A Comparison of Learner

Progress in Lessons Employing

Two Approaches to Genre-Based
Writing Instruction with
Participant Learning Styles,
Proficiency and an Initial Score
Rating
Paul White
MA in Applied Linguistics
Faculty of Liberal Arts
University of Groningen
Supervisor:
Wander Lowie
July 2008

Contents
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................. 4
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 MOTIVATION.......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION............................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................................ 5
BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 GENRE................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1 Genre in Second Language Writing Instruction ......................................................................... 5
2.1.2 The Pedagogical Debate in Genre-Based Instruction................................................................ 5
2.1.3 Pangs 2002 Study..................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 LEARNING STYLES................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1 Learning Styles Research in Second Language Writing Instruction........................................... 6
2.2.2 Learning Styles and Proficiency................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3 Learning and Teaching Styles.................................................................................................... 6
2.3 OTHER VARIABLES................................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.1 Transferability of Knowledge...................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Interfering Variables................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.3 Student Motivation Levels.......................................................................................................... 7
2.4 HYPOTHESES........................................................................................................................................ 7
METHOD..................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND MATERIALS................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Experimental Design.................................................................................................................. 9
3.1.2 Reacting to Design Needs Identified by Previous Studies......................................................... 9
3.1.3 The Research Report as an example of Academic Genre......................................................... 9
3.1.4 Systematic Functional Linguistics and Context........................................................................ 10
3.1.5 The Contextual and Textual Lessons....................................................................................... 11
3.2 BACKGROUND DETAILS......................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.1 The Participants....................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 The Experimental Setting......................................................................................................... 11
3.3 ASSESSMENT

AND

DATA ANALYSIS METHOD............................................................................................ 11

3.3.1 Assessment Methods and Data Collection............................................................................... 11

3.3.3 In-Depth Interviews.................................................................................................................. 12

RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................. 13
4.1 DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................... 13
4.1.1 Descriptives, Experimental Mortality, and Group Equivalence................................................. 13
4.1.1 Learner Progress vs. Learning Style........................................................................................ 13
4.1.2 Learner Progress vs. Proficiency Level.................................................................................... 13
4.1.3 Learner Progress vs. Initial Score Measure............................................................................. 13
4.1.4 Qualitative Analysis of the Results........................................................................................... 13
4.2 OTHER MEASURES.............................................................................................................................. 13
4.2.1 Transferability of Knowledge.................................................................................................... 13
4.2.2 In-depth Interviews................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.3 Motivational levels.................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................... 14
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................................... 15
5.1 GENERAL CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................ 15
5.2 DRAWBACKS OF THE STUDY................................................................................................................. 15
5.3 RECOMMENDED FOLLOW-UP WORK....................................................................................................... 15
APPENDIX................................................................................................................................................ 16
APPENDIX CONTENTS PAGE....................................................................................................................... 16
APPENDIX A: FULL KTS II PERSONALITY TYPE DESCRIPTORS......................................................................... 17
APPENDIX B: DITIBERIO DESCRIPTORS........................................................................................................ 18
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS........................................................................................................... 18
APPENDIX D: PROFICIENCY C-TEST............................................................................................................. 19
Learner Version................................................................................................................................ 19
Answer Version................................................................................................................................. 19
APPENDIX E: ABC ADVERTISEMENT COMPANY CASE STUDY.......................................................................... 21
Background Details for ABC Advertisement Case Study.................................................................. 21
Conceptual Model for ABC Advertisement........................................................................................ 23
APPENDIX F: FULL MODEL FOR RESEARCH REPORT...................................................................................... 24
APPENDIX G: CRITERIAL AND HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT GRID............................................................................ 25
APPENDIX H: OPERATIONALISATION OF SYSTEMATIC FUNCTIONAL CRITERIA IN THE CONTEXTUAL AND TEXTUAL
LESSONS................................................................................................................................................. 26
APPENDIX J: COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK (CEF) MODEL FOR GRADING REPORTS.................................... 27
APPENDIX K: SEMI-SCRIPTED WRITING ANALYSIS IN CLASS.............................................................................. 28
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................... 30

I would like to acknowledge the initial guidance given to me by Dr. Marjolijn Verspoor,
the encouragement, assistance and feedback with my experimental design and
statistical analyses from my supervisor Dr. Wander Lowie, Laura Maruster, Professor of
the Statistic Skills course at the Rijkuniversiteit Groningen for her assistance in
collecting suitable materials, and for continuous support and encouragement through
months of daily work in the library from Vicky Iliodromiti.

Abstract
The purpose of the current investigation was to seek relationships between English L2
undergraduate writing progress in four classes employing two pedagogically-diverse
approaches to genre-based writing instruction (textual/contextual) with learning style,
proficiency levels, and participant initial score ratings in a pre-experimental writing
assignment. Other variables such as the transferability of knowledge, and motivation
and other situational variables related to a post-experimental free-production writing
assignment were considered. Using the best writing assignments from the previous
years students, a genre-analysis was conducted upon which lesson content in the
textual and contextual class was built. Results revealed no correlations between the
participants progress and their learning preferences, or their proficiency level.
However, a significant negative correlation was discovered between the participants
progress and their initial score rating, such that the lower the initial score the greater the
progress made in both the textual and contextual groups, and between their highest inclass score and their grades on the post-experimental writing assignment in the
contextual group. The effectiveness of genre-based instruction was seen in the uptake
of lesson content in the post-experimental writing assignment and the high scores that
the participants received from their Statistics Skills professor for the same written report.
The study thus acts as a confirmation of Pangs (2002) findings relating to the predictive
power of initial score rating on learner progress, and more generally to previous findings
related to the effectiveness of employing a genre-based approach to writing instruction
in the L2 academic writing classroom, and to the transferability of genre knowledge
outside the classroom environment. Further research into the interaction of student
learning styles, proficiency, motivation in relation to learner progress, and into the area
of transferability of knowledge is suggested.
Word Count 17.106

Introduction
1.1 Motivation
In the introduction to her book Genre in the Classroom, Ann M. Johns (2002) argues
that second language (L2) writing instruction has undergone a major paradigm shift in
the last 15-20 years, moving from The Process Approach (see Feez, 2002; Johns,
1990; Silva, 1990) to a contextual approach in which the writer works within a social
environment that can be viewed through the analysis of genre exemplars,
characterised as purposeful, situated and repeated social responses (see also Miller,
1984) .
Although not widely employed in academic English writing courses in Europe, genrebased instruction in academic writing instruction is widely employed in Australia and the
U.S.A.

Three competing theoretical schools emerged from these foundations, The

Sydney School representing a systematic functional linguistics (SFL) approach to genre

analysis (see Halliday, 2004), The New Rhetoric (NR) which draws on postmodern
social and literary theories (see Bakhtin, 1986), and English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) which, rather than taking a theoretical perspective, views genre as a tool in the
teaching of academic and professional communication skills to L2 learners (see Swales,
1990).

The main theoretical tension between the SFL and NR approaches (both of

which are drawn on by ESP) is the viewing of a genre as something stable, structured
and therefore open to grammatical analysis by SFL advocates, or as something much
more flexible, determined by the communicative intention of the individual within his/her
writing community by NR advocates. SFL genre research has tended to concentrate on
the supplying of a coherent framework from which teachers are able to draw on in the
classroom (see Rothery, 1996; Feez, 2002).

In contrast to this wholly linguistic

approach, NR genre research has concentrated on uses of genre by expert users,

examining issues like the historical evolution of genres (Atkinson, 1996), the process of
producing academic articles (Myers, 1990), and the study of genres in the workplace
(Pare, 2000; Dias et al., 1999).

Although very few studies have attempted to compare the pedagogical benefits of
employing each of the schools approaches in the L2 classroom (see Tardy, 2006 for an
overview), Terence Pang (2002), Professor of English at Lingnan University in Hong
Kong, has undertaken research from an ESP perspective to compare the effectiveness
of two related pedagogic approaches, naming them textual (related to SFL) and
contextual (related to New Rhetoric).

He concluded that ...the textual-analysis

approach worked better with subjects with low or high initial scores, but not those with a
medium initial score... [whereas] contextual-analysis subjects with low and medium
initial scores made considerable progress, but those with high initial scores actually
displayed slightly negative progress... (p.157). The assumption that the instructional
approaches themselves engender this type of reaction from learners of varying initial
levels of written production requires further research.
The realisation that language learning success cannot be fully explained by instructional
method and language aptitude alone, but is also affected by motivation, personality and
demographic factors has been gaining increasing support (see Oxford, 2005 for an
overview of recent studies).

Ehrman and Oxfords 1995 study into end of course

proficiency ratings and psychological type (as determined by the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI), Myers 1962, 1987; Myers & McCauley, 1985 1), showed significant
correlations between personality type and proficiency.

Carrel, Prince and Astikas

(1996) attempted to correlate personality type with more longitudinal language

performance measures however found no relation to exist. The disadvantages of the
two studies is in Ehrman and Oxfords (1995) use of a snap-shot proficiency test as their
measure of learning success, and both studies disregard for the importance of
instructional type and construction of language performance measures as biasing
factors towards a particular set of learning styles2.
1 To be discussed in greater depth in section 2.2.1 Learning Styles Research in Second Language
Writing

2 As will be explained in greater depth in section 2.2.2 Learning Styles and Proficiency

1.2 Research Question

The focus of the current study is to directly compare the longitudinal progress of
learners in classes employing a textual or contextual approach to genre-based writing
instruction with participant learning styles, proficiency and participants initial scores.
The study seeks to control for the effect of instructional approach and will employ an
unbiased measure of learner progress towards either instructional approach. Learning
style will be determined through the bi-polar measures of a test derived from the MBTI,
and proficiency by a C-Test3. Following from the results of Pangs (2002) study into the
predictive power of initial score rating, Ehrman and Oxfords (1995) study into the
correlations of personality type and proficiency, and Carrel et al.s (1996) failed attempt
to correlate language performance with learning styles, the research question related to
the primary concern of the study is:
Will the effectiveness of a textual or contextually-based genre approach to writing
instruction correlate most strongly with participant initial score rating, learning styles, or
proficiency level?
Whilst this is the primary concern of the study, other measures will be employed, firstly
to allow a comparison of highest in-class score rating with that on a post-experimental
report (to measure transferability of knowledge), secondly to measure motivational level
as related to the post-experimental report, and thirdly, to include other areas of interests
and/or interfering variables such as sensory preferences, preferred teaching style and
biological factors, which are to be assessed qualitatively for their impact on the study
results.

1.3 Overview
The next section contains a review of background literature related to the two
pedagogical

approaches

and

to

the

measuring

of

learning

styles.

The

operationalisation of theoretical perspectives in the current experiment and the resultant

research hypotheses will be given. The Method section will comprise of how the two
3 Both of which will be discussed in more depth in 3.3.1 Assessment Methods and Data Collection
section

approaches were implemented into a series of lessons, assessment materials as well

as other details of the experimental design such statistical models and in-depth
interviews will be given. Finally, the results and conclusion sections illustrate the key
findings in relation to Pangs (2002) study, amongst other studies, focusing on issues
such as learning styles and proficiencys relation to the participants progress in in-class
writing assignments, and the transferability of knowledge outside the academic writing
classroom.

Background
2.1 Genre
2.1.1 Genre in Second Language Writing Instruction
The study of genre is nothing new; texts having been analysed for the presence or lack
of certain contextually-related linguistic, lexical, grammatical or discourse/rhetorical
features since the early 1960s4. The transformation of genre from a primarily textual
pursuit as characterised through this early text-type definitions used in register analysis
to a concept that incorporates ideas of context, content, readers and writers roles and
community values5 came as a result of the influence of the communicative language
pedagogical movement started in the 1970s (for one of the earliest proponents see
Hymes, 1967).

This division was reflected in the L2 writing classroom as divergent

views of the goal of instruction; either building the awareness, explicitly or implicitly, of
textual features such as verb or conjunction type 6 (usually related to Hallidays (2004)
conception of SFL), or instead encouraging learners to recognise speaker intentions
4 See Barber (1962), Halliday, McIntosh & Strevens, (1964) for register analysis on scientific English,
Gustafsson (1975) on legal English, and Crystal and Davy (1969) for an analysis of a variety of forms

5 See Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995; Halliday & Hasan, 1989, Purves, 1991

6 See Kalantzis & Wignell, 1988 for an explicit approach; Holborow, 1991 for implicit

behind speech events related to the situational variables underlying a genre (see Yunik,
1997).
The one unifying concept in the field is that text-type or genre can be identified by
knowledgeable writers and readers through the typical forms of utterances (Bakhtin,
1986, p.63) employed. It is the process by which this identification takes place in the L2
writing classroom which is at the centre of the current pedagogical debate in genrebased instruction. Should the L2 learner be directed towards the linguistic features, like
the use of conjunction and reference systems of a particular text exemplar in a genre, or
to the contextual conditions, for instance author intention or author-audience
relationship, under which the text was constructed?
2.1.2 The Pedagogical Debate in Genre-Based Instruction
Flowerdew (2002) summarizes the main characteristic differences between two
approaches to genre from a theoretical perspective. He labels the linguistic approach
as applying theories of functional grammar and discourse and concentrating on the
lexico-grammatical and rhetorical realisation of communicative purpose, with the
contextually-grounded approach originating with the purposes and functions of genres
and attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviours of members of the discourse communities
within which genres are situated. (p.91). Related to these theoretical backgrounds,
issues in the L2 writing classroom involve what level of genre should be taught, from
macro genres, such as narrative and exposition associated with the SFL/linguistic
school, or sub-genres more related to specific student needs (see Grabe, 2002), as
sometimes employed from advocates of a ESP or NR/contextually-grounded approach,
to issues of power and authority, whether students should be instructed to follow certain
patterns or encouraged to challenge them (see Benesch, 1993), and as to whether,
from an NR perspective, genres should be taught at all in the classroom, or whether
they can only ever develop naturally, in real-world situations.
Developing Flowerdews (2002) conceptual definitions of linguistic and contextuallygrounded approaches into pedagogical approaches, Pang (2002) re-labelled them
textual and contextual. Pang (2002) summarizes the orientation of the two groups in
his study as: the textual group undertook activities that provided them a thorough
10

treatment in schematic structure and grammar, especially in marked aspects of the text
(p.152), with the contextual group focused on key elements of the context of situation...
that is, situation, participants ends and goals, act sequence and message form, register,
channel, forms of speech, norms of interaction and genres (and sub-genres) (p.151).
The current study interpreted the approaches employed by Pang (2002) in the light of
some more general issues related to SFL (textual) theory and practise, and the
practises of the more pedagogically-oriented branch of NR (contextual) 7. These general
issues will now be sketched to give a more precise picture of how Pangs pedagogical
approaches reflects theoretical positions within each approach.
Some SFL proponents favour instruction of lexicogrammatical constructions in L2
writing classes based on the observation that the demands of a genre may differ
between the learners first and second languages.

