle, or a small diameter wire) and one of low
curvature (such as a plate, or the ground). The high curvature ensures a
high potential gradient around one electrode, for the generation of a plasma.
Coronas may be positive or negative. This is determined by the polarity of
the voltage on the highly-curved electrode. If the curved electrode is positive
with respect to the flat electrode we say we have a positive corona, if
negative we say we have a negative corona. (See below for more details.)
The physics of positive and negative coronas are strikingly different. This
asymmetry is a result of the great difference in mass between electrons and
positively charged ions, with only the electron having the ability to undergo a
significant degree of ionizing inelastic collision at common temperatures and
pressures.
An important reason for considering coronas is the production
of ozone around conductors undergoing corona processes. A negative corona
generates much more ozone than the corresponding positive corona.
Corona discharge has a number of commercial and industrial applications:

Drag reduction over a flat surface.

Removal of unwanted electric charges from the surface of aircraft in

flight and thus avoiding the detrimental effect of uncontrolled electrical
discharge pulses on the performance of avionic systems.

Manufacture of ozone.

Sanitization of pool water.

Scrubbing
particles
from
systems (see electrostatic precipitator).

air

in air-conditioning

Removal of unwanted volatile organics, such as chemical pesticides,

solvents, or chemical weapons agents, from the atmosphere.

Improvement of wet ability or 'surface tension energy' of polymer films

to improve compatibility with adhesives or printing inks.

Photocopying.

Air ionizers.

Production of photons for Kirlian photography to expose photographic

film.

EHD thrusters, Lifters, and other ionic wind devices.

Nitrogen laser.

Surface treatment for tissue culture (polystyrene).

Ionization of a gaseous sample for subsequent analysis in a mass

spectrometer or an ion mobility spectrometer.

Solid-state cooling components for computer chips (see solid-state

fan).

Coronas can be used to generate charged surfaces, which is an effect used

in electrostatic copying (photocopying). They can also be used to remove
particulate matter from air streams by first charging the air, and then
passing the charged stream through a comb of alternating polarity, to
deposit the charged particles onto oppositely charged plates.
The free-radicals and ions generated in corona reactions can be used to
scrub the air of certain noxious products, through chemical reactions, and
can be used to produce ozone.
Coronas can generate audible and radio-frequency noise, particularly
near electric power transmission lines. They also represent a power loss, and
their action on atmospheric particulates, along with associated ozone
and NOx production, can also be disadvantageous to human health where
power lines run through built-up areas. Therefore, power transmission
equipment is designed to minimize the formation of corona discharge.
Corona discharge is generally undesirable in:

Electric power transmission, where it causes:

Power loss

Audible noise

Electromagnetic interference

Purple glow

Ozone production

Insulation damage

Inside electrical components such as transformers, capacitors, electric

motors and generators. Corona progressively damages the insulation
inside these devices, leading to premature equipment failure. One form of
attack is ozone cracking of elastomer items like O-rings.

Situations where high voltages are in use, but ozone production are to
be minimized.

Static electricity discharge.

Lightning.

Coronas can be suppressed by corona rings, toroidal devices that serve to

spread the electric field over larger area and decrease the field gradient
below the corona threshold.

4.3 Isolator
In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make
sure that an electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or
maintenance.
Such
switches
are
often
found
in electrical
distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its
source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage
isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of
apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines,
for maintenance. Isolating switches are commonly fitted to domestic
extractor fans when used in bathrooms in the UK. Often the isolation switch
is not intended for normal control of the circuit and is only used for isolation.
Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation
is not possible (see: Lockout-Tag out). In high voltage or complex systems,
these padlocks may be part of a trapped-key interlock system to ensure
proper sequence of operation. In some designs the isolator switch has the
additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing additional
safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect
power distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be isolated.

The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an

isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has
been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the
utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a
circuit.
Standards in some countries for safety may require either local motor
isolators or lockable overloads (which can be padlocked).
Types

Central break for 220 MVA.

Twin break for 66 MVA.

DC contact resistance should be less than 100 m.

It is measured by CRM kit.

4.4 Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity,
to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates
once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are
made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual
household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage
circuits feeding an entire city.
Types of circuit breaker
Low voltage circuit breakers
Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial
and industrial application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)- rated current not more than 100 A.
Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermalmagnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category.

MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)- rated current up to 2500 A.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be
adjustable in larger ratings.

Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in

low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international

standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in drawout enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the
switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may
have electrical motor operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and
closed under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer
switch system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made
for direct-current (DC) applications, for example DC supplied for subway
lines. Special breakers are required for direct current because the arc does
not have a natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for alternating
current. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow-out coils which
generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting
direct current. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in
equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.
The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker
is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and
commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design
includes the following components:
Actuator lever
Actuator mechanism
Contacts
Terminals
Bimetallic strip
Calibration screw
Solenoid
Arc divider/extinguisher

Magnetic circuit breaker

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force
increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in
addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed
by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the
circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the
contacts to open by spring action. Some types of magnetic breakers
incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. The core is
restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an
overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The
delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor
starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient
solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing
the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not
affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker.

Thermal magnetic circuit breaker

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most
distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet
responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the
bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current
conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse
time" response feature which provides faster or slower response for larger or
smaller over currents respectively.

Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This
breaker has a 2 A rating. When supplying a branch circuit with more
than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a
breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when
any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may
either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for
small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their
operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on
120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major
appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires.
Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply threephase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards.
Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the
neutral wire, to be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral
wire from other loads connected to the same network when people need to
touch the wires for maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be
used for disconnecting live and neutral, because if the neutral gets
disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous
condition arises: the circuit will appear de-energized (appliances will not
work), but wires will stay live and RCDs will not trip if someone touches the
live wire (because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip
breakers must be used when switching of the neutral wire is needed.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be
assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be
individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit
breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now
themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV).
Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also
operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international
standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always
use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on
built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to
extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breaker- With rated current up to 3000 A, these

breakers interrupts the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in
a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to
about 35,000 V which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage
range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer
life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.

Air circuit breaker- Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics

are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and
delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are
microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often
used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the
breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.

SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur
hexafluoride gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted

connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Mediumvoltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out
construction, allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the
power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked
mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.
High-voltage circuit breakers
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by
high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in
power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher,
according
to
a
recent
definition
by
the
International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are
nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective
relays operated through current transformers. In substations the
protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and
buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage
breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Bulk oil
Minimum oil
Air blast
Vacuum
SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , Tavrida Electric,

Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar
HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric).
Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new
breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.
Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that
contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the
enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely
available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200KV breakers are likely to come into
market very soon.
High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged
to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three
poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and
availability.
Standard current ratings
International Standard IEC 60898-1 and European Standard EN 60898-1
define the rated current In of a circuit breaker for low voltage distribution
applications as the current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously
(at an ambient air temperature of 30 C). The commonly-available preferred
values for the rated current are 6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A,
50 A, 63 A, 80 A and 100 A (Reynard, slightly modified to include current
limit of British BS 1363 sockets). The circuit breaker is labeled with the rated
current in amperes, but without the unit symbol "A". Instead, the ampere
figure is preceded by a letter "B", "C" or "D" that indicates the instantaneous
tripping current, that is the minimum value of current that causes the circuitbreaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in less than 100 ms),
expressed in terms of In:
Typ
Instantaneous tripping current
e
B

above 3 In up to and including 5 In

above 5 In up to and including 10 In

above 10 In up to and including 20 In

above 8 In up to and including 12 In

For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration

(approximately 400 ms to 2 s) current peaks in normal operation.

Above 2 In up to and including 3 In for periods in the order of tens of

seconds.
For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring
circuits using current transformers.

Sulphor Hexafluoride (SF6) High Voltage Circuit Breakers

High-voltage circuit-breakers have greatly changed since they were first
introduced about 40 years ago, and several interrupting principles have been
developed that have contributed successively to a large reduction of the
operating energy. These breakers are available for indoor or outdoor
applications, the latter being in the form of breaker poles housed in ceramic
insulators mounted on a structure.
Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by
separating two contacts in a medium, such as SF6, having excellent dielectric
and arc quenching properties. After contact separation, current is carried
through an arc and is interrupted when this arc is cooled by a gas blast of
sufficient intensity.
Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it rapidly so that gas
temperature between the contacts is reduced from 20,000 K to less than
2000 K in a few hundred microseconds, so that it is able to withstand the
transient recovery voltage that is applied across the contacts after current
interruption. Sulphor hexafluoride is generally used in present high-voltage
circuit-breakers (of rated voltage higher than 52 kV).
Into the 1980s, the pressure necessary to blast the arc was generated mostly
by gas heating using arc energy. It is now possible to use low energy springloaded mechanisms to drive high-voltage circuit-breakers up to 800 kV.

Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:

Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an
auxiliary breaking chamber;
Autonomy provided by the puffer technique;
The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a
reduced number of interrupting chambers;
Short break time of 2 to 2.5 cycles;
High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation
without reconditioning;
Possible compact solutions when used for gas insulated switchgear or
hybrid switchgear;
Integrated closing resistors or synchronized operations to reduce
switching over-voltages;
Reliability and availability;
Low noise levels.

Thermal blast chambers

New types of SF6 breaking chambers, which implement innovative
interrupting principles, have been developed over the past 30 years, with the
objective of reducing the operating energy of the circuit-breaker. One aim of
this evolution was to further increase the reliability by reducing the dynamic
forces in the pole. Developments since 1980 have seen the use of the selfblast technique of interruption for SF6 interrupting chambers.
These developments have been facilitated by the progress made in digital
simulations that were widely used to optimize the geometry of the
interrupting chamber and the linkage between the poles and the mechanism.

This technique has proved to be very efficient and has been widely applied
for high voltage circuit breakers up to 550 kV. It has allowed the
development of new ranges of circuit breakers operated by low energy
spring-operated mechanisms.
The reduction of operating energy was mainly achieved by the lowering
energy used for gas compression and by making increased use of arc energy
to produce the pressure necessary to quench the arc and obtain current
interruption. Low current interruption, up to about 30% of rated short-circuit
current, is obtained by a puffer blast.
Self-blast chambers
Further development in the thermal blast technique was made by the
introduction of a valve between the expansion and compression volumes.
When interrupting low currents the valve opens under the effect of the
overpressure generated in the compression volume. The blow-out of the arc
is made as in a puffer circuit breaker thanks to the compression of the gas
obtained by the piston action. In the case of high currents interruption, the
arc energy produces a high overpressure in the expansion volume, which
leads to the closure of the valve and thus isolating the expansion volume
from the compression volume. The overpressure necessary for breaking is
obtained by the optimal use of the thermal effect and of the nozzle clogging
effect produced whenever the cross-section of the arc significantly reduces
the exhaust of gas in the nozzle. In order to avoid excessive energy
consumption by gas compression, a valve is fitted on the piston in order to
limit the overpressure in the compression to a value necessary for the
interruption of low short circuit currents.
Self-blast circuit breaker chamber (1) closed, (2) interrupting low current, (3)
interrupting high current, and (4) open.
This technique, known as self-blast has now been used extensively since
1980 for the development of many types of interrupting chambers. The
increased understanding of arc interruption obtained by digital simulations
and validation through breaking tests, contribute to a higher reliability of
these self-blast circuit breakers. In addition the reduction in operating
energy, allowed by the self blast technique, leads to longer service life.
An important decrease in operating energy can also be obtained by reducing
the kinetic energy consumed during the tripping operation. One way is to
displace the two arcing contacts in opposite directions so that the arc speed
is half that of a conventional layout with a single mobile contact.

The thermal and self blast principles have enabled the use of low energy
spring mechanisms for the operation of high voltage circuit breakers. They
progressively replaced the puffer technique in the 1980s; first in 72.5 kV
breakers, and then from 145 kV to 800 kV.
The double motion technique halves the tripping speed of the moving part.
In principle, the kinetic energy could be quartered if the total moving mass
was not increased. However, as the total moving mass is increased, the
practical reduction in kinetic energy is closer to 60%.The total tripping
energy also includes the compression energy, which is almost the same for
both techniques. Thus, the reduction of the total tripping energy is lower,
about 30%, although the exact value depends on the application and the
operating mechanism. Depending on the specific case, either the double
motion or the single motion technique can be cheaper. Other considerations,
such as rationalization of the circuit-breaker range, can also influence the
cost.
In this interruption principle arc energy is used, on the one hand to generate
the blast by thermal expansion and, on the other hand, to accelerate the
moving part of the circuit breaker when interrupting high currents. The
overpressure produced by the arc energy downstream of the interruption
zone is applied on an auxiliary piston linked with the moving part. The
resulting force accelerates the moving part, thus increasing the energy
available for tripping.
With this interrupting principle it is possible, during high-current
interruptions, to increase by about 30% the tripping energy delivered by the
operating mechanism and to maintain the opening speed independently of
the current. It is obviously better suited to circuit-breakers with high
breaking currents such as Generator circuit-breakers.
Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Measurement Test
Stationary and moving contacts are built from alloys that are formulated to
endure the abuse of electrical arcing. However, if contacts are not
maintained on a regular basis, their electrical resistance due to
repeated arcing builds up. This resistance build-up results in a
significant decrease in the contacts ability to carry current. Excessive
corrosion of contacts is detrimental to the breaker performance. One
way to check contacts is to apply dc current and measure the contact
resistance or voltage drop across the closed contacts. The breaker
contact resistance should be measured from bushing terminal to
bushing terminal with the breaker in the closed position. It is
recommended that for medium and high voltages the resistance test be
made with 100-Amps (or higher) direct current. The use of a higher
current value gives more reliable results than using lower current

