Fi G 6 doin iis A Comprehensive Quiz Book By : Aamir Shehzad University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan Research Assistant | Blodiesel Expert : NRG & NUST, Islamabad.Contents Lo Clay Chemistry. 06 Inen Solids and Active Solids........ 1.2 Colligative Properties of Clays. 1.3 Effect of Calcium and Magnesiumon Clays....... 14 Effect of Salinity on Clays..... 15 Prebydration of Bentonite. 1.6 Cationic Influence on Hydration... 1.7 Bentonite Suspensions... 1.71 Stability of Bentonite Suspensions 1.72. Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions 1.73 Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions. Polymer Chemistry & Applications. . 14 21 Natural Polymer. 22 Starch..... 23 Xanthan gum..... 24 Modified Natural Polymer. cess 2.11 A Modified Stareh: Carboxymeth Starch (MS). 2.12 A Modified Starch: Hydroxypropyl Starch... 2.13 A Modified Cellulose: Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). 2.14 A Modified Cellulose: Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC). 25 Synthetic Polymer. 26 Sodium Polyacrylonitrile 2.7 Resin/Lignite Complex. 28 Synthetic Liquid Resin... Mud Treating Agent 2 3.1 Deflocculants (Thinners)..... 3 Dispersants. 33 Surfactants40 5.0 6.0 34 Emulsifiers, 3S Welling Agents........ecece 3.6 Fluid Loss Control Agents... 3.7 Viscosifiers...... 38 Lubricants... coo 3.9 Superabsorhent Polymers, 3.10 Quality and type of water. Shale Stabilizing Additives & System: 4.1 Mechanism of clay-swelling inhibition... 4.2 Shale Inkibitors. 411 Salts 4.12 Formate and Acetate.. 4.13. Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA)....... esseesss cvs ae a 4.14 Sugars and sugar derivatives....... 4.15 (Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols. 4.16 Mixed polyol-salt systems, 4.17 Silicate 43 Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry... Shale Instability. Sil Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction, 5.2 Shale Stabilisation, 53 Borehole Instability 5.31 Cause of Wellbore Instability 5.32 Wellbore Instability Problems 5.33 Factors affecting Wellbore Stability. 5.364 Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids... 5.35. Contol of Wellbore Instability Formation Damage and Lost Circulation Matetials.ssscsseeecseenasees 6.1 Formation Damage: 62 Causes of Formation Damage... 63 Types of Formation Damages 64 Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks. 7 48. 3540 5.0 6.0 34 Emulsifiers, 3S Welling Agents........ecece 3.6 Fluid Loss Control Agents... 3.7 Viscosifiers...... 38 Lubricants... coo 3.9 Superabsorhent Polymers, 3.10 Quality and type of water. Shale Stabilizing Additives & System: 4.1 Mechanism of clay-swelling inhibition... 4.2 Shale Inkibitors. 411 Salts 4.12 Formate and Acetate.. 4.13. Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA)....... esseesss cvs ae a 4.14 Sugars and sugar derivatives....... 4.15 (Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols. 4.16 Mixed polyol-salt systems, 4.17 Silicate 43 Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry... Shale Instability. Sil Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction, 5.2 Shale Stabilisation, 53 Borehole Instability 5.31 Cause of Wellbore Instability 5.32 Wellbore Instability Problems 5.33 Factors affecting Wellbore Stability. 5.364 Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids... 5.35. Contol of Wellbore Instability Formation Damage and Lost Circulation Matetials.ssscsseeecseenasees 6.1 Formation Damage: 62 Causes of Formation Damage... 63 Types of Formation Damages 64 Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks. 7 48. 3570 80 9.0 10.0 11.0 65 Factors Affecting Formation Dama 66 Control of Formation Damage 67 Lost Circulation Materials Rhcological Properties TA Rheology. 7.2 Rheological Properties. 7.3 Fluid Types. 74 Factors Affecting Rheological Properties TAL Clay 7A2 Aging Temperature Water-Based Drilling Fluids - Non Inhibitive Muds, 8.1 Non Inhibitive Muds... 8.11 Bentonite-Water Muds. 8.12 Lignite-Lignosulfonate (Defloc ‘Water-Based Drilling Fluids - Inhibitive Muds. 9.1 Inbibitive Muds..... 9.11 Calcium-Based Muds..... 9.12 Salt-Based Muds....... 9.13 Potassium-Based Muds.... Polymer Fluids.. 10.1 Polymer Fluids, 10.11 Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds. 10.12 High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds.... 10.13 _ Silicate Mud System. Oil-Based Muds. ILI Oiland synthetic liquids.. 1111 Oil Mud Additives 11.12 Oil Mud Properties... High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) Drilling Fluids. 12.1 Factors affecting Drilling Fluids Behavior, 12.2. Effects of HTHP conditions on 12.21 Rheological Properties, 68 1 10130 140 15.0 160 12.22 Orwanophillic Clays 12.23 Polymers 123 Brine-Based Drilling Fluids, ‘Scomi Oiltools Drilling Fluids. 13.1 HYDRO-FOIL System... 132 OPTA-FLO System 13.3 RHEO-PLEX System. Centrifugal Separation Devices 14.1 Decanting Centrifuges... Solid Contents & Specific Gravity... Solid Contents & Filtration Control References 17 119 123Clay Chemistry Give answer of following short questions relating: L Inert Solids and Active Solids Colligative properties of Clays Effect of Calcium and Magnesium on Clays Effect of Salinity on Clays Prehydration of Bentonite Cationic Influence on Hydration Bentonite Suspensions ¥ Stability of Bentonite Suspensions ¥_ Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions ¥ Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions vv Inert Solids and Active Solids What are inert solids? Answer : The inert solids are those that have very little tendency to react with each other. ‘These are non swelling solids which are electrically uncharged and easily dispersed. They consist of such materials as sand, silt, limestone, feldspar, and barite, Discuss effects of inert solids on mud properties? Answer : They increase the plastic viscosity and do little to reduce fluid loss and actually cause the filter cake to be thicker. Since they are not hydrated, they cause the filter cake to be dry and brittle with a high coefficient of friction. These are poor qualities to prevent differential pressure sticking, Undesirable solids increase drilling costs. They cause reduction in penetration rate, promote lost circulation and cause high mud costs due to treatment and dilution to maintain necessary mud properties. What are active solids? Answer: The active solids are those that have ctrically charged surfaces and are reactive with their environment Discuss effects of active solids on mud properties? Answer : Due to their charge distribution, they can int with one another to form a gel structure within a fluid. Most of the active solids also have the ability to hydrate in water. The commercial solids like bentonite that provide the density, viscosity, and fluid Joss control requirements of a mud. ‘How clays present in shale are differentiated from that clays added in mud?Answer ; The montmorillonite in shales is usually calcium montmorillonite since it is in equilibrium with the formation water, which is normally rich in calcium. Sodium ‘montmorillonite is nomally added to a mud to increase viscosity and reduce fluid loss. Other clay types may be considered contaminants, as they are not as effective as a commercial clay How you will explain dispersion of clay? Answer : In freshwater, clay layers adsorb water and swell to the point where the forces holding them together become weakened and individual layers can be separated from the packs. Separating these packs into multiple layers is known as dispersion, Discuss the structure of clays like kaolin, montmorillonite, chlorite or illite? Answer : Clays exist in nature with a stacked or layered structure, with each unit layer roughly 10 angstroms (A) thick, This means there bout a million layers of clay per millimeter of thickness. Clays are usually either of the two layer type like kaolin or three- layer type such as montmorillonite, chlorite or illite. Each plate-like clay particle consists of @ stack of parallel unit layers. Each unit layer is a combination of tetrahedrical (pyramid) arranged silica sheets and octahedrical (eightfaced) arranged alumina or magnesia sheets. Three-layer clays are built of unit layers composed of two tetrahedral sheets on either side of one octahedral sheet, somewhat like a sandwich. Two-layer clays are built of unit layers consisting of only one tetrahedral and one octrahedral sheet. Discuss bentonite erystal structure and also compare hydration of calcium-based bentonite ‘and sodium-based bentonite? Answer : The bentonite crystal consists of three layers: an alumina layer with a silica layer above and below it. The clay platelet is negatively charged and has a cloud of cations associated with it. Ifa significant amount of these cations are sodium, the clay is, often called sodium montmorillonite. If they are primarily calcium, then the clay is called calcium montmorillonite. Depending on the cations present, the interlayer spacing of dry montmorillonite will be between 9.8 (sodium) and 12.1 A (calcium) and filled with tightly bound water. When dry clay contacts freshwater, the interlayer spacing expands, and the clay adsorbs a large wwelope” of water. These two phenomena allow clays to generate viscosity. calcium-base bentonites osily expand to 17 A, while sodium bentonite expands to 40 A,10. n. R. 2B. ua Discuss how ability of smectite to adsorb water is much greater than other clay minerals? Answer : Smectite, in addition to adsorbing water and cations on external surfaces, absorbs water and cations to surfaces between layers in its crystalline structure. The ability of smectite to adsorb water is much greater than other clay minerals, Discuss colligative properties of clay? Answer : The ability of clay to adsorb water, the quantity of exchangeable cations (CEC) and the surface area are closely related phenomena that are sometimes termed colligative properties of clay. These colligative properties are basically measurements of the reactivity of the clay How reactivity of a shale relates with the clay minerals? Answer : The reactivity of a shale depends on the types and amounts of clay minerals present in the shale. Smectite is clearly much more reactive than other clay mineral materials. Shales containing smectite are the most water sensitive and hydrate the most Shales containing other clay minerals have less ability to hydrate but still may be water- sensitive. Colligative Properties of Clays Defined colligative properties of clay? he ability to adsorb water, the quantity of exchangeable cations (CEC) and the face area of the clay minerals are termed as colligative properties of clay. These tive properties are basically measurements of the reactivity of the clay. These properties are often used to characterize clay minerals as well as to minimize drilling problems, Defined Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of clay? Answer : The compensating cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surface may be exchanged for other cations and are called the exchangeable cations of the clay. The quantity of cations per unit weight of clay is measured and reported as the CEC. The CEC of clay can be measured with a methylene blue titration. The CEC is expressed in milli equivalents per 100 g of dry clay (meg/100 g). Discuss the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of major types of clay?Is. 16. v7. 18. Answer : The CEC of montmorillonites is within the range of 80 to 150 meq/100 g of dry clay. The CEC of illites and chlorites is about 10 to 40 meq/100 g, and for kaolinites it is about 3 to 10 meq/100 g of clay. Effect of Calcium and Magnesium on Clays How calcium and magnesium ions effect mud properties? Answer : Calcium or magnesium ions in a mud have a pronounced effect on behavior of the clays. These ions replace sodium ions on the clays, reduce the degree of hydration, and promote flocculation and aggregation of the clay particles. This leads to increases in yield point, gel strength, and fluid loss of the mud. Whereas addition of deflocculations such as lignite and lignosulphonate will lower the fluid loss and YP/gel values. Discuss how excess calcium and magnesium ions are removed in the mud? Answer : Caustic (NaOH) is sometimes used to suppress the level of soluble calcium ina ‘mud, The usual method for precipitation of calcium is the addition of soda ash (NasCO3). The calcium is precipitated as CaCO; (Limestone). One Ib /obl of soda ash will precipitate approximately 1000 ppm of calcium, Magnesium can be removed from solution by the addition of hydroxy! 1s. At a pH above 10, essentially all the magnesium is precipitated as insoluble magnesium hydroxide. The extracting organic agents such as lignosulfonate and CMC should be added to a mud after addition of caustic and precipitation of the magnesium, What is effect of temperature and pH on the solubility of calcium in fresh water? Answer : The solubility of a calcium salt such as gypsum or lime is increased by increased salinity and decreased by increased pH or temperature, Effect of Salinity on Clays Discuss the effect of salinity on the behavior of clay solids? Answer : The salt content of a mud has a great effect on the behavior of the clay solids. The degree of hydration of bentonite is reduced by increased salinity. This results in decreased plastic viscosity and increased fluid loss. When clays are hydrated in fresh ‘water, addition of salt will cause flocculation and increased yield point and gel strength. Note:19. 21. 22, When the chloride concentration is 20,000 mg/l or higher, prehydrated bentonite should be added for ‘Muid-loss control. Dry bentonite added to such muds will not hydrate sufficiently to give good flid-loss ‘control Discuss the effect of s ity on clays? Answer : As the salinity is increased the degree of hydration is decreased. This is caused by the cations in solution pushing the exchange cations closer to the surface of the clay platelet. This causes the water layer bound by the clay surface and the exchange cations to be thinner. As a result the plastic viscosity will be less and the fluid loss will be greater than when the clay is hydrated in fresh water. Since the water layer is thinner, the platelets can come closer to one another and tendency to flocculate will be greater. Increased bentonite additions are required to help offset the effects caused by increased salinity. Prehydration of Bentonite Discuss main functions of bentonite? Answer : Bentonite, a worldwide-used drilling fluid additive, is added to fresh water to increase hole cleaning properties and to form a thin filter cake of low permeability. Its main functions are to vi (Bailey et al., 1994). ify the mud and to reduce the loss of fluids in the formation Compare the efficiency of dry and prehydrated bentonite? Answer : Dry bentonite added to muds with chloride concentrations above about 10,000 mg/l will not hydrate sufficiently to give good filtration control. In these muds, prehydrated bentonite should be used. When prehydrated bentonite is added to a saltwater mud, it increases the yield point more than the same amount of bentonite would in fresh water. Cationic Influence on Hydration How divalent and monovalent cations affect hydration of clays? Answer : The thickness of the adsorbed-water film is controlled by the type and amount of cations associated with the clay. Water adsorbed to the large, flat, planar surfaces; comprises the major part of the total water retained by hydratable clays. Divalent cations, such as Ca’* and Mg”* increase the attractive force between platelets, thus decreasing the 1023. 24. 25. amount of water that can be adsorbed. Monovalent cations such as Na* give rise to a lesser attractive force and allow more water to penetrate between the platelets. How size and shape of the hydrated cation influence clay swelling and hydration? Answer : The size and shape of the hydrated cation affects its ability to fit between interlayer clay surfaces and influences both clay swelling and clay hydration, Spaces ‘within the crystalline montmorillonite layers is 2.8 A. Small ions, like potassium, that can fit between clay layers are more easily and permanently exchanged. In addition, cations that become large when hydrated expand the interlayer distances to promote clay hydration, Calcium is a good example, having a hydrated diameter of 19.2 A. Lithium is another example, having three water molecules and a hydrated diameter of 14.6 A. Monovalent cations with large hydrated diameters cause the most swelling and dispersion, Multivalent cations with small hydrated diameters are the most inhibitive. Bentonite Suspensions Stability of Bentonite Suspensions Discuss mechanism of stability of bentonite suspensions at high temperatures? Answer + Lignite provides stability to bentonite suspensions at high temperatures. It is used as an additive for drilling at temperatures in excess of 180 °C (Patel, 1995; Gavrilof et al., 1999) to avoid gelation. The additives used in bentonite suspensions are usually anionic polyelectrolytes which are thought to bind on the bentonit particle surface, imparting them a more negative charge, thereby increasing their mutual repulsion, prohibiting agglomeration of clay particles and maintaining the stability of the suspensions (Zhang and Yin, 2002). The additives used include modified, or non- ‘modified, natural compounds like lignosulfonate complexes with various metals, tannins, humic acids, lignite and modified lignite and synthetic polymer products (Patel, 1995). Discuss polyanionic character and role of humic compunds in bentonite suspension? Answer ; Humic compounds have been shown to stabilize clay suspensions (Tombacz et al,, 1999), These are negatively charged polyelectrolytes mainly due to ionization of carboxylic and to lesser extent of phenolic groups (Ramos-Tejada et al., 2003). They contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties behaving like surfactants. It can therefore be considered that humic acids or total humic and fulvic acids content present in u26. 27. 28, 29, lignites are important factors, which control the stability of the bentonite suspensions when exposed to high temperatures. Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions How bentonite dispersions vary at different pH values and cations? Answer : Lagaly (1989) reported that bentonite dispersions are governed by EF contacts (ard house structure) in acidic medium and FF (face-face) contacts (band-like structare) in alkaline medium. Also Ca’ ions promoted FF contacts and stabilized band-like structure. Gelling properties improve at all pH range except neutral pH, edge-face (EF) interaction becomes dominant at acidic pH while long range repulsive interaction is dominant at alkaline pH; MOH* (MgOH*, MnOH” and PbOH’) type cations make the surface charge of edges positive by specific adsorption of MOH’ (Obut and Girgin, 2005). Gelling properties of bentonite can be improved by employing such cations to induce the formation of the BF and BE (edge-edge) networks, which also depends on pH and Ca/Na ratio (Lagaly, 1989). Why pH range of drilling muds is mostly kept in the range of 7 10 9.5? Most of drilling muds are treated to be alkalin . they should have a pH above 7. The viscosity of a bentonite suspension is lowest in the pH range of 7 to 9.5. This is one reason why most water-base drilling fluids are run in this range. Increased dispersion of clay results when pH is above 9.5, increasing the viscosity ofthe drilling fluid Why high concentrations of bentonite is avoided in driling fluids? Answer : Drilling fluids with high concentrations of bentonite may have negative effect such as excessive friction and increased torque as a resull of which low concentrations of bentonite must be used in the formulation of such fluids, The difficulty with using bentonite is that eventually the solids build up in the mud making the viscosity difficult to control. In addition, many so-called “bentonite clays” contain variable proportions of polymers. making viscosity prediction uncertain. Therefore some polymer acting as a thickener must be added to bentonite (Mahto and Sharma, 2004) in order to achieve the desired drilling effects. Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions Why bentonite is treated with a deflocculant before adding it to the salty water? 123. Answer : Bentonite which is used as an effective viscosifier in saltwater, is first prehydrated in freshwater then added to the salty water, It is beneficial to treat the prehydrated bentonite slurry with a deflocculant before adding it to the salty water. In this way, the initial flocculation followed by a loss of viscosity from dehydration in the saltwater environment is reduced. How abnormal viscosity of water-clay suspensions caused by chemical flocculation is treated? Answer : If abnormal viscosity is caused by chemical flocculation (as indicated by a high yield point and gels). The organic and inorganic anionic additives can be used to effectively reduce flocculation Discuss the mechanism as how anionic additives effectively reduce floceulation in water- ‘lay suspensions? Answer : The primary effect of anionic viscosity reducing chemicals is believed to be @ neutralization of residual broken-bond cationic charges. The mechanism of this action in water-clay suspensions is to reduce that portion of viscosity due to attractive forces between the particles without substantially affecting that portion of viscosity due to hydration of the clay minerals. Anionic materials are adsorbed on the edges of the clay particles to si sfy the residual broken-bond cationic charges. Anionic charged chemicals commonly used for the treatment of drilling mud include phosphates, tannins, humic-acid lignins (lignite), lignosulfonates and low molecular-weight synthetic polymers. This adsorption changes the balance of forves acting on the clay particle from an attractive force (flocculation) to a repulsive force (deflocculation). Instead of being drawn together, the particles repel or tend to avoid contact with one another. 13Polymer Chemistry and Applications Give answer of following short questions relating: 2. 33. > Natural Polymer Y Starch ¥ Xanthan gum > Modified Natural Polymer YA Modified Starch: Carboxymethyl Starch (CMS) ¥ A Modified Starch: Hydroxypropyl Starch. ¥ A Modified Cellulose: Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) ¥ A Modified Cellulose: Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) Synthetic Polymer Sodium Polyacrylonitrile Resin/Lignite Complex Synthetic Liquid Resin Discuss about the Polymers” structures? Answer > Polymers’ structures are classified as linear, branched or crosslinked. Linear, For example: CMC (Carboxymethylcellulose), PHPA (Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide) and HEC (Hydroxyethylcellulose). Branched, For example: Starch and xanthan gum. Crosslinked, For example: Crosslinked xanthan gum. Natural Polymer Starch Starches are used mainly for fluid loss control and are effective in a large range of fluid systems, such as seawater, saturated saltwater, KCI muds and lime muds. Starches are thermally stable to about 250 °F (121 °C). Starches, unless chemically modified are not resistant fo bacteria and require a biocide to prevent fermentation, and high pH muds. Describe polysaccharides found in the Starch? except in saturated salt Answer : Starch consists of two polysaccharides: amylase and amylopectin. Amylose, a chain of carbohydrate rings, makes up the straight chain backbone of the starch molecule. Amylopectin is a highly branched chain of carbohydrate rings that branches off from an amylase backbone. The ratios of the amylase and amylopectin fractions determine the properties of the starch, 435. 37. Why Starches are pre-gelatinised? Answer : The starches are pre-gelatinised in order to permit them to readily hydrate Starches are peptised chemically or by exposure to heat. The peptisation ruptures the microscopic sacks which contain the amylose and amylopectin allowing them to contact with water and hydrate. Discuss chemistry of Pregelatinized Starches? Answer : Starch in its raw form is not water soluble; it simply floats around as starch particles. To make starch effective in drilling fluids, it is necessary to rupture the protective shell coating of amylopectin to release the inner amylose. This releases amylose, which absorbs water and swells to form sponge-like bags. Amylose lowers the filtration by reducing the free water in the system and plugging the filter cake’s pores. Why Starch solutions are not commonly used in brine fluids? Answer : Starch is sometimes used as a viscosifier in brine fluids, but starch solutions are more Newtonian and will not provide suspension for cuttings and weight material therefore these are not commonly used in brine fluids. Discuss how potato starch is better than corn starch? Answer : Com starch consist of an average of about 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin. Pregelatinized com starch is an economical filtration-control additive that is effective in all makeup waters from freshwater to saturated salt water, Potato starch which is slightly different from comstarch. Potato starch has a slightly higher molecular weight than comstarch and also has a higher concentration of amylose to amylopectin, Potato starch contains a biocide in the product. For these reasons, it functions somewhat differently. Potato starch has greater tolerance to hardness and a slightly higher temperature stability than corn starch. It also produces slightly more viscosity. Discuss some drawbacks to the use of starches? Answer: The biggest drawback to the use of starches is their tendency to ferment. They are natural biodegrading materials that must be preserved with a biocide when used in drilling fluids. A second limitation of starch is its low thermal stability. Starch degrades; rapidly when exposed to prolonged temperatures exceeding 25°F (102°C). 1539, 0. a. Xanthan gum Xanthan Gum is a biopolymer and is a product of the action of a bacteria (Xanthomonas ‘Campestris) on sugar. This material may be used in a variety of brines and salinity levels. Xanthan gum begins to degrade thermally at temperatures of about 225°R. Xanthum gum is the only polymer that provides thixotropy, i.e, formation of gel structures. Discuss chemistry that how Xanthan gum produce thixotropic properties (gels) in water- base fluids? Answer : ‘The long branching structure of the polymer, coupled with the weak hydrogen bonding among the side groups, imparts unique viscosifying properties to xanthan. The electrostatic interactions are weak and when shear is applied to the system, the attractive forces holding the polymers together are pulled apart, As the hydrogen bonding breaks, the viscosity of the fluid thins, When the shear is removed, the polymer chains resume their intermolecular hydrogen bonding and their original viscosified state returns. How Xanthan polymer produces shear-thinning fluids and gel structures in field work? Answer : Xanthan polymer product shear-thinning fluids and gel structures. As the shear is increased, viscosity is gradually decreased. When the shear is removed, the original viscosity of the fluid is completely recovered. Under high-shear-rate conditio in the drillstring, for instance, the viscosity of the mud system decreases. Under the very high shear rates experienced in the drill bit nozzles, the fluid thins dramatically until it behaves almost like water. Under lower-shear rate conditions, in the annulus, for instance, hydrogen bonding forms again and viscosity increases. Under static conditions, xanthan fluids display thixotropic characteristics providing gels. Why amount of xanthan necessary to develop thixotropic properties vary ‘makeup water? Answer : The concentration of xanthan necessary t develop thixotropic. properties depends on the makeup water. In freshwater, the polymer expands and the polymer branches come in contact, allowing hydrogen bonding and the resulting thixotropy to develop more easily. Only 0.5 Ib/bb] may be sufficient for a highly weighted freshwater system Whereas in high salinity brines, xanthan polymer, like other water-base polymers does not hytdrate easily and, to some extent, remains coiled so it may take 2 to 3 Ib/bbl in a KCI or a high-salinity NaCl system, 16B. Discuss some of the applications of Xanthan gum? Answer : Xanthan gum is added to drilling fluids for a number of applications. Most often, itis used as a clay substitute to impart thixotropic properties. Xanthan gum is used instead of loading a fluid with clay solids to obtain viscosity and suspension. This is beneficial in many ways, most notably by maintaining optimum suspension and carrying capacity in fluids without increasing solids loading. This property makes xanthan gum the polymer of choice for increasing viscosity in extended-reach and horizontal wells, especially when the wells involve low annular velocities, Morever Xanthan gum viscosifies brines, including seawater, NaCl, KCI, CaCl, NaBr and, to some extent, even CaBr,, It is degradable with oxidizers (bleach) or enzymes, and is acid-soluble for easy clean-up. It develops gel strengths and easily suspends acid-soluble materials like CaCOs Diseuss how polymers like guar gum and xanthan gum regulate rheological properties? Answer : Polymers like guar gum and xanthan gum are used for controlling the viscosity and the yield stress of drilling fluids as well as to reduce formation damage (Rossi et al., 19995 Liu, 2007) Modified Natu: 1 Polymer A Modified Starch: Carboxymethyl Starch (CMS) Carboxymethyl starch, controls fluid loss with a minimum increase in viscosity in most water-base drilling fluids. It is an alternative to PAC materials in systems requiring tight filtration control and low rheological properties. CMS performs more like a CMC ‘material than a starch. It has a temperature stability similar to CMC and PAC (up to 30°F (149°C) and does not require a bactericide. CMS is most effective when applied in drilling fluids containing less than 20,000 mg/l Cl and 800 mg/l Ca°*. It performs at any pH level and is compatible with all water-base systems A Modified Starch: Hydroxypropyl starch. Another example of modified starch is Hydroxypropyl (HP) starch, It is produced by reacting starch with propylene oxide. The resulting modified starch is nonionic and is water-soluble. The modification actually adds to the water solubility of the starch, A Modified Cellulose: Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a modified natural polymer used for filtration control. It works particularly well in calcium treated systems, where it acts to stabilize 7properties. The material is commonly made in three grades, each varying in viscosity, suspension and fluid-loss-reduction qualities. The three grades are High-Viscosity (HV), medium- or regular-viscosity (R), and Low-Viscosity (LV), CMC is subject to themmal degradation at temperatures exceeding 250°F. How Carboxymethylceltutose (CMC) is prepared? Answer : Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a highly charged anionic polyelectrolyte with carboxylic acid groups. It is the reaction product of cellulose with sodium hydroxide id (Edali et al., 2001). How CMC's effectiveness relates with pH? Answer : CMC performs well at an alkaline pH. CMC’s effectiveness decreases at salt and chloroaceti concentrations greater than 50,000 mg. Discuss how polymers like Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) regulate rheological properties? Answer : High water retention of CMC promotes the stabil jon of the aqueous dispersion of bentonite based drilling fluids. CMC addition causes steric stabilization to bentonite dispersions (Lagaly, 2006). The polymer chain of CMC in solution is partly in a helical conformation which considerably influences the rheological behavior of CMC in aqueous solution (Yasar et al., 2007). The temperature and particularly the concentration of CMC have significant impact on the rheological behavior ofits dispersions (Pilizota et al., 1996). Each polymer chain in a diluted solution of CMC is hydrated and extended, and the solution then exhibits stable viscosity (Gémez-Diaz and Navara, 2002). It can increase the viscosity of the drilling fluid and reduce fluid losses to the formation (Amorim et al, 2007). Discuss the viscoelastic property of Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)? Answer : At high concentrations, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) solutions show viscoelastic in addition to thixotropic behavior (Edali et al., 2001). NaCMC is as a thickener; for stabilizing suspensions and emulsions; for the formation of gels; and also as a modifier of the flow characteristics of water solutions or suspensions (Feddersen and Thorp, 1993) A Modified Cellulose: Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) is a modified natural polymer designed for use in most ‘water-base systems, including freshwater, seawater, salt and low-solids muds. It is a high 18molecular weight, polyanionic cellulose similar to CMC, but has a higher degree of substitution, It is the most widely used fluid loss control additive and is generally a much better product than CM 215°. . Itis subject to thermal degradation at temperatures exceeding How PAC’s effectiveness retates with pH? Answer : PAC performs well at an alkaline pH. Its effectiveness decreases in saturated salt Muids. Ultralow-viscosity PAC products, should be used for saturated salt systems. Discuss how cellulosics polymers regulate rheological properties? Answer + Polymers like cellulosies are used for controlling the viscosity and the yield stress of drilling fluids as well as to reduce formation damage (Rossi et al., 1999; Liu, 2007), ‘Synthetic Polymer Sodium Polyacrylonitrile Sodium Polyacrylonitvile is a medium-molecular-weight, acrylic co-polymer sometimes referred to as a sodium polyacrylate. It is a calcium sensitive, synthetic polymer. It is stable at high-temperatures and does not degrade bacterially. In addition to increasing the liquid phase viscosity to decrease fluid loss, the long-chain molecule can adsorb onto the edges of clay particles (encapsulation), further reducing filter-cake permeability. SP-101 should not be used in muds that contain more than trace amounts of ealeium. The calcium should be precipitated with soda ash before adding SP-101 Resin/Lignite Complex Resin/lignite complex provides both filtration control and improved thermal stability. tis non-viscosifying, and can be used at temperatures in excess of 400°F and in the presence of moderate concentrations of electrolytes. It can be used in high-density muds where increases in viscosity are detrimental Synthetic Liquid Resin Synthetic liquid resin provides both filtration control and improved thermal stability. Itis non-viseosifying, and can be used at temperatures in excess of 400°F. It has broad applications and can be used in virtwally any water base mud. It is more effective in systems which also use lignite-ased products. It can be used in high density muds, where viscosity increases are detrimental 19Discuss how Synthetic polymers regulate rheological properties? Answer Polymers like polyacrylates and polyacrylamides are used for controlling the viscosity and the yield stress of drilling fluids as well as to reduce formation damage (Rossi et al., 1999; Liu, 2007).Mud Treating Agents Give answer of following short questions relating: st. 52. Deflocculants (Thinners) Dispersants Surfactants Emulsifiers Weiting Agents Fluid Loss Control Agents Viscosifiers Lubricants Superabsorbent Polymers Quality and type of water Deflocculants (Thinners) Who you will defined defloceulants? Answer : Any material that will deflocculate a clay suspension is normally referred to as 4 @eflocculant) thinner, Deflocculants have a relatively low molecular weight. Polymers composed of sodium styrene sulfonate, maleic anhydride, and a zwitter ionic functionalized maleic anhydride are suitable, Discuss mechanism of defloceulation? Answer : Flocculation is caused by a positive charge site at the edge of a clay platelet linking to the negative surface of another platelet. The primary effect of a thinner (deflocculants) is believed to be a neutralization of the positive charge, which destroys the ability of the platelets to link together in this manner. This renders the platelets completely negatively charged and causes them to repel one another, or to avoid contact. ‘Thus, the resistance to flow of the suspension is reduced. What are functions of deflocculants? Answer : Thinners are used to reduce the yield point, gel strength, and low shear rate viscosity. They are not used to reduce the plastic viscosity since it is a function of the total volume of solids in suspension and not concerned with the linking of these parti Discuss functions and limitations of Phosphate as a defloceulants? Answer : Phosphate is a very efficient thinner at low temperature in freshwater muds. Addition of 0.1 to 0.2 Ib/bbl will completely deflocculate a mud. However, it will not perform at high salt concentrations or in the presence of calcium, It is actually a a38. 37, 9. sequestering agent for calcium and is thus depleted in a calcium environment. At temperatures above 180°F, it reverts to orthophosphate, which is a flocculating agent Discuss performance of Quebracho (sodium tannate) as a defloceulants? Answer : Quebracho (sodium tannate) is also an effective thinner, requiring only 1 to 2 Ib/bbI to deflocculate a mud. For best results, it should be used at a pH above 11. It is effective in lime muds or cement-contaminated muds, but is not effective at higher calcium levels or in high salt content muds. It is not capable of deflocculating at temperatures above 25°F, Discuss functions of chrome lignosulfonate as a defloceulant? Answer : The best all-purpose thinner is chrome lignosulfonate. It has a much greater tolerance for salt and calcium than the other thinners and will deflocculate at temperatures in excess of 350°F. Discuss effect of temperature and pH on performance of chrome lignosulfonate? is altered by high temperatures (above 350°F) and has a rather short life expectancy at 350°F. It is thought that polymerization takes place at high Answer : Chrome lignosulfona femperature, making the material less soluble and less effective as a deflocculant. This makes it difficult to assign a value to its temperature stability. At 350°F, degradation takes place and carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are liberated in a reasonably short time. These by-products actually appear to be more detrimental to the mud than the loss of active lignosulfonate. A high pH, in the range of 10 to 11, helps to cancel the effects of CO» and HS and increases the time that lignosulfonate will function effectively at the elevated temperatures. The active lignosulfonate content appears to be diminished about 2 Ib/obl afier aging 16 hours at 300°F. Discuss use of lignite as a defloceulant? Answer : Lignite is also used as a thinner. It is more resistant to thermal degradation than wosulfonate, but it is less effective as a deflocculant at high temperatures (above 250°F). Dispersants Who you will defined dispersants? Answer ; The dispersant is especially useful in dispersing bentonite suspensions. Complexes of tetravalent zirconium with organic acids, such as citric, tartaric, malic, and 2at. lactic acids, and a complex of aluminum and citric acid have been claimed to be active as dispersants. Polymers with amine sulfide terminal moieties are synthesized by using aminethiols as chain transfer agents in aqueous addition polymerizations, The polymers are useful as mineral dispersant Surfactants Defined Surfactants? Answer : Surface active compounds are compounds that orient at interfaces or surfaces and lower surface or interfacial energy/tension. Surface active compounds are often called surfactants. The most common example is soap, These are used to reduce the interfacial tension between contacting surfaces (oi water, water/solids, water/air, ete.). Surfae: ctive agents or surfactants have a hydrophilic (water-loving) polar head and an organophilic (oil-loving or lipophilic) non-polar tail They a by reducing the interfacial tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid, Surfactants include emulsifiers, soaps and wetting agents, Discuss mechanisms that how Surfactants contributed to a reduction in the production potential of the reservoir? Answer : Surfactants used in some drilling fluids have contributed to a reduction in the production potential of the reservoir through a variety of formation damage mechanisms, The two damage mechanisms most commonly associated with the use of surfactants are: The drilling fluid containing surfactant invading and changing the wettability of the reservoir rock surrounding the well bore. ‘The surfactant promoting the formation of a viscous emulsion barrier in the reservoir a immediately surrounding the well bore. Both mechanisms have the potential for severely limiting the production potential of the well, particularly in low-pressure or low- permeability reservoirs (Wunderlich, 1991). Discuss the interaction behavior of Surfacrants onto the drill bit and drill cuttings (rock pieces)? Answer : Surfacrants are used as anti-balling additives in water-based fluids. The adsorption of surfactants onto the drill bit or metal surfaces involves dispersion forces. Dipole interactions. and electrostatic effects. For example, using alkyl ary! sulfonate surfactants results in 1) electrostatic inter ions between the electric charges on the B6. surfactant molecules and the metal, and 2) dipole-dipole interactions between the aryl group (which has high electron density) and the strongly polarized sites of the metal 996). Adsorption of surfactant onto the drill cuttings (rock pieces) occurs because the clay (Quintero et al. ‘minerals within the cuttings exhibit a highly-charged surface, and the hydrophilic part of the surfactants will be adsorbed onto the clay. with the lipophilic part of the surfactant molecules oriented toward the aqueous phase (Fox, 1974). If the quantity of available surfactant is sufficient to cover the surface area of the clay mineral, the drill cuttings will be surrounded by the lipophilic part of the surfactant and become more hydrophobic and less easily wetted by water phase (Quintero et al, 1996) Discuss apy ion of surfactant-polymer complexes for low-pressure reservoirs? Answer : Surfactants that have good polymer-surfactant association and that bind to the polymer have been used to generate solids-free fluids that contain a synthetic oil dispersed in water and stabilized by a surfactant-polymer complex. An example of such a surfa ‘ant-polymer combination is sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and ethyl (hydroxyethyl) cellulose (EHEC). Published results indicate that surfactant-polymer complexes generate fluids with desired properties for low-pressure reservoirs (e.g., bigh viscosity at low shear rate, excellent filtration control at high differential pressure, and high retam of permeability) (Quintero et al., 2001), Discuss effect of surfactant on the tribological properties of WBF? Answer : The addition of the surfactant mixture (SA) at 1% (w/¥) to the drilling fluid formulations lead to a reduction in friction coefficient up to 60% respect, to that of water, according to the weighting material used. The surfactant mixture has excellent anti-wear properties The wear mechanism observed on the drilling fluid formulations depend on the solid particles, which in both cases they may be acting as ball bearings, and its interactions with a complex tribofilm formed between the surfactant and polymer molecules adsorbed on the metal surface. How nonionic Surfactant affect viscosity of oil/water emulsion? Answer : Surf int is a very good emulsification agent. Cheng, 1991 studied the theological property of OAV emulsion, emulsified through using nonionic surfactant. The result shows that when oil phase is less than 30%, the viscosity of the emulsion keeps 24or. oo. 70. almost constant with shear rate, being a Newtonian fluid. When the oil phase is more than 30%. the viscosity of the emulsion decreases with the increase of shear rate, which means that the emulsion is non-Newtonian. The viscosity of the oil decreases rapidly with the increase of water phase. With half amount of water, the viscosity of the emulsion is, nearly one twentieth of that of the oil. Itis much more mobilizable, Defined weutabitity and what is effect of surfactants on wettability of an oil reservoir? Answer : The wettability of an oil reservoir controls how fluids flow and where fluids reside in the reservoir (Morrow, 1990). Surface-active agents (surfactants) are the primary wettability altering components of the drilling muds. Give example of some shale stabil Answer : There are special shale stabilizing surfactants consisting of nonionic ing surfactants? alkanolamides, for example, acetamide monoethanotamines and diethanolamines. Discuss use of ethelene oxide as a surfactant and its sensitivity to temperature? Answer : A 30-mol ethelene oxide adduct of phenol, a more powerful surfa active agent, has also been used extensively in mud. It is a nonionic surfactant that adsorbs on the surface of clay solids. In this condition, the clay solids are less active and appear to disperse less easily. This helps to prevent gelation and may also help in preventing balling. At temperatures above about 200°F it is insoluble. As it comes out of solution in a high solids mud, high viscosities may develop which cannot be controlled. In general, surfactant muds are quite sensitive to temperature. Defoamers Discuss use of Defoamers in drilling operations? Answer : Defoamers are surfactants such as alkyl phosphate esters and siloxane surfactants used for breaking foam generated when gas is incorporated during drilling operations, or when air is trapped during the drilling fluid mixing process. The incorporated foam needs to be controlled in order to maintain the fluid-weight and the hydrostatic column, Detergents Defined Detergents and what is their use in drilling operations?7. 73. Answer : The detergents are anionic surfactants such as alkyl aryl sulfonate, nonionic surfactants such as alkyl aryl ethoxylates and alcohol ethoxylates, and anionic /nonionic blends. To resolve the problem of bit balling , the drilling industry use detergents as additives in water-based drilling fluids. What are functions of detergents used in drilling muds? Answer : Detergents are weak surf ve agents that are extensively used in drilling muds for a variety of reasons ranging from general mud conditioning to hole stabilization. They evidently reduce torque and drag, eliminate balling of bits and stabilizers, help in solids removal, a number of other things. Can Nanoparticles replace polymeric surfactants to stabilize water-in-oil emulsions? Answer : Nanoparticles can be used to stabilize water-in-oil emulsions in place of ants, Similar to surf: polymeric surfa hhydrophobi adsorption and attach themselves to the oil-water interface, espe ints, nanoparticles and microparticles can also be , hydrophilic or amphiphilic. They can exhibit a large free energy of ly for particles: of intermediate wettability (Aveyard and Binksand, 2003). Also, relatively hydrophilic particles tend to form oil-in-water emulsions, while the use of relatively hydrophobic particles results in water-in-oil emulsions. Emulsifiers Defined Emulsifiers? Howe they work? Answer ; Emulsifiers are added to a mud system to create a homogencous mixture of two liquids (oil and water), They are surfactants that reduce the surface tension between immiscible liquids that between the water droplets and oil (or synthetic) to allow the formation of dispersions, They stabil ze the mixture by being partially soluble in water and partially soluble in oil, They are usually long-chain alcohols, fatty acids or polymers and can be anionic, cationic or non-ionic. One end of the emulsifier molecule has an affinity for water while the rest of the molecule has an affinity for oil or synthetic fluid Emulsifier particles form a coating around the water droplets to keep them from coalescing7. 75. 76. Wetting Agents Defined wetting agent and how they works? Answer : Wetting agents are supplemental additives to quickly and effectively oil wet solids that become water wet. It is a surf the interfacial ctive agent that reduc tension and contact angle between a liquid and a solid. This causes the liquid to spread over the surfa of the solid, Wetting agents have one end that is soluble in the continuous-phase liquid and the other that has a strong affinity for solid surfaces. In non- aqueous fluids, wetting agents cause solids to be wet with oil or synthetic liquid. The solids (barite, clays and drill solids) must be wetted by the continuous liquid phase of the drilling fluid or they will aggregate and settle. Fluid Loss Control Agents Discuss clays as fluid loss control additives? Answer ; Three clays are used as mud additives attapulg’ e, sepiolite and sodium bentonite (sodium montmorillonite). Attapulgite and sepiolite are needle-shaped clays used as mechanical colloidal viscosifiers in high-salinity brines. They do not provide filtration control. Sodium bentonite is a member of the smectite group of clays. Sodium bentonite surfaces have a high electro-charge density. This high charge density promotes; hydration in freshwater by attracting many layers of water molecules to its surface. These hydrated bentonite particles deform and compress readily under pressure and form very low-permeability, low porosity filter cakes. How deflocculation and dispersion of clays are important for filtration control? Answer: Deflocculation and dispersion of clays are important for filtration control Bentonite and clay patticles are very thin, flexible solids with large, planar surfaces. When the clay platelets are deflocculated, they are deposited in more of a flat orientation in the filter cake, They overlap to obtain a low permeability filter cake with good filtration control. However, if the mud system is flocculated, the bentonite particles will 778. al. not lay flat but will orient themselves in an edge-to-face matrix, which causes hi permeability filter cakes and poor filtration control Discuss filtration control performance of lignosulfonate and lignite? Answer : Lignosulfonate and lignite are used to improve the filtration control performance of bentonite. When bentonite flocculates, it becomes less effective as a filtration control agent. Lignosulfonate and lignite deflocculate the bentonite, thereby reducing the fluid loss. Contaminating ions, such as calcium and magnesium, not only cause flocculation but also dehydration and aggregation of bentonite, Lignosulfonate appears to protect the bentonite from these harmful effects and lignite precipitates the ions, thereby removing the source of the problem. Consequently, these additives are quite effective at high temperature or in the presence of caleium and magnesium, Discuss application of lignite in high weight muds? Answer : Lignite also acts as a colloidal material. In high weight muds where additional bentonite cannot be used because of viscosity considerations, addition of lignite will reduce fluid loss without causing excessive increases in viscosity. A pound of lignite will reduce the fluid loss approximately the same amount a a pound of bentonite Discuss use of starch as filtration control additive? Answer : A number of water-soluble polymers are used to control fluid foss in situations where it is undesirable to use bentonite, Starch is one of these polymers. It is primarily used in brine muds at relatively low temperatures. Starch is one of a few products unaffected by water salinity or hardness. Due to its viscosity-building ability, itis often used as the source of both viscosity and fluid-loss control Discuss use of carboxymethyl cellulose, (CMC) as filtration control additive? Answer : CMC is another polymer type material used for fluid-loss control. At low concentrations, CMC deflocculates clay suspensions in much the same manner as josulfonate. This results in a reduction in fluid loss as well as in yield point. As the CMC concentration is increased, the viscosity of the water is increased and further reduction in fuid loss is achieved. Discuss parameters affecting performance of CMC? Answer + As temperature is increased above 250°F, CMC thermally degrades until complete degradation is achieved in 16 hours at 300°F, Similarly as water salinity is 2882. increased it becomes more difficult to hydrate and expand the CMC molecule. At salinities above 50,000 mgil chlorides, CMC rapidly becomes less effective as a fluid loss control agent. It also becomes ineffective at calcium concentrations above 100 mg/l. The thermal instability, sensitivity to salinity and water hardness limit the use of this material Discuss use of Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) as filtration control additive? Answer : Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) is a modified natural polymer is similar to CMC, but has a higher degree of substitution. It is the most widely used fluid toss control additive. Itis not subject to bacterial degradation and performs well at an alkaline pH. ts effectiveness decreases in saturated salt fluids. Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) is subject to thermal degradation at temperatures exceeding 275°F, Discuss use of polyacrylate as filtration control additive? Answer : Another water-soluble polymer used for fluid loss control is polyacrylate, At low concentrations (up to about 0.1 Ib/ bbl) they are flocculants. At higher concentrations, they deflocculate and increase the viscosity of the water, thus reducing the fluid loss. ‘These are somewhat more thermally stable than CMC or starch, but they are extremely sensitive to calcium, Calcium concentrations above 200 mg/l will cause excessively high gel strengths that cannot be controlled. Discuss use of Sodium polyacrylonitrle as filtration control additive? Answer : Sodium polyacrylonitrile is a medium-molecula ‘weight, acrylic co- polymer sometimes referred to as a sodium polyacrylate. It is a calcium sensitive, synthetic polymer. It is stable at high-temperatures and does not degrade bacterially. In addition to increasing the liguid phase viscosity to decrease fluid loss, the long-chain SP-101 molecule can adsorb onto the edges of clay particles (encapsulation), further reducing filter-cake permeability. Discuss application of Resin/lignite complex as filtration control additive? Answer : Resinilignite complex and synthetic liquid resin provide both filtration control and improved thermal stability. They are non-viscosifying, and can be used at temperatures in excess of 400°F and in the presence of moderate concentrations of electrolytes. They can be used in high-density muds where increases in viscosity are detrimental ‘How water droplets in Invert emulsion drilting fluid assist in filtration control?87. 89. 90. a. 2. 9%. Answer ; Invert emulsion drilling fluid refers to system in which water droplets are uniformly dispersed in a continuous oil phase. The emulsified water droplets act as pscuido solid particles to block the formation pore and reduce filtration loss. Viscosifiers For what purpose viscosifiers are used in the muds? Answer : Viscosifiers are necessary in muds for two primary reasons: to suspend barite and to increase cuttings carrying capacity. These two functions are carried out by increasing the yield point and providing gel strengths of about 2 to 4 Ib/100 sq. ft. Enlist some of the viscosifying materials? Answer : The viscosifying materials such as starch, CMC, and Xanthan polymer build viscosity directly. Others, such as the vinyl polymers, act indirectly by increasing the yield of bentonite Enlist the viscosifiers used in water-based muds? Answer : Additives used in water-based muds to increase the low-shear-rate viscosities, and gel strengths, are: bentonite, xanthan gum, PHPA, and the mixed metal inorganics. What is effect of temperature on the viscosifving ability of starch and CMC? Answer : Temperature appears to have an adverse effect on the viseosifying ability of starch and CMC. A very rapid loss of viscosity occurs at temperatures above 200 * Discuss viscosifying mechanism of vinyl polymers? Answer : The vinyl polymers derive their viscosifying ability by cross: inking clay particles, causing an increase in yield point and gel strength. The polymer molecules apparently adsorb on positive charge sites on the clay platelets. If one molecule is, attached to two or more particles, a state of artificial flocculation exists and increased yield point and gel strength will occur. How water droplets in Invert emulsion drilling fluid act as viscosifier? In Invert emulsion drilling fluid, water droplets will assist in support weight material by increasing the viscosity and gel strength of the emulsified system. Discuss application of Xanthan gum in cuttings suspension? Answer : Xanthan gum is a theology modifier that increases the low-shear-rate viscosity ofa mud, It has been found that for adequate carrying capacity and suspension of cuttings, in horizontal holes a critical concentration of the polymer must be present (Kelco 3095, 97. Technical Bulletin, 1988). This critical concentration is dependent on the temperature, the presence of other solids, and salinity. The critical concentration is usually in the 1.25 to 13 Ib/bbl range (Powell et al, 1991), Discuss suspension characteristics of Mixed Metal Inorganics (Hydroxide & Silicate)? Answer : Mixed Metal Hydroxide (MMH) and Mixed Metal Silicate (MMS) are highly cationic-charged crystalli materials that clectro-statically associate with bentonite forming a unique gel structure. This gel structure allows the fluid to, in effect, move as a solid mass when pumped carrying all solids along with it (Powell et al., 1991). It may have perfect transport and suspension chi teristics. Typical use dosages vary from 0.5 to 1.0 Ib/bbl. In combination with 8 to 12 Ib/bbl of untreated bentonite (Polnaszec and Fraser, 1991 ). Discuss hole cleaning efficiency of water-based mud versus oil-based mud? Answer : Itis generally accepted that once a hole angle increases above about 60” it is best cleaned with turbulent flow. Oil-based muds, in general, are easier to change into turbulence than water-based muds. Water-based muds must be viscosified to improve carrying capacity. The ability to rapidly increase the low-shear rate viscosity and gel strengths to high levels is easier in water-based muds than in oil-based muds (Hemphill, 1990) Lubricants For what purpose Lubricants are added in completion fluids? Answer : Lubricants are often added to drilling or completion fluids, in order to reduce 2007) friction between tubular equipment and the well (Holland et al., How improper lubricant additive affect drilling performance? Answer ; The poor choice of lubricant additive can result in increased friction and drilling column torque, interfering with horizontal drilling operations. Discuss about additives in use in water muds for lubricity? Answer : Various additives have been used to lower the friction factor in water-based muds for drill pipe in contact with either the wellbore or casing. The additives in use in water muds for lubricity include modified vegetable oils and refined polyols. These additives can normally be used in any water-based mud (Toups, 1995). Drilling fluid99, 100. m1. m2, 103, lubricants are, most frequently, esters or glycol blends or polyol blends (Knox and Jiang, 2005), Defined Polyols additives? Answer : Polyols constitute a class of materials with di- and tri-hydroxyls that are good lubricants. They are variously called glycerines, polyglycerines, polyols and glycols Discuss the applications of Polyols additives for water based muds? Answer : Polyols are either immiscible or partially miscible with water and will change its wetting characteristics. A mud with a sufficient amount of polyol behaves more like an oil mud in its wetting characteristics. This greatly improves the lubricity, shale stability and formation return permeabilities of the mud (Chenevert, 1991). They, however, can also change the wettabi of reservoir rocks, giving rise to “waterblocks” (for example, see Chilingarian and Vorabutr, 1983). These materials are also being used successfully to eliminate problems that fan, 1989). cur when gas hydrates are encountered during drilling (Hale and De Defined Bit balling? Answer : The oil-wetting nature of oil muds gives rise to a film of oil on metal parts in the mud. This film minimizes the formation of bonds (Chesser and Perricone, 1973) between formation shale and the downhole assembly that can cause what is commonly called bit balling, How Polyol additives help to minimize bit balling? Answer : A water-based mud can be formulated to minimize or eliminate bit balling by coating the metal parts with a hydrophobic coating (Enright et al., 1991). Polyol additives have been shown to give this protection to downhole assemblies. Effective concentrations have been reported to be from 5 to 30% polyol by volume. The wide range of effectiveness probably depends upon the purity and the molecular weight range of the polyol. It may also depend on the type of polyol, glyceride or glycol. How glycerols and glycols help in increé drilling rate? Answer : In WBM, poly-(zlycerols) and poly-(zlycols) (abbreviated in the following as glycerols and glycols) have been widely applied in shale drilling fluids (Twynam et al, 1994). They prevent cuttings from dispersing into the medium (Bailey et al., 1994). Therefore, they increase drilling rates (Cliffe et al., 1995).104, Ws. 106. 107. 108, Superabsorbent Polymers Defind hydrogels? Answer : Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers connected by chemical and/or physical crosslinking. They can swell to an equilibrium state that retains a significant amount of water. Defined Superabsorbent hydrogels (SH)? Answer : Superabsorbent hydrogels (SH) are water insoluble and are able to absorb and retain large amounts of aqueous fluids even under pressure, Therefore, SH exhibit great advantages over traditional water-absorbent materials. Defined Superabsorbent polymers? Answer : Super-absorbent polymers are lightly cross-linked networks of hydrophilic polymer chains. The most efficient water absorbers are polymer networks that carry dissociated, ionic functional groups. The network can swell in water and hold a lange amount of water while maintaining the physical dimension structure (Buchholz and Graham, 1997; Mahdavinia etal, 2004), Superabsorbent polymers may also be defined as an important class of polymers which can absorb large amount of water compared with general absorbing materials and the absorbed water is hardly removable even under pressure (Buchholz, 1994). Superabsorbent polymers are known as hydrophilic network structured polymers having hydrophilic functional groups such as, hydroxyl, carboxylic acid, and amines (Wichterle, 1971). Due to their excellent properties such as, hydrophilicity, high swelling capacity, lack of toxicity, ind biocompatibility, these superabsorbent polymeric materials are used for many applications including drilling fluid additives (Yoshida et al., 1989), Defined Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) hydrogels? Answer : Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) hydrogels are special hydrophilic polymeric ‘materials that can absorb large amounts of water, saline solutions or physiological fluids as high as 10-1000 times their own weight due to a considerable amount of hydrophilic groups in their structure. Because of their three-dimensional structure, SAPs are not dissolved in the media. The super-swelling characteristics of SAPs makes them ideal for use in water absorbing applications. Compare Superabsorbent polymer (SAPs) verses Superporous hydrogels (SPHs)?109. m0. Answer : SAPs, just like SPHs, are structurally cross-linked hydrophilic polymers, which have the ability to absorb considerable amounts of water or aqueous fluids (10-1000 times of their original weight or volume) in relatively short periods of time (Askari et al 1993 ; Chen et al., 1994). Depending on the used during preparation, the swelling rate of SAPs ranges from fraction of a minute to rials ‘uring process and the hours. The fast swelling, however, is mainly based on the small size of the SAP samples. On the other hand, the swelling kinetics of SPHs is always fast regardless of the size of the final product, Superporous hydrogels (SPHs) are different from superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) in that SPHs swell immediately upon contact with water regardless of their size in the dried state, The initial wetting of SAP particles is slower than that of SPHs, and the fast swelling is based on the small size of SAP particles. If SAPs are made into bigger size samples, swelling would not be as fast as their smaller counterparts. The unique property of size independent fast swelling kinetics of SPHs is accounted for by their interconnected open cellular structure. The open porous structure allows extremely fast absorption of water into the center of the dried matrix by capillary force. How Superporous hydrogels SPHs exhibit both fast swelling and superabsorbent properties? Answer : Superporous hydrogels (SPHs) are novel hydrogel materials that can exhibit both fast swelling and superabsorbent properties (Omidian, Rocca, & Park, 2005). SPHs can quickly absorb water volumes that exceed 95% of the total weight (or volume) (Park, 2002) because interconnected pores with diameters of several hundred microns create annels that allow for capillary action (Chen, Park, & Park, 1999). open cl Discuss natural polymers that can be modified into superabsorbent polymers? Answer : Some natural polymers such as celluloses or starches can be prepared as superabsorbent polymers through radical graft polymerization with vinyl monomers and crosslinking (Peng, Xu, Peng, Wang, & Zheng, 2008). Chitosan is another important natural polymer. Because of the abundant hydroxyl groups and amino groups distributed along its chain, chitosan can be easily modifying chemically. Graft polymerization is a very important method for modify chitosan (Mochalova et al., 2007). Chitosan based 34ul. m2, 13. m4, MS. superabsorbent polymers could be prepared by graft polymerization with vinyl monomers along the Discuss Polysaccharides and their derivatives are useful hydrogel materials? itosan chain and crosslinking (Zhang, Wang, & Wang, 2007). Answer : Polysaccharide based hydrogels have excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. Polysaccharides such as starch, chitosan, cellulose, and their derivatives, (guar gum, sodium alginate, ete.) are useful hydrogel materials (Coviello et al., 2005; Reis et al., 2008). Starch is one of the most abundant polysaccharides, composed of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin, that is low-cost, abundant, biocompatible, and ion (Sandhu & biodegradable, and has many functional groups for chemical modi Singh, 2007). Chitosan is well-known polymer derived from the biopolymer chitin, shows interesting physical, chemical and biological properties (biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibacterial and hemostatic activities (Muzzarelli, 2009). Therefore, chitosan acts asa desirable backbone to graft poly (acrylic acid) forming a superabsorbent material (Paulino et al., 2009), Quality and type of water Discuss how water quality affect the performance of a drilling fluid? Answer : There are three main factors to water quality that ean affect the performance of a drilling fluid, thes Discuss how pH of water affect the performance of a drilling fluid? are pH, salt content and water hardness. Answer : The pH of water is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the water is. Bentonite will mix best and polymers performbest in make up water with a pH in the range 7 to 9 pH will affect mud mixing, viscosity, water loss, hole stability and core recovery Discuss how salt content of water affect the performance of a drilling fluid? Answer : The salt content of make up water will greatly affect the viscosity of bentonite mud, as well as wall cake thickness, water loss and mixing ability. Salty water has a minimal effect on polymers. The salt content of make up water, for bentonite mud, should, preferably, be below 5000-ppm chlorides. Discuss how hard water affects the performance of a drilling fluid? Answer : Hard water contains dissolved calcium and/or magnesium, which make it difficult to mix and hydrate bentonite and to get a good yield from the bentonite, Thedesirable limit is less than 100 ppm calcium, Excessive calcium in make up water will result in abnormally high water loss and a slow bentonite hydration rateShale Stabilizing Additives and Systems Give answer of following short questions relating: 16. 7, > Mechani > Shale Salts Formate and Acetate Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA) Sugars and sugar derivatives (Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols Mixed polyol-salt systems ilicates > Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry of clay-swelling inhibition SARK ASS Mechanism of clay-swelling inhibition Discuss the mechanism of permeability damage caused by clay swelling and migration? Answer : The two major mechanisms by which clays can cause permeability damage are swelling and migration: When a -containing formation comes into contact with a treatment fluid or water that is not in ionic balance with the formation, the clays absorb water into the crystalline structure. This water absorption causes the clays to swell and the particles to increase in volume, plugging the pores in which they reside. In clay migration, the clays can be dispersed by contact with a foreign fluid, or can be dislodged by produced fluids, causing migration thru the formation until a pore throat restriction is encountered. This restriction will cause bridging of the clay particles across the pore throat and result in plugging of the capillary. Shale Inhibitors Discuss some inhibitive water based mud systems? Answer : The drilling fluid industry's search for inhibitive water based mud systems has been a continuous endeavor for some time. Many approaches have heen taken over the years, including the use of: calcium treated muds, such as lime and gypsum muds: relatively high concentrations of inorganic salts, such as NaCl, KCI and CaCI2 modified asphalts and gilsonites; a variety of polymeric additives, such as the functionally anionic PACs and PHPAs, functionally cationic polymers such as polyquaternary amines, 7us. 119, 220. amphoteric polymers (which exhibit both anionic and cationic characteristics) such as polyamino acids, and nonionic polymers such as polyols, glycerols, glucosides, polyvinyl alcohols (PVA), and HECs. How clay stabilizing additives are categorized? Answer : Clay stabilizing additives can be classified into two categories: temporary and permanent. Temporary clay stabilizing additives are materials that will prevent swelling and migration of clays during drilling, completion, and fracturing operations. The most common temporary clay stabilizers are simple inorganic cations such as NaCl, KCl, ammonium chloride and calcium chloride. These salts are only effective as long as the WBM containing these salts are in contact with the clays. However, as soon as either salt is depleted or the salt-containing WBM is displaced with freshwater mud, the clay will once again hydrate and swell, and destabilize the shale. The concentration of such additives between 2% to as high as 37% are frequently recommended in treating drilling fluids to minimize the swelling of the reactive clays. The most common permanent clay stabilizers are quaternary amine polymers (Sandra et al., 2008, Arvind and Patel, 2009). Compare cationic and anionic based drilling fluid additives? Answer : Cationic shale inhibitors provide more effective shale inhibition by anchoring to the negatively charged shale surfaces as compared to traditional anionic products However, cationic shale inhibitors are perceived to be more toxic in both onshore and offshore drilling applications than commonly used anionic drilling fluid additives. The toxic nature of many cationic amine compounds has limited their application as sha inhibitors in offshore and other environmentally sensitive areas. Along with toxicity- related issues of cationic compounds, these types of chemical additives are not compatible with conventional anionic drilling fluid additives such as polyanionic cellulose (PAC), polyacrylates, bentonite and various biopolymer additives (Arvind and Patel, 2009). What is environmentally acceptable shale inhibiting water based drilling fluids? Answer : Water soluble polymers play an important role in the formulation of environmentally acceptable shale inhibiting water based drilling fluids. The specific application of water soluble polymers depends on their molecular weight, type and magnitude of the charge on the polymer chain and chemical nature of the backbone 38D1. 122. 13, structure. Shale inhibition is one of the functions performed; viscosity building characteristics, filtration control and lubricity are some of the other properties that can be controlled with the use of a proper polymer. Salts Discuss how Potassium chloride is the most effective shale stabilizing additive? Answer : Potassium chloride (KCI) has the ability to reduce swelling pressures in smectite clays. It is very effective in drilling young, reactive gumbo type shales which usually contain extensive amounts of these clays (Clark et al., 1976). KCI prevent filtrate invasion and mud pressure penetration in shales. The viscosities of KCI solutions are close to that of water, even at salt-saturation levels. KCI cannot plug pore throats or modify shale permeability. Thus, the hydraulic conductivity is unaltered by KCL. In addition, osmotic pressures generated by concentrated KCI solutions are moderate (ypically < 20 MPa) and membrane efficiencies are low (typically 1-2%) due t0 the relatively high mobility of KCI in shale, Thus, osmotic backflow of shale pore fluid induced by KCI muds (with effective osmotic pressures in the range 0.1-1.0 MPa) will be negligible. Discuss why KCt-based mud systems are not suitable for drilling older, less-reactive shales? Answer : As a result, KCl-based mud systems usually are not suitable for drilling older, less-reactive shales. First, ion diffusion is lagging behind mud pressure diffusion Secondly, these shales have gone through a process of diagenesis which has changed the smectites into less swellable 1yS such as illites, Concomitantly, there is less swelling pressure in these shales for KCI to act upon. These shales will typically fail due to the effects of mud pressure penetration at prolonged exposure to the invading mud filtrate.In conclusion, KCI recommended for primarily for cuttings-stabilization of relatively young, more reactive shale types that contain significant amounts of smectites (Clark et al, 1976), Discuss how NaClis effective shale stabiliing additive than KCl in certain aspects? Answer : Na’ is not as “inhibitive”” as K*. Use of sodium chloride (NaCl) for shale control, however, does have certain advantages over use of KCL. NaCl solutions near saturation have elevated base viscosities and have lower water activities than 39ns, 1s. 26. concentrated KCI solutions, giving rise to higher osmotic pressure . Therefore, they are better equipped to reduce filtrate invasion in shales. Although concentrated NaCl solutions do not make good shale drilling fluids by themselves, they are very effective ‘when run in combination with systems that can enhance shale membrane efficiency (such as silicates, polyols and methylglucoside, by providing the osmotic gradient for shale dehydration Discuss how Calcium/magnesiumtine chloridelbromide are suitable inhibitors for shale drilting? Answer : Concentrated brines of Ca°* , Mg and Zn? (CaCl, CaBr2, Zi MgCl MgBr,, ZnBr:) are popular as base fluid for high-density, low-solids drilling and completion fluids. Two factors make them suitable for shale drilling: (i) their filtrate viscosities are high which will slow down hydraulic flow, and (ii) they can generate very high osmotic pressure (on the order of 1000 bars; however, membrane efficiencies are on the order of 110% so that the effective osmotic pressure acting is attenuated to 10-100 bars) that may be used to (partially) offset the hydraulic mud overbalance. There is downside also, however. Divalent ions will diffuse into the shales since the fluid-shale membrane is leaky and allows for ion transport from the mud to the shale. When these ions exchange at clay sites for more inhibitive ions such as K+, then the swelling pressure ‘may increase, leading to shale instability. Formate and Acetate Discuss how formate and acetate salts help in shale stabilization? The concentrated formate and acetate brines (MCOOH, MCH3COOH. M: Answ K*, Cs") have high filtrate viscosities and they generate very large osmotic pressures. ‘These monovalent salt systems have a much more beneficial effect on the swelling pressure. Especially potassium formate (KCOOH) is more suitable for shale drilling (van Cort et al., 1996a) by reducing swelling pressure, shale water content and pore pressure at the same time. This claim is supported by field experience (Howard, 1995), Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA) Why polymers are preferred as good in tors of clay swelling over K* ions? Answer : K* ions could be exchanged only at single clay sites was apparent as a 4017. ns. De. disadvantage that could be remedied using a polymer with functional groups that adsorbed onto clay surfaces at multiple sites (Himes et al, 1991). Such multiple- “anchored” polymers would be much more resistant to exchange than a single K* cation, Also, environmental legislation prohibits the use of KCI in several drilling areas in the world either by environmental sensitivity to potassium (e.g, offshore Gulf of Mexico) or to chlorides (e.g. onshore Canada, Thailand, ete). Discuss how polymers are good inhibitors of clay swelling? Answer ; Several polymer alternatives, among them cationics, amines, ete, have been developed essentially as alternatives for KCI (Beihoffer ef al., 1990; Retz et al., 1991). ‘They are good inhibitors of clay swelling, especially those of low molecular weight (< 10,000 a.w.u.) that can enter the pore system and penetrate the clay fabric. The higher- molecular-weight species (>10,000 a.w.u.) will have lost this ability to penetrate shales, and modify the swelling pressure due to size restrictions, but they may latch onto the outer surfaces of the shale. PHPA adsorbs onto multiple sites on the clay surfaces and combat disintegration of shale material. Low-mole ar-weight polymers that enter shales, have diffusion rates much lower than pore-pressure diffusion rates, i.e. they are lagging behind the pore-pressure front. In this way they provide cuttings stabilization. What is function of asphaltenes, gilsonites and graphites in shale stabilization? Answer : Asphaltenes, gilsonites and graphites are used for shale stabilization. They have no effect on the swelling pressure. Their significant bulk size prevents them from entering shales and effectively blocking pore throats. Thus, filtrate invasion and mud pressure penetration will proceed unretarded. The gilsonite mud used had no effect on retarding the rate by which water invades The effect of such additives on shale stability is very limited. These additives are best applied the help seal (micro-) cracks in fractured formations. Sugars and sugar derivatives Discuss use of Saccharides (sugars) for euttings-and wellbore stabilization? Answer : Saccharides are recommended for cuttings-and wellbore stabilization. Saccharides (sugars) are well known low-molecular-weight viscosifiers which have the advantage of being very environmentally friendly. They viscosify mud filtrates effectively when used at appropriate concentrations, thus reducing the hydraulic flow of 4130. BI. 132, water in shales (van Oort, 1994). In addition, they lower water activities and therefore generate osmotic pressures that may be utilized to dehydrate the shale. They can dehydrate shales effectively, they may also be applied in reducing bit balling and increasing ROP. Systems that stand the best chance of achieving this are mixed slucoside-salt systems, What are limitations for use of Saccharides based mud system? Answer : A restriction to their use is that relatively high product concentrations (ypically>30% w/w) are necessary to achieve the desired benefits, which may affect the economies of these systems and lead to high base mud viscosity. Similarly, these sugar systems are vulnerable to attack by biological organism, which may make preservation of rnd and base additives at the rigsite difficult. Most of these problems are circumvented using methylglucoside, a methylated saccharides-species that is less sensitive to biological attack (Simpson et al., 1994). Methyl glucoside essentially works by the same token as other saccharides. Which one has greater inhibition ability, cationic anionic and nonionic polysaccharides? Answer : Conventional anionic and nonionic polysaccharides have good viscosity- increasing property. But, they generally show weaker inhibitive ability. Recently developed cationic polysaccharides provide more effective inhibition by attaching to the negatively charged clay surfaces more strongly than anionic or nonionic polysaccharides. However, formulating practical drilling fluids using cationic polysaccharides is often difficult because they tend to react with bentonite, ionic polymers and weighting agents, resulting in severe flocculation and precipitation (Zhang et al., 2001), {Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols Poly-)alycerols and (poly-)glycols (glycerols and glycols) have by shale drilling fluids (Bland, 1991, 1992; Downs etal, 1993; ; Twynam et al. 1994; Cliffe 0 widely applied in et al., 1995). Low-molecular weight (< 10,000 a.w.u.) polymers viscosify filtrates and retard filtrate invasion in shales. Even small increases in filtrate viscosity can be significant for shale stability How polyalkylene glycols (polyethers) are effective inhibitors for smectite clay swelling? 42133. Answer ; Experimentally, it is known that polyalkylene glycols (polyethers) of intermediate to high relative molecular mass are effective inhibitors of smectite clay swelling, The interactions between a selection of these compounds, water, and a model od by including Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics. These interactions occur by means of smectite clay mineral were investi range of atomistic simulation techniques, lleries. between organized intercalation of water and organic molecules within the individual clay layers. The intemal energy of adsorption of simple polyethers per unit ‘mass on the model clay is not significantly different from that for water adsorption; our Monte Carlo studies indicate that entropy is the driving force for the sorption of the simpler organic molecules inside the clay layers: a single long chain polyethylene glycol can displace a large number of water molecules, each of whose translational entropy is greatly enhanced when outside the clay. Hydrophobically modified polyalkylene glycols also enjoy significant van der Waals interactions within the layers which they form within the clay galleries, For optimal inhibitory activity, clay-swelling inhibitor compounds should be reasonably Jong chain linear organic molecules with localised hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, along the chain. On intercalation of these molecules within the clay layers, the hydrophobic regions provide an eflective seal against ingress of water, while the hydrophilic ones enhance the binding of the sodium cations to the clay surface, preventing their hydration and the ensuing clay swelling (Bainsa et al., 2001), Mixed polyol-salt systems Discuss the role of salts in water-based drilling fluids containing glycol for inhibition of shale and wellbore instability? Answer : Glycol works in synergy with salts such as KCI, causing hardening of soft sha (Aston and Elliott, 1994; Bland et al, 1996). The cloud point temperature can be adjusted by manipulating the electrolyte or salt concentration of the water-based fluid, The most important contribution of the salt (eg. potassium ions) comes from the interaction between the exchangeable ions on the clay surface and the non-terminal portions of the adsorbed glycol molecules. This interaction leads to the expulsion of water and the formation of a complex. This complex, with glycol molecules being larger than a water molecule, will be anchored by several hydrogen bonds , making it less 43BB. BS. 136. ‘mobile than the complex formed with water. This results in strong inhibition of shale and prevents wellbore instability (Reid and Dolan, 1995), Discuss role of Mixed polyol-salt systems in stabilizing shales? Answer : Combinations of various polyols (including polyglycerols, polyglycols, and methylglucoside) and salts (e.g. NaCl, CaCl.) are far more effective in stabilizing shales than their individual base components (van Oort et al., 1995). These systems work by synergy through increasing the shale—fluid membrane efficiency. Through the osmotic pressure generated by the salinity (i.e. lowering of the drilling fluid’s water activity), shales can be effectively dehydrated. Silicates Discuss how Silicate-based drilling fluids are excellently suited for shale stabilization? Answer : Silicate-based drilling fluids are excellently suited for shale stabilization (van Oort et al., 1996b; Ding et al., 1996; Ward and Williamson, 1996). Soluble silicates will invade shales and rapidly react with available polyvalent ions in the shale pore fluid (e.g, Ca** and Mg”) to form insoluble precipitates. Also, the neutral-to-acidic pH of pore fluids will trigger silicate gellation. The barrier formed by gelled and precipitated silicates will prevent any further mud filtrate invasion and pressure penetration. In fact, the gellation/precipitation mechanism has been shown to seal small cracks and fractures, in shales (van Oort et al., 1996b). Thus, silicate-based muds ean stabilize formations that are in-situ fractured, or where fractures have been either induced by mechanical action of the drill string or by annular pressure swabs that have (locally) failed the shale. An additional feature of the silicate bamier is that it constitutes a highly efficient osmotic ‘membrane, note that the bartier restricts hydraulic flow of water but not diffusive/osmotic trans er of water) that can be exploited to dehydrate the shale and improve stability. To this extent, the water activity of the drilling fluid should be lowered to generate an effective osmotic pressure, This can be done by using various monovalent salts (e.g. NaCl, KC} in the mud formulation. Silicate muds are recommended for all shale- stabilization uses. Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry How modified poty-amino acid limit the hydration ability of smectite clays? Answer : Functionally, hydration suppressant (HS), which is a modified poly-amino acid 44137, 138, 139, limit the ability of sm te clays to hydrate and swell when exposed to water. Because it has a low molecular weight and a low charge density and possesses an amphoteric ionic character. HS is water soluble, exhibits high thermal stability (Bruton and MeLaurine, 1993). 1s modified poly-amino acid is safe for pre-hydrated bentonite? Answer : Testing and analysis shows that HS only affects reactive clays that have not yielded. The yield of pre-hydrated bentonite will not be diminished by the addition of HS nor will the performance of conventional polymeric fluid-loss-control agents (Bruton and McLaurine, 1993), Discuss some drawbacks of using acidic lignosulfonates and lignites based drilling fluids? Answer : Acidic lignosulfonates and lignites required high quantities of caustic soda to be used, thereby incre: Jing shale swelling by maximum cations exchange of the sodium present in the caustic soda, and with higher mud costs due to the significant amounts of alkaline materials required. In addition, the lignosulfonate muds increased the high solids in the mud due to over-dispersion. Nevertheless, the most important issue presented with the use of these systems was the negative environmental impact caused by the presence of water dispersible chromium contained within the lignosulfonate (X. Guerrero et al., 2006), Discuss how inhibition properties of PEDA are superior to potassium chloride? Answer : The shale hydration inhibitive properties of polyether diamine (PEDA) are superior to potassium chloride which is a kind of conventional inhibitor, and can be improved with decrease of pH value. After being added into the drilling fluid system, the low-molecular-weight PEDA can intercalate into the lattice of clay. The protonated diammonium ions exchange sodium ions and neutralize the negative charges of lay interlayer, which reduces hydration repulsion of diffuse electric double layer. Moreover, hydrogen bonding between PEDA and silica of clay surface can form in the process. The coordination of electrostatic int jon and hydrogen bonding expels water molecules out of the clay gallery and binds the plates together, which leads to the dehydration of clay. Otherwise, monolayer adsorption of PEDA on the interlayer of elay weakens the hydrophilicity of clay particles which further inhibits water ingress (Zhong et al., 2011), 45100. 41. 142, 143. How KCUsodium silicate system is better then water-based drilling fluids like KCUpolymer, KClfimetpolymer, and KCUPHPA? Answer ; The conventional inhibitive water-based drilling fluids such ay KCVpolymer, KCi/ime/polymer, and KCVPHPA have only marginal improvements in hole stability and drilling performance. Whereas KCV/sodium silicate system, has overcome the fatal drawbacks of the silicate-based mud systems used previously, also characterized by the perfect rheological properties and filtration control, and provide the necessary inhibitive character. The benefits of KCU/sodium silicate system observed are: (1) Excellent integrity exhibited by drilled cuttings for shale formations; (2) Stable borehole kept with, lower mud weight; (3) Reduced wiper trips; (4) In-gauge borehole shown from caliper logs (Jiankang Guo et al., 2006). How Poly(oxypropylene)-amidoamine POAA compounds have excellent shale hydration and dispersion inhibition capacity? Answer : Poly(oxypropylene)-amidoamine POAA compounds were intercalated by the montmorillonite (Mt) with monolayer orientation, The protonated ammonium ions neutralized the negatively charged sites and decreased the electrophoretic mobility. Hydrogen bonds were formed between amide and siloxane groups. The intercalation reduced the water content of the Mt and rendered the clay mineral surface more hydrophobic. The inhibitive properties of the modified Mt were evaluated by inhibition and cuttings hot-rolling dispersion tests. The POAA-Mt exhibited superior shale hydration and dispers (Hanyi Zhong et al., 2012). Is polyoxyalkylene amine (POAM), compatible to inhibit the hydration of Na-MMT? ‘ion inhibition capacity compared to conventional inhibitors Answer : The Experimental results showed that POAM was completely water-soluble, exhibited the superior performance to inhibit the hydration of Na-MMT and reduced the swelling or hydration of shale cuttings effectively. In addition, the determination of the biological toxicity and compatibility of POAM indicated that POAM was low toxic and compatible with other common drilling fluid additives (Y wanzhi Qu etal, 2009), Discuss application of Potassium carboxymethyl ethers of cellulose (CMEC)? Answer : The majority of the successfully fields proven polymers are anionic. The anionic part on the polymer structure is normally neutralized with the sodium cations,are 14s, 16, 47. The potassium carboxymethyl ethers of cellulose (CMEC) formulate drilling fluids with improvements as it require minimum sodium content (Palumbo et al., 1989). What are ionic liquids? Can these liquids be used as a clay stabilizer and shale inhibitor? Answer : Tonic liquids are compounds that are liquids at ambient temperatures and consist jc anion. The ionic entirely of cations and anions, usually a organic cation and a inorg liquids can be used as a clay stabilizer and shale inhibitor and prevent clay swelling and ‘migration in comparison to the industry-standard clay stabilizers (Sandra et al., 2008), Can High Performance Water-Based Mud replace oil-based mud in offset wells? Answer : The newly developed high performance water-based mud (HPWBM) comprises unique polymeric amine shale intercalator for shale inhibition, an amphoteric polymeric shale encapsulator, a high performance lubricantantiaccretion agent and a specialized fluid-loss additive. This performed like an oil-based mud in laboratory testing as well as in offset wells using invert emulsion drilling fluids (OBM) due to highly complicated and reactive shale formations. Two characteristics of the HPWBM have been identified that contribute si intly to performance of the drilling fluid ~ shale stabilization and lubricity properties (Patel et al., 2007) Why oilfield industry shows a growing interest in the use of sodium free and potassium ‘based drilling fluids? Answer : The field preparation of potassium based drilling fluids generally requires a high level of potassium to counteract the negative effect of sodium on hydratable clays. Asa matter of fact now a days the oilfield industry shows a growing interest in the use of sodium free, potassium based chemicals, examples of which are potassium lignite, potassium asphalt sulphonates and KOH. Discuss the major problems encountered as a result of shale hydration? Answer : ‘ypical problems such as bit-balling, disintegration of cuttings, borehole wash- out, high torque and drag, and stuck pipe are often encountered as a result of water adsorption by water sensitive shale, 47Shale Instability Give answer of following short questions relating: M8, 149. > Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction, > Shale Stabilisation > Borehole Instability Cause of Wellhore Instability ‘Wellbore Instability Problems Factors affecting Wellbore Stability ‘Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids Control of Wellbore Instability A884 Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction Defind shale and discuss that how water interacts with shale? Answer; Shales are sedimentary rocks that have distinct laminated layered characteristics and high clay content. Shales were generally deposited in marine basins. They are composed of compacted beds of muds, silts and clays. In the soft or unconsolidated shale, mud or clay predominates, and in the more consolidated formation it is shale or argillite Shales are subjected to phenomena such as hydration, swelling, shrinking, and strength reduction when exposed to water and ions. These reactions result from the hydrophilic nature of the clay particles, which are somewhat, altered by both the chemical and mechanical environments. The chemical effects are due to the intermolecular forces between the clay particles and the ionic pore fluid inside the shale, as well as the 1007). What typical problems encountered as a result of water adsorption by shales? composition of the drilling fluid (Diaz-Pérez etal Answer : When water-sensitive shales are exposed to the conventional water-based drilling fluids, shales have an immediate tendency to take up water from the drilling fluid Depending on the chemical characteristics of the shale, this can result in a rapid swelling or dispersion of the shale, Consequently, typical problems. such as. bit-balling, disintegration of cuttings, borehole wash-out, high torque and drag, and stuck pipe are often encountered as a result of water adsorption by water-sensitive shales (Steiger and Leung, 1992), 48.150. Is. 152, Discuss physicochemical aspects of drillings fluid/shale interactions that tend to destabilize ‘the shale? Answer : The physicochemical aspects of drillings fluid/ shale interactions involve the following driving forces in the transfer of water and ions from water-based drilling fluid to shale formations: D the osmotic force between the water activity of the drilling fluid and that of the shale's, pore fluid, under downhole conditions, and 2) diffusion osmosis. which is determined by the difference in concentrations of the solutes in the drilling fluid and shale pore fluid. Diffusion osmosis results in transfer of solutes, and associates water from higher to lower concentration for each species, to the flow of water in chemical osmosis. opposit If the diffusion osmot ¢ force exceeds the chemical osmotic force. invasion of ions and water can in vase the pore pressure and water content near the borehole surface. Additionally. the invading ions n cause: tions that alter the clay ion exchange re: structure in the shale. All of these effects tend to destabilize the shale (Simpson and Dearing, 2001), Shale Stabilisation Defind inhibition Answer : Consideration to maintain borehole stabilisation in reactive shales by reducing hydration (swelling) and/or dispersion is generally referred as “inhibition” (Schlemmer et al,, 2002). In drilling fluid, * eliminate swelling, dispersion, and el hibition” covers all the mechanisms that can reduce or/and wer interactions in order to enhance shale wellbore stability during drilling. Inhibition percentage is the difference between initial and final cuttings weight recovery after fluid contact Discuss shale stabilisation with oit base muds? Answer : ‘The hydratable, dispersible, and brittle shales are all sensitive to water Instability can be partially eliminated by preventing the water in the drilling fluid from contacting the shale. One solution is to use an oil-based fluid where water is emulsified in the continuous oil phase ‘The interfacial film surrounding the emulsified water droplets in an oi] mud can act as a semi-permeable membrane and provide a mechanism for osmosis. Osmosis is the flow of 49153, 154. water from a less concentrated salt solution into a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane. Water will migrate from the oil mud into the shale when the salinity of the water phase of the oil mud is lower than the salinity of the water phase of the shale. There is evidence that dehydration of the shale occurs when the reverse is true. No migration occurs when the salinities are equal. This is the ideal scenario as it means no alteration of the state of the shale. Discuss shale stabilisation with water base muds? Answer: Stability is generally obtained in water-based muds from: Tonic inhibition : onic inhibition is effective in reducing the dispersion and hydration of clays, therefore reducing the instability of shales containing swelling clays. The degree of hydration is dependent on the type and concentration of the inhibiting ion, for example, montmorillonite will swell only to about three times its original volume when placed in a saturated NaCI solution. The hydration is greatly reduced, but not eliminated. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is a chemical and physical interaction with the clay surfa es. Long chain polymers, such as partially hydrolysedpolyacrylamide, PHPA, are believed to wrap around the particles. This aids in the control of surface hydration and reduces the tendency to disperse anddisintegrate. Physical plugging : Gilsonite is another mineral product used effectively to maximise shale stabilisation, It is thought that these materials minimise shale sloughing by sealing off micro-fractures and pores in the shales and limiting exposure of the shale surfaces due to a plating action on the wellbore. In the most severe cases of brittle shales, not even the use of asphaltenes will prevent instability. The only alternative is to try a balanced activity oil mud. Borehole Instability Cause of Wellbore Instability What is the basic cause of wellbore instability? Answer : 90% of wellbore stability problems occur in shale formations (principally clays), which represent 75% of all formations drilled by the oil and gas industry. The remaining 25% are composed of other minerals such as sand, salt, ete. The wellbore instability is due to the dispersion of the clay into ultra-fine colloidal particles and this has a direct impact on the drilling fluid properties (Charlez and Heugas, 1991). Various 50155. 156. 157, 158, 159, other causes for borehole instability are water adsorption, osmotic swelling and cation exchange. What are causes of borehole instability? Answer : Several studies on shale-fluid interactions confirm that various causes are at the origin of borehole instability: water adsorption, osmotic swelling and cation exchange. (Van Oort, 2003). Defind pore-pressure transmission and how it cause compressive rock failure? Answer : Shales are normally considered non permeable, but in fact have limited permeability in the order of 10° to 10" Darcy. In shales no filter cake can be formed, because the permeability of shales is lower that the permeability of the “normal” filter cake. Thus the drilling fluid pressure is directly in contact with the formation and will equalize with the pore-pressure around the well-bore, With time the drilling fluid pressure will gradually reach further into the formation. This slow mud pressure invasion is referred to as pore pressure penetration. A slow pore pressure increase will reduce effective mud support and increase the rock stress level around the well-bore, Stress levels may then become so high that compressive rock failure will occur. How swab/surge pressures lead to wellbore instability? Answer : Swab pressures temporarily lower the effective mud support even further, bringing the shale or claystone close to failure or causing actual failure resulting in cavings or borehole collapse. An initially stable wellbore can become unstable with time due to pore pressure penetration in combination with swab/surge pressures Wellbore Instability Problems. What are borehole instability problems? Answer : Borehole instability problems include blowout, lost circulation, stuck tools and collapse of borehole, their major mechanisms being tensile and shear failure of borehole (W. Chao et al, 2009). Discuss the problems encountered by insufficient cleaning of wellbore? Answer + Ine! ent cleaning of wellbore may cause s e problems, such as stuck pipe, lost circulation, high torque and drag, loose control on density, poor cement jobs, et (Sanchez et al., 1997), SL160. Discuss problems produced by the invasion of mud filtrate into oil or gas-bearing zones? Answer : During the conventional drilling, since the pressure of mud column is hi than that of the reservoir, it leads to the invasion of drilling fluid (mud filtrate) into oil or gas-bearing zones. Such invasion is a complicated physical process, which involves the properties of drilling Hluid loss, the pressure difference between mud column and the formation, oil/water relative permeability, density and salinity differences between drilling fluid and formation water, invasion time and so on. 161. Discuss how solids and fluid introduced into the reservoir during dri production? Answ ing affect on well + The solids and fluid introduced into the reservoir during reservoir drilling cause damage to the formation throughout the wellbore. The liquid phase (filtrate) penetrates more deeply and causes changes in the relative permeability of both oil and gas, respectively. This is one of the main problems caused by the presence of filtrates which results in a significant drop in well production (Queiroz Neto, 2006). Factors affecting Wellbore Stability 162, What are the factors that affect wellbore stability? Answer : Overburden Pressure, Poroelastic effects, osmotic pressure, pore pressure, tectonic forces, water adsorption (hydration) and rock stress changes are found to be an important factor affecting wellbore stability (Mody and Hale, 1993; Chenevert and Perot, 1998). It has been shown that osmotic pressure can be treated as a hydraulic potential that drives water into or out of shale formations (Chenevert, 1970). Exposure of the drilling fluid to the wellbore surface results in the contacted formation being exposed to both the hydraulic and osmotic potentials. Altering mud water activity can be considered as an altemative approach to control wellbore stability in addition to raising mud density. A lower mud water act ty can help decrease pore pressure and thereby increase rock effective stress conditions and consequently inerease shale stability. In addition, wellbore stability control ean also be achieved by changing the membrane efficiency of the fluid/shale system (a challenging task). For example, higher membrane efficiency is beneficial when the shale water activity is greater than that of the drilling fluid. A lower membrane efficiency is prefered if the drilling fluid activity is greater (G. Chen et al., 2003), 52163, 164, 165. 16. 167. How wellbore instability relates with mud weight? Answer : Rocks layers could be weak, while others brittle, fractured, chemