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Lectures On The Philosophy of Mathematics
Lectures On The Philosophy of Mathematics
MATH/STAT
USRARY
Mathematics
By
LONDON
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
1918
COPYRIGHT 1918 BY
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING Co.
All Rights Reserved
PREFACE
In the spring of 1915
the author
was invited
to
narrow the
field to
difficult
questions of
omitted.
It tended
making
it intelligible
widen the
field in
the
way
of
The
large
is
teachers of mathematics
The author
class of
is
cherishes
may
the
hope
find
some
that
the
profes
interest in these
lectures,
and give him a broad view over its hills and valleys, he
see it from the mathematician s point of view.
Many have already accomplished this, notably, in America,
Royce, and in France a whole school, as E. Boutroux,
will
others.
for mathematics.
vi
Preface
The
field of
mathematics
is
to consider the
whole
way, so as to arrive at a
exactly what mathematics under
in a general
clear understanding of
takes to do
ascertain
extra-mathematical,
the
mathematician depends.
The
his
material from
many
may find
is
ments
of
in
many
ways.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
PAGE
OF
MATHE
MATICS
14
MATHE
III.
IV.
V. LOGISTIC
VI.
VII.
31
.
TO LOGIC
61
81
97
TO TRANSMUTATIONS
117
MATHE
122
126
THEORY OF INVARIANTS
47
VIII. PROCESSES
XL
136
THEORY OF FUNCTIONS
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
142
148
....
154
169
186
196
INDEX
201
vii
CHAPTER
marks
of
human
progress,
and remembers
due to deductions
of
Maxwell by means
of
theorems
that depend upon the square root of minus one, and that
the possibility of the long-distance telephone depends
was
his telescope
heavens;
when he
by a
"you
will
may
delight in the
Philosophy of Mathematics
escape from the weary wastes of infinite space in a Riemannian finite universe, may be bewildered by the Min-
kowski imaginary-time
in the vain effort to
axis,
may
will
He
all
"Conterminous with
enter her realm and explore it.
space and coeval with time is the kingdom of Mathe
matics; within this range her dominion is supreme; other
wise than according to her order nothing can exist; in
contradiction to her laws nothing takes place. On her
this
become more
1
p. 31.
Philosophy of Mathematics
human
intellect.
Not only
will
What does
principles that control its evergreen growth.
the mathematician seek to know? In the wilderness of
and surfaces in geometry, in the puzzles of the
realms of integers, on the slippery sands of the infini
tesimal, in the desert of algebraic fields, what is it he is
lines
The
What
is
the source of
electron
all
distinct?
What
have
most
its
Is
it
true that
mathematics would
be as sterile of life as the planets that swing in vacuous
1
space? Is mathematics the subject "in which we never
1
Philosophy of Mathematics
know what we
wisdom, and
gamboled four
stags.
We
may
of the dead.
Its
trunk and branches have been built during the past ages
out of the fibers of logic; its foliage is in the atmosphere
of abstraction;
its
living imagination.
inflorescence
From
is
and in its
an everlasting holiday.
its flight,
pursued in
1
la
1083.
Philosophy of Mathematics
he sees glittering brass and nets
of wires.
5
Telescopes,
he
will see
momentous
is
facts
Jevons
it premises,
terms, axioms, postulates, hieroglyphical symbols, and
may endeavor to collect the stream of deductions that
pour
logical
forth.
Yet he
many
of its finest
while he
may
learn the
of
way
method.
He
will
to pulverize the
may be no crop,
and
may spring up strange
bewildering forms, as if
some genie s touch had brought them forth from realms
soil,
may
or there
he knew not
of.
After
all
zum
Philosophy of Mathematics
rule.
use,
but
still
not at
all
identical with
it;
life,
enough to be
or
is it,
of
indeed, the
in nature ?
appear, wind its way back into chaos, leaving nothing but
the truths of mathematics still standing ? Is it true that
chance does not exist really but only in seeming, or is
by
some answer,
partial
is,
in
though
it
may
Said Hilbert, 1
be worth while.
my opinion,
an
indivisible
If
of points ?
what we mean
we can arrive at
is
be, it certainly
would
"
Mathematical science
whole, an organism whose
what we
We
shall
human knowledge
understand by philosophy.
consider as follows
problems we purpose to
2.
were only
1
partial.
Hilbert, Bull.
shall
The
varied character of
(2),
its
content
8 (1902-3), p. 478.
Philosophy of Mathematics
it
to the
of either the
phenomena
no more
successful,
whether we emphasize
its scientific
and analogy, or
things, or its deduc
tive chains
whose invulnerable
of
modern
is it
of the imagination of
an
is
pigment
musician, but
cannot define
large, in
is
it
either
any realm
For
of validity.
"it owes
its
true
but neither in
it
has
its
"
and more.
as
one aspect
itself.
as
It
man may be
It
we may
will
may
be studied in
studied, but
be
its
may
of
any other
Philosophy of Mathematics
Not
autonomous, and in
is
its
psy
in
can
discover
these
not
we
logic,
things, but
chology,
in
It
not
us
transcendental
mathematics.
does
only
yield
space or time, or the categories of reason. It does not
tell us whether physical space is Euclidean, Riemannian,
or Lobatchevskian. It does not say whether only local
time exists
all
of a cell of
decree the
study
We
its
it.
mathematics a
contents.
We
matics can
all
little
more
closely
and thus
mathe
STATIC
MATHEMATICS
to arithmetic
i.
Numbers, leading
2.
Figures, leading to
3.
geometry
Arrangements, leading to tactic
leading to logistic
Operators, leading to operational calculus
4. Propositions,
5.
DYNAMIC
MATHEMATICS
,
These
6.
7.
8.
is
sufficient here to
say
By figures is meant
Philosophy of Mathematics
and
By
arrangements
is
entities
These descriptions
will
become more
definite in the de
2.
Invariance, the
common
of constructions of
entities.
3.
any other
4.
We
class.
any kind.
form or structure
Philosophy of Mathematics
io
or
The
3.
The world
of
of
chology.
4.
The
creative evolution.
Each
its
others,
as
we
will
try
Mathematics
show.
to
is
not
and manner
....
in
this
all entia
infinite
where is every
and variety of
dwell,
of correlation
ensemble of eternal
many of them,
mode of being .... there
that the spirit of ma thesis has its home and life." It is
not the study simply of forms that the mind imposes upon
whence,
each derives
its
if
character and
laws of thought. 3
Nor
equally
is
is it
Boole,
Laws
of Thought.
Philosophy of Mathematics
Zeus
The methods
of
four, as
follows:
1.
Scientific,
scope.
Intuitive, leading to
2.
3. Deductive, leading to a
rigorous form.
No
one of these
is
who
says in his
memoir on "The
Partial Differential
existing.
same family."
And
strictly logical.
asymptotic
come
p. 211.
power
Philosophy of Mathematics
12
mind
of the
is
by the study
trained
is
of mathematics. 1
so successful in developing
mind
to bear
new
creatures of
thought.
We now
we
region
features.
ment
of these
main
features, for
a partial
list
of these
follows:
Bocher,
Mathematics,"
Bull.
(2),
of
(1904),
402-424.
"Ueber Wert
Pringsheim,
und
Jahrb. Deutsch.
Mathemetik,"
angeblichen
Math.
Ver.,
Unwert der
13
(1904),
PP. 357-382.
Picard,
"On
Its Relation to
Soc.,
Volterra,
et
sociales,"
Poincare,
"L Avenir
Keyser, Science
(New
Philosophy of Mathematics
Some
13
this connection it
Advancement
of
Science,
matics
The
of
come
to
own but
its
been done
its
independent
its
CHAPTER
II
of mathematics.
From
its
find
Whoever
first
14
Number and
Words enable us
tations
and yet
Arithmetization
15
to
represent them.
for they enable us to refer to the distinction between
objects, without the necessity of identifying the objects.
To arrive at a number we do not perform an act of abstrac
tion, as
ample.
all
that
all
are enabled
individuals distinct,
to keep the
to produce
if
box.
If
in the bank,
money employed
Kronecker
1
says:
an innate endowment
"God made
integers, all
of
else is
it.
the
Philosophy of Mathematics
16
find,
of
man."
permeates
all
We may consider
number culminated
sumably about 500
in
B.C.
secrets of
They
tried
number because
it
composites, and
deficient.
perfect
number
is
the
sum
exclusive of
is
deficient
6=1 + 2+3,
number.
the next
is
being 496.
It
is
not
known
to
The
Number and
amicable
as, for
if
Arithmetization
sum
17
example,
The Pythagorean
fraternity represented
numbers by
showed certain
that the
sum
properties.
of the first TV
even num
already constructed. So the sum of the first
bers is N(N+i), called a heteromeque number, as may
be seen easily by arranging the points in a rectangle
whose length has one more row than its breadth. The
successive addition of even numbers of points will pre
serve this shape. They invented also harmonic progres
sion and called the cube the perfectly harmonious solid,
since it had twelve edges, eight vertices, and six faces,
and the numbers 12, 8, and 6 form a harmonic progres
sion.
Music was of course connected in this manner with
mathematics.
On
the basis of
all
these
losophy
The
universe thus
Philosophy of Mathematics
18
The beauty
of the universe
was swallowed up
in the
The
all else
being merely
by means
of the introduction of
congruences.
it
is
quite
true.
many
things in
We
find
shifted the difficulty and not annihilated it.
in
of
the
the
later,
preface
Diophantische Approximationen
"
of Minkowski, the assertion,
Integers are the fountain7
An
by Kronecker
and
irrational
numbers being
entirely removed.
This
Number and
ideal,
Arithmetization
19
if it
are
now regarded
The abandonment
advantage
notion of
of the inestimable
as a species of
mathematical Nihilism.
entered
The
ratios of
now have
In
it.
between the
and
2,
3,
....
36
....
numbers
9, 10,
made
o, 4, 6, 8, 12,
Philosophy of Mathematics
2o
upon a new
it
The importance
ability.
is
fully as
It
as the
list of
ratios
the
is
new
existent.
list of
their
by
is
entities
the ratios
that
we have
created.
This
by
4, for
of four
over.