values. The resistance value is usually measured in micro-ohms. The

average resistance value for 15-kV-class air circuit breakers is
approximately between 200-250 micro-ohms. The evaluation should be
made on comparing resistance values of the three phases with each
other, or with resistance values of similar breakers. A difference of
more than 50 percent in resistance values among the three phases of a
breaker should warrant further investigation.
The contacts in the circuit breaker need to be checked periodically to
ensure that the breaker is healthy and functional. Poorly maintained or
damaged contacts can cause arcing, single phasing, and even fire. The
two common checks conducted on the contacts of a circuit breaker are
the visual inspection check and the contact measurement check.
The Visual inspection check involves examining the contacts of the
circuit breaker for any pitting marks due to arcing and worn or
deformed contacts.
The second check is the contact resistance measurement. This involves
injecting a fixed current, usually around 300 A through the contacts and
measuring the voltage drop across it. This test is done with a special contact
resistance measuring instrument.
Then, using Ohm's law, the resistance value is calculated. The resistance
value needs to be compared with the value given by the manufacturer. The
value should also be compared with previous records. Both these tests need
to be done together. As there are cases of contacts having good contact
resistance yet being in damaged conditions. Thus, for a contact to be
certified healthy, it needs to have a good contact resistance and should clear
the visual inspection test.
Opening and closing time
For 220 kV it should be less than 30 millisecond.
Difference between any two poles should be less than 5 sec.
For 66 kV it should be less than 40 millisecond.
Closing time should be less than 100 millisecond for both.

4.5 Current Transformer

In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement
of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage
transformers (VT) are known as instrument transformers. When current in a
circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current
transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the
current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit.
Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective
relays in the electrical power industry.
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding,
a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in
the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces a
current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current
transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are
efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate
relationship to the primary current.
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many
times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The
CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a
secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a
permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry
current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are
also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an
opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When
conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval)
opening, slight inaccuracies may occur.
Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear
manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current
transformers are either ring type or plastic molded case. High-voltage
current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them
from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-

voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the

conductor inside the CT window.
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated
secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For
example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when
the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be
single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs.
The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time
integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes
into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and
affecting accuracy.
Types:

Live tank
This type of tank is mounted on towers along the transmission line.
High level current passes through them so that direct contact cannot
be made.

Dead tank
This type of tank is situated on the ground. Wires are brought from the
transmission lines to the ground. It is properly earthed so that it can be
touched directly. However this leads to power loss and increase in
amount of core material.

TECHNICAL DETAILS:
1
.

Class of Accuracy

0.5

2
.

Rated Burden

5.00 VA

3
.

Power Frequency Withstand

Voltage

4
.

Highest System Voltage

3KV
433 V

5
.

Nominal System Voltage

400 V

6
.

Frequency

50 Hz

7
.

Supply System

3 Ph. Solidly grounded Neutral

System

Transformation ratio shall be specified from the following standard ratings as

per requirement:

Ratio

50/5

150/5

300/5

400/5

1000/5

(Secondary with 1 A may be specified by the utility incase the same is

desired.)
Bore diameter of the CT shall not be less than 40 mm. Ring type CTs shall
have suitable clamp to fix the CT to panel Board, wherever required.
The limits of current error and phase angle displacement as per IS:2705 at
several defined percentage of rated current are:
Accurac
y Class

0.5

% Ratio error at % of Phase

rated current
minutes
current

displacement
in
at % of rated

20

100

120

20

100

120

1.5

0.7
5

0.5

0.5

90

45

30

30

Current error and phase displacement at rated frequency is required to be as

above when the secondary burden from 25% to 100% of the rated burden
i.e. 50 V A.
Rated extended primary current shall be 120% of rated primary Current in
accordance with IS: 2705 Pt-II.