To accommodate for these

differences some researchers have divided texts into exposition genres; field or
laboratory reports, essays, assignments, seminar papers, dissertations, and theses (see
Drury & Gollin, 1986; Jones, Gollin, Drury & Economou, 1989). Others have defined
texts according to intentions or moves common across different types of texts; using
theme, reference, lexical cohesion, and conjunction 8 as markers of communicative
intention (see Jones et. al., 1989). Elements of natural discourse are then taken to be
the result of a combination of lower level functional units of speech. Units such as field
(social activity), tenor (the interpersonal relationships among people using language),
and mode (the part played by language in building communication) (see Christie,
1991a, p.142) combine with higher the higher social purpose (or genre) to determine
language choices.

These fields are strongly related to functional linguistics (see

Halliday, 2004), an issue which will be discussed in greater detail in the 3.1.4
Systematic Functional Linguistics and Context section.

The underlying assumption

7 A detailed outline of the content of the classes is given in the section 3.1.5 The Contextual and Textual
Lessons.

8 These SFL terms will be explained in section 3.1.4 Systematic Functional Linguistics and Context.

11

upon which a textual orientation to genre pedagogy is based is that L2 writing learners
will not be able to recognise and use these basic elements of textual construction, due
to the influence of their first language (L1) or insufficient exposure to the L2.
Some NR proponents on the other hand argue that only through an understanding of
communicative intent, amongst many other non-linguistic contextual circumstances, can
the L2 writing learner come to understand how and when to use lexicogrammatical
constructions. Bhatia (1997b) argues for awareness-raising in relation to knowledge of
activities, that is tools, methods and the interpretative framework used in real-life
instances of a situation, and knowledge of situation, referring to familiarity with the
rhetorical and conceptual context. This combines having background knowledge of a
particular community with knowledge of how to communicate in this community in
accordance with a social-genre. A major debate concerns from what evidence one
gains contextual knowledge of a genre.

Holborow (1991) for instance advocates

analysing a situation from a target text, whereas Ventola (1994) employs genre flow
charts to enable learners to create texts within the social restrictions of a particular
genre. Ventola sees the basic components of a text being speech acts, units of the text
representing a particular communicative intention of the writer, and moves, discourse
level combinations of moves in the pursuit of wider communicative goals (see also
Swales, 1990). Holborows realisation of a contextual approach does not differ from a
textual one in regards to linguistic content, but only in the focus of the textual analysis,
which is to be on inferring the context from textual features.
Despite the above mentioned theoretical differences, which translate into the
pedagogical approaches similar the ones employed by Pang (2002), it must be
emphasised that the approaches share ...the same goal of adding to a model of
language use that is rich in social, cultural, and institutional explanation; that links
language to context; and that has practical relevance for teachers by offering useful
ways of handling conventionalised aspects of texts. (Hyland, 2004, p.195). It is crucial
then that a textual approach is not confused with traditional grammar instruction, and
contextual with communicative language teaching, as both relate to genre, a concept

12

which seeks to connect structure and form to context rather than concentrating on one
at the expense of the other.
2.1.3 Pangs 2002 Study
Terence Pangs (2002) study Textual Analysis and Contextual Awareness Building: A
Comparison of Two Approaches to Teaching Genre, separated English L2
undergraduates at Lingnan University in Hong Kong into two groups defined by their
pedagogical approach (textual and contextual), both of which were aimed at the writing
of a movie review as an exemplar of a particular text genre.
The subjects, all first year students in a first year bachelors English course Models of
Speech and Writing, had a background in genre analysis, and in the experiment were
exposed one of the two approaches, with pre- and post-tests used to measure progress.
The contextual exposure group took part in activities such as brainstorming various
contextual factors (such as writer role, audience and register), analysing texts of slightly
different genres (a movie review in a specialist magazine versus a movie synopsis in a
newspaper) for differences caused by context, and were finally instructed to write a
movie review after gaining an understanding of specific contextual circumstances. The
textual group, on the other hand, analysed the linguistic and functional features of texts
from macro to micro-level over several activities, being taught to recognise some
structures by their teacher, and compared texts from similar genres, before finally
constructing a text in a particular genre from its likely textual components. Although the
two methods attempted to mirror one another, the contextual group did sometimes
speak about textual patterns with the textual group discussing some contextual factors
when assigning a text to a specific genre.
Although the two groups produced similar scores in their post-experimental written
product, the author observed that the textual analysis group wrote more mechanistically,
with the contextual group showing a greater understanding of more general discourse
functions.

The author found that both groups progressed considerably, related to the

grading criteria used, but that this depended on the learners initial scores. Low and
medium initial score learners performed best in the contextual approach, whereas low
and high, but not medium, level learners improved the most in the textual group. A
13

case-by-case analysis also revealed that there was greater consistency in the medium
initial score learners in the contextual group, than the low initial score learners, some of
whom improved considerably whilst others did not make much progress. A general
conclusion as to the fact that the contextual approach is most suited to medium level
learners, and the textual to the low and high level, was made.
Despite the overall balancing of results by initial score in the study, the considerable
amount of variation found by Pang (2002), with some learners improving dramatically
whilst others quality of written production actually declined, raises questions concerning
the predictive validity of initial score as determining learner response to a particular
teaching method. The current study proposes to satisfy the research need identified by
assessing the effectiveness of a textual and contextual approach to genre-based writing
instruction not only in relation to learners initial scores, but also to their levels of
proficiency and individual learning styles.

2.2 Learning Styles

2.2.1 Learning Styles Research in Second Language Writing Instruction
To explain the concept learning styles I think it necessary to first distinguish this from
the more widely known and used concept of learning strategies. Learning styles are
the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior (Cornett, 1983,
p.9), whilst learning strategy relates to specific actions, behaviours, steps, or
techniques... used by learners to enhance their own learning. (Scarcella & Oxford,
1992, p.63).

Learning style, whilst open to developmental factors, seems to be a

construct much less flexible than learning strategy, which is employed by the learner in
a more conscious fashion.

Whilst learning style includes such areas as sensory

preferences, personality types, desired degrees of generality and biological differences,

learning strategies are arranged by their cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related,
compensatory, affective and social elements.
The term learning styles is used to encompass four aspects of personality; attitudes and
interests (Extroversion/Introversion), preferred instructional methods (Sensing/Intuiting),
cognitive

14

aspects

(Thinking/Feeling),

and

finally

preferred

learning

strategies

(Judging/Perceiving). These four categories can be related respectively to the four bipolar measure of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI Myers 1962, 1987; Myers &
McCauley, 1985, as shown in the brackets above), a personality test employed in many
studies attempting to compare learning styles with various measures of L2 proficiency
(see Carrell, Prince and Astika, 1996 for an overview).

Based on the work of

psychologist Carl Jung, this test is the frequent choice of researchers in education as it
is particularly suited to applications in teaching and learning. (Kent & Fisher, 1997).
The four bi-polar dimensions have been labelled as shown in Table 1 (see Appendix A
for the full descriptors).

Table 1 evaluative expressions for the 4 bi-polar personality dimensions used in

both the MBTI and KTS II, see www.keirsey.com.
TECHNICAL TERMS
(E)
Extroversion
(S)
Sensing
(T)
Thinking
(J)
Judging

MEANING
Expressive
Observant
Tough-Minded
Scheduled

TECHNICAL TERMS
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.

(I)
Introversion
(N)
Intuiting
(F)
Feeling
(P)
Perceiving

MEANING
Attentive
Introspective
Friendly
Probing

2.2.2 Learning Styles and Proficiency

Whilst many studies have manipulated or encouraged learners use of strategies, most
learning style investigations have sought straightforward correlations between
personality traits and second language proficiency (see Oxford, 2003 for an overview).
Related to the four scales, some research (Brown, 1987) has found interactions
between the extroversion-introversion scale and learning success in different class
sizes, extroverts being more successful in large classes, whilst others found that
introverts are not disadvantaged (see Ehrman and Oxford, 1990b). Ehrman and Oxford
(1995) tested a large sample of 885 people from various American government
departments on areas such as aptitude, age, sex, motivation, anxiety, self-esteem,
tolerance of ambiguity, risk-taking, language learning strategies and language learning
styles. Regarding the measures used in the MBTI, the study found no relation on the

15

extroversion-introversion, thinking-feeling, or judging-perceiving scales to end of

language course proficiency levels. The Sensing-Intuition scale (Appendix B), relating
to how individuals receive and make sense of incoming data from the external world,
did correlate with proficiency levels.

Intuitive learners who view the world as

possibilities and options, preferring abstract problems and seeing the big picture at the
expense of detail, scored better than Sensing learners, who are more factually-based,
relating information to their environment, with a focus on concrete problems and
preferring structured input. Instructional approach was not, however, controlled for in
this study, and therefore conclusions regarding correlations between language learning
success and personality type must be taken as provisional at best.
Carrel, Prince and Astika (1996), in their comparison of personality types and
proficiency, found no direct, simple relationships between learning styles and language
performance measures. (p.95).

From this, and related to previous studies, they

conclude that cognitive differences and language aptitude provide better predictive
variables for proficiency levels than personality types. However, they also mention in
their conclusion that the overwhelming majority of their learners were Sensing-ThinkingJudging types who are guided by concrete facts, sequential learning and prefer order
and organisation in formalised, structured instruction. Not only the learning environment
but also the tests used to assess language performance during the experiment matched
these majority learning types. The authors sum up; had we employed other types of
language achievement measures more oral, social interactive, open-ended, less
structured measures we might have obtained different results with these STJ
[Sensing, Thinking, Judging] learners. (p.97, square brackets mine).
The clear and serious scientific disadvantage of the uncontrolled for variance in the
method of teaching in both the Ehrman and Oxford (1995) and the Carrel, Prince and
Astika (1996) studies above highlight the difficulties involved in seeking correlations of
learning style with measures of general proficiency. Until work is done which actively
attempts to control for method of instruction and uses measures of development rather
than snap-shot proficiency measures, no definitive answer to the question of the nature
of the correlation between learning styles and L2 learning success can be made.

16

2.2.3 Learning and Teaching Styles

Whilst every teacher strives for variety in classroom activities, the above studies into
learning styles and proficiency raise the question of whether variety or tailoring of
teaching to students learning styles is most effective in the L2 classroom. A number of
varying opinions have been voiced on the subject, with studies focusing on the
approach of the teacher, the need for learners to respond to and employ a number of
learning styles and strategies, correlations between teacher personality type and
innovation in the classroom, and finally the use of learning styles questionnaires in adult
composition classes.
Learning style is the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics
that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others. (Dunn
& Griggs, 1988, p.3). Dunn and Griggs (1988) claim that there is a positive correlation
between learning style, pedagogical approach and learner progress would seem to be a
reasonable assumption to make. However, in the conclusion to her overview, Oxford
(2003) raises the issue of the benefit language teachers can gain from knowing their
learners preferred learning styles and strategies whilst also warning against the tailoring
of teaching to these same preferences; L2 teachers would do better to employ a broad
instructional approach... to meet the needs of all learners in the class (p.16). However,
whilst Oxford makes the underlying assumption that it is best to match teaching and
learning styles, but that this is simply not possible given the variety of student learning
styles in a real-world classroom, Kyriacou, Benmansour and Low (1996) argue against
any complementing of teaching and learning styles at all. They state that; ...research
on learning styles should not be characterised as an attempt to identify which style
works best, or how teachers need to match activities to learners preferences. (p.23).
Rushton, Morgan and Richard (2007) in their study into the personality types of Primary
School teachers in Florida, found that teachers with an ENFP (Extrovert, Intuitive,
Feeling and Perceiving) personality type were more likely to be amongst the most
innovative teachers as they are more ready to accept and lead changes, as compared
to the largest group of teachers, ISFJ (Introvert, Sensing, Feeling, Judging) who
preferred maintaining the status quo and using well tried and tested methods. Finally,

17

Torkerlson Gray (1998) used the Keirsey Temperament Sorter (a personality tested
based on the MBTI, see www.keirsey.com, also Keirsey & Bates, 1984) to investigate
learners preferred writing processes in her adult composition classes.

Employing

Jensen and DiTiberios (1989) (See Appendix B) adapted definitions of the MBTI bipolar measures, relating them to the writing process, the learner reports in Torkerlson
Grays study reveals both the general accuracy of the test in comparison to her learners
introspective judgements, as well as the benefit of encouraging such introspection in the
L2 classroom. All this leads to a very complex picture of the possible reasons to or to
not attempt to match teaching approach with learning style, of the pure impact of the
personality type of the teacher on any class, regardless of student learning styles within
that class, and of the possible beneficial outcomes of awareness-raising of student
learning styles regardless of instructional approach.
The current study seeks to measure any positive or negative correlation of the
participants learning style with developmental reactions to two pedagogical approaches
measured longitudinally, whilst also employing a measure of general proficiency. The
researcher does not wish to make the assumption of Dunn and Griggs (1988) or Oxford
(2003), that teaching and learning styles should, optimally, be matched. Related to the
two instructional approaches, the researcher does however expect that a sensing
participant, that is one keen on receiving structured input in a more traditional fashion,
will benefit more in the textual class, whereas and intuiting participant, that is one more
guided by content than structure, preferring more holistic input, will benefit more in the
contextual class.

The researcher is still open to the possibility that teaching and

learning style interact best when they are contrasting, to stimulate the learners full
range of learning strategies. Therefore, a sensing participant could perform better with
content-oriented input in the contextual class, and a intuiting participant could perform
better with the structured input of the textual class. The current study also takes the
observations of Rushton, Morgan and Richard (2007) into account by measuring the
personality type of the teacher (the researcher) and considering the effect this may have
on the results when drawing conclusions. The learning styles test implemented in this
study, the KTS II, includes a section in the output learning styles report on the
interaction of teacher-learner personality types, a discussion of which will be
18

incorporated into in-depth interviews, which will encourage the participants own
introspective judgements as advised by Torkerlson Gray (1998).