Number and
nor does
it
Arithmetization
"
If
21
mind
to enable
mathematics
is
man
language, to enable
It
is
to react
an invention
it
upon
of the
his fellows.
mind,
So, too,
different
from
true that both have grown, that both are the result
common
divisor of
two
integers.
by means
an end,
of a continued fraction.
If it
sides the
Philosophy of Mathematics
22
numbers.
The diagonal
of a square has
no integral nor
When we
sideration
is
or
TT,
or
2,
but the supply would soon run short, not to speak of the
impossibility of keeping such an enormous number of
symbols in mind or of ordering them in any way.
usual methods of representing the irrational consist
of expressions of which the irrational is the limit.
To
special
The
of construction, the
members
closer
of the
and
is
ulti
the
irrational.
i,
is
the irrational
may
is,
fraction; or
by other
Number and
of
Arithmetization
include in this
list,
23
to definite laws.
We
by means
of
definite integrals.
The invention
due
to
an
of the sequence as
infinite series is
by Cantor,
the notion of the latter being that the sequence itself was
the irrational number. However, we must discriminate
we
sentation of
by
figures or
machine which
mind
effec
many
and so forth.
With the introduction of the sequence
of various kinds,
determining
"
irrationals,
began
as a
process
arithmetization of mathematics."
The
means
called
of
the
object in view
of the notion of
by DuBois-Reymond
to give
back
An
its
Philosophy of Mathematics
24
real truth.
The
For
rationals or irrationals, they seem equally dense.
a
of
same
between any two of either there is third
the
kind;
and, what is more to the point, there are members of the
other set; that is, between any two rational numbers,
N=
given
the
number
of rationals is finite,
numbers
and that
in
at the farthest
when
Number and
Arithmetization
25
it
as its
number
in this
method
and that
and
do the same thing
of ordering
If
we
we endeavor
to
is not possible to
devise a successful method of ordering the irrationals in
"
"
this
denumerable manner, since there are proofs that
find
that
it
method
of proof
is
exist.
The usual
an
irrational can
ment
of
an
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
26
no
and
sets
and their
no resemblance
extensions.
little
or
there
no duration properly so
is
called,
1
handling sets satisfactorily.
in
the
of
infinite collections
However,
study
we must
between
their
member
of the
of the other
tion
is
and vice
versa.
But, if the infinite collec
not given outright by some law, but grows by
then
stage
1
it is
See
De La
Number and
new members
Arithmetization
are admitted.
to the integer
27
members
of
may
numbering.
some
an
of
collection
is
disappearing
if
These actual
infinities
finites.
They
mind
in direct exten
an
unlimited
theory
is
number
of
must be made.
of
will
be forced to consider an
Philosophy of Mathematics
28
and actual
external
infinity as given.
If,
however, our
own imagina
tion,
we
number
of the
its significance,
find that
numbers.
its first
and
set,
derivative
set
it is
no distinguishing feature
is
continuum. 1
Modern
may
not be so
far,
the
demands
of physics
of
mathematics
developments
now be forcing a new shoot to push
its
way
forth.
De La
Van
Number and
Arithmetization
29
but
it
may
and hypervarieties.
lines, surfaces,
"The
the terms:
functional space
multiplicity obtained
that
is
to say the
in any
by varying continuously
manner whatever
mind.
about
it.
We
are forced to
remedy
this ignorance
and
L Enseignement
ser. (4),
3
An
New Haven
Introduction
4
Lemons sur
145-168;
These.
Nouvelles Annales,
to
les
fonctions de lignes.
Philosophy of Mathematics
30
functional space.
intuition
is
mathematics
helpless,
is
nor
ingenuity of the
mind
REFERENCES
Winter, "Les principes du
Pierpont,
Amer.
CHAPTER
III
as
"
we
the
the
the
rock-ribbed
and
fertile valleys."
earth.
we
we could come
things are as
see them, or as
if
In
or less of this real space.
are studying the properties of this
real space, which are not due to our physiological nor
our psychological character, but are impersonal and have
objective validity. The success which our deductions
real
geometry we think we
Philosophy of Mathematics
32
we have found
that
invincible
ideal
truth as
its
toward which
character,
science
all
may sound
though they
absurd,
may
be used as the
B,
etc.,
We
sets.
assume
We
We
order
set
down
Even
of solitaire ?
of
controlled
1
by reasons
Elem. math,
wm
of expediency."
33
dreams
we
real.
but
mathe
maticians.
One view
reasoning
is,
is
stated
by Russell
1
:
"All geometrical
if
we
start
by
lines or planes,
that there
there
is
may be
Bull.
p. 124.
This
is
the
Philosophy of Mathematics
34
were
different,
up
in our
Halsted: 2
"
Geometry
the
is
science
created
to
give
to
make easy
of such relation
of this mastery."
This view reduces geometry to the study of the universal
It leaves out of
relations that hold between things.
all
geometry
lies
latent
now
in
but no one
what geometry
is
complete in
its
statement of
We
gives us.
ought rather to look upon
geometry as the evolutionary product of the centuries, a
dynamic rather than static view.
1
"On
35
Two and
fore the
known
to him, and,
if
studies the subject for its own sake and not for predicting
the fortunes of Chaldean kings, nor for increasing the
was
intellect
are
centuries.
of
it.
On
the other
geometry
is
a collection of purely
Geometry
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
36
is
In mechanics we are
vary as the
fifth
power
of
"God
geometrizes eternally!"
Yet, on the other hand, we remember that the practical
character of geometry makes the modern giant steel
structure of
Clifford: 1
written
humble beginnings up
Greek culture.
1
Lectures
and Essays,
(1901), p. 354.
37
new
by
life
little
complex variable.
The many-faced
and
crystal reflects
in the
dreams
space we have a
perfect
picture of electrodynamics, that is to say, certain differ
ential equations.
Even the theory of numbers finds in
its
useful that
it
Descartes
who
"
said,
Indeed
it
was
way
time burst
Philosophy of Mathematics
38
The
regulus;
if
Grassmann developed
dimensions, meaning a pointdimensions, that is, an ensemble of points
space of
which
is
dependent upon
parameters. Geometry
thus became the science of manifolds, the elements con
stituting the manifolds being quite diversified.
Indeed,
to
many
mathematicians,
geometry
does
not
study
notion,
dimensionality,
leading ulti
is
Bull.
(2),
19 (1912-13), p. 332.
of
be formulated
may
geometry
39
analytically."
troubles
all
by reducing geometry
it
and thus space is neither threenor four-dimensional, we have a very important problem
demands four
variables,
and many other problems, and we may well ask the ques
tion:
Is the space
and could
we
dimension?
could
on
we
life?
If
it
space
is
really
?
Not by motion
how
four-dimensional,
and what
effect
clearly could
would
we
it
have
find four-
might become
since
we obviously have no
it
could
a mirror.
intuitive
still
rotate
Then
knowledge
one
again,
of four-
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
40
to
an analysis
of our conceptions of
We
about which we
theorems.
may prove
The mind
followed
utilizing the
it finally
own
nature.
We
to
in its endeavor
useful for
mathematics the
mind
of
We
heir to, a
by
modation
of the lens,
but
if
41
We may
1
quote also from Brunschvicg: "Space has
roots in experience, but it is achieved in the reason.
its
The
Intellect
to
it
moves about
it
appertains
of the creative
We
Euclid
two
deavored to deduce
this postulate
quest of the
doubted."
In 1733 an Italian priest, Saccheri, reduced the postu
late to the statement that if A BCD be such that angles
of theory or of practice ever really
A and B
tion that
AC=BD,
contradiction.
any one
for
He showed
figure, it
that,
held for
all.
if
He thought he could
C and D were obtuse,
him
trouble.
Philosophy of Mathematics
42
He
really discovered
it)
the
Lobatchevskian geometry.
Passing over other investigations, we find in 1829
the publication of Lobatchevsky and in 1833 that of
Bolyai, in which it definitively appears that the postulate
in question is not deducible from the others, and that,
indeed, there is possible for space a geometry in which
there are many lines through a point parallel to a given
line,
triangle
is
less
sum
of
the angles of a
of the triangle,
Absolute of Space
"Bolyai
Science
It appears that
vertices
whose enormous
by the
sides could
that,
is
43
if
similar figures,
infinite
and which
motion, but
is
is finite,
yet
finite.
Indeed, the
sary complement of the Lobatchevskian.
formulae of trigonometry in this geometry are the usual
if
we make
the argu
ment
by
we need corresponding hyperbolic functions. Whether
we live in a three-dimensional point-space with a fourdimensional curvature which
tive,
is
positive, zero, or
nega
a question.
is
even be constant.
The
is
easily seen.
If
geometry
is
If
Philosophy of Mathematics
44
We
his philosophy
Indeed,
it
co-operation of the
mind
Monge
2
(i746-i8i8)-Poncelet (1788-1868).
Columbia University Lectures (1908), p. 2.
45
of countless fields
We
union
find,
of
common ground
for
the
or
all
A^-dimensional,
geometries, ordinary
Starting from this
hyperbolic, or elliptic.
foundation, we may be led to take the view of Klein and
parabolic,
We
find as another
If
we were
geometry
and twisted mirror, we might not
a very crooked
for example,
1
is
1
the three dimensionality of space.
et
Philosophy of Mathematics
46
existence.
We
find, in other
and
of the
it
Whatever
we know
to a certainty that
mathematics
and
will
meet the
relations sufficient
If the Minkowski
to explain and manage the problems.
four-dimensional world of a mingled time and space
becomes the most rational way to think of phenomena,
we
of the earth.
REFERENCES
Mach, Space and Geometry, tr. by McCormack.
Manning, Non-Euclidean Geometry.
Hinton, Fourth Dimension.
Manning, The Fourth Dimension Simply Explained.
Halsted,
Klein, "Erlanger
Programme,"
Bull.
New
York Math.
Soc., 2
CHAPTER
IV
complicated
arrangements,
center,
which,
however,
preserve
from that
forms.