Rated ISF (Instrument Security Factor) shall be declared by the manufacturer

& marked on the CT.
CTs shall be made with good engineering practices. Core winding shall
evenly spread stress & avoid stress concentration at any one point. Cast
resin CTs shall be processed by hot curing method under controlled vacuum
conditions.
The base shall be of hot dip galvanized steel.
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

Burden

Burden class/saturation class

Rating factor

Load

External electromagnetic fields

Temperature and

Physical configuration.

The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs

For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are
set out in IEC 60044-1, Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1, and 3. The class
designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio
(primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current;
the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also
important especially in power measuring circuits and each class has an
allowable maximum phase error for specified load impedance. Current
transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at
overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate
performance of relays during system faults.
The
load,
or
burden,
in
a
CT
metering circuit is
the
(largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical
burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30
VA, 45 VA & 60 VA. As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can
tolerate up to 0.2 of impedance in the metering circuit before its output
current is no longer a fixed ratio to the primary current. Items that contribute
to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks, meters

and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden in

a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the
CT. Often, substation meters are located significant distances from the meter
cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge conductor creates a large
resistance. This problem can be solved by using CT with 1 ampere
secondaries which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its
metering devices.
The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the
secondary voltage after which the output current ceases to follow the input
current. This means that the one-to-one or proportional relationship between
the input and output is no longer within rated accuracy. The output current
increases abruptly even with small increment in the input, if the voltage
across the secondary terminals exceeds the knee-point voltage. The kneepoint voltage is not applicable for metering current transformers; the
concept of knee point voltage is pertinent to protect current transformers
only since they are necessarily exposed to high currents during faults.
Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be
multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary current.
Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately measure is
"light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however, special CTs
designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal
current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient
temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55
degrees Celsius. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and
resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside pad-mounted
transformers
or
poorly
ventilated
mechanical
rooms.
Recently,
manufacturers have been moving towards lower nominal primary currents
with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the development of
more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves. This is a
distinct advantage over previous CTs because it increases their range of
accuracy, since the CTs are most accurate between their rated current and
rating factor. The accuracy of the ct is changed if the temperature of the
surroundings is exceeded.
Usage

Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and

monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads,
revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watt-hour meter on virtually
every building with three-phase service and single-phase services greater
than 200 amp.
The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.
Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example,
protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide
isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current
transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance)
to be used.
Tan Delta testing
Tan Delta is a a diagnostic test conducted on the insulation of cables and
windings. It is used to measure the deterioration in the cable. It also gives an
idea of the aging process in the cable and enables us to predict the
remaining life of the cable. It is alternatively known as the loss angle test or
the dissipation factor test.
The Tan Delta test works on the principle that any insulation in its pure state
acts as a capacitor. The test involves applying a very low frequency AC
voltage. The voltage is generally double the rated voltage of the cable or
winding.
A low frequency causes a higher value of capacitive reactance which leads to
lesser power requirement during the test. Besides, the currents will be
limited
enabling
easier
measurement.

In a pure capacitor, the current is ahead of the voltage by 90 degrees. The

insulation, in a pure condition, will behave similarly. However, if the

insulation has deteriorated due to the entry of dirt and moisture. The current
which flows through the insulation will also have a resistive component.
This will cause the angle of the current to be less than 90 degrees. This
difference in the angle is known as the loss angle. The tangent of the
angle which is Ir/Ic (opposite/adjacent) gives us an indication of the
condition of the insulation. A higher value for the loss angle indicates a high
degree of contamination of the insulation.
The cable or winding whose insulation is to be tested is first disconnected
and isolated. The test voltage is applied from the Very Low Frequency
power source and the Tan delta controller takes the measurements. The
test voltage is increased in steps up to the rated voltage of the cable. The
readings are plotted in a graph against the applied voltage and the trend is
studied. A healthy insulation would produce a straight line.
The test should be continued only if the graph is a straight line. A rising trend
would indicate weak insulation which may fail if the test voltage is increased
beyond the rated voltage of the cable.
There are not standard formulae or benchmarks to ascertain the success of a
tan delta test. The health of the insulation which is measured is obtained
by observing the nature of the trend which is plotted. A steady, straight
trend would indicate a healthy insulation, while a rising trend would indicate
an insulation that has been contaminated with water and other impurities.