2.3 Other Variables

2.3.1 Transferability of Knowledge
Pangs (2002) study, being set in a genre-based course for L2 English undergraduates
needed no measure of transferability of knowledge, as the ability to conduct a genre
analysis was the aim of the course itself. In Senguptas (1999) study of rhetorical
consciousness-raising in L2 reading, although learners developed the ability of
recognising reader-friendly elements in a text, they were not able to transfer this
knowledge into their own writing. Other barriers to the transfer of knowledge beyond
the L2 writing class have been found such as the perceived difference between a
language-centred English course and learners other content-driven courses (Leki &
Carson, 1997), the viewing of the ESP class as a course requirement and idea of
building language knowledge from later real-world experience (Parks, 2000b), and the
perceived conflicts of audience, purpose and content between ESP and other classes
(Hansen, 2000). One study with positive findings showed that learners remembered
specific genre features a full year after instruction (Hyon, 2001), and finally Gosden
(1998) concluded that authenticity of content may be a defining factor in the
transferability of knowledge beyond the L2 classroom. The current study seeks this
authenticity by basing the lesson content on a corpus of collected papers written by
learners from the previous academic year, and the inclusion of a post-experimental,
free-production research report which is to be graded for content by the participants
statistics lecturer and for English by the researcher, rather than only for language
content. The assignment is also to be completed outside the experimental lessons.
Due to these factors, it is presumed that this assignment indicates a measure of
transferability.
2.3.2 Interfering Variables
The core focus of the current study is to seek to clarify the relationships between the
variables learning style, proficiency, participant initial score and learner progress as

19

measured through in-class writing assignments. The author wishes to acknowledge

though, that due to the in-situ nature of the study, many other uncontrolled for variables
might well have an outcome on the results.
The content of the lessons will be presented using Microsoft PowerPoint presentations
with some use of animation and paper hand-outs. This obviously favours those pupils
who prefer a visual rather than auditory, kinesthetic or tactile approach to learning.
Biological differences between learners and between the four lessons such as
biorhythms, sustenance, differing classrooms locations and weather conditions may
also affect the results of the study. Teaching style preferences, possibly drawn from
past experiences and varying affective filters of the different learners might also affect
the reaction learners have to a particular teaching method. One constant in the study
was the class times, though many students experienced difficulties in reaching the
University on time due to a bus drivers strike.
2.3.3 Student Motivation Levels
The central concern of the researcher in relation to interfering variables regards the
participants levels of motivation. It must be acknowledged, that whilst all participants
are subject to the same incentives of grades for the English and Statistics Skills
courses9, motivation levels, particularly towards the improving of English skills, will vary
greatly between the participants.
It is intended that these variables be covered in the final 1-to-1 interviews, as advised by
Torkerlson Gray (1998), that the researcher will hold with each participant individually.
The devising of questions for this (see Appendix C) will be discussed in detail in the
section 3.3.3 In-Depth Interviews.

2.4 Hypotheses
Before stating my hypotheses, I think it necessary to review the main variables in the
current study.
9 To be discussed in detail in section the section 3.1.3 The Research Report as an example of
Academic Genre

20

Fig. 1. A diagrammatic illustration of the variables with their factors included in the current study.

The primary focus of the current study revolves around the interaction of learning styles,
proficiency level, participant initial score10 and a textual and contextual approach to
genre-based writing instruction. I think it would be helpful at this stage to re-state the
exact meaning of the variables and their factors.
-

Instructional Method:

Textual using the structures of functional grammar, applied to the genre-analysis of a

text, to highlight the textual features which combine to form the field, tenor and mode of
a particular genre.
Contextual

starting from a deep analysis of situational factors, such as setting,

purpose, author intention, author-audience relationship, and then progressing to their

textual realisation in a particular genre.
-

Participant Learning Styles:

Sensory Perception (S) are learners who are more comfortable when receiving very
structured input, upon which they can build more complex structures for particular
communicative acts. They feel more comfortable using tried and tested methods than
experimentation with new ways of learning, and attend closely to structural accuracy at
every stage of the writing process.
Intuitive Perception (N) are learners who are more guided by communicative content
than the production of a particular style. They are more willing to use their imagination
and experiment with new learning and writing processes and techniques. When writing
they let one idea trigger another rather than conforming to a pre-decided, rigid structure.
-

Learner Proficiency Level:

10 This has not been included in Figure 1 as it is included in the current experiment only to replicate the
experimental design of Pangs (2002) study as closely as possible.

21

A concurrent general proficiency level is to be ascertained at the outset of the

experimental lessons through the administering of a C-Test constructed from general
English texts of different genres (see Appendix D).
-

Initial Score:

The score that each participant gains on the first, pre-experimental in-class writing
assignment in both instructional approaches11.
Related to the earlier critique of Erhman and Oxfords (1995) finding of a positive
correlation between sensing learners and general proficiency levels in an end-of-course
test, the current study seeks to clarify this relationship by proposing the following
hypothesis:
A positive relationship between participant learning styles and instructional
approach, with sensing participants benefitting from a textual approach and
intuiting participants benefitting from a contextual, will correlate with learner
progress.
A concern raised by Dunn and Griggs (1998), Oxford (2003) and Kyriacou et al. (1996)
concerning the interaction of teacher and student learning style preferences will also be
investigated in relation to this hypotheses, in particular to isolate the possible interfering
effect of a matching of learning styles between the teacher and some participants.
Related to Carrel, Prince and Astikas (1996) experimentally-flawed attempt to find a
relation between participant learning styles and general proficiency levels, the current
study wishes to isolate the effect of proficiency levels on learner progress.

The

following hypothesis was thus devised:

Measures of learner progress in the experimental lessons of both instructional
approaches will correlate with learner proficiency levels.

11 The assessment criteria behind this score will be discussed in detail in section 3.3.1 Assessment
Methods and Data Collection.

22

Related to Pangs (2002) findings concerning the predictive validity of initial score on
learner progress through his experimental lessons, the following hypothesis was
devised:
Measures of learner progress will positively correlate with the participants initial
score ratings.
Related to the secondary concerns of the current study, as previously outlined in the
section 2.3 Other Variables, two statistically-testable hypothesis have been formed in
relation to previous findings. Related to Senguptas (1999) failure to find transferability
of knowledge outside the L2 writing classroom, and taking into consideration in the
design of the current study Leki and Carsons (1997) review of student attitudes towards
academic English courses and Gosdens (1998) advising the use of authentic materials,
the following hypothesis will be tested:
The participants highest grade in the in-class writing assignments in the
experimental lesson will positively correlate with the participants postexperimental research report grades.
Finally, related to section 2.3.3 Motivation Levels, the following hypothesis has been
devised:
The post-experimental research report grades of the participants will correlate
with their motivation levels.

23

Method
3.1 Experimental Design and Materials
3.1.1 Experimental Design
The method employed consists of an in-situ, intervention, two group study with multiple
data collection points, a post-experimental report to measure transferability of
knowledge, individual feedback sessions related to the participants first draft reports,
and finally, in-depth interviews to assess participants learning process and to
encourage introspective reflection (see Figure 2, p.35). No control group was included
for the reason that the results of the study are to be analysed in relation to each
individuals learning style and proficiency and their progression through the
experimental lessons of both instructional approaches. Hence, the aim of the study is
not to determine the most effective instructional method, which would entail comparing
the groups as a whole, but instead to judge whether the performance of each learner in
a particular instructional setting positively correlates more closely with individual
learning style, proficiency level, or initial score results.
3.1.2 Reacting to Design Needs Identified by Previous Studies
Three main areas of concern arising from previous studies into genre-based instruction
in L2 writing classes have been analysed and taken into account in the design of the
current experiment; prior knowledge and experience, textual modelling, and explicit
instruction.
Pang (2002) designed his experimental study with the aim of introducing learners to a
new genre, movie guides and film reviews, of which they had not had experience of
writing before. Reppen (1995) found with 5th grade learners that prior writing experience
in other genres in the L2, in this particular case story-telling, interfered with learners
understanding of how to create the style of a new genre. Hyon (2001) found that a
genre-based method was easier to those L2 learners without prior knowledge of a
particular genre (i.e. research articles), whereas Johnstone et al.s (2002) study with L2

24

undergraduates found that repeated experience improved learners production of a

genre.

The basis of the current study is a research report, the type of which the

participants had not previously produced. Both the concerns raised by Reppen, as to
the interference of previous writing experience, and Hyon, regarding the greater efficacy
of explicit instruction to those with no previous experience, has been taken into account
in the design of the lessons in the current study. The participants attention was drawn
to both the best practise elements related to the previous years report used in the
genre analysis, as well as the inappropriate transfer of forms from other genres, such as
the overuse of personal participants (I, you, we, John etc.).
Pang (2002) used real movie guides and movie reviews from local English-language
newspapers, some brought to class by learners, as the basis for many textual and
contextual activities in his two groups.

Henry and Roseberry (1998) found that

providing learners with a model text without explicit instruction allowed L2 learners to
increase their cohesion scores through employing better text structures.

Hanauer

(1998) also found increased poeticity in L2 learners writing as a result of the providing
of a model poem. Charney and Carlson (1995) used model texts with L1 undergraduate
psychology learners, finding that participants were not able to distinguish between
necessary and unnecessary elements but that the models did positively affect content
and organisation. As the basis of the current study was the previous years students
texts, careful attention was paid to drawing the participants attention to both good and
bad elements of model texts. Although not perfect models, the texts formed a very good
basis for encouraging participant reflection in both the textual and contextual groups of
the elements needed in a well-written academic paper, such as the research report they
produced.
Pang (2002) employed an explicit approach to the instruction of both the textual and
contextual groups in his study, recording similar outcomes. Hyon (2002) found that L2
learners were better able to locate information and gain an understanding of a genre as
a result of receiving explicit instruction. Hammond and Macken-Horarik (1999) also
found that learners naturally developed metalanguage for talking about texts through
explicit instruction. Whether or not this is considered as a desirable outcome, still other

25

studies, such as Carter et al. (2004) also found that learners were better able to develop
an understanding of a genre, in this case of a scientific research paper, by gaining such
a level of awareness. The current study employed an explicit, teacher-led instructional
style at the start of the lessons, combined with exercises such as textual analyses and
contextual brainstorming sessions to encourage an explorative and discovery aspect to
the learning process.
To summarize, the elements included in the present study related to previous findings
are the following:
-

The focusing of the teaching to illustrate differences between the genre under
study and previous ones the learners had been exposed to.

The use of model texts as a basis for reflection related to the two approaches.

An explicit instructional style in both approaches, combined with more reflective

exercises.

Finally, related to the writing of their first drafts of the research reports, the learners
received face-to-face feedback from their teacher (the researcher), conforming to the
pedagogical approach of their experimental lessons, from which they tried to improve
their final draft before handing it in for grading (see Figure 2, p.35).

A general

assessment of academic style based on modified CEF descriptors (Appendix J) is to

form the basis of their course grade. This is to act as a confirmatory measure of
academic style in relation to the criterial assessment and holistic measure (Appendix
G).
3.1.3 The Research Report as an example of Academic Genre

The basis of the genre analysis, from which the lesson contents are derived, is a
scientific Research Report that the participants had to write for both their first year
Academic English and Statistics Skills courses. The report was to be written by the
participants after the experimental lessons, with sections to be graded on statistical
content by their statistics lecturer and for language by their English teacher (the
researcher). The goal of the assignment, as defined in the statistics course outline, is
26

to exercise practical steps needed to perform scientific research (from Statistics 1:

Statistical Skills for IB&M, see http://www.rug.nl/staff/j.l.miedema/teaching for an outline
of the course). The purpose of the assignment given by the English department is to
...combine your knowledge of Research Methods with an analysis of statistical data to
produce a convincing research report. In doing this, you will need to demonstrate a
good control over formal written and spoken English and an ability to structure your
ideas coherently within the standards expected in business research (from English for
Learners

of

International

Business

and

Management,

Year

1,

see

http://www.rug.nl/ocasys/feb/vak/show?module=15308 for an outline of the course).

The participants were assigned a company which has a problem needing to be solved
through in-depth research. The learners first formulated a description of the problem
and understood a conceptual model which identified all possible causes for a situation
(see Appendix E for an example of the materials). They are not required to analyse all
the possible causes, but instead, through working in small groups of 4, and after
defining the population, sample and control variables, chose 1 possible cause
(independent variable) to investigate individually. The assignment thus combines group
and individual work, see Table 2.

ID
A
B
C
D
E

Table 2 - Overview of responsibilities per assignment components.

Component description
Who is responsible
postulate propositions and operationalize Each team member
concepts
develop questionnaire
Each team member
define population and sample
Group
analyze the data by using statistical techniques Each team member
control variable
Group

The post-experimental research report consists of sections written together as a group

and sections written individually. Detailed instructions relating to a scientific research
process is given in the Statistics Skills course outline, shown in Table 3 (See Appendix F
for the full instructions).
Table 3 Overview of the process of writing the post-experimental Research Report
F
The research is concisely described in a report
1 Introduction (in your own words).
2 Theory (A1, A2, A3 are described).

27

3
4
5

Research design (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, D2, D3 are described, B1 is only
described in general terms, D1 and B1 are in the appendix).
Analyses and results (E1, E2 (by using a table), E3, E4 and E5 are described in
your own words; SPSS-output is in the appendix).
Conclusions are drawn with respect to the propositions. You give also a reflection
on the research.

Whilst sections 1, 3 and 5 (shown in Table 3) are formulated as a group related to group
decisions and the synthesis of all individual contributions to the assignment, sections 2
and 4 are related to the individuals investigation of a single possible cause or
independent variable. Sections 2 and 4 are used for grading the participants language
use in the report, thus making the participants English grades related to their personal
abilities. The codes in each section refer to a detailed description of the assignment
process (see Appendix F) that the learners are advised to follow closely. Whilst this
limits the range of formats the participants can employ, it has been given as a model to
follow due to the participants previous lack of experience in writing scientific reports. It
is thus a guide to conducting a statistical study rather than to the final organisation of
the written report, as was seen by the researcher in the analysis of the previous years
reports.
The corpus which the researcher gathered to perform the genre analysis prior to the
lessons consisted of the best reports from the previous years students. The fact that
these reports were not professionally written would seem to go against some of the
basic principles of conducting a genre analysis, that is, in relating features of a writing
community to written texts.