The arrangement
dominates these
de
signs,
The study
the statement of
MacMahon:
47
Philosophy of Mathematics
48
lead
fact,
proved to be the
case, for
from a certain
well as
The
some very
In
all
we
is
find
upon examina
We
and
to the philosophy of
we could
define
number
of possible
games
49
stand up
possibly
grant, possibly
playing an
architecturally
much
artificial
Let us see
if
beautiful,
castles;
we may
but, after
all,
may vary
play.
like real
if
at
his
Suppose we
sum of all is 45, the sum of each row or column must be 15.
If, then, we break up 15 into three numbers in every
way
is
above
9,
we
no number
is
rows or columns.
partitions, as follows:
of these combina
some order and such that each number occurs
exactly once. We may then set down the form
tions in
8
as the beginning of the possible arrays, since there are
is 2, 6, 7.
6,
and neither
If the 2 is
put
5, 8,
or
in the second
9.
The
column,
Philosophy of Mathematics
50
Thus
672
8
To
arrive at
do,
and
we can
direct inspection
problem.
solution,
we
sum
of a
row or
of a
column
is
first
careful
omitted.
It
is
all:
2, 5, 8,
and
4, 5, 6.
If
we
start
theorems.
Little
1
squares for particular solutions of various cases.
Analysis.
problem
school
They
girls.
no pair
of girls shall
The question
51
be together
is,
how many
The answer
with
If
bonds,
which
as, for
may
together
by
CH
H
H C-
H
we may investigate what compounds of these elements
or radicals can be made so that no bonds are left un
an important problem of organic
chemistry.
developments by
Cayley. It is clear that other forms could be constructed
of a similar character and the possible combinations
studied.
We call such forms configurations.
attached.
This
is
mutations.
tions
ABC
we can make
six per
and BAG,
permutations
may
also
AB
may have
The
With a
constituting a cycle.
have cycles of
cycles.
Philosophy of Mathematics
52
large
more
fourth in one
least.
appearing.
For instance,
all
the characters of
set,
We
as
isomorphic in certain
theorems, and might thus consider that these theorems are
really applicable to them because they are embodiments of
consider
all
right
triangles
right-triangle.
This notion
53
we might say
conditions of dependence
may
be set up as we please.
If
the sense of
Cf. Keyser,
The
Human
xiii.
Philosophy of Mathematics
54
geometry
the consistency of
Euclidean geometry.
on the subject:
between central features
1
"The
existence
of
analogies
central features."
find
it
very different
systems and to see that they are aspects of one and the
same abstract theory. It is for this reason that the study
of many problems that look at first like mere puzzles or
games to while away an idle hour may suggest methods
of treatment of very difficult and important problems
in other directions.
we find correspondences
combinations of different types which
one set a function of the other set. For
between
sets of
enable us to
call
Introduction
to
Form
of General Analysis, p.
i.
of
55
mathe
and
functionality, enable
delights,
it
of
in a
game, but he
is playing a game
game as for the suggesit.
The game begets new mathematical
The point of view, however, that considers
much for
tiveness
which he discovers
not so
conceptions.
the whole of mathematics as a game, in which fantastic
structures are built under arbitrary rules sees only a
superficial
and per
manence.
From
this point of
geometry have
pinnacles are
ing
any kind
of certainty.
Even though up
to the present
degree of approximation
rolls on.
From
may grow
less
and
less as
fall.
No
exists.
time
which
criterion
We may
Philosophy of Mathematics
56
that
we have played a
fruitless
game when
the whole
We
same
state
may, however,
safely say that the world, as we know it, is the only world
to label it a dream is merely to call it by
we know, and
another name.
reality in a
To
new and
to use the
word
label it as unreal
is
strange sense.
If
ample
to the point
is
might need
alteration.
An
ex
It
was
mathematician of the
is
earlier period
term
error.
To
57
all.
Not
the
the
proof.
Conse
"Not
in
me/
me.
of the
human
Philosophy of Mathematics
58
triangles
made
of steel neither
the proof
object, or
day
is
of
obvious,
is
upon
is
is
raised
if
we view
is,
these uni
as observed
If this is all
harmonic ratio
As an example, the
by a pro-
jective transformation.
But the
ratio in question
may
them
is
to study
them
directly.
The
way
to
fact that
they
may be looked
at as invariants
59
summary
of
the
ration.
posteriori,
is
it
in order to
It
become as
was C.
S.
intelligible as possible.
Peirce 2
who
He
objects of imagination
merely, the discoveries of mathematics are susceptible of
being rendered quite certain." The importance of view
E. Boutroux, Natural
Roth well,
2
Law
p. 40.
Century Dictionary;
article
"Mathematics."
If
by
60
Philosophy of Mathematics
matics.
REFERENCES
und
Vielflache, 1900.
CHAPTER V
LOGISTIC
article
by Bertrand
"The
pure mathematics
of
Symbolic Logic
age; and when
mainder of the
is
this fact
principles of
Mathematics
"
consists in
Also in Keyser
s
the analysis of Symbolic Logic itself.
3
of
the two great components
address we find: ".
the critical movement, though distinct in origin and fol
.
last in the
is
saved.
1
It
is
Principles of Mathematics, p.
5.
Science
et
methode, p. 206.
Philosophy of Mathematics
62
will
which are
"
abandon.
What,
then,
this logistic
is
The
logic of Aristotle
is
well
in
"x
is
For
list of propositions.
an even number, 9 is an even
green apple is an even number," the first
example,
we may
number,
this
say:
"6
is
propositions.
The
first
Logistic
able
is
and Reduction
The
1
called a concept.
to
Logic
63
individuals that
may
be
put into the empty term (which may be any word of the
statement), the variable, and that yield true propositions,
constitute the class of the concept. Thus the class of
even numbers consists of a certain endless set or range of
individuals;
class of simple
any
In case
The
of a
member
5,
6,
10,
integers
numbers which
a remainder
5 or give
n, ....
are
As a
class,
But
it
that
i,
is,
mentioned,
constitute a sub
viz.
i,
16,
81,
whatever
the smaller.
5,
Now
either
all
when divided by
may
remainder.
same as the
For instance, we
is
the class
is
different
I, p.
157-
5,
and
of the
Philosophy of Mathematics
64
member
is
of
said to be included in
it.
1
pointed out by Peano and was not
first
The two
Aristotle.
subclass
and
(,
by
known
to
the symbols
for instance,
Roosevelt
The symbol
of a class
is
irrationals.
the inverted
3, for instance,
x 3 divisor of 288,
read "the class of divisors of 288."
It
is
is
is
definition
and subdivision
of classes,
but he introduced
a-
Greek
(-18, 18-
letters
denoting classes,
circle,
vidual
a,
then
theorem
thence Pascal
is
xs
ft.
theorem
circle.
Logistic
and Reduction
to
Logic
65
of mathematics,
its
own
logic.
The
new
ideas
use,
classes, the
conjunction
mon
Then
superclass.
a=aa
(identity),
= a, a(a+b) = a
ab = ba, a+b = b+a
a-\-ab
aa=a, a-\-aa
(absorption),
(commutation),
(tautology),
ab = aba, a=a(a-\-b)
(simplification),
He
mum
superclass
universe; and
of
all
classes
understood that
1
the
if
a class
is
non-existents.
Laws
It
is
An
Investigation of
66
Philosophy of Mathematics
class is also
If
under consideration, represented by
If two are
is considered, then 1 = 0+0
.
= ab-{-ab
-\-a b-\-a b
It
etc.
is
evident that
Any
may
0)
= o, i = 0+(i
of contradiction
be dichotomized
now
for
with the
0),
is
a subclass of
0,
we
indicate
x=ax
The
or xa
it
by
the equations
= o.
0=06,
bCj
then
= abbe
abc = ac.
logic.
tive
Logic;
trans,
by Robinson.
Logistic
expressions,
and Reduction
by condensation,
to
Logic
67
equivalent language.
Boole, however,
covery: that there
made a
all
proposition asserting
is, i
asserts consistency,
The
a=ab
= bc,
now be
classes.
same,
then a = ac;
or in equivalent forms,
ab
= o,
bc
= o,
then ac
= o.
b,
We may
to a system of terms
possible
list
of
Philosophy of Mathematics
68
by
It
classes.
shown particularly
as follows
is
absurd
This
is
is
= A
a=i
is
a proposi
useful
form
for implication
(a implies b)
is
= (a +b=i).
to C. S. Peirce, 1
who
devised
number
w-ary
1
into
the
of variables,
relatives.
prepositional
2
function with
(New
Series), 9 (1870),
PP- 317-378.
2
any
I, p.
170.
Logistic
and Reduction
to
Logic
69
of the circle
found
carried over
The ranges
these notions
is
to be found in
Principia Mathematica.
it
mind that
moment
The
its
outcome.
Philosophy of Mathematics
70
discovered
by
to propositions.
prepositional function is one in which
certain of the words have been replaced by variables or
blanks into which any individuals may be fitted. This
isolation of the functionality of
applied
it
is
is
a distinctly
entirely in line
is
It enabled us
above
individuals.
it
may
be inscribed in a semicircle,"
In
property.
this
mode
of statement
it is
apparent to
That
it
is
however,
is
culation of
TT
And
is
again, the
a determina
first
function.
of quadratic functions of x.
Again,
the analysis of the characteristics of a given ensemble
Logistic
is
and Reduction
to
Logic
71
It has
building
acteristics,
numbers
and
of the
likewise
are
able
(
in
#s$ 2
this
= 4/3
propositional
Then,
if
function.
we
call
= 6,
all
the roots
indistinguish
So also
these
= Q,
propositions
where p
we may
[(
= 6],
We may now
that of uniqueness
In mathematical language we might say:
The character which is common to all equations of the
of propositional functions, namely,
in their roots.
form
(x
while
it
a)
is
=o,
is
called
true, perhaps,
Philosophy of Mathematics
72
that
admit two
is,
each case
The truth of
consisting of indistinguishable individuals.
the matter is that the definitions given are merely state
ments in symbolic form of cases in which the number i
or the
number
appears.
in
The
we
cheerfully
might be in the
tacit interpretation of
"pure" mathe
What
is
an individual
? is
met.
made
clear, or are
they defined.