4.6 Wavetrap
Wavetrap traps the high frequency communication signals sent on the line
from the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/teleprotection
panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and
LMU). This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems
for communication among various substations without dependence on the
telecom company network. The signals are primarily teleprotection signals
and in addition, voice and data communication signals. Line trap also is
known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and
diverting them to the telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control
room (through coupling capacitor and LMU). The Line trap offers high

impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus obstructs the

flow of these signals in to the substation busbars. If there were not to be
there, then signal loss is more and communication will be
ineffective/probably impossible.

4.7 Power Transformer

Transformer

&

Capacitive

Voltage

Capacitive Voltage transformers

A capacitor

voltage

transformer (CVT),

or capacitance

coupled

voltage

transformer (CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step

down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for
measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the
device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the transmission
line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line
frequency, and a transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for
the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four
terminals: a terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground
terminal, and two secondary terminals which connect to the instrumentation
or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for
measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of
voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice, capacitor C1 is
often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This
provides a large voltage drop across C1 and a relatively small voltage drop
across C2.
The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with
wave traps are used for filtering high frequency communication signals from
power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout
the transmission network.

Voltage transformers
Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are another type of
instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage
circuits. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to accurately step down high
voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be operated at
a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated
for 69 V or 120 V at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of
protective relays.
The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labeled
as H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1, X2 and
sometimes an X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second isolated winding
(Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same voltage transformer. The high
side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The
low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground.
The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity.
This applies to current transformers as well. At any instant terminals with the
same suffix numeral have the same polarity and phase. Correct identification
of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and
protective relays.
Some meters operate directly on the secondary service voltages at or below
600 V. VTs are typically used for higher voltages (for example, 765 kV

for power transmission) , or where isolation is desired between the meter

and the measured circuit.
Difference between PT & CVT
PT uses windings for voltage step down transformer high voltage to lower
voltage whereas CVT uses two capacitors in series to drop voltage or split AC
like a filter circuit. It has a tuned 60 cycle resonant cap & coil circuit on
primary side like a voltage divider circuit but uses capacitors combined for
protection relaying work fault trip zone protection function circuit. Its also
for phase shift, there is really a coupling capacitor voltage splitter circuit
centered tap to a reactor coil on primary side input of trans CCVT which is
dropped to around 6kV pre input, the center tap of these series caps feed
coil and coil feeds trans pre one cap is connected to ground one cap goes to
HV line. But multi caps are used in series for the incoming HV line 165kv
transmission line , not just two caps by example to make it simple and there
is a iron choke coil called a reactor coil it cancels out the caps at 60 cycles
for phase shift on output from primary to secondary of CVT transformer there
is also a suppression circuit on CVT secondary side for discharge of a
potential high voltage spike or back feed kick protection when a major fault
occurs on HV transmission line voltage drops off sharply. But the whole
circuit works in a delay of false tripping by capacitance stored energy in the
caps to hold voltage on primary this controls the tripping time in seconds
before a trip of differential relay coils circuits on secondary side which is 115
volts to supply differ relay coils as stated and to control all this with total CVT
package circuit and must be included in explaining the difference of both PT
and CVT.
A PT, potential transformer, can be thought of as a pure transformer with
primary and secondary windings; PT's are sometimes referred to as magnetic
transformers due to the fact that their mode of operation is purely magnetic.
It is used to step-down the input voltage from a power line to a voltage level
that can be processed by metering devices and protection relays in a
substation. CVT or CCVT, capacitor-coupled voltage transformer, is made
with two capacitor sets acting as a voltage divider that brings the line
(actually the phase) voltage down to around 12Kv then this voltage is fed to
a relatively small transformer for the voltage signal to be processed. CVT is
rated for extremely high voltage levels above 230KV, while PT's aren't