However, the researcher not only identified ample

contextual factors within the university, academic setting in which the reports were
written, but also identified through the analysis of the texts with WMatrix2 (see
http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/wmatrix/tutorial/) many common organisational and linguistic
elements between these high level learner reports, that were not evident in reports
achieving a lower grade12 (see Appendix H for details). Thus, despite the detailed
structure given to the learners in their statistics skills course (see Appendix F), a
12 A detailed explanation of how this analysis was carried out is included in section 3.3.2 Data Analysis
Techniques.

28

coherent writing community was identified which could be seen to define the aspects of
successful reports. In comparison with Yeungs (2007) analysis of real-world business
reports as a genre, it was thus clear that it was not the assignment instructions (see
Appendix F) that defined the style of report, but instead the setting in which the report
was written. In Yeungs comparison of research articles (RAs) with real-world business
reports, Yeung says ..in contract to RAs, they [Business Reports] do not begin with a
survey of relevant theories.. (p.162). This, amongst many other issues raised by Yeung
such as macro-structure organisation, down to verb choice (or in the language of
Functional Linguistics, transitivity options), shows the reports in the current experiment
to be defined as academic through their macro-function of knowledge proving, down to
their linguistic features of long noun phrases and sentence organisation (Theme-Rheme
in Functional Linguistics terms).

The elements of the genre analysis together with

explanations of all functional linguistic terms will be given in the following section 3.1.4
Systematic Functional Linguistics and Context.
3.1.4 Systematic Functional Linguistics and Context
The basis of both the genre analysis of the previous years research reports and the
analysis of all in-class and post-experimental work was a criterial assessment based on
Pangs (2002) study (see Appendix G). The structure of the assessment can be divided
between that which is NR inspired, sections A and B, and that which is SFL inspired,
section C. These criteria will now be discussed with reference to their main proponents,
J.M. Swales (1990) in NR, and M.A.K. Halliday (2004) in SFL. The author will also refer
to the work of

Jones et. al (1989), the compilers of the criteria before they were

adapted by Pang (2002), and then subsequently further adapted for the purposes of the
current study.
Section A, entitled by Pang (2002) as Thematic and Discourse Functions, together with
section B, entitled Moves and Overall Schematic Structure cover areas of social and
speech acts inline with the theoretical foundations of NR. As explained by Jones et al.
(1989), within section A, thematic functions, that is the organisation of the text according
to its major goals with consistency of language employed, is related to discourse
functions in the structure in which these goals are communicated. In the case of the
29

post-experimental research report in the current study, this entailed organising the text
in logical steps, mirroring the process of statistical research whilst employing the correct
statistical terminology. Related to section B, the schematic structure of the reports
included what Jones et al. (1989) define as explaining what, when giving definitions of
variables, with explaining why when justifying the steps taken in performing the
statistical research.

Related to moves, John Swales (1990) defines a move as a

section of text encapsulating one communicative function, which can be subdivided into
several steps, or speech acts. Moves can be spread out over several sentences and
form the next layer of text-structure down from overall schematic structure. In relation to
Chapter 2 of the post-experimental research report, the researcher identified the
following obligatory moves:
-

Introduction to Variable

Hypotheses

Conceptual Definition

Operational Definition

Indicators

Validity

Some optional moves, used by some, but not all of the previous years students,
include; experimental situational details, questionnaire, overview of next section. The
students in-class writing assignments were assessed for thematic and discourse
elements and moves and overall schematic structure qualitatively by the researcher, by
highlighting areas of the text.
The SFL-inspired section C in the criterial rating has been broken down into three
separate sections, part 1 relating to the SFL concept of as field (social activity), part 2
represents tenor (the interpersonal relationships among people using language), and
mode (the part played by language in building communication) (see Christie, 1991a,
p.142) as can be seen in Appendix G. The basic unit in SFL theory is the clause. The
30

analysis of the clause in SFL is strongly related to the semantic meaning in the text, and
therefore also the social context. Related to the concepts of field, tenor and mode,
Halliday (2004) explains, a clause is a unit in which meanings of three different kinds
are combined. Three distinct structures, each expressing one kind of semantic
organisation, are mapped on to one another to produce a single wording (p.64).
Halliday further elucidates the situation by referring to field as the clause as a
message, tenor as the clause as exchange, and mode as the clause as
representation. Each part has a direct relationship to and influence on the others within
the social context in which the text was produced. Therefore, whilst each part will be
dealt with separately below, it must be remembered that any change in one
necessitates changes in the other parts to maintain thematic and discoursal unity.
Related to the first part, field, or the clause as a message, there are three sub-areas to
be discussed: lexis, transitivity and participant. Benson and Geaves (1981) identified
three areas of lexis of importance in academic writing: field-specific lexis, non-specific
but clustering-specific lexis, and inter-field lexis. Related to the research reports which
formed the basis of the genre-analysis in the current study, field-specific lexis were
mainly statistical terms, but also included some report-specific terms, clustered lexis
included examples such as in order to, in this case etc., and inter-field terms included
to influence, description and question. In terms of context, the correct choice of lexis
reflects the writers ability to demonstrate competence and therefore membership of a
particular community. Transitivity of verbs, as understood in Functional Linguistics as
construing the world of experience into manageable set of PROCESS TYPES.
(Halliday, 2004, p.170, capitals taken from the original text). The first level classification
of these process types are; relational, verbal, mental, behavioural, material and
existential. Whilst there is a sub-set of categories under each of these, it was deemed
unnecessary to get into such a level of detail here. Suffice to say that, as Halliday
presents the categories as part of a wheel (p.172), each blends into the next, and in fact
one verb can fall into different categories dependent upon the meaning of other parts of
the clause.

As related to the research report, the material, relational, and verbal

transitivity options were most commonly used, with some, although ill-advised, use of
the mental option. By choosing process types, the writer thus creates an image of the
31

field of activity, which in the case of the research report means using the material/doing
processes over verbal/saying or mental/thought (the second words relate to the
presentation of transitivity in the contextual class, see Appendix H). However, verbal
processes were very important in emphasising areas of direct communication between
writer and reader, and were found effectively employed in introductions, outlines and
final concluding sentences.

Finally, participants, found in the subject or predicate

positions, are simply the actors taking part in any particular process. This can be subdivided into personal/impersonal levels, with the high-level reports in the current study
showing limited use of the personal forms (including names and personal pronouns),
with a greater use of inanimate participants, such as steps in the statistical research
process. Related to context, this increases the feeling of distance between writer and
reader and therefore conforms to the formality and desired level of objectivity required
by the setting of a University.
Related to the second part of the section C, the clause as exchange, again, three subareas can be identified; cohesion, theme-rheme relations, and format. Jones et al.
(1989) identify three sub-areas under cohesion; conjunctions, references, and lexical
chains.

While conjunctions can be easily understood under the categories internal

(such as and, but etc.) and external (such as subsequently, therefore), references
can be pronouns, demonstratives, comparatives, and also perform endophoric,
anaphoric, esophoric or exophoric functions within the text. To simplify the picture,
related to the research reports in the current study, the high-level reports used an
increased amount of esophoric (within nominal group), anaphoric (from the preceding
text) and exophoric reference (relating to shared knowledge outside the text), most
commonly with the words the and this. Lexical chains are described by Jones et al.
(1989) as consisting of synonym and repetition, taxonomic relations of hyponym and
use of meronyms. Whilst there was little call for the use of hyponyms due to the rather
simplistic nature of logical progression through the research reports, the higher level
reports did use synonym and repetition related both to material verbs (see above) and
variation of field-specific words (e.g. hypothesis and proposition) where possible.
Related to the context of writing, increased use of exophoric reference to show shared
understandings between reader and writer led to a reduced need for both internal and
32

external conjunction, as did the use of lexical chains. Theme-Rheme are functional
linguistic substitutes for the common ideas of subject and complement.

To quote

Halliday (2004): The Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of
the message; it is that which locates and orients the clause within its context. The
remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called in
Prague School terminology, the Rheme. (p.64). Halliday goes on to explain that in
English, the unmarked position of the theme is the start of the sentence. The theme
should not be confused with the traditional concept of subject, although these two often
coincide, but is instead the first phrase of a sentence, including such elements as
adverbials and conjunctions. Other concepts of Given and New also often coincide
with theme and rheme, though not necessarily so. However, because the corpus of
research reports in the current study had knowledge proving as their main function,
advanced learners did generally supply given information (often from the preceding
sentence) in theme position, with the rheme supplying new information connected to
this. One slight variation was seen when the theme of 2 or 3 subsequent sentences
was supplied by the rheme of an initial sentence, when more information giving was
necessary. The flowing of theme-rheme through consecutive sentences resulted in
what has been called the dance between writer and reader, with the writer trying to
anticipate the thoughts of the reader when moving through a text. Finally, format can be
understood in its very common sensical, everyday meaning as the layout of text on a
page. The higher level reports tended to use an increased amount of white space, to
ease the psychological impact on the reader, and used headings, sub-headings and
bullet-points when necessary (although did not overuse these), to present clear, orderly
thinking.

Some of the highest level reports also presented simplistic diagrammatic

illustrations of the interaction of the variables under consideration in their reports.

To consider mode, part 3 of section C on the criterial assessment (Appendix G), this
represents the clause as representation, and again consists of three sub parts; mood,
modality and formality. Mood as determined by Halliday (2004) consists of the subject
and finite verb of the sentence, and acts as the guarantor of what is expressed. This
can be illustrated through the everyday occurrence of tag questions and minimal
question answers which use only the subject and operator, e.g. The dukes given away
33

that teapot, hasnt he? Oh, has he? (p.111). Related to the research reports, to
maintain a true representation of processes, the mood usually consisted of a past or
past passive finite verb with an impersonal subject, representing the more important, or
active, of the participants in the clause (this often coincided with the causing participant
when causal verbs were employed).

Modality is explained by Halliday (2004) as

relating to intermediate degrees, between the positive and negative poles (p.147).
This could be achieved either by the use of a modal operator in the verbal group (e.g.
that should be John), or by the use of a modal adjunct of probability (e.g. thats
certainly John), or usuality (e.g. he usually sits there all day).

In relation to the

research reports, the use of modal adjuncts over modal operators was encouraged (in
line with the recommendations of Jones et al, 1989), which combined with the use of
impersonal participants to allow the maintenance of distance between writer and reader.
Finally, following the observations of Jones et al. (1989) of student writing problems,
formality was defined in relation to the research reports as increased length of noun
phrases, including the nominalisation of verbs (e.g. to measure measurement),
adjectives (e.g. important the importance of), and conjunctions (e.g. because the
cause of), a decreased use of finite verbs with increased use of gerunds, infinitives, and
finally an increased use of verbs of causation (e.g. to cause, to lead to, to result in),
all of which also led to a decreased need of conjunction. In relation to the context of
writing, it was explained that the reducing of sentences to pure concepts allowed for the
highest level of conciseness, whilst maintaining the depth of analysis of a subject, and
so conveys the necessary information to the reader in the most efficient fashion.
The table in Appendix H gives a short explanation of how the features above were
taught in the lessons, with a short example or explanation of each in relation to the
target research report.

Questions are given with the contextual categories and

definitions with the textual in-line with the manner of their presentation in the
experimental lessons. As can be seen, the various descriptions of different elements of
lesson content somewhat overlap within each instructional approach, reflecting how
they were presented in the lessons themselves. Related to Figure 2 (p.35), the content
of the first lesson for both groups is not given, as this lesson consisted only of a
proficiency test, a pre-experimental writing assignment to ascertain base levels for all
34

participants, and a short introduction to genre analysis in-line with the two approaches.
The lesson did not, however, cover any of the aforementioned areas in any depth.
3.1.5 The Contextual and Textual Lessons

Fig. 2. A diagrammatic illustration of the symmetry of the Contextual and Textual Experimental
Lessons. Each horizontal section illustrate a stage in the experiment. These are split into two
columns to indicate the mirroring of the experimental lessons and feedback related to
instructional approach.

The content of the lessons in the two experimental groups was kept as similar as
possible through the defining of lesson activities in relation to the assessment criteria
adapted from Pangs (2002) study.

Pangs systematic functional linguistics criteria

(right-hand column in Fig. 2) were connected with contextual areas of concern as taken
from Paltridge (2001) (left-hand column in Fig. 2 13). The precise correlation of the two
approaches can be seen in the criterial assessment form (Appendix G). In line with the
principles of genre-analysis set forth by Ken Hyland (2004) in his book Genre and
Second Language Writing, both approaches were taught explicitly, but also included
brainstorming elements to raise awareness of situational factors in the contextual
lessons, and analysis of target texts throughout all four lessons for both groups. As
Pang (2002) mentions in relation to his own study, the contextual elements were
sometimes discussed in the textual group, just as textual elements were mentioned in
the contextual group. However, the instructor guided the learners towards these shared
elements from different perspectives and only rarely mentioned any elements of the
opposing approach. All lessons in the current study were recorded for later analysis
and confirmation that teacher-learner interactions conformed to the intended method of
instruction.

13 Also linked in the previous section 3.1.4 Systematic Funtional Linguistics and Context

35

3.2 Background Details

3.2.1 The Participants
24 first year L2 English undergraduate students at the University of Groningen in The
Netherlands formed two in-situ groups, randomly specified at the start of the academic
year. The learners were mainly Dutch first language with English as their L2, however
there were three exceptions with first languages of German, Bulgarian and Filipino. The
learners were already participating in a year-long course entitled English for
International Business and Management taught by the researcher.

All learners

achieved a B2-C1 grade (on the Common European Framework scales, see
www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp) in the taking of the European DIALANG
test (see www.dialang.org) seven months prior to the commencement of the
experiment. Although this test does not include written production, together with a
general proficiency C-test and the pre-experimental writing assignment administered in
the first experimental lesson, the participants were considered to have a sufficient level
of English for academic study.

The main English course employed a mixture of

Process pedagogical elements with more traditional methods using cloze grammar and
general syntax exercises in a book entitled Writing Academic English (Oshima &
Hogue, 2006) and mainly vocabulary and speaking exercises from Market Leader
Advanced (Dubicka & OKeeffe, 2006). The participants had not had any exposure to
genre-based writing instruction prior to the current study.
3.2.2 The Experimental Setting
The experimental lessons themselves formed part of the scheduled course and were
given instead of a more traditional method concentrating on such elements complex,
compound sentences, with such grammatical elements as conjunctions, all explained in
relation to general short text examples, unrelated to the participants course, using the
textbook entitled Writing Academic English (Oshima & Hogue, 2006). The stated aim
of the general English course is:
The course trains the language skills of participants so that they can successfully
follow the IB&M [International Business and Management] programme and aims to
improve their oral and written English skills to a level that would enable them to

36

function professionally in an international company. The minimum Common European

Framework (CEF) level required to pass this course is B2.2.
(see http://www.rug.nl/ocasys/feb/vak/show?module=15308 for a course outline)

Throughout the rest of the course, taught by the researcher, learners undertook meeting
roleplays as the basis for the writing of short meeting reports, gave two oral
presentations, and completed cloze academic writing activities and business vocabulary
exercises. The learners were then required to develop a portfolio with such content as
personal reflections on the presentations and the use of online resources such as the
Academic

Word

Highlighter

(see

http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/~alzsh3/acvocab/awlhighlighter.htm ) as well as all written

content for review at the end of the course.

3.3 Assessment and Data Analysis Method

3.3.1 Assessment Methods and Data Collection
Adapted from Pangs (2002) study, a set of criteria was used as a measure of
assessment for all production activities in and after the experimental lessons, carried
out on both a holistic scale and one grounded in NR and SFL (Appendix G; see also
Drury & Gollin, 1986; Jones et al., 1989). The criterial assessment devised by Drury
and Gollin (1986) and Jones et al. (1989) covers the major areas of schematic structure,
lexis, and grammar and is divided into 3 parts; thematic and discourse function and their
application in moves (A), overall schematic structure (B), and lexico-grammatical
features in the realisation of field, mode and tenor in discourse (C). The criteria has
been adapted to be appropriate to both instructional approaches (see Appendix G).
Whilst these start from the same genre-based analysis of a text corpus, they also aim
towards the same results, that is the use of appropriate discoursal and linguistic
features in a written text, and have therefore been judged to be equivalent. As Pang
(2002) notes; a competent writer should be able to represent register via the mood
system [item 3a in Appendix G] and attitudes through modality [item 3b]. (p.154). The
scoring of the criterial assessment is to be calculated impressionistically (with a scale
from very competent, competent, limited competence to not yet) and are to be

37

collated inline with Pangs (2002) adopted 10-point scale (see also Nunan, 1991), on
which half-points were possible, to arrive at an overall value as to the texts similarity to
the target genre. All in-class writing assignments, as well as the post-experimental
research report, are to be marked anonymously by the researcher, with the in-class
assignments also being marked in a random order, to maintain marking standards
between the 4 assignments. To make sure that the evaluation process does not favour
those learners exposed to the either instructional approach, a further measure was
employed; a holistic rating scale (Appendix G). This measure of general academic style
(the holistic scales, see Couture, 1985), allowed the researcher to arrive at a balanced
evaluation of the participants individual progress in either of the two pedagogical
approaches.
To measure participant learning styles, the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II was
employed in the current study (KTS II see www.keirsey.com, also Keirsey & Bates,
1984). This test is derived from the MBTI but is considerably easier to use due to its
online format and the applicability of its learning styles format of the MBTI to the L2
classroom. Though being more concise than the MBTI, the KTS II results, in terms of
the 16 possible combinations of personality dimensions, has proven to be concurrently
valid with the MBTI (see Kelly & Jugovic, 2001). Jensen and DiTiberio (1989) linked the
MBTI descriptors to writing process (see Appendix B), which were shown to display a
high degree of accuracy related to learners own post-test introspections in an adult
English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom (see Torkerlson Gray, 1998). In the
current study, the participants completed the test before the experiment but only
received feedback after the completion of the experimental lessons and the submission
of the final draft of the research report to ensure that these results did not interfere with
their performances during or after the experimental lessons. The Jensen and DiTiberio
descriptors of the Sensing/Intuiting measure were subsequently presented to the
participants in a post-experiment interview, and, being regarded as reflecting
preferences for a particular instructional approach to the teaching of academic writing,
were then compared to the learners measured progress through, and introspection
regarding, the experimental lessons they were exposed to.

38

A general proficiency C-test (see Appendix D) was administered at the start of the first
experimental lesson to both groups of learners. It was designed by the researcher in
accordance with the principles set out in Eckes and Grotjahns (2006) study, which
showed such a C-test to be concurrently valid with the German TestDaf, which
extensively covers the skills of reading, listening, writing and speaking. In line with their
design, the test was based on five texts, containing the second half of every second
word after the first sentence blanked out, with 20 blanks in each text. Spelling errors
were marked as incorrect whilst semantically and grammatically acceptable variants of
the target words were marked as correct, as this was considered relevant to an
academic level of reading and writing. The five texts on which the test was based were
taken from two international newspapers, a fictional book, a travel guide and the blurb of
an academic textbook to increase the tests construct validity.
Four in-class writing assignments were given during the course of the experimental
lessons (see Appendix K). The first, given at the start of the first lesson, acted as a preexperimental base measure as to the features of the target genre that learners employ
without having received any instruction. Three further assignments were given at the
end of each of the following lessons to measure the participants progress. All four
assignments were based on a business case study ABC Advertisement (see Appendix
E), which none of the participants were to use in their post-experimental research
reports, or had had previous exposure to. This meant that neither group was
advantaged by having any additional background knowledge of the content of the
writing exercises in the lessons. These direct writing tasks (requiring the production of
100-300 words) were semi-scripted (Appendix K; see also Weir, 1993) to avoid guiding
learners as to necessary overall schematic structure, moves or detailed textual
realisation, and thus remaining pedagogically unbiased towards either instructional
method. Kroll (1990, p.140-154) found no difference in learners control of syntax or
organisational skills when comparing timed classroom assignments with those written
without time pressures at home. The assignments in the current study will be written
under classroom conditions, although in allowing the participants ample time, no
negative effects of pressure were expected.

39

3.3.2 Data Analysis Techniques

This section will cover the two steps of analysis from which the relevant data was
gathered; the analysis of the in-class and post-experimental written assignments, and
the statistical models applied to the resultant data.
WMatrix2 (see http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/wmatrix/tutorial/) is an online, automatic-coding,
semantic and syntactic analysis tool developed by Paul Rayson at the University of
Lancaster. The software contains 3 main listings; word, part of speech (POS), and
semantic (using USAS tags).

Related to section 3.1.4 Systematic Functional

Linguistics and Context and the criterial assessment (see Appendix G), the lists were
used to ascertain data for the following criteria:
-

Word list Lexis was seen by comparing each participants text to the British
National Corpus (BNC, see www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk) of written English to find fieldspecific, word clustered, and inter-field lexis.

POS list this list proved to be a versatile tool for measuring the use of a number
of areas.

Firstly, cohesive structures, such as conjunctions (e.g. and, but,

because etc.), reference words (e.g. this, the), together with certain adverbs
(e.g. consequently, subsequently etc.) were isolated.

The total number of

nouns used was calculated in comparison to total word count to give an

indication of formality.

The number of personal participants as expressed

through pronouns was also seen. Modality was seen through the isolating of
modal verbs, and certain adjectives (e.g. possible, probable etc.).

Both

modality and transitivity were seen through isolating the verbs used and
subsequently running them through the semantic list to arrive at indications of
process type choices, as will now be explained.
-

Semantic list the transitivity of the various verbs used was identified by the
automatic assigning of semantic categories which was then related to Hallidays
(2004) verb transitivity options. Modality as expressed through verb choice, such
as to confirm, to guarantee or to make sure were also identified.

40

Although WMatrix2 proved to be a useful tool in measuring various aspects of the texts,
the output provided did not suffice in making final judgements, as from a systematic
functional perspective, this can never be attempted in isolation from semantic meaning.
Also, the software could not produce data to assist in the analysis of such areas as
Thematic Purpose, Move and Schematic Structure, Format or Theme-Rheme
relations which were instead assessed purely subjectively by the researcher in line with
Pangs (2002) approach.
To determine which statistical models best fit my data, it is first necessary to specify the
nature of all measurable variables in the study (see Table 4)
Table 4 An overview of the measureable variables included in the present study,
with their statistical type and levels.
Variable
Statistical Type
Levels
Instructional
Nominal
2 levels Textual, Contextual
Method
Learner
Ordinal Scale
0-5, on a half-point scale
Progress (over
the 4 in-class
writing
assignments)
Proficiency CInterval Scale
A mark out of a possible 100, full-point scale.
Test
Initial Score
Ordinal Scale
3 levels
(due to the
1= low initial score, between 0-3 on criterial
subjective criterial scale
assessment,
2 = medium initial score, between 3.5-5.5 on
Appendix G)
criterial scale
3 = high initial score, equal to or above 6 on
criterial scale
Sensing /
Ordinal Scale
3 levels
Intuition Scale
1 = positively correlated to instructional method
2 = neutral to either instructional method
3 = negatively correlated to instructional method
Alignment to
Ordinal Scale
3 levels
Researchers
1 = positively correlated to the researchers
Sensing /
learning style preferences
Intuition
2 = neither positively nor negatively correlated
Results
to the researchers learning style preferences
3 = negatively correlated to the researchers
learning style preferences
Highest Score
Ordinal Scale
3 levels

41

(due to the
subjective criterial
assessment,
Appendix G)
PostExperimental
Research
Report Results

Motivational
Level

1= low highest score, equal to or lower than 6

on criterial scale
2 = medium highest score, between 6.5-7 on
criterial scale
3 = high highest score, equal to or above 7.5 on
criterial scale
Ordinal Scale
3 levels
(due to the
1= low final result, between 7-7.5 on the criterial
subjective criterial scale
assessment,
2 = medium final result, between 8-8.5 on the
Appendix G)
criterial scale
3 = high final result, 9 or over on the criterial
scale
Interval Scale
Number of hours spent in writing the report

Related to hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 Spearman Rho tests of correlation were conducted

between sensing/intuition results and learner progress, and initial score and learner
progress by assigning the results of the two independent variables to 3 groups on an
ordinal scale, the initial score groupings being in-line with Pangs (2002) grouping of his
participants results. The variable proficiency, though an interval variable, was treated
as ordinal to allow for the application of the Spearman Rho correlation test when
correlating this to learner progress. Although this is not fully scientific, it is statistically
necessary considering the fact that the independent variable (proficiency) is interval,
and the dependent (learner progress) ordinal. In addition to this, after ascertaining the
researchers learning preferences using the KTS II, a Spearman Rho correlation test
was carried out between alignment to researchers learning style and learner progress
to measure the influence of the researchers learning preferences (the researcher also
being the teacher in the experimental lessons) on the experimental conditions.
Related to hypotheses 4 and 5, Spearman Rho correlation tests will be carried out using
the following variables: participants highest score and their post-experimental research
report results to measure transferability of knowledge, and post-experimental research
report results and motivation level to isolate the effect of motivation on the report
grades. Motivation level was measured by hours spent on the writing of the postexperimental research report because reliance on purely subjective, introspective
judgements regarding motivational levels would depend too heavily on the particular
42

background, self-expectation and level of self-criticism, that is, on highly personalised

criteria, of each individual participant. This variable was also treated as an ordinal
variable to allow for the application of the Spearman Rho test. An alpha level of 0.05
will be applied to all statistical tests.
3.3.3 In-Depth Interviews
Interviews were conducted with each learner individually to cover areas such as the
accuracy of the learning styles report (especially related to the Jensen and DiTiberio
(1989) defining of the sensing/intuition scale), sensory preferences, preferred teaching
styles, motivation, biological differences and affective filters (see Appendix C).
Questions were designed to address these areas either directly, as in the case of the
validity of the learning styles report, sensory preferences, preferred teaching styles and
biological factors, or indirectly as in the case of motivation. I preferred to approach this
indirectly to make the scale of motivation more objective and measurable by regarding
amount of time spent on the project to correlate with a learners motivation level. This
was chosen as an attempt to avoid the highly subjective nature of introspective
judgements regarding motivation, although it did of course have the drawback that
highly proficient and possibly highly motivated learners might spend less time on the
writing of the research report than less proficient and less highly motivated learners, but
this factor was judged by the researcher as having limited impact. The correlation of
motivation to research report grade was calculated with the application of a Spearman
Rho test as mentioned above. The other factors were analysed qualitatively, as, due to
their introspective nature, no common groupings between participants responses were
possible.

43

Results
4.1 Data Analysis
4.1.1 Descriptives, Experimental Mortality, and Group Equivalence
The textual group progressed slightly more than the contextual group through the four
writing assignments given in the experimental lessons, with average progress in scores
of 2.875 and 2.27 respectively measured on the criterial assessment form (see
Appendix G). This, however, must be viewed in light of eventual group numbers, with a
experimental mortality rate of 33% in the textual group, as compared to only 8% in the
contextual group, leaving participant numbers at 8 in the textual and 11 in the
contextual. Despite the inequality between the groups, and the small eventual size of
the textual group, proficiency levels were judged to be equally distributed in both groups
according to the results of a T-test, showing no significant difference, p<0.05.
4.1.1 Learner Progress vs. Learning Style
The first hypothesis of this study concerned the possible correlation of learner progress
measures taken during experimental lessons and participant learning styles, more
specifically ratings on the sensing/intuition measure in the online KTS II personality test.
The results of a Spearman Rho test of correlation showed that there was no significant
correlation between learning style and learner progress for either experimental group, at
p<0.05. The researcher also performed a post-experimental Spearman Rho correlation
test between alignment to the researchers learning styles, that is intuitive rather than
sensing, and the learner progress of all participants. No significant results were found
at p<0.05, indicating that teacher learning preferences did not benefit participants with
similar learning preferences and supporting earlier postulations that each instructional
group was exposed consistently to one of the two instructional approaches.
4.1.2 Learner Progress vs. Proficiency Level
The second hypothesis of this study concerned the possible correlation of learner
progress with learner proficiency levels as measured through the administering of a C-

44

Test. The results of a Spearman Rho showed that there was no significant correlation
between proficiency level and learner progress in either instructional group, p<0.05.
This result is actually somewhat surprising by the fact that the uptake of genre elements
in writing through explicit modes of instruction (the category to which both approaches
employed in the current study belong) does not seem to depend upon general
proficiency levels.
4.1.3 Learner Progress vs. Initial Score Measure
The third hypothesis of the current study, in line with Pangs (2002) results, concerned
the possible interaction of learner progress with participants scores in the initial, preexperimental writing assignment in the first of the four lessons.