They
are qualities of
and then
ABC
The first
right-angled, this pink color is right-angled.
of these is said to have the truth-value truth; the second,
the truth-value false; the third has the value absurd,
is not a truth-value.
The first two assertions are
which
is
not a proposition.
Much
Logistic
is
made
to
Logic
73
but practically it
an assertion is a proposition
can be labeled with one of two given labels.
amounts only
only
and Reduction
when
it
to saying that
and inconsistency.
They do not
Thus, if we start
any way
with the postulates of Euclidean geometry, we arrive at
"
certain propositions, as,
triangle ABC has the sum of
labels of consistency
to objective truth.
refer in
its
The whole
of science
is
by
of this character,
reasoning.
And
false
We
we
on account
of the
certainly
merely know
say
about
From
exist
nor
the results of
that,
logistic
does
was
to assert the
Philosophy of Mathematics
74
In mathematics, he says, we
world exists we
of creative evolution,
Says Brunschvicg
Consequently
it
is
upon the
territory
of
positive
and demonstrations;
it
becomes immanent in
what is incorporated
The
and Reduction
Logistic
of truth
we
much
are not
to
Logic
75
But we may
discussing philosophy but mathematics.
it
a
little
with
This
inspect
profit.
assumption is the
is an absolute truth independent
and that by searching we may find
human
out.
At
existence
Says Jourdain
last,
then,
we
mathe
can see
is
it.
Some
but we do not
when we
mathematics.
Some
is
sacred being.
Doubtless
if
Columbus were
to
discover
America
built
1
Nature of Mathematics,
p. 88.
Philosophy of Mathematics
76
and
of relative
and
of
function, point-set,
transfinite
any sense
is
not
true;
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
have
always existed, nitroglycerine is to be dug out
oxygen
of wells, or that,
if
air,
fore
existed.
Logistic, with all its boasted power, has never
constructed a theorem that was truly synthetic in char
acter, it has never taken a set of new postulates not
derived from previously existing theories and developed
It
of the intellect,
logical
introduced as one of
Logistic
and Reduction
to
Logic
77
Zeus, nor
scalpel,
is
not a philosopher
The
an
true mathematician
is
Beyond the
real world,
artist,
though
an
ideal world
perfect of all
None has
tion.
it;
which he seeks
nor
less
To
We
must pass
nothing
less
absolute infinity.
ultimately
had an
its ruin.
infinity of
it
found
members
it
had
to set
up
definitions
definitive
abandonment
of
and
the
Philosophy of Mathematics
78
The net
its
and
in
one of his
last articles
Poincare despairs
The reason he
it.
is
we may
every integer.
When
collection,
mem
is
This
is
manifestly impossible.
Logistic
and Reduction
to
Logic
one rational
number
of
may
be placed in
way, or
While any
any
Manifestly any
way.
this
79
finite
it is
not
we can
The
Nor
finity.
We
is
an
infinite class
an
infinite collection.
may, then,
to algebra, or
of
Philosophy of Mathematics
8o
is
substantiated
in
the
philosophical world.
Indeed,
1
eventually with Lord Kelvin that:
the only true metaphysics."
we may conclude
"
mathematics
is
REFERENCES
Brunschvicg, Les etapes de la philosophic mathematique.
Hadamard, "La logistique et la notion de nombre entier,"
Rev. gen. des
Keyser, "The
sci.,
Thesis of
Modern
Math. Soc.
Hobson,
"On
Life, p. 10.
CHAPTER
VI
march
of events in
an
the
first
the ever
irreversible procession.
He
and the
to be followed
by
infinities.
itself
Philosophy of Mathematics
82
The
explicit use
mathematical
evolution
philosophy
it
of
change,
the
philosophy
of
Algorithms
83
to
we may study
X=x+i + + i
i
...
I s
+i, X=x+b.
o-\-x=x,
xo =
x.
From this point of view they would have seen that there
were negative numbers, which would make subtraction
always possible.
Let us suppose that they would next attack multiplica
tion, discovering the effects of operating
by 2, by 3, 5, 7
and giving exactly what Eratosthenes found in his
famous sieve. A single operator would not be sufficient
.
Philosophy of Mathematics
84
numbers.
multiplication
it
...
of
the
= ax-\-b,
The
where
give a
#i is
number
if
we
construct
by r~
the operation
1
to
Algorithms
)+,
85
and understand
w=
m and n
(excluding
o),
always give a number in the set produced by the opera
tions S.
Indeed, starting with x, we would have in suc
tions,
cession
1
x; after
7 mx-\-n;
,
after S,
aiW#+0 w+&;
I
after
T~
I
)
m
The
it
T.
a subgroup conjugate
an invariant subgroup.
It is easy to see that multiplications, x = mx, do not
remain invariant, although they form a subgroup, the
operation of two successive multiplications being equiva
group
to
itself, it
form x
form
r
m(xd).
d=a(x
A little
is
called
The
a),
conjugate, indeed,
T is written
where
d).
reflection
it
would
Philosophy of Mathematics
86
and
y2
= ay
-\-b,
which give
a = (x 2 -y 2 )/(x,-y l )
b=(x2 y
-x y
I
)/(y I -x l ).
H,
x; after T, y.
leave the
number y
The
set conjugate to
invariant.
would thus
We
of
own
activities for
such laws.
If
we
to
Algorithms
87
mathe
maticians.
sire,
The operation
continuous.
is
If
of
them
will coincide
with the
first.
we can eventually by
a radius as near to the
set.
We
In
constitute
fine,
demonstrations
Philosophy of Mathematics
88
The others
cisely this kind of axiom that Euclid enunciates.
which are more directly associated with the idea of displacement
and with the idea of groups are the very ones which he implicitly
admits and which he does not even deem
it
necessary to state.
This
first
is
their size
and
wood around,
in a nest.
or
where
to the point
than
it
is.
up
in
an inherited mental
storehouse.
We may
to
Algorithms
89
right they
converts
for
s,
for
all
sive
translations
and
is
is its
own
by H.
conjugate
The group
is
itself
Philosophy of Mathematics
go
almost by his
This
is
a most striking
until
Klein 1 says:
1
"One
Hohere Geometric,
2, p. 4.
to
Algorithms
91
in Lie-Scheffers: 1
An example
homogeneous
a group which
we
of continuous
of
linear substitutions
is
of great
importance geometrically. If
we have a dis
riants, projective
of
on
= x-\-iy,
of analytic functions of z
z.
Continuierliche
Gruppen
(p. 665).
Philosophy of Mathematics
92
of
it,
would not
Germans
released.
spread
its
was at
first
it
quite foreign.
turn our attention now to the discontinuous groups.
These may contain an infinity of operators or only a
We
finite
number
of
them.
x=
all
where a, ft
and y, as is
}
y, 8
a5
yx+d
are integers.
8 likewise.
j8y=i,
Evidently a
is
prime to
ft
- 2X + I
their
~//
"products" being
B
29^+37
This class of substitutions
26x+i$
is
numbers.
By
their
theory of
nect
it
to
Algorithms
93
example, the
functions.
equations
equation
by the
may
be uniformized in terms
of
an algebraic
automorphic
For example, we
the finite discontinuous group, which was the startingpoint of the theory of groups.
The
brilliant
work
is
It
is
its
origin
to be found
Philosophy of Mathematics
94
changing.
change.
We thus come back to the fundamental notion with
The
its
importance
But
means
but with
first real
artificial
appearance
stantial basis
was
in
and unsatisfying
proofs.
The
on a sub
He showed
an
article
by
Servois. 1
et
work was
carried
still
farther
to
Algorithms
95
2
by Murphy and Boole.
1
act only
of operators;
product;
(4)
(6) correlative
multiplications;
or others; (8) simultaneous statements;
(9)
iteration;
(10) distributivity.
sisting in the
reality
Though
of vast
It
solving
all
is
problems.
Phil.
Encyc. des
sci.
Ann.
Normale
General Analysis.
ficole
math.,
Tome
(3),
14 (1897), p. 133.
Philosophy of Mathematics
96
problem of concept,
relative,
and
its
have made
REFERENCES
Miller, "Historical Sketch of the
Theory
of
Groups
of Finite
Math. Soc.
CHAPTER
VII
is
one that
is
very
We
is
In the
first
division
what we
or multiplexes, or vectors.
called manifolds,
number point
we would,
(x, y).
We
for example,
may,
it is
be
true,
Philosophy of Mathematics
98
two dimensions.
of
function
of the
from
The
inability of
doing
many mathe
as
is
ner
s tool;
We may repeat
real quantities,
2
138.
mere memoria
which
to
Algebra
99
the
transformed.
The
is
i, is
to be found in the
remarks of
the special use of the symbol for its symmetry, elegance, and
power. The immortal author of quaternions has shown that
there are other significations which may attach to the symbol
in other cases.
But the
is
to be
found in
its
of
tremendous importance
yields
truth.
If,
as Russell believes,
Amer.
to carry
ioo
it
as
Philosophy of Mathematics
else, in
real points.
reference to algebra.
are concerned in algebra with negative numbers,
with the imaginary and the complex numbers, and with
We
them coming under the one name hyperThe numerical element is not of particular
others, all of
numbers.
number.
is
ranges
may
be
finite or infinite
Indeed, they may become themselves hypernumbers. Thus to the roots of the equation x2 +2X+7,
i
iV6, correspond the numerical values i and 1/6
tinuous.
and
i;
in which the
where 0^=1, and the numerical
coefficients of the units are i =*= 1/2 and i =F 1/2.
We may
also see incidentally here that these numbers are not the
same duplexes in the two methods of writing, a significant
units are
now
co
and
o>
where
cos
0= -4-1/7
sin
0= 1/f
fact that
we
to
Algebra
101
it
another.
We may
suspect
We
matics.
now
meet the
when we undertake
if
we can account
for alge
mathe
difficulty
to connect a negative
or the imaginary
i,
that
little
number
i,
number, say,
with ordinary
num
We
sym.
i,
meaning that
we may
we
we
a negative
call
scale.
the substitution:
I
whence
Bibliotheque
du congres
-I
inter national e
de philosophic,
3, p. 325.
iO2
Philosophy of Mathematics
then,
the linear
substitution
But
H
i
former case
= o=i-\-sym.
first
how
i,
i ?
the
in the
a
b
case
and
scale.
way out
o, as well as
i, o,
Now, we
linear substitutions.
is
to assert that in
only places on
are all equally
are pretty well assured
i,
i,
are
all
and
that a prime of
For instance,
this
17= (1+41)
form
(i
is
2i),
(1-4**),
5,
13,
17,
not as numbers
may we
assert that
are divisible
by
their
group of a larger
whose numerators
class, it
list
of
to
Algebra
103
of 3,
5,
thesis manifestly
is
historically
not
true.
other
Any
of
phenomena, then
all are.
illustrated perhaps
by a
fresh
we may
that
and
we
i
6.
Now,
the numbers
2, 3,
d,
i+0,
in the
of the
giving 8 times
3.
But
in the case
above there
is
no such
Philosophy of Mathematics
104
possibility, since
Kummer
domain, that
a, 2
=a
(x+6y)
For
= (x
while
x+Oy
6=(i+0) (i
i
two
is
we
write
is
a square in this
0) is divisible
divisible
it is
like
irredu
number
by
ideal factors
Now,
we
if
is
|8i
by
3,
but neither
3,
i+0
nor
number with
obvious that
we can
which
is
the case.
By
is
ideal,
V2
list
of integers.
The
to
Algebra
105
we may
of
for
the fraction f
by writing
it
list
of
previously existing.
We are now in a position to see that the extension by
means of the negative is also truly an extension and in
cludes the previous system, which as a subclass may, it is
true, be called arithmetic numbers, but which do not lose
their identity or their existence when they are viewed as
belonging to the larger class, in which relation they are
called positive numbers.
To go to the extreme of saying
and
of a Chinese
to chaos in ideas.
Philosophy of Mathematics
io6
because there
make
is
the
It
is
of
such equations as
#+6 = 4. The
creator
of
is
of learning
is
available
for discoveries.
To whom
It
is
equations, and in
to
Algebra
107
The
difficulty, of course, is
man
of fractions,
such as
J,
because,
if
one
into
halves, he
may,
if
indeed, of
found
all
in concrete experience,
is
rejoiced
when
io8
Philosophy of Mathematics
We may
bers.
The
first explicit
close
In the problem
i.
The corresponding root of the equation is
the other two roots being
2=*= I/ 3.
A whole century
is 2
4,
went by before much was accomplished with the imagiThen de Moivre in the eighteenth century (1738)
naries.
gave his celebrated formula. Thirty-six years previously
Leibniz and Bernoulli had seen that the decomposition
= ix.
of
the
eighteenth
century
for
developed
the
the representa
plane.
We
under-
method
to
Algebra
109
of representation is
simply one of many, and does not in any way make the
numbers more or less real than they are without any
7
V
i
representation.
perpendicular to a given axis of reals.
geometrical
not a
is
unit line
we were to state
representation, we should
If
number came
That is
upon as a du
number which
rotated the unit through the angle 6 and stretched its
length r times, came to be substituted the duplex (r cos 0,
the complex
plex of
two
reals.
to be looked
The
r sin 0).
is
and more
we must endeavor
to avoid.
From
no
Philosophy of Mathematics
and the place of the imaginary was now
For the detailed history, reference must be made
cultivated,
assured.
cession, or as
a well-ordered
tion, aside from its being an early attempt at the arithmetization of mathematics, lies in the fact that he not only
by
of.
In the same
way geometric
when put
or extensions.
The
was
Phil.
Mag.
(2),
In
quaternions
there
is
to
in
Algebra
double
infinity
of
The product
linearly independent.
of
any two
of the
that
we have no
that
is,
imaginary units,
for, if
= w+ ix+jy+ kz
= a+ib+jc+kd,
and
then
algebra of quaternions
three dimensions.
and
Joly.
quaternions
The
is
His result
is
such an algebra
in every case.
division
is
H2
Philosophy of Mathematics
We
and disputes
an endless
series of discussions
product of two
course
the
confusion
conies
and 3.
two vectors
bers 2
product
is
The
So the product of
an impossible thing. The only
the numbers which the vectors repre
feet are incidental.
in space
that of
is
What
answer to
them hypernumbers.
We may sum up the
result of
If the
form
x-\-iy,
to
Algebra
but we
113
go on
without
creating
spaces
limit.
Quaternions form a subclass of what has been
other varieties;
all
may
in
whose domains
of
become
numbers
We
many.
find
numerous,
nilfactorial
even
infinitely
hypernumbers,
nilpotent
indeed,
hypernumbers, and other varieties. The notion of hypernumber has widened out to cover a universe which is
equal in extent at least to the universe of all kinds of spaces.
The reduction of all mathematics to statements in terms of
hypernumbers
is
mathematics to
mathematics tends always
algebra.
The
first definite
in 1870.
direct
terms.
this
and skew
of the different
memoirs on
the subject see the Encyclopedic des Sciences Mathematiques, Tome I, Vol. I, Fasc. 3.
We
we have a
from which we
start,
i,j, k,
new
unit,
and
all
pp. 97-215-
Philosophy of Mathematics
ii4
furnishes
An
of matrices of order n.
all
eij
of
such that
is
called a quadrate.
Just as
in the
form
of
we should not
The notion
of hyper-
numbers necessary
to
Algebra
iox*+i = o.
115
For the
The theory
of groups
The equations
of
we
hyper
it.
The
is
same as that
of the ones
n6
Philosophy of Mathematics
We
further extensions of
hypernumber
in the
The
find
still
transformation
Jp
may,
S ,f)(
mations
xW
sum
of transfor
like
f*i(0(
Jo
Ux
)dt+a4>t(s)
)dt
Jo
b<t> 3
(s)
Mr
(*)(
Jo
which are nothing more than idempotents and direct
Other extensions are also in sight.
nilpotents.
REFERENCES
Boutroux, "Sur
la relation
Sci.
(1886), p. 37.
Macfarlane,
305-326.
CHAPTER
VIII
TO TRANSMUTATIONS
The
is
meant a mode
of the chess-player, as
manageable, summable
series is attack
the value.
The
some
some other form constructed out of
definition given to
n8
Philosophy of Mathematics
of
We may
transitions.
may
we introduce
the irrationals.
By
scale.
We
other pro
would then de
We
number.
These generat
Quoted by
geometry.
Modes
of
,
arrangement,
title-page, Vol.
to
Transmutations
119
may
all
of transitions or processes.
This
would seem to be more certain when we recognize that
transitions have their invariants, their functionalities, and
ments.
He
theoretical sciences
gives
it
depend
for
finite
and
infinite in
"continuous"
2.
series,
in
That
is
this
That the
relations
amongst the
and
metrical.
logical entities in
ques
namely, the modes of action, of which this system 2 is
composed, are not only dyadic, but in many cases polyadic in
4.
tion,
From
in creations
and
modes
have certain
i, p.
134.
Philosophy of Mathematics
120
is
just in so far
as
it is
is
registers the
hausted
its
enough to suppose.
Mind seems
to carry with
it
con
its
all
sitions.
viduals.
In arrangements, in
its
properties are
mode
of generation.
to
have
The
much
their
invariants,
121
abstract theory
that is true of
Processes
Transmutations
for
to displace
instance,
the
for
move
of
instance,
I,
pp. 67-135.
(2), 5 (1887),
pp. 225-278.
CHAPTER IX
INFERENCES AND THE REDUCTION OF MATHEMATICS
TO SYSTEMS OF LOGIC
The last great division of dynamic mathematics is
that called theory of inferences. The speculative phi
losopher who is endeavoring to condense all mathe
matics into a single
for it
might hope
field
for a
and
to
moment
are related
all
these
Methods
come
of analysis
These
may be
objectified into
123
reasoning.
ing,
tems and
may
latter.
Finally,
Said Peirce: 1
Mathematics
but
it
is
is
it is
not induc
tion; neither
is it
its
claims;
rule
nor
itself.
defined
tems
by
its
of reasoning
it
But mathematics
fly flights
an
is
beyond these
things,
cannot be calculated as so
It
intellectual space.
is,
by the
sys
furnishes.
its
many
and
its
butter
trajectories in
is
(1884), p. 97.
Philosophy of Mathematics
124
Its
wings
may
predict,
lized
rest
of the sustaining
if its
of algebra;
it is
that
it
his desired
formu
lae;
who
is
of
with which
it
has to do.
For instance,
it
considers
(6),
25 (1915), p. 662.
They
125
and
any magnitude
of
in
inversion.
In every investigation of
present.
They
nature of mathematics.
REFERENCES
Jevons, The Principles of Science, 1907.
CHAPTER X
FORM AS A CENTRAL PRINCIPLE
We
of
mathematics as to
its
main divisions
Four of these
We found
mathematics.
We now
have to take
cross-sections, as
it
not
call it
a definition
it
deals with
any ordered
126
set of entities,
such as
Form
as a Central Principle
of the peculiarities of
groups of operations."
This notion was advanced in a
Kempe.
He
says:
".
studying
form
of
memoirs by
must inevi
considering the mathe
series of
the conviction
127
its
we
are merely
other characteristics,
Form
invisible
investigated.
objects in square
"
"
triangular numbers,"
and other
Philosophy of Mathematics
128
forms.
Coming up
to
modern
times,
we
find
numbers
number
is
into which
numbers may be
cast,
problem
sions
in the consideration of
may
be in Taylor
series,
or
in
other
rational
here also.
is
of vital importance;
Hilbert,
Frechet,
and others
all
Form
as a Central Principle
129
In
all
As elementary elements we
the
line,
The elements
line
compound elements
polygram,
and many
others. 1
When
and
more modern
we
as the
figures,
We are tempted
Tome
IV, Vol.
2,
to
admit
IV, Art. 4.
Philosophy of Mathematics
130
face), fixed
which
of space.
is
The
is
concerned with
arrangement.
Form
as a Central Principle
131
the creative
relations in general,
This
is
at once evident
when we remember
the various
forms.
show that
mathematics
all
to the
it is
They
are
as follows:
unique)
manner every
is
is
undistinguished
collection of entities
is
from
others.
In
like
from others;
Kempe,
(1890), p. 262.
Philosophy of Mathematics
132
of entities,
particular
anything
else.
It
may seem
in
"form"
it
we have
to consider the
An
inversion.
The theory
of the
is
the
Further,
the functionality relationships that are added to previous
entities are sometimes of more importance than the enti
themselves, and it is the functionality that is studied
and not the form of the entities plus the functionality.
ties
said of invariance.
Form
The
first
as a Central Principle
is
133
the theory
of operations.
of
any
operators.
study
The
of form.
concrete manner.
Thus
The study
subgroups and
their relations,
whether
is
eral, is for
far as
of these
is, numbers which have as qualitative units given hypernumbers, are built up in the most general way and their
combinations examined. These combinations furnish
the laws of the particular algebra. These are often stated
and
The
sub-algebras
in this division.
belong
vention of these hypernumbers,
Kempe
It
is
and
the in
Philosophy of Mathematics
134
We
it
The
dynamic mathematics
third division of
is
that of
The
processes.
simplest processes are those that pass
from a set of objects on a single range to a set on a single
range. Thus the process of differentiation passes from a
set of continuous functions to a set of functions possibly
continuous.
also
The
The
may be
viewed as a process from a range which has infinite manifoldness to a range with infinite manifoldness. Every
function may be looked upon as a mode of transition from
a range or set of ranges to a range or set of ranges. And
every transmutation of a function into another may be
The
systems
mode
of transition to
of transition.
last division of
of inference.
dynamic mathematics
The form
is
that of
of a demonstration, the
one
whether of number or
these
it
mathematics considers.
Besides
These we
will consider in
Form
some
as a Central Principle
It
is
135
enough to notice
Further, a large
part of mathematics is concerned with the correspondences
that exist between structures and which are called func
Finally,
This
is
generally, of inversions.
least unless
And we
should
and we
REFERENCE
Kempe,
"
Theory
of
I,
pp. 1-70.
CHAPTER XI
THEORY OF INVARIANTS
The principle of invariance has also been considered
to be the essence of mathematics.
In his presidential
address before the British Association in 1901 MacMahon 1
"It
said:
is
And
branches of mathematics."
all
Forsythe
in
his
The theory
has
it
made
its
way
into the
completed,
its
is
its
(p.
665)
edited by SchefTers,
"In recent times the view becomes more
of
mathematics
We
theory
1
is
we
number
136
Theory of Invariants
137
may
most
of
of
the investigations.
We
con
field of invariants, in
When we come
region
The
first
invariants,
covariants,
In
or at least
may
which
is
be so regarded.
an intimate knowledge
expressions.
It
is
of
the
structure
of
great usefulness.
In the third division of static mathematics
find as yet very
much
algebraic
theory of
ranges that are of
s
we do not
Philosophy of Mathematics
138
knowledge
The
logic
functions in
it
may
have.
and prepositional
that have
few
invariants
general possesses
of
relatives,
classes,
harvest of invariants.
order to
endow
the utmost
economy and
substitution group,
Works,
This
is
(1881), p. 233.
all
the
Theory of Invariants
branches of geometry,
its
139
tremendous
If
we
increase
list
manent and
smoke
Wars may
infinity.
come and go, man may dream and achieve, may aspire
and struggle, the aeons of geology and of celestial systems
may ponderously go their way, electrons and dizzy
cycles of spinning magnetons, or the intricate web of ether
"
may
tial
list
of invariants
The automorphisms
of
is
an algebra,
also
show
This
to
field will
is
The
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
140
may
ciple of invariance
acter
of
mathematical constructions.
Its
results
are
the
field
of
mathematical
investigation.
Among
matics contains
are invariants of
Theory of Invariants
141
much
of the value of
mathematics
When
values, there
must correspond
to
it
physical facts.
have a
When
phenomena
then
the
and
is
reserved
REFERENCES
Meyer
(trans,
by Fehr), Sur
les
CHAPTER
XII
The whole
function, that
is
series
we may
at
first
consider that
it
would be
safe
We
more
number
of
numerical values.
These are
Then come
of little
functions
143
variable
but
it
is
If the
mal
calculus, so far as
it
The method
of definition is not
series or
expansions
upon
mathematics
is
of
at
all;
the
function
it is,
it
surely
is
not space.
The
functions.
The
original
notion
of
function
must
Philosophy of Mathematics
144
is
the
known
types.
We
mechanics or electrodynamics.
we
If
general,
more exact
sciences
is
ease.
The
chief
aim
many new
with groups.
of
145
of functions as
we have
all
we may
when it
list
Included in
Thus the
again
it
this,
field is
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
146
When we
we
JT/ (
= o,
upon the
that
is,
of real variables.
hypernumber
it is
of the
very large
Functionality
is
as Theory of Functions
actnne.
.-
In
147
CHAPTER
XIII
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
One
mathematical advance
We
is
solved, indeed,
may
mathe
The equations of
its
outcome.
mathematical
number
itself in its
of
of
study
mathematician bring a constantly growing number of
problems which in turn suggest a still wider field of
1
Says Hilbert: "If we do not succeed in
solving a mathematical problem, the reason frequently
consists in our failure to recognize the more general
investigation.
Bull.
(2),
8 (1902), p. 443.
148
Theory of Equations
149
is,
we may
One
of the solution of
what we
call
was that
diophantine equations,
At present this kind
in integers.
of
line is the
in finding
theory
the domain of integrity in which the solutions or roots of a
Philosophy of Mathematics
150
independent variable.
Hyperbolic functions,
elliptic
func
these
hyperelliptic functions, Abelian functions
were invented, as well as hosts of others, in order to com
plete the solution of the differential equations that arose
tions,
work
of the
mathematician.
They
which such
be solved in terms
when a
differential
The
creation of
mathematics and
an opening
of the
its
self-determination.
Further,
we
of difference-equations
developments
field which
new
inventions.
mathematical physics
lies
in
The
easily
greater part of
this region,
since
mathe
it is
by
differential equations
Theory of Equations
another
151
branch
of mathematics quite
the
demonstrating
fertility of the mind.
need not stop to consider the solutions of problems
conditions,
is
capable of
We
They have
in its few
their
We
find in
mathematical chemistry.
In the theory of operators we have the invention of
only
of a
solutions,
Closely following
it is
the
which we
analysis.
problems in physics
may
be stated as problems
in the
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
152
The
distinction
the
variables
The problems
account.
many new
Problems
far
ideas.
When
statement.
is
approximating a mathematical
The methods
of science
and those
of
mathe
uninterrupted progress.
the central principle of
in his
in the theory of
matics
is
in
Theory of Equations
153
is
an act
the
science
progress of
all
the ages to
come.
REFERENCES
Picard, Sur
.
le
developpement de
analyse, 1905.
demi-siecle,"
Bull,
des
sci.
math.
(2),
41
(1917),
pp.
237-260.
Poincare, L Avenir des mathematiques, Atti del IV congresso
inter nazionale del matematici, Vol. I, pp. 167-172.
Volterra, Sur quelques progres recents de la physique mathematique, 1912.
CHAPTER XIV
SOURCES OF MATHEMATICAL REALITY
We
of
No
entities
characters,
results
ideal experiment,
tifique, p. 135.
154
155
We
out of tin
foil
its
area to be
More
recently
much importance
their
for
results
as
for
the
tacitly
all
to be
true.
standpoint
system
of
is
The
latest
1
Enriques.
exponent of
this philosophic
considers geometry to be a
have been extracted from
He
concepts which
arbitrarily
by
chosen.
together
sense-data concerned.
we
Problems of Science.
Philosophy of Mathematics
156
fit
the world.
The theo
that
its
far as
form, and
same as
if
empty
distance.
interest
real
is
purely artificial.
be said in reply to
It
may
do not know
there
is
we know
it,
not as we
The
Millions of
men
No
preted
earth rotates does more than produce some phenomena
that we would expect it to produce if it did rotate. But
their
sensations.
so-called
157
Now
if it
No conceivable experi
or disprove the theorems of geometry, for
place they are not at all theorems about
the
first
angles are
constructions,
properties
from such
cile
we
motion
of light
light
Just as
it is
simpler to
complicated, so
list
it
of forces
may
light
on
the
contrary
that
transcends
the
it
sensory
is
world
mathematics
it
Philosophy of Mathematics
158
1
Says Milhaud:
for
an instant.
Let us make
all
disposed to deny
it.
movement,
line, surface,
not at least a
little
if
in these
furnish
perience,
are
quality.
159
which his
intellect
it
forges endless
once for
all.
Shall
we say
that
it is
an
illusion,
and
all
these
new
not
still
is
of
of speech, for
who does
not appre
ciate all the activity, all the genius, all the creative power
necessary to see and to bring forth what is hidden in the initial
ideas, or,
more
exactly, shall
we not
say, to realize on
is
them as a
reality of
mathematics
Philosophy of Mathematics
160
We
world, but
it is
We
discover
its
eternal
verities,
He
it is
its
numbers and
Numbers
ideal figures.
the natural
an
ideas.
made
its
to build
up an
object of study
it is
of
of a similar
Russell.
view
161
is
We may
to be
quote
In a sense
it
in intricacy, in
home and
this
symmetry and
in poise.
life,
of curious transformations.
But
at the
face to face
If there is
a world of
absolute,
and
if
Philosophy of Mathematics
162
and
"No
what
is false, is
And
more
to say." 1
know
false;
and there
in our observations
Think
of
how
it!
is
nothing
we
are
An
to
eternal
is
What
minds to Paradise
What
is
truth,
Mind (new
series), 13 (1904),
pp. 5 2 3~5 2 4-
is
163
And were
contradictions
be waiting
successor.
its
third source to
itself
which the
reality of
still
would
mathematics has
been ascribed
mind
Poincare living he
is
Mathematics
conclusions of mathematics.
is,
from
this
We may
inanimate objects.
idea to Kant,
of
it.
It
is
who
is
is
number
may
be visualized.