designed for such large values. CVT's offer the advantage that the voltage
divider capacitor, being itself relatively smaller and lighter, configuration
makes the transformer's iron core much smaller in size, and hence more
economical, versus what it would be if a pure magnetic transformer would be
used. Also the CVT's can be tuned to the fundamental frequency of the line,
and the capacitance prevents the inductive "fire-back" of the coils in the
transformer when a breaker trips. PT's can't provide such advantage. Some
CVT's are also used to tune to PLCC, Programmable Logic Controller Carrier
frequency, which is a signal transmitted over power lines providing interPLCC communication.
Power line carrier communication
Power
line
carrier
communication (PLCC)
is
mainly
used
for telecommunication,
tele-protection
and
tele-monitoring
between electrical substations through power lines at high voltages, such as
110 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV. PLCC integrates the transmission of communication
signal and 50/60 Hz power signal through the same electric power cable. The
major benefit is the union of two important applications in a single system.
In a PLCC system the communication is established through the power line.
The audio frequency is carried by a carrier frequency and the range of carrier
frequency is from 50 kHz to 500 kHz. The modulation generally used in these
systems is amplitude modulation. The carrier frequency range is allocated to
include the audio signal, protection and the pilot frequency. The pilot
frequency is a signal in the audio range that is transmitted continuously for
failure detection.
The voice signal is converted/compressed into the 300 Hz to 4000 Hz range,
and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency. The carrier
frequency is again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The transmission of
these HF carrier frequencies will be in the range of 0 to +32db. This range is
set according to the distance between substations.
PLCC can be used for interconnecting PBXs. The electricity boards in India
have an internal network PLCC between PBXs.
Wavetrap is connected in series with the power (transmission) line. It blocks
the high frequency carrier waves (24 KHz to 500 KHz) and let power waves

(50 Hz - 60 Hz) to pass through. It is basically an inductor of rating in

MilliHenry (approx 1 milliHenry for 220 kV 1250 Amp.).
Line Trap has three main components:
1. Main coil.
2. Tuning Device.
3. Lightning Arrestor
It provides low impedance path for carrier energy to HV line and blocks the
power frequency circuit by being a high impedance path.
A power line carrier using a power line as transmission media needs to
change its transmission system from analog to digital to address rapid
diffusion of IP devices and digital telecommunication devices. With this view,
digital power line carrier (DPLC) was developed featuring several
technological measures which enable digital transmission via power lines
and performed a field evaluation test. As a result, DPLC has the required
quality of bit error rate characteristics and transmission ability such as
transmitting information from monitored electric-supply stations and images.

4.8 Busbar
In electrical
power
distribution,
a busbar is
a
strip
of copper or aluminium that
conducts electricity within
a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus.
The size of the busbar determines the maximum amount of current that can
be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as
10 mm but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter
(1,963 mm) or more as busbars, and an aluminium smelter will have very
large busbars used to carry tens of thousands of amperes to
the electrochemical cells that produce aluminum from molten salts.
Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface
area to cross-sectional area
ratio.
The skin
effect makes 5060

Hz AC busbars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient, so hollow or

flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has
higher stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity,
which allows a greater span between busbar supports in outdoor
switchyards.
A busbar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may
completely surround it. Busbars are protected from accidental contact either
by a metal earthed enclosure or by elevation out of normal
reach. Neutral busbars may also be insulated. Earth busbars are typically
bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure. Busbars may be
enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct or bus way, segregatedphase bus, or isolated-phase bus.
Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by
bolted or clamp connections. Often joints between high-current bus sections
have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce the contact
resistance. At extra-high voltages (more than 300 kV) in outdoor
buses, corona around the connections becomes a source of radio-frequency
interference and power loss, so connection fittings designed for these
voltages are used.
Busbars are typically contained inside of either a distribution board or bus
way. Distribution boards split the electrical supply into separate circuits at
one location.
Bus ways, or bus ducts, are long busbars with a protective cover. Rather
than branching the main supply at one location, they allow new circuits to
branch off anywhere along the route of the bus way.

4.9 Battery Room

A battery room is a room in a facility used to house batteries for large-scale
custom-built backup or uninterruptible power systems providing electric
power for telecommunication and computing equipment in datacenters,
telephone company central office facilities, and remote telecommunications
stations. The batteries provide direct current (DC) electricity primarily for
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) equipment, which in turn provides

continuous, uninterrupted alternating current (AC) power for the facility. The
batteries may provide power for minutes, hours or days depending on the
electrical system design, although most commonly the batteries power the
UPS during brief electric utility outages lasting only seconds.
Battery rooms are also found in electric power plants and substations where
reliable power is required for operation of switchgear, critical standby
systems, and possibly black start of the station. Often batteries for large
switchgear line-ups are 125 V or 250 V nominal systems, and feature
redundant battery chargers with independent power sources. Separate
battery rooms may be provided to protect against loss of the station due to a
fire in a battery bank. For stations that are capable of black start, power from
the battery system may be required for many purposes including switchgear
operations.
The world's largest battery is in Fairbanks, Alaska, composed of NiCd cells. Sodium-Sulphor batteries are being used to store wind power.