The results of a

Spearman Rho tests showed a significant negative correlation of initial score on learner
progress concerning the subjects of the contextual group , rho = -0.73, p<0.05, as well
as on the subjects of the textual group, rho = -0.9, p<0.05. In particular, the lower the
initial score in both groups, the significantly greater the progress that was made by a
participant over the course of the four experimental lessons.
4.1.4 Qualitative Analysis of the Results
An in-depth qualitative analysis of the results emanating from the two instructional
approach groups reveals observations concerning the progress of the different initial
score groupings of participants.

Figure 3 shows individual learner progress levels in the textual instructional group. The red
line represents a learner in the highest initial score group, the green lines learners in the middle
initial score group and the blue lines, the lowest initial score group.

As can be seen in Figure 3, the textual group, having such a high mortality rate,
provided only 1 learner with a high initial score, 2 with a low initial score, with the other 6
participants belonging to the medium initial score group. Whilst Figure 3 reveals the
overall progress of all learners within the group, no observations can be made regarding
the performance of any particular group. However, interestingly, and in comparison with
Figure 4 (p.47), showing the progress of learners in the contextual group, the scores of
the participants in the textual group remained consistently close to one another through
45

all 4 writing assignments, illustrating the mechanistic style encouraged by the

instructional method itself.

Figure 4 shows individual learner progress levels in the contextual instructional group. The
red lines represent learners in the highest initial score group, the green lines learners in the
middle initial score group and the blue lines, the lowest initial score group.

As can be seen in Figure 4, the contextual group provided 3 learners with a high initial
score, 4 with a medium initial score, and 4 with a low initial score. The difference
between the performance of each group is clearly visible. The low initial score group
progressed rapidly through the experimental lessons, with 3 out of the 4 attaining an
equal or higher score on the final writing assignment than all of participants in the high
initial score group in this assignment. The high initial score group showed a smaller
amount of variation both between the writing assignments and between subjects. The
medium initial score group varied quite dramatically, with one participant progressing by
2.5 points on the criterial scale, whilst another progressed by a mere 0.5 points.

This

could illustrate, particularly also in relation to the low amount of between subject and
between assignment variability in the textual group, that reaction to the contextual
approach depends more on a particular individuals characteristics and environment
(related to dynamic systems theory, DST14), and that uptake of lesson content did not
progress linearly, but showed a more step-wise progression for some participants (see
Van Geert, 2000).

4.2 Other Measures

4.2.1 Transferability of Knowledge
Related to the fourth hypothesis of the study, a post-experimental research report was
included in the design of the current study to investigate the transferability of knowledge
outside the L2 writing classroom. A Spearman Rho test of correlation was carried out
between the variables post-experimental research report results and highest score in
the in-class writing assignments, both of which were measured using the experimental
14 See Lowie, de Bot, & Verspoor (2005) for an introduction.

46

criterial assessment ratings (see Appendix G). The results of this test showed a strong
and statistically significant correlation of 0.63, p<0.05 for the contextual group, and a
similarly strong but statistically insignificant correlation for the textual group, at p<0.05.
A subsequent independent samples T-test showed there to be no significant difference
between the grades achieved on the post-experimental research report by participants
of the two groups, at p<0.05. The insignificant correlation of highest score and postexperimental report results for the textual group may therefore be due to the groups
small eventual size. Placing all the participants of the current study together, a strong
correlation between highest score and post-experimental report results was found using
a Spearman Rho test, 0.64, p<0.05. The fact that the addition of the textual to the
contextual group actually increases the strength of correlation between highest score
and research report results indicates that members of both groups were able to transfer
their knowledge outside the L2 writing classroom. Additional to this, the CEF grades
given for the participants post-experimental research reports correlated highly with the
results of the criterial analysis, a Spearman Rho test showing a value of 0.68, p<0.05.
Now follows an illustrate of the transferability of classroom knowledge with excerpts
from the research reports from two learners.

Learner A did not attend any of the

experimental lessons, whilst learner B took part in the Contextual lessons and was part
of the low initial scores group.

Multiple grading assignments during the Bachelors

English for International Business and Management course showed learner A

consistently scoring slightly above learner B as assessed by Common European
Framework (C.E.F., see http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp) set of
criteria (see Appendix E). The following two excerpts were taken from the Theory
section of the research reports (see Appendix F).
a) Operational definition of team size:
We want to measure the conceptual definition, so we will operationalize the
definition. Therefore, the operational definition is: The number of workers with a
given multicultural team.
b) To carry out research into this conceptual definition, which is too vague to
measure, an operational definition was created. An operational definition is an
indication of how the abstract concept will be measured. The operational
47

definition of the independent variable is: The amount of advertisements people

see.
Although it could firstly be argued that the difference in length of excerpts affects any
judgements made about their quality, it was a fact that learner B wrote more than
learner A in total, reflecting as will now be explained, his deeper understanding of the
genre. Referring to the criterial assessment (Appendix G) the following observations
can be made regarding the superior style of learner Bs writing:
- Relating to part A and B of the criterial rating Learner B showed a greater
understanding of thematic, functional unity and their employment through the use
of consistent language, organisation of text according to the goal of displaying
knowledge and the inclusion of not only the obligatory moves of introducing and
giving the definition, but also of providing detailed explanations of statistical
concepts.
- Relating to part C of the criterial rating Learner B employed a greater use of
nouns, variety of finite verbs, as in create, measure, impersonal participants,
well-organised sentence structures through attributing theme-rheme positions
(with the themes of the second and third sentence following on from the rheme of
the first), a consequent reduction in conjunction use, better format, using 1.5 line
spacing, use of the past and future passive mood, and finally a high level of
formality through the use of dependent clauses and long noun phrases.
These excerpts are, unfortunately a little too brief to show exactly how each of these
elements were employed by the learners in their complete research reports, but do
however display the use of certain elements very clearly, like the use of impersonal
participant forms (that is, not using we) and the understanding of the need to prove
knowledge in the genre setting.
Regarding the grades that the participants gained from their statistics course, the
average group pass grade in both groups was within the top 30% of group averages in
the year, with 19 groups in the year as a whole. The textual group had the third best,

48

whilst the contextual had the fourth best averaged group results.

All participants

however complained of the difficult of understanding and applying statistical knowledge,

and for many this area only became clear when a question and answer session was
given by their statistics lecturer close to the deadline for handing in the report.
4.2.2 In-depth Interviews
The in-depth interviews conducted after the completion of the post-experimental
research report both acted as a measure of accuracy concerning the learning styles
test, and as an opportunity to qualitatively assess the impact of some interfering
variables. The following variables have been assessed qualitatively by the researcher
due to the introspective nature of the data.
Related to the learning styles report, 100% of the participants reported it as possessing
a high degree of accuracy, with only one student disagreeing with the Jensen and
DiTiberio (1989) (See Appendix B) measures relating to the receiving of information.
Since this student was also one whose score was perfectly balanced on the
sensing/intuition scale, it was concluded that by the researcher that the learning styles
test has a sufficient level of concurrent and construct validity.
A surprising degree of variation within the participants was found related to sensory
preferences, with 8 students stating visual, 5 auditory, 5 tactile and 1 kinaesthetic.
Although interesting in itself, this variation did not seem to have any relation to either
learner progress in the 4 experimental lessons or to the post-experimental research
report grades.
All but 1 participant stated that biological factors did not affect their performance either
in or after the experimental lessons.

One student did report feeling ill in the third

experimental lesson, though this seemed to have no affect on her writing assignment,
thus biological differences were ruled out as having any strong influence on the results.
Some participants stated that the workload in the four lessons had been heavy,
although all who said this also added a concessionary point, that this had not been a
problem as they could see the immediate value of what was being taught. However, the

49

researcher acknowledges that some participants affective filters had been overloaded
at certain points.
A slight majority of learners admitted a preference for a more communicative, open style
of language learning as opposed to a more structured and traditional approach, with 1
participant stating a preference to have participated in the contrasting instructional
group15.

However, compared to both the learner progress measure and post-

experimental research report, there again appeared no clear relation between

participant teaching preferences and participant performance.
4.2.3 Motivational levels
Related to hypotheses 6, a Spearman Rho test of correlation was carried out between
the variable motivation level, measured in hours worked, and the variable postexperimental research report score. Insignificant, weak correlations were found for the
textual group, the contextual group, at p<0.05. This indicates that motivational levels,
as measured by hours spent writing, did not directly correspond with the participants
performance in the writing of the post-experimental research report.

4.3 Discussion
No correlation between learning styles and learner progress was found in the present
study.

In relation to Ehrman and Oxfords (1995) finding of a positive correlation

between intuitive type learners and general proficiency but failing to control for
instructional approach and teacher learning preferences, and following Rushton,
Morgan and Richards (2007) observations regarding the importance of teacher learning
preferences, no correlation was found between participants with learning styles aligned
to that of the researcher (i.e. intuition) and learner progress in the four experimental
lessons. The lack of any significant correlation between participants learning styles and
learner progress thus seems related to the two intended teaching approaches, rather
than any preference of the researcher/teacher.
15 This was the same participant mentioned earlier who had an perfectly balanced rating between
sensing and intuition.

50

The fact that no correlation between learner progress and proficiency level was found in
either group points to a possible conclusion that the development of genre
understanding and competent production in that genre does not necessarily occur only
given a sufficient general level of language knowledge and competence. Although it
must be acknowledged that the lower the initial level a learner has the more room for
progress there naturally is, still the fact that the low initial score group in the contextual
lessons outperformed the high initial score group in the final in-class writing assignment
indicates a real lack of relationship between proficiency and performance in genrebased writing instruction, be it textual or contextually-oriented, to genre-based writing
instruction. Although the explicit/implicit cline was not included in the current study, this
result would seem to build upon Hyon (2002), Hammond and Macken-Horarik (1999)
and Carter et al.s (2004) avocation of explicit teaching approaches to genre-based
instruction (which was employed in the experimental lessons for both groups) by
showing that genre competence can be developed in the L2 learner through the use of
instruction of metacognitive concepts and conscious effort on the part of the learner.
Like Pangs (2002) study, the central finding of the current research study is regarding
the predictive power of the participants initial writing assignment scores on their
progress through genre-based writing lessons. Findings indicated a negative relation
between initial score and progress in the textual and contextual groups alike, meaning
that, for all participants, the lower the initial score, the greater the progress.
Considering the progress of individual learners related to the two instructional
approaches, similar conclusions can be made to those of Pang (2002).

The

participants, although few in the textual group, scored similarly through each writing
assignment, illustrating the mechanistic style which this approach encourages.

By

contrast, the contextual learners differed greatly both between writing assignments and
each other.

They did, however, show a greater understanding of the purpose of

including moves in their post-experimental research report, whereas the textual learners
were stronger on formal points of transitivity options and nominalisations.

It is the

contention of the researcher that this illustrates not the superiority of either approach in
itself, but the fact that each approach was better suited to particular areas of lesson

51

content. Having taught both groups, the researcher found aspects such as increasing
formality (mainly achieved through nominalisation), mood, modality easier to explain in
a textual manner, whereas functional and schematic structure, moves, lexis, transitivity
options,

and participant seemed more accessible to a contextual approach, with

cohesion, theme-rheme and format equally open to both. This partly reflects the three
fields (A, B, and C, see Appendix G) of the criterial assessment, though within part C,
the researcher found field (social activity) being generally more approachable from a
contextual orientation, mode (the part played by language in building communication)
being more approachable from a textual, with tenor (the interpersonal relationships
among people using language) being equally open to both approaches (see Christie,
1991a, p.142). However, despite the fact that the low initial score group performed
extremely well in the contextual group, the number of participants in the textual class
were too few to allow a valid comparison to be made between the approaches.
Therefore, like Pang (2002) the current researcher makes a tentative recommendation
that both approaches should be used interchangeably in the L2 writing classroom.
Regarding transferability of genre knowledge outside the classroom study, the
researcher employed authentic texts, as advised by Gosden (1998), and found, unlike
Sengupta (1999), that learners in the contextual group were able to perform at a similar
level in writing an external, free-production report as their highest level of in-class, semistructured production.

Issues such as the perceived difference of course goals,

audience, purpose and content to other subjects (see Leki & Carson, 1997; Hansen,
2000), and the viewing of English as simply a component part of the bachelors course
(Parks, 2000b) were overcome through the dual-grading of the participants research
reports between the English and Statistics departments. However, due to the high
experimental mortality rate in the textual group, no statistically significant correlation
between their highest in-class written paper and the post-experimental research report
could be found. Qualitative analysis of all the participants reports did however reveal
the use of elements taught in class compared to two fellow students who had not
attended any of the experimental lessons.

52

As an indicator of genre understanding, the average grades received by the two groups
from their Statistics Skills lecturer showed them as being the third and fourth best
performing group out of the 19 in their year group. The researcher did however receive
many comments from the participants concerning their lack of understanding of the
statistics side of the post-experimental report. This resulted in the students not being
able to fully grasp the genre, as they did not have a full grip of the necessary knowledge
of activities, tools, methods and the interpretative framework used by competent
members of the genre community when producing a statistical report (see Bhatia,
1997b). It can be concluded that the two approaches still helped learners to improve
their understanding of the genre in class, and that learners were able to quickly
incorporate the new elements presented to improve their writing skills as was seen
through the comparing of reports written by participants in the experiment and those
who did not take part in relation to the criterial assessment (see Appendix G).
The post-experimental, in-depth interviews, whilst confirming the construct validity of the
KTS II (see www.keirsey.com) learning styles test, as well as the introspective benefit
for the participants in administering such a test, in-line with the findings of Torkelson
Gray (1998), did not reveal a strong influence of any of the variables sensory
preferences, biological factors, preferred teaching style related to the experimental
lessons, or motivation levels as related to the writing of the post-experimental research
report. Despite this, the variety of answers given would seem to indicate possible areas
for future study.