The
is
is it
human
he says,
soul,
and
is
it is
nature
Philosophy of Mathematics
164
o to
i,
in them.
example,
series of
x,
if
and draw a
w-th, given
terms, the
the strip.
by the
n
first
Now
first
term of the
This property
the property of uniform convergence.
would never have entered our discussions in case only
individual curves had been considered. It is a property
by
the
mind
Kant
mind organizes
mathematics
The laws
these data.
is
specially,
165
of arithmetic are
fiber of
human mind
organizes
its
experience in this
or an enormous
may
number
of cases,
is
able to state
Says Brunschvicg:
"No
its
structure.
Les ttapes de
Philosophy of Mathematics
i66
Not only
itself.
all
preassigned
tion.
It
is
to
Kant
doned
a
for, since
It
is
is
this
schemes from
schemes
it
will use.
It originates
choice of which
Mathematics
of thought.
and
richer significance.
categories of
it
ma the-
it
clearly that
as
it
it is
its
own
free to create
at last,
and
is
167
able to see
lems.
What
It
is
fields will
created.
progressive
and
Since these
show a
mind has
when
Its structures
life,
it
such as four-dimensional
living
is
Philosophy of Mathematics
i68
applications.
create
and
that
its
We may
is
when the human mind saw wider horizons, as well in the book
of the scribe Ahmes, who gave the proof of his calculations with
fractions, as in the primary investigations of Newton and
Leibniz
in
finding
results
gence
by becoming conscious
the specific mark of
is
to verification.
REFERENCES
Brunschvicg, Les etapes de la philosophic mathematique.
Milhaud, De
.
of the
intelli
Le
la certitude logique.
rationnel.
CHAPTER XV
THE METHODS OF MATHEMATICS
same piece
The names
for
make
The
clear
We
what we mean.
method.
scientific
It
is
commonly supposed
we may quote
Most,
have had
if
not
all,
In answer to
Sylvester:
modern mathematics
their author,
which resisted
all efforts of
the myriad-minded
which, as he informed
1
Nature,
me
with his
(1869), p. 238.
169
own
lips,
stared
him
in the
Philosophy of Mathematics
170
my memory
(if
led
serves
by the construction
of his Planetary
Automaton; or the
new
it
elasticity
of integral calculus]
have
all
And more
recently
we have
the remarks of
Hobson on the
1
same subject:
The actual evolution of mathematical theories proceeds by a
process of induction strictly analogous to the method of induc
tion employed in building up the physical sciences; observa
tion, comparison, classification, trial, and generalization are
Not only are special results, obtained
essential in both cases.
independently of one another, frequently seen to be really
included in some generalization, but branches of the subject
which have been developed quite independently of one another
are sometimes found to have connections which enable
to be synthetized in one single
body
of doctrine.
The
itself in
them
essential
the discern
One
of the best
of
mathematics,
is
this, as well
Poincare, whose
171
any
order.
The very
The theory
enables us to solve
to integrate
any algebraic
able in this
He
way
lines,
He general
discovering an infinity of
new
of this
elementary geometry
is
fundamental functions
in general.
It
is
generalization to
Philosophy of Mathematics
172
first
to a wave-theory, then
we mean
generali
means
of these
is
necessary to generalization.
to generalization,
ises.
in determining
premises are
made a
is
announced
to be integrated are
is
much more
defined in
widely true
manner.
if
the inte
The
analogies
Lebesgue
found to exist between widely different theories enable
us to see from the one theory and its developments how
unsuspected developments may be made in another
gration
As Whewell
said:
much
173
by
is
of
that of directly
or
what
is
appreciating
seeing
given immediately, and not
as a result of deduction or other process usually called
is
be
will think in
models.
applied.
very good example is the use of the divi
sions of a sphere to represent the polyhedral groups,
and thus to study their structure and connection with
algebraic equations.
of Abelian integrals
on closed
ties
of
tions.
surfaces.
sound-waves throws
light
properties
to
assist
properties
in
the
on
use of
differential
equa
known mechanical
calculation
of
areas and
volumes.
The
may
Philosophy of Mathematics
174
who
of algebraic functions.
who
ential equations,
making an
Hermite
The
continuous variables in
way
introduction
by
the
problems of
arithmetic forms enabled him to write down at once many
of
intuitively evident
most
make
equations. Intuition is
the mathematician to keep in sight his problem and the
importance of every notion that appears for the problem.
It
is
his
that enables
him
to
It
is
work
Anwendung
der Diff.-
p. 26.
The Methods
of
Mathematics
175
root of
Of the true
significance
and
the intuition.
fine
He compares
matter.
of a piece of
find
it, is
silica needles.
The construction
of a living creature,
of this lacework,
and not
is
the intuitive
however,
to be discovered
finished, product.
to
method
of discovery
ticular cases
is
and often
able to see in
universally true.
power
tial.
of analysis
It
many new
cases, for
For instance,
Philosophy of Mathematics
176
made
None
It
would take an
The method
of this
1
weakness, a fact pointed out by Hadamard, so that the
must
be
swept very carefully with
generalized problem
to study the
work
of
measure in focusing a
brilliant light
on
ability
is
The
mathematics
of the masters of
method
successful
own.
it
The
of
acquiring
object of such
is
first-hand study
in general the
certain
skill
of
methods
most
one
of arriving at results.
2
3
particular should be consulted Poincare and Fehr.
1
Bibliotheque
Science
et
du congres
methode p. 43.
Enquete sur
la
methode de
much
In
3.
deductive
method.
method
This
177
has
been
method
of mathematics.
form.
Often
it
is
not at
all
how
obvious
the original
which an
cessful finish.
results
In most cases
the
is
is
carried to a suc
it
else
The mode
by the
intuitive
power
presentation often
The
carefully removes all vestiges of the first attack.
deductive method is usually applied in the investigation
as a
investigator.
means
of verification of
of
function-value
consider
case
any
the
consequences of
this
hypothesis. In
to be
was known
Philosophy of Mathematics
178
of verification.
As an expository method
it
is
summit
It
is
by which the
method
failures
presentation of results.
intuitional
papers.
method
Apropos
is
to be found in
of his style
panied by notes,
vester
method
many
of Sylvester s
Noether 1 says:
of presentation,
is
everywhere accom
embodying
relations,
whether
p. 155.
179
intelligible conclusions
jectures incited
by
The exponents
remain veiled
of
his
some instances
essential
char
germs
of fruitful methods.
is
given by
The
sion of simplicity
skill
as Lagrange no doubt
Lavoisier that
pondered by
all
He
mathematicians have
some are
satisfied
same thoughtfulness,
general theorem, and seem to fear that they will spoil their
artistic pleasure by the thought of an application to a special
With few exceptions his memoirs are short.
problem
The
is set forth,
of establishing the
statement alone
The
is
is left
to the reader.
Ann.
ecole
but, particularly
and the task
synthetic,
often given,
that of verification.
1
is
nonnale
method, however, is
In order to attach any new work
(3),
18 (1901), p.
i.
Philosophy of Mathematics
180
had
must be
to demonstration.
The framing
However,
the postulational
which
is
architect
be stable for
Whitehead and
Russell,
181
feature that
case,
and
obscured or
is
intuitions
may
in consequence free
to
characterize.
rules of procedure
We may
of generalization.
problem
begin,
and
however,
difficult
with
of
the
gen
eralization:
which
domain
to a wider
domain
it
consists
sometimes
in the
it
will
a wider domain
entities
and
their
study.
We
ability to create
new
things.
the
side
we found
182
Philosophy of Mathematics
num
created.
These
of equations or propositions of
the
solutions
of
roots
furnish a
domain
in
processes.
is
it is
useful.
fill
183
not so fundamental
and the imaginary. Indeed, the time may come when the
demands of physics may make it necessary to consider the
path of an electron to be a continuous non-diflerentiable
curve, and the Borel function may become a necessity
to explain the fine-grained character of matter.
"To
the evolution of Physics should correspond an evolution
in
how
1
ever, with the results of experiment in view."
The
origin of
these
creations
is
a most interesting
et
methode.
own
His
conclusion
may
front
184
Philosophy of Mathematics
significance
of
the
fact
that sometimes
the
newborn
by a
blind causality.
This faculty
to
that
analogous
possessed by the artist. Indeed,
many have noted the numerous relations of mathematics
is
"It seems to
me
Sylvester said:
that the whole of aesthetic (so far as
his
in
their
addresses.
The
cultivation
of
the
aesthetic
That
day
to furnish the
these processes.
may even
The
engendered by
maturing the conception
This fourth method is the culmina
is
process of
take years.
tion, the crown, of the others and of the acquisitions of the
mathematical student. He must read widely, scrutinize
intently, reflect profoundly, and watch for the advent
of the
1
new
creatures resulting.
If
he
is
of a philosophic
185
He
will
know
that the
them
in everlasting fragrance
and beauty.
REFERENCES
Milhaud, Etudes sur la pensee scientifique, 1906.
,
1911.
CHAPTER XVI
VALIDITY OF MATHEMATICS
We
it
is
The
scientist does
he studies
it
because
it
and
it
pleases
it
is
useful;
him because
beautiful.
is
worth knowing,
life
of
Science
et
methode, p. 15.
186
Nevertheless,
Validity of Mathematics
187
and thence
As
Poincare
and
growth.
Borel point out, many of the notions of mathematics had
their origin in the demands of physics for a scheme by
the tree Yggdrasil has
sustenance for
its
draws
which
it
its
such notions
equation.
to understand its
furnished
sustenance
Pythagoras,
for
another root
Leibniz,
Kant,
of
the
trunk.
Poincare
merely
to mention these names brings to mind the debt of
mathematics to the philosophic thought of the centuries.
The
Plato,
life
which was
definitive, for
freedom
well as of nature
all
We
Nothing
is
wasted, nothing
gems
of learning,
is
mathe
men
exist.
What
is
its
fruitage either in
Philosophy of Mathematics
i88
of
man ?
These
will
be our closing
themes.
importance
service
to
science
is
is
Its chief
plain to everyone.
the construction of definite
Milhaud:
From
mathematical
of
Says
speculations
own day
continues.
Mathematicians
and
less of things,
of relations,
functions,
and
if
remains of an old
illusion, for
may not
symbols that they create and which seem naturally and spon
taneously to evoke their kind by a spiritual need, find or will
find a place of application
of areas, to questions
still
at
first,
some
all utilitarian
la pensee, p. 30.
pre-
Validity of Mathematics
189
way.
We
find
mination of a
minimum
for
of
discontinuities that
may
and applied
least.
enter.
The
partial differential
Modern developments
Philosophy of Mathematics
igo
single particle
entity,
had
The movement
of a
and the
an
we
If
in astronomy,
The movements
the
in
case
simplest
are
to approach infinity,
differential equations
finite
number
come back
we may
which become
infinitely
numerous,
and thus
which sup
to the previous
system
of equations
function.
demanded functions
of a
Validity of Mathematics
191
in space of
infinity
which are
procedure of a phenomenon
may no
The
We
find,
is
building a system
of
even
would seem to be
whose
model
corresponds faith
phenomena
the
constructions
of
some
part of mathematics.
fully to
Whether all science can be framed according to models
validity of mathematics in this direction
all
natural
of this kind
is
The development
influenced philosophy.
of
mathematics
has
profoundly
Philosophy of Mathematics
IQ 2
Plato, Descartes,
Russell,
in order
Comte, and
call
to
who have
been at the same time philosophers, and whose criticisms
have largely influenced existing systems. The existence
matics.
added
The philosopher
is
and
mathematics.
significance of
the theory of
the mathematician
own
wrecked Kant
them wrecked
in
logistic
and answers
Validity of Mathematics
193
The
dynamics
in statics, its
goal
is
ress.
No
matics
to a multiplicity of
on the contrary,
it
and nourishes
free
and
fertile
work
of thought
Brunschvicg, p. 577.
man
Philosophy of Mathematics
194
Finally
we
domain
find a
mathe-
remote indeed.
But nevertheless the truth in mathematics, a free creation
first
been told
of that
exist,
could but view for awhile, then, with a sigh, return to cold
Mathematics vindicates the right of all these
reality.
to stand in the front rank of the pioneers that search the
and find it crystallized forever in brilliant gems.
real truth
The mathematician
is
fascinated with
the
marvelous
own
construction.
scientific
science, Sylvester,
who wrote
mathematical memoirs, Pringsheim, Kummer, Kronecker, Helmholtz, Bocher, B. Peirce, Russell, Hobson,
Picard, Hadamard why prolong the list ? And because
his
it
extends
Because
it
its
validity to the
of the constructive
contains freedom,
it
guarantees
Validity of Mathematics
freedom to the whole realm of
art.
Because
195
is
it
not
mountain winds."
REFERENCES
Keyser, The
1
Human
CENTRAL PRINCIPLES
196
OF MATHEMATICS
197
Index
INDEX
Abelian integrals, 171, 173
Abstract set, 52
Abundant numbers, 16
Action over
Ahmes
finite time,
191
Bragdon, reference, 60
manuscript, 14
Brahmagupta, 106
Brlichner, reference, 60
Andrews, reference, 50
A priori view of geometry, 34
Archimedean numbers, 174
Archimedes,
4, 154,
Burnside, reference, 96
173
64
Arithmetic invariants,
Arithmetical continuity, 26
Arithmetization of mathematics,
Cauchy, 90,
Aristotle, 62,
Asymptotic expansions,
Atomistic physics, 190
93, 146
23
ics,
Ausdehnungslehre, 130
Chuquet, 106
Class of concept, 63
Classification of mathematical
Axiomatic geometry, 32
subjects, 8
Bergson,
4, 44, 82,
of
Classification
192
philosophical
problems, 6
Bernoulli, 108
Bhaskara, 106
Bilinear quadratics, 37
Clifford, quoted,
Collection, 63
Bivector, 112
Composition
Comte, 192
36
series,
133
Concept, 63
Bolyai, 42
Bombelli, 108
Conjugate operations, 85
Philosophy of Mathematics
202
Content of mathematics,
Continued fraction, 22
Euclid
s ratio,
19
Euler, 117
Continuous operations, 87
Expansions, 128
Cotes, 108
Cournot, 130
Faraday, 173
Creative method in
ics,
mathemat
Finite differences, 94
Form, 127
Form
Cycle, 52
Fuchsian functions,
Functional equations, 151
Functional space, 182
Moivre, 108
Denumeration
as central principle, 9
Deficient numbers, 16
De
Fields, 114
181
Crinkly curves, 2
Curvature of space, 43
ics,
of rational
num
bers, 24
Functionality
as
central
prin
ciple, 9
Functions, 142
Functions of a complex variable,
37
Functions of hypernumbers, 146
Functions of lines, 144
Fundamental
functions,
i,
Discontinuous operations, 87
Double
Double
residues,
Galileo, 155
transitivity, 86
Galois
8
field, 115
Galois theory of equations, 114,
149
Electrodynamics, 37
Enriques, 4, 58;
Eleatics,
155
Ensemble, 24
Euclid, 16, 35, 90
reference, 128,
Generalization in mathematics,
171
Geometric
calculi,
130
Index
Geometrical elements, 129
Gibbs, reference, 116
Infinite collections, 26
Infinity, 78
Group
of Euclidean
Integer invented, 14
Integro-differential equation, 191
movements,
45, 88, 89
Group
Intuitional
method
in
mathemat
173
Invariance as central principle, 9
Invariant subgroup, 85, 89
ics,
tutions, 93
Group
Group
203
of rational
numbers, 83
of rotations, 89
Groups of geometric crystals, 133
Invariants of experience, 58
Invariants of groups, 45, 85, 89
Invariants of mathematics, 140
Hadamard,
reference,
194;
29,
80, 176
Halsted:
refer
ence, 46
Inversion, 152
refer
no
Harmonic
Isomorphism, 52
Isomorphism of
quintic
and
spherical triangles, 54
ratio,
58
Jevons,
66;
Heteromeque number, 17
Hilbert, quoted, 6, 148;
5,
in
Joly,
Kant,
refer
ence, 96
192
Kasner, reference, 46
Kelvin, quoted, 98
Hinton, reference, 45
Kempe,
History of number, 13
Hobson, 194;
Irrational numbers, 21
170; reference, 80
J 6i,
195;
Hypatia, 36
Hypernumber, 97
90, 173;
quoted, 32,
reference, 46
Icosahedral group, 90
Icosian game, 112
Kronecker
Kummer,
congruences, 18
Imprimitivity, 52
Incommensurable invented,
133;
reference, 135
21
Law
of contradiction, 66
26,
Philosophy of Mathematics
204
Law
of excluded middle, 66
Laws
Meaning of number, 8
Meaning of operator, 9
Meaning of philosophy of mathe
of logic, 65
matics, 6
quoted, 136,
138
Line geometry, 38
Line of zero distances, 3
Linear associative algebra, 113
Lobatchevskian geometry, 3, 42,
Lobatchevsky, 42, 43
Logic of classes, 62
and
2,
71
quoted,
reference, 50, 60
47,
136;
Meaning
Meaning
Meaning
Meaning
Multiple interpretations, 53
Murphy,
of
reference, 95
Mystic properties of
10, 16
TV-dimensional geometry, 38
Negative numbers, 101, 106
Nilfactorial hypernumbers, 113
Non-Archimedean continuity,
182
of arrangements, 9
of figure, 8
of
reference,
quoted, 54;
Matrices, 114
Maxwell,
tion, 183
Montesquieu, 118
12, 29, 80, 95, 115, 147
evolution, 166
Mathematics as psychology, 163
Mathematics as study of univer-
60
Moore:
physics, 154
Mathematics as a form of creative
ref
Mill, 35
sals,
Miller, reference, 96
Logistic, 6 1
MacMahon:
4,
Logic of propositions, 67
Logic of relatives, 68
Logical constants of Boole, 65
Mach: quoted,
Meray, 23
Methods of mathematics,
Logistic definition of
Meaning of process, 9
Meaning of proposition, 9
Meaning of system of inference, 9
Measure of a set, 26
hypernumbers, 9
of mathematics, 6
Non-denumerability of irration
als, 25
Non-difTerentiable function, 3
Index
205
Octahedral group, 89
Process, 117
Operators, 83
Projective geometry, 44
Properties of functions, 147
Orthogonal curves, 38
Pupin,
Pythagoras,
191
physics, 189
Partitions, 128
Pasch, 35
in
Ratio invented, 20
Reciprocation of mathematical
reference, 113
Peirce, C. S., quoted, 59;
refer
ence, 68
systems, 53
Relative, 68
Permutations, 51
Physical view of geometry, 33
Picard, 194;
reference,
12, 121
Pierpont, reference, 30
Pincherle, reference, 95
Saccheri, 41
Scheffers, quoted, 91
Pluecker, 38
Scientific
79,156,170,175,176,184,194;
quoted,
9,
n,
in
mathemat-
Sequence invented, 23
Servois, reference, 94
transitive, 89
Sources of mathematical reality,
3, 10
Simply
Polignac, quoted, 4
Poncelet, reference, 44
Postulational mathematics, 48
Postulational method in mathe
matics, 177
Postulational view of geometry,
34
175; reference, 12
method
169
176, 183
tics,
7, 77,
Spottiswoode, quoted,
Philosophy of Mathematics
206
Truth
in mathematics, 56
Truth- value, 72
Steinmetz, 109
106
Stifel,
Syllogism, 66, 67
184
Symbolic
logic, 61
Symmetric
relation, 69
Vandermonde, 90
Van
Tactic, 47
Tait,
in
Veronese, 35
Thales, 35
Volterra, 191;
Total
144
fields,
Vectors, 97
Tetrahedral group, 89
Theory
Theory of
Thomson,
Vleck, reference, 28
Vector
inference, 122
J. J.,
47
differential
Weber,
equation
153
reference, 15
in
Weierstrass,
physics, 190
Transfinite numbers, 27, 182
3, 57,
in,
146, 182
Wessel, 108
Transformation groups, 45
Transformations, 145
Transin tuition, 149
Whitehead and
Russell,
refer
ence, 125
Transitive relation, 69
Wilczynski, quoted, 38
Transitivity, 52
World
of universals, 74
Trees, 48, 51
Yggdrasil, 4, 187
Triple systems, 51
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