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The
HUMAN SKELETON
In
FORENSIC MEDICINE

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Den111 Ubrary

RA
/ J SG

The
HUMAN SKELETON
In
FORENSIC MEDICINE

.K 7u r

CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER

IC1lo2

J.Jl- 327 E"5t Lawrence Avenue, Springfield, lllino;,,, U .S.A.

BANNERSTONE H ousE

Th;. book ;. protected by copyright. No

part of it may be rcprodu<'cd in any manner
without written permission from the publi.shf'r.

@ 1962 by CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER

Library of Congr= Catalog Card Number:

61-15374

With THOMAS BOOKS ca.,ful al/rntion is xii.,. to all drtni!s of

manufacturing and design. IJ fr Jiit Puhlislur's duiu to pru mt bffks
that art satisfactory os lo tluir physical qualitits and artistic J>ossibilitirs
and appropriate fas thrir particular use. THOMAS BOOKS will bt tru<
to thou laws of tfUOllly that assvu a good namt and good will.

By

WILTON MARION

~ROGMAN,

Ph.D., LL.D. (h.c.)

l+oftssor of Physical Anthropolo.( Y

Gradunl~

School n/ Mrdicin~

Unionsily of Prnnsyliania
Dirtdor, P/ailaJelphia Ctnln JrnRmarch in Child Growth
Phi/adtlphra, Prnnsylvania

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CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER

Springfield Illinoi U.S.A.
Printrd in the Umttd St11trs of Amnica

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To
T . Wingate Todd
With Whom I Studied

and
From Whom I LearMd

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Preface

This book is the result of some thirty years of experience, not only
with human skeletal material, per se, but with the identification
of unknown bones. The theme of intrinsic variability and its
range has been a major concern during all this time. As a result
there is a constant emphasis in this book upon the reliability of the
many different determinations to be made when solving, as it
were, for "x, the unknown."
In 1958- 59 I began unearthing and checking source material
pertinent to a book such as this. With the aid of two of my graduate students, Mr. William Haviland and Mr. Wayne 0. Wallace,
Jr., I selected data from every major anatomical and anthropological journal from date of founding onward: American, English,
German, French, Italian, Portuguese. The libraries of the University of Pennsylvania, including the University Museum, were
opened to me. Mr. Elliott Morse, Librarian of the College of
Physicians of Philadelphia, was very helpful, and the College
Library was a veritable "Comstock Lode" of original references.
Wherever I have cited an opinion, or used a Table or an illustration, I have given full and complete source credit.
The manuscript was typed by Mrs. Harry Jackson. It
was proof-read with me by Mr. Francis E. Johnston. With their
competent aid I am sure that all basic data are factually correct.
I have tried to make this book as broad and as complete in its
application as I possibly could. The inclusion of data was terminated as of Dec. 31, 1960. If this book is generally useful then I
have labored well. If it has any shortcomings I hope they may
be called to my attention for I accept full and complete responsibility for form, style, and content of this book.
WILTON MARION KROGMAl'i

vii

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The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine

IV. Skeletal Age: Later Years. II. The Pelvis . . . . . .

1. The Pubic Symphysis. . . . .
2. The Primary Elements and the Epiphyses of the
Pelvis . . .
Summarizing Statement.
References . .

Contents
Page

Preface . . . . . .

vii

List of Illustrations .

xiii

List of Tables

xxiii

Chapter
I. Introduction: General Statement of Scope and Problems
References . . . . .
II. Skeletal Age : Earlier Years.
A. Criteria of Age in the Human Skeleton: Postnatal Appearance and Union of Centers of Ossification
1. General Considerations . .
2. The Appearance of Centers . . . . .
3. The Union of Centers . . . . . . . .
4. Appearance and Union in Specific Bones Not Usually Given in Tabulated Data
B. Criteria of Age in the Human Skeleton: Prenatal Ossification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Criteria of Age in the Human Skeleton: Differences
Due to Race.
Summarizing Statement
References . . . . .
III. Skeletal Age: Later Years. I. Suture Closure
1. General Considerations and Historic Notes.
2. Modern Studies in Suture Closure . . .
3. The Reliability of Sutures as Age Criteria
4. Other Age Criteria in the Skull
Summarizing Statement.
References . .

3
18
18
18
21
28
51
56
61
68
71
76
76
78
86
88
89
89

V. Sexing Skeletal Remains

1. General Considerations and the Age Factor
2. Sex Differences in the Skull . . .
3. Sex Differences in the Pelvis . .
4. Sex Differences in the Long Bones
Summarizing Statement . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . .

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105
110
111
112
112
114
122
143
149
150

VI. The Calculation of Stature from Long Bones .

153
1. Introductory Remarks: Historical .
153
2. Modern Studies in Stature Reconstruction : American Whites and Negroes . . . . . . . .
156
3. Modern Studies in Stature Reconstruction : Various Ethnic and Racial Groups . . . .
168
4. The Use of Immature or Fragmentary Long Bones
in Stature Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5. The Interpretation of Statural Reconstruction Formulae . . . . . . .
180
Summarizing Statement .
185
References . . . .
186
VIL Race Differences in the Human Skeleton.
1. The American Picture: White and Negro.
2. Racial Differences in the Skull and Mandible
3. Racial Differences in the Pelvis . . . . . . .
4. Racial Differences in the Long Bones and Scapula
Summarizing Statement.
References .

188
188
191
197
199
206
207

VIII. Additional Data in the Direction of Individualization and

Limitation . . .
1. General Nole .
2. Data on the Skull
3. The Vertebral Column and the Sacrum .
4. The Sternum . . . . . . . . . . . .

209
209
209
212
215

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xi

ConJtnls
5. The Ribs . .
6. Long Bones: Nutrient Foramen; Haversian Systern . . . .
7. Bone Weights . . . . .
8. Bone Density . . . . .
9. Blood-Typing from Bones
10. Bone Pathology: Amputations.
Summarizing Statement. . . .
References . . . . . . . . .
IX. From Skull to Head: Restoration of Physiognomic Details
1. The Problem . . . . . . . . .
2. The Relation of the Skull to Portraits . . .
3. The Relation of the Skull to Photographs .
4. The Restoration of the Head from the Skull
Summarizing Statement. . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X. The Use
1.
2.
3.
4.

of Radiography in Skeletal Identification

General Considerations . . .
Radiography of the Skull . . . .
Radiography of Other Bones . . .
The Use of Radiography in Mass Disaster: Fire
Summarizing Statement .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

218
220
221
233
234
235
239
241
244
244
245
253
258
274
27 4
277
277
277
287
290
294
298

Appendix

300

I. The Osteology of the Human Skeleton

II. Definitions of Selected Osteometric End-points and Measurements .

315

Author Index

325

Subject Index

331

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