Conclusion
5.1 General Conclusion
Related to the five hypotheses stated at the beginning of the study, learner progress in
the four experimental lessons was not found to correlate with learning styles or general
proficiency, but did negatively correlate in both the textual and contextual groups,
similarly to Pangs (2002) study, with initial writing assignment scores. The fact that
participants in both groups scored similarly in the post-experimental research report
53

indicates that instructional approach wasnt the determining factor for learner progress.
However, as part of the criterial assessment used for grading, the researcher found that,
again similarly to Pangs (2002) findings, the textual group were stronger on
mechanistic elements such as formality, mood and even transitivity, whilst the contextual
showed an better awareness of thematic unity, the progression of moves, and themerheme relations. Thus, whilst the overall grades showed both instructional approaches
to benefit all participants, the researcher concluded that some areas of lesson content
were themselves more accessible to one of the two methods.
Additionally, participants in the contextual class were found to be able to transfer
knowledge gained in the experimental classes to the writing of a post-experiment report,
showing the applicability of a genre-based approach to the experimental setting of
English L2 undergraduate students. Although no significant correlation between highest
in-class score and post-experimental research report was found for the textual group,
the researcher believes this was due to the groups high experimental mortality rate
(33%), with an analysis of all participants together resulting in a stronger significant
correlation related to transferability than was found for the contextual group alone, reenforcing the impression gained by the researcher during the marking process. The
researcher believes that the short timescale of the experiment, together with the high
level of uptake of lesson content by the participants, indicates the effectiveness of an
explicit approach to genre-based instruction, although this is stated only tentatively as
the explicit/implicit cline was not included as a variable in the current study (for strong
advocates of an explicit teaching approach see Hyon, 2002; Hammond and MackenHorarik, 1999; and Carter et al., 2004).
Finally, in-depth post-experimental interviews with each participant revealed that despite
the variety of responses, no direct relation between sensory preferences, preferred
teaching style, or motivation levels as related to the writing of the post-experimental
research report could be identified.
Despite the lack of findings relating to the impact of learning styles or proficiency on
student progress related to both instructional approaches, the researcher believes the

54

general progress of the participants in the experimental lessons, the transferability of

knowledge shown in the contextual group, and in both groups when put together, and
lack of correlation between uptake of genre features with general proficiency levels, to
be strong indicators of the effectiveness of a genre-based approach to L2 writing
instruction, whether this be approached from a textual or contextual-orientation.

5.2 Drawbacks of the Study

The first and most obvious drawback related to the present study was the complexity of
the experimental design.

In addition to this, the in-situ nature of the experimental

groups introduced interfering variables such as participant expectations from previous

lessons taught, and participant-teacher familiarity. Finally, the difficulty the participants
experienced in relation to the statistical content of their post-experimental research
reports is expected, from a genre point-of-view, to have hampered their application of an
understanding of genre demands as discussed in the experimental lessons.

5.3 Recommended Follow-up Work

Pang (2002) concludes his study by observing the artificiality of the experimental design
in separating two approaches which are both adopted by writer in real life and... are
used for the rest of the Hong Kong [ESP] course. (pp.158). Whilst no clear conclusion
regarding the alignment of teaching and learning styles was made, the researcher
cannot agree with the claim of Kyriacou, Benmansour and Low (1996) that no attempt to
match teaching approach and student learning style should be condoned until further
research is conducted which includes larger group sizes and which takes place over a
longer period.
The researcher believes that the current study, whilst attesting to the efficacy of a genrebased approach to the instruction of academic writing for L2 speakers, also highlights
the essential complexity of conducting an in-situ, intervention study. Taking a DST
perspective, it is the opinion of the researcher that a continued series of experiments,
with in-situ groups, would better form a basis for an understanding of the complex
interaction of the many elements related to correlations of learner variables and

55

instructional approach in genre-based L2 writing classroom. This is preferred by the

researcher to a longitudinal case study, as by altering such variables as the participants
and the target material, it is hoped that any finding relating learner progress to
instructional approach, learning style, proficiency or motivation, or to the transferability
of knowledge outside the L2 writing classroom, will contain a higher degree of
pedagogical validity. It is therefore the intention of the researcher to carry out such
repeated experiments.

56

Appendix
Appendix Contents Page
APPENDIX A: FULL KTS II PERSONALITY TYPE DESCRIPTORS
APPENDIX B: DITIBERIO DESCRIPTORS
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
APPENDIX D: PROFICIENCY C-TEST
Learner Version
Answer Version
APPENDIX E: ABC ADVERTISEMENT COMPANY CASE STUDY
Background Details for ABC Advertisement Case Study
Conceptual Model for ABC Advertisement
APPENDIX F: FULL MODEL FOR RESEARCH REPORT
APPENDIX G: CRITERIAL AND HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT GRID
APPENDIX H: OPERATIONALISATION OF SYSTEMATIC FUNCTIONAL CRITERIA IN THE CONTEXTUAL AND TEXTUAL
LESSONS
APPENDIX J: COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK (CEF) MODEL FOR GRADING REPORTS
APPENDIX K: SEMI-SCRIPTED WRITING ANALYSIS IN CLASS

57

Appendix A: Full KTS II personality Type Descriptors

-

58

Extraversion (E) and Introversion (I). Extraverted individuals obtain information through an orientation
toward the outer world of people, events , or things. They enjoy meeting new people, thinking aloud, and
being active. Introversion types seek the introspection of ideas, thoughts, and concepts. They prefer to
process their thoughts internally before speaking, have few close friends, and often seek conversations that
tend to be deeper in nature.
Sensing (S) and Intuition (N) relates to individuals preferences in how they receive and make sense of
information or data from the external world. Sensing types are more aware of their senses in relation to
their environment, are often factually based, focus on practical concrete problems, and generally believe
that if something works, it is best left alone. Individuals who have a tendency to understand the world
through an Intuitive process prefer to live in a world of possibilities and options, often looking toward the
future. They also tend to focus on complicated abstract problems, seeing the big picture, sometimes at the
expense of the details (Hirsh & Kummerow, 1997).
Thinking (T) and Feeling (F) are considered the rational processes by which we come to certain
conclusions and judgments regarding the information collected. Thinking types (T) prefer to focus on
making decisions based on an impersonal objective position. Feeling types (F) have a tendency to respond
well and easily to peoples values and are adept at assessing the human impact of decisions.
Judging (J) and Perceiving (P) relates to how we live our outward life. Judging types prefer to live a
structured, organized life. They also tend to be self-disciplined, enjoy making decisions, and thrive on
order. Perceiving types prefer to live a lifestyle that is more e xible and adaptable. They tend to thrive on
spontaneity, prefer to leave things open, require more information in order to make decisions, and often get
things done at the last minute (Sprague, 1997).

Appendix B: DiTiberio Descriptors

-

Extraversion (E) Es generate ideas best by talking about the topic, interviewing people, or actively
experiencing the topic. They tend to leap into writing with little anticipation and then write by trial-anderror. They tend to develop a great deal of material as they write. As a result, their in-class essays and first
drafts may reflect confusion in early paragraphs and clarity in later paragraphs. If they perform traditional
pre-writing strategies (such as outlining), they can often do so more easily after writing a first draft.
Discussing drafts with others helps them to understand the need for revision and what needs to be revised.
Some Es (especially if they are also J) may not revise at all unless they receive oral feedback.
Intraversion (I) Introverts plan before writing and want most of their ideas clarified before they put
words to paper. When they begin to write, they stop frequently to anticipate the direction of the essay and
where their ideas are leading them. They usually spend more time than extraverts between drafts because
they like to have time to consider their revisions. Throughout the writing process, they tend to write alone,
asking for advice only from closest friends or teachers who they trust.
Sensory Perception (S) Sensing types prefer explicit, detailed, and specific directions. Their first drafts
reflect their inductive thought and are often filled with facts that have not yet been related to a central idea
or theme. The may feel more comfortable when following a pattern prescribed by the teacher or one that is
tried and true, one that they have used in the past. Even during a first draft, they may closely attend to
mechanics (grammar, spelling, etc.). They may regard revising as merely correcting or proof-reading.
Intuitive Perception (N) INtuitive types tend to write best when given general directions that allow
their imagination to work. Developing a unique approach to the topic is an important part of their
prewriting phase. At their best, they tend to write quickly, letting one idea trigger another and paying little
attention to mechanics. They tend to innovate organizational patterns. In their first drafts, they may present
generalities or concrete support.
Thinking Judgement (T) Ts tend to select topics that can be written about with emotional distance
rather self-involvement. They tend to make organizational decisions by following a structure, such as an
outline. When writing, they tend to focus on content rather than on how the message is affecting the
audience. As a result, they may sometimes be over blunt.
Feeling Judgement (F) Feeling types prefer topics that they can care about; they often complain about
topics that are dry of boring. When writing, they tend to draw upon personal experience; for example,
their introductions often begin with a personal example. They rely less on structure than Thinking types;
they usually begin with a sentence and then follow the flow of their thoughts. They also tend to make
organizational decisions by anticipating the audiences reaction to their text.
Judgement (J) Js tend to limit their topics quickly and set goals that are manageable. They also tend to
limit their research so that they can begin writing more quickly and complete the project. Their first drafts
tend to be short and underdeveloped, with ideas stated emphatically and often without qualification.
Perception (P) Ps tend to select broad topics and dive into research without limiting them. Topics will
usually be limited only as the deadline approaches. They want to thoroughly research or analyze a topic,
often with a clear focus, before beginning to write and may feel that there is always one more book or
article to read. Their drafts tend to be long and thorough. Their writing may ramble because they are
inclusive of ideas and data.

Appendix C: Interview Questions

Related to Learning Styles:
1. Do you agree with the learning styles report?
2. Which parts did you find particularly accurate/inaccurate?
59

3. Considering that I am an _____ teacher, do you agree with the

teacher-learner relationship section?

4. What is your preferred learning style, a traditional, structured

approach, or a communicative, open approach?

5. Do you find you learn English best by:
-

seeing things, such as diagrams or images with powerpoint

during a lecture

simply listening to the speaker, with or without images

acting in a situation, which requires you to play in a role of a

person

acting in a situation, which requires you to change or make

something with your group

6. Do you agree with the Jensen and DiTiberio indicator referring

to your sensing/intuition scale and how this describes your

relation to language learning?
Related to the writing of your Research Report:
7. How many hours did you spend in writing your first draft?
8. How many hours did you spend in correcting your final draft?
9. Which grade was more important to you, English or Statistics

Skills?
10. Did you feel uncomfortable in any of the lessons, for any

reasons such as illness, hunger, thirst or something connected

to the classroom environment? Which one(s)?
11. Did you feel the content of the lessons was: too much, just right,

not enough? In which lesson(s) did you feel this?

12. When writing the report, which of the following did you think

about MOST: the reader, the setting and purpose, the flow of the
text, the structure of the text, using the right verbs,
conjunctions, nouns etc.?

60

Appendix D: Proficiency C-test

Learner Version

Olympic Dream Stays Alive, on

Synthetic Legs
When an international court ruled Friday that a double-amputee sprinter from South
Africa was eligible to compete in this summers Olympic Games in Beijing, the stage
was set for disabled athletes to meet their own trailblazer.
The wate________ ruling ma________ the run________, Oscar Pistorius, t________
first ampu________ to succes________ challenge t________ notion th________ his
car________-fiber prosth________ gave h________ an unf________ advantage
a________ assured h________ right t________ race aga________ able-bod________
athletes in t________ Olympics, sho________ he qua________.

Town Hall on track to burst at the seams

PEAK-HOUR congestion at Town Hall station is heading for crisis point as the State
Government shifts funding priorities to the north-west underground metro.
The overcr________ station has fai________ to me________ safety stan________
since 2001 and st________ lacks fi________ escape sta________. Each d________
150,000 peo________ use the sta________ and th________ figure is pred________ to
exc________ 168,000 by 2016.
Last we________ the Gover________ admi________ a huge su________ of peakper________ passengers was begi________ to aff________ CityRail's performance.

Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

I can see by my watch, without taking my hand from the left grip of the cycle, that it is
eight-thirty in the morning. The wi________, even a________ sixty mi________ an
ho________, is wa________ and hu________. Wh________ its th________ hot and
mu________ at ei________-thirty, Im wond________ what its go________ to be
li________ in t________ afternoon. I________ the wi________ are pun________
odors fr________ the mar________ by t________ road.

An introduction to St. Lucia

St Lucia more than lives up to the paradisiacal Caribbean stereotype: a glorious mix of
honey- and volcanic sand beaches, translucent waters, sheltering reefs swarming with
tropical fish, lush interior rainforests, and a thriving culture that encompasses literature
and theatre as well as music and dance. However, i________ contrast t________
other isl________ in t________ region, wh________ the tou________
infras________ has be________ steadily expa________ since t________ 1960s, St
Lucia h________ only rec________ begun t________ attract visi________ in

61

a________ number. A________ a res________ , tourism h________ a mu________

lower pro________ here.

European Union: Internal Market Law

EU Internal Market Law is the first learner book to focus on this core topic of EU law. It
prov________ a cl________ explanation o________ the esse________ rules
o________ free move________ of per________, goods, serv________ and
cap________, and al________ covers rel________ issues, su________ as
harmo________, the devel________ of EU citize________, human rig________ in
t________ EU, a________ the regu________ of e-comm________.

Answer Version

Olympic Dream Stays Alive, on

Synthetic Legs
When an international court ruled Friday that a double-amputee sprinter from South
Africa was eligible to compete in this summers Olympic Games in Beijing, the stage
was set for disabled athletes to meet their own trailblazer.
The watershed ruling made the runner, Oscar Pistorius, the first amputee to
successfully challenge the notion that his carbon-fiber prosthetics gave him an unfair
advantage and assured his right to race against able-bodied athletes in the Olympics,
should he qualify.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/17/sports/olympics/17runner.html?
_r=1&hp&oref=slogin

Town Hall on track to burst at the seams

PEAK-HOUR congestion at Town Hall station is heading for crisis point as the State
Government shifts funding priorities to the north-west underground metro.
The overcrowded station has failed to meet safety standards since 2001 and still lacks
fire escape stairs. Each day 150,000 people use the station and this figure is predicted
to exceed 168,000 by 2016.
Last week the Government admitted a huge surge of peak-period passengers was
beginning to affect CityRail's performance.
http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/town-hall-on-track-to-burst-atseams/2008/05/16/1210765174074.html

Zen and the Art of Motorcycle

Maintenance, by Robert M. Pirsig
62

I can see by my watch, without taking my hand from the left grip of the cycle, that it is
eight-thirty in the morning. The wind, even at sixty miles an hour, is warm and humid.
When its this hot and muggy at eight-thirty, Im wondering what its going to be like in
the afternoon. In the wind are pungent odors from the marshes by the road.
Pirsig, R. (1974). Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, New York: William
Morrow & Company, Inc., p.11.

An introduction to St. Lucia

St Lucia more than lives up to the paradisiacal Caribbean stereotype: a glorious mix of
honey- and volcanic sand beaches, translucent waters, sheltering reefs swarming with
tropical fish, lush interior rainforests, and a thriving culture that encompasses literature
and theatre as well as music and dance. However, in contrast to other islands in the
region, where the tourism infrastructure has been steadily expanding since the 1960s,
St Lucia has only recently begun to attract visitors in any number. As a result, tourism
has a much lower profile here, and this low-key feel is one of the island's biggest assets.
http://www.roughguides.com/website/travel/destination/content/?
titleid=48&xid=idh154648512_0675

The Blurb from European Union Internal

Market Law
EU Internal Market Law is the first learner book to focus on this core topic of EU law. It
provides a clear explanation of the essential rules of free movement of persons, goods,
services and capital, and also covers related issues, such as harmonisation, the
development of EU citizenship, human rights in the EU, and the regulation of ecommerce.
Davies, G. (2003). European Union: Internal Market Law, London: Cavendish
Publishing Limited, on back of cover.

63

Appendix E: ABC Advertisement Company Case Study

Background Details for ABC Advertisement Case Study

ABC-advertisement
ABC advertisement is one of the largest advertising agencies in the Netherlands. This is
true for number of employees as well as for turnover: At this moment there are 738
employees and the turnover is 175.000.000,- .The company was founded in 1978 as
the result of a merger between the ABC, a UK company, and KKSXT, a Dutch company.
Since then, the firm has been growing and is now a concern with several subsidiaries in
which each subsidiary practices the advertisement profession from its own
specialization.
Within each subsidiary there are a number of creative units. These creative units form
the backbone of ABC because they deliver the products to the customers. Besides these
units there is also a small supporting staff for each subsidiary. A creative unit consists of
quite a few creative teams; each team is composed of art directors and copywriters.
Together they develop the advertisement campaign for a customer of ABC. The art
director is responsible for all the visual elements in the campaign, where as the
copywriter takes care of any lingual materials. This reflects texts in advertisements as
well as dialogues in radio en television commercials.
ABC Advertisement develops advertisement campaigns for their customers.
Unfortunately, lately several campaigns were not as success full as was hoped for. The
customers evaluated the campaign negatively and said that consumers didnt
understand the message the campaign was trying to propagate.
The management team of ABC wants that a research is done. Such an investigation
should make clear what the causes for these failures are. When these causes are
known, the management team can take counter measures.
Based on a problem analysis and a conceptual analysis (literature study) a conceptual
model was developed. The following concepts are part of this model:
Concepts in the ABC-case
A0 Success of an advertisement campaign
B0 Creativity of a team
B1 The budget a creative team has
B2 The time pressure as perceived by the creative team members
B3 The number of creative skills in a team
B4 The variety in a team
B5 The extent to which the work is structured
B6 The intrinsic motivation of the team members
C1 (to B0) The experience of the team members
C2 (to B0) The variety in gender within the teams
C3 (to B0) The age of the team members
D0 The intuition of a team member
D1 The imaginative powers of a team member
D2 The self confidence of a team member
D3 The degree to which a team member avoids risks
D4 The degree a team member is open for new ideas
C1 (to D0) The gender of a team member
C2 (to D0) The nationality of a team member
C3 (to D0) The age of a team member

64

Your assignment is to find out which of the possible causes in the conceptual model are
real causes. This research should be done in a methodological and statistical sound
way. For this empirical analysis, several research teams are involved which each only
study a part of the conceptual model. Which concepts and relations your team has to
investigate is on Nestor.

Conceptual Model for ABC Advertisement

65

Appendix F: Full model for Research Report

A
1
2
3

B
1
C
1
2
3
4
5
6
D
1
2
3
E
1
2
3

4
5
6
F
1
2
3

66

Postulate propositions and operationalize concepts

Propositions are derived in which the exact relationship between the concepts in the assignment is
described.
These concepts are given conceptual and operational definitions.
Based on these operational definitions, for each concept one or several indicators are created. The
content and face validity of these indicators is determined.
Development of questionnaire
Every indicator is translated into a methodological correct question in the questionnaire.
Define population and sample
The population for which you want to make statements (the target population) is defined.
The sampling frame is chosen.
The difference between target and operational population is established, and if the discrepancy is
unacceptable large, another sampling frame is chosen.
The specific type of sample technique is selected.
The sampling procedure (the way the sample is drawn) is described.
The sample size is determined.
Data collection
A brief introduction on the questionnaire is written.
The way the questionnaire is delivered to the respondents and the way the answers are collected
are chosen.
A call-back procedure is selected.
Statistical analyses
The size of response and non-response is determined.
Important characteristics (center, variation, outliers) of each of the indicators are derived.
If several indicators form together one concept, the construct validity of these indicators is
determined. This is done by looking at the correlations between the indicators. If these correlations
are large enough, the indicators can be summed to a new variable. From this time on, the concept
will be represented by this new variable. If the correlations are too small, those indicators are
chosen (possibly just one) that have sufficient construct validity (in case of one indicator, you have
to rely only on face validity) and they are summed to a new variable.
For each proposition a statistical test is done. H 0 and H1, value on test statistic, degrees of freedom,
p-value are derived from the SPSS-output and a significance level is chosen. By comparing the pvalue and the significance level it is decided whether the null hypotheses should be rejected or not.
The control variable is used to eliminate unwanted variance. This is done for at least one
proposition (you may choose yourselves which one).
Are the propositions falsified or not?
The research is concisely described in a report
Introduction (in your own words).
Theory (A1, A2, A3 are described).
Research design (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, D2, D3 are described, B1 is only described in general
terms, D1 and B1 are in the appendix).

4
5

Analyses and results (E1, E2 (by using a table), E3, E4 and E5 are described in your own words;
SPSS-output is in the appendix).
Conclusions are drawn with respect to the propositions. You give also a reflection on the research.

Appendix G: Criterial and Holistic Assessment Grid

Assessment Research Report
Word
1
2
Count:
Textual
A.1
Displaying overall functional and
thematic unity
A.2
Use of appropriate speech acts in
the moves
B.1. Incorporation of obligatory moves
a
B.1. Inclusion of optional moves
b
B.2
Sequence moves in an inductive
pattern
C.1. Use of topic-related lexis
a
C.1. Use of verbs to represent
b
transitivity options

Contextual
What is the Setting?
What is the Purpose?

What is the text about (Content)?

What events does the writer
emphasise in the text?

What events does the

C.1.
c

writer emphasise?
Use of appropriate participant
form (personal/impersonal)

How does the writer show

him/herself in the text?

How does the writer

show him/herself in
C.2.
a
C.2.
b
C.2.
c
C.3.
a
67

the text?
Appropriate use of cohesive
devices conjunctions (int.&ext.);
references; lexical chains.
Mastery of theme-rheme relations
Appropriate format
Use of appropriate moods

How does the writer signal that

something is known?
How do the writer and reader
take part in a dance?
How does the writer present
him/herself best to their reader?
Implicated in C.1.b, C.1.c., and
C.2.b. Not taught explicitly.

C.3.
b

Use of appropriate modals

C.3.
c

Display appropriate level of

formality

How does the writer say that

he/she is unsure about
something?
How does the writer fit into
his/her writing community?

Global Rating:
Comments:
1. Very Competent

2. Competent

3. Limited
competence

4. Not yet

Appendix H: Operationalisation of Systematic Functional Criteria in the Contextual

and Textual Lessons
An overview of the content of lessons 2, 3 and 4 for both the textual and contextual
groups
L
e
s
s
o
n

Textual Categories
Thematic Purpose
the linking of content
words of the clauses
together to create
purpose through flow
of events, participants
etc.

Contextual Categories
Setting (What is the
setting?) How the
writer states his/her
place within the writing
community.

Related to Research Reports

Text organised according to
goal of knowledge proving.
Employing a consistency of
language, logical progression
and fulfilment of move
functions in appropriate
speech acts.

Move & Schematic

Structure a move is
a distinct
communicative act,
which, combined in
patterns forms the
schematic structure of
a particular genre.

Purpose (What is the

purpose?) How the
writer communicates
his/her particular
message as related to
the writing community,
reflecting their position
in that community.

Topic-related Lexis
words found related
specifically to thematic

Content (What is the

text about?) words
that communicate the

Explaining why, i.e. giving of

justification for each move.
In the Theory section of the
report, the obligatory moves
were:
- Introduction to Variable
- Conceptual Definition
- Operational Definition
- Indicators
- Validity
Optional moves include;
experimental situational
details, questionnaire,
overview of next section.
From Benson and Geaves
(1981)
a) field specific lexicon

68

L
e
s
s
o
n
3

69

purpose, clustering of
words related to
thematic purpose, and
more generic words
used across similar
genre types.

message of the text, as

well as structuring
groups of words, and
more general words
belonging to the larger
academic genre.

b)

indicators
variable
correlation
hypothesis etc.
non-specific but
clustering specific
lexicon
- in order to
- in this case
- on the other hand etc.
c) inter-field
- influence
- investigate
- description
- focus
- question etc.
Nominalisation of verbs,
adjectives, and conjunctions:
- important = the
importance of...
- because = the cause
of ...
- therefore = the
consequence of....
ing and to verbs replacing
finite:
- we measured =
measuring
- should indicate = to
indicate
Causal Verbs replacing
conjunctions:
- cause, lead to, result in

Formality the
creation of style
through structuring of
sentences, particularly
with long noun
phrases, a limited
number of finite
verb(s), limited use of
conjunctions
(particularly external).

Academic Style (How

does the writer fit into
his/her writing
community?) the use
of concept words to
make information as
compact as possible.

Participants
(Personal/Impersonal
) traditionally known
as subject or direct and
indirect object, the
choice of actors in
each move, related to
the event.

Author (How does the

writer show him/herself
in the text?) the choice
of personal or
impersonal actors to
represent distance
between author and
audience in an
academic setting.

Use of personal participants (I,

you, we etc.) only in those
parts of the text which are
seen as a direct
communication between
author and reader
introductions, overviews and
conclusions. Substitution for
impersonal form through the
reasoning process.

Format the visual

Audience (How does

Clear thematic paragraphs

L
e
s
s
o
n

layout of a text.

the writer present

him/herself best to their
reader?) How the
writer chooses to
present information.

split by blank lines, bulletpoints used when necessary,

justified text (to both margins)
and ample white space to
ease the psychological impact
on the reader.

Modality degrees
between positive and
negative, as well as
subjectivity-objectivity
cline.

Author-Audience
Relationship (How
does the writer say that
he/she is unsure about
something?) How the
writer maintains
distance even when
expressing uncertainty.

Use of modality in the form of

nouns (it is possible..) rather
than personal (we could...).

Theme-Rheme the
theme is the departure
point for the message
(in the initial position in
English), the rheme is
the rest of the
message.

Reader Expectations
(How do the writer and
reader take part in a
dance?) The writer
anticipates the readers
thoughts by linking the
rheme of the previous
sentence to the theme
of the following.

A close flowing of themerheme in the justification of

knowledge through the speech
acts making up each move.
This leads to a reduced need
for the imposed use of external
cohesion markers (such as
therefore, moreover, however
etc.).

Cohesion
(conjunctions
(int.&ext.); references;
lexical chains)
creating cohesion in
the text through
conjunctions and
adverbs (and, or,
consequently etc.),
references (this, these,
the..), and lexical
chains (e.g. language
language variation
dialect social class)
Verb Types
(Transitivity) choice
of relational, verbal,
mental, behavioural,
material, existential

Shared Understanding
(How does the writer
signal that something is
known?) How the
writer communicates
shared concepts with
the reader (the, this...),
and creates a shared
idea of logical
argumentation (and, or
(lexical chains)).

Strong use of reference

systems and lexical chains in
high level texts, resulting in a
reduction in the use of external
conjunction.

Events (What events

does the writer
emphasise in the text?)
The use of doing
(material), logic

The use of a large variety of

material/doing verbs when
describing the process of
statistical research, with
relation/logic verbs used in

70

verb types (see

Halliday, 2004, p.172)

71

(relational), thought
(mental) and message
(verbal) event words.

definitions and conclusions.

Verbal/message verbs should
only be used in introductions,
overviews and final concluding
statements, whilst
mental/concept verbs used in
the previous years reports are
better converted into nouns.

Appendix J: Common European Framework (CEF) Model for grading reports

Assessment: Individual Chapters in IB&M 1C Research Reports
Criterion

Grad
e

Comments

Structure
Uses organisational devices effectively,
including thesis statements, topic
sentences and sub-points.
Produces a balanced argument.
Layout
Pays attention to detail in layout, including
systematic referencing of sources, layout
of paragraphs, appropriate use of graphs,
tables and charts; spell-checking and
professional appearance.
Range
Demonstrates flexible use of a range of
vocabulary and language in the
appropriate academic context in terms of
formal style.
Coherence
Pays attention to the flow of text, using a
range of appropriate connectors and
cohesive devices, with appropriate
punctuation
Accuracy
Demonstrates grammatical control through
accurate use of a variety of language
forms.
Total

NB: The grade for each of the main categories (in bold) depends on the extent to which the learner fulfils the general descriptor.
Descriptors for measurement are derived from the Council of Europe 2003: Relating language examinations to the Common European
Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEF). Written assessment criteria p. 142.

72

Appendix K: Semi-scripted writing analysis in class

Lesson 1:
Writing Assignment 1 Write your Theory section for how the
independent variable Team Variety affects the dependent variable
Creativity. The control variable is Gender. Write at least 300 words.
Lesson 2:
Writing Assignment 2 Write a general Introduction section for a
Report investigating the independent variables Team Variety,
Degree of Structure in Work, Intrinsic Motivation against the
dependent variable Creativity with Gender as the control variable.
Write between 1-2 pages.
Lesson 3:
Re-write the following two paragraphs from the Results and Analysis
section of a learners report in full text:

Speaman Rho Test = not significant (0.097).

No significance between indicator one and three.
Significance between two and three (0.295)
One indicator not accurate enough.
Indicators two and three = sufficient construct validity.
Correlation is statistically significant, p<0.05.
Two and Three response rate = 100% and 93%. One =
91%.
Conclusion = exclude one, keep two and three. Result =
new variable.
Lesson 4:
73

Re-write the following two paragraphs from the Conclusion section

of a learners report in full text:
5.1. Conclusion
Hypothesis 1 no significant relation, power of imagination & intuition.
No results weak power of imagination = low level of intuition
Conclusion power of imagination not causing failing advertising
campaigns
Hypothesis 2 significant, negative relation, self-confidence and intuition
Results employees with high self-confidence given less decision-making
power.
Consequently, a vicious cycle was created subconsciously.
Conclusion management to encourage less self-confident employees in
creating advertising campaigns.

74

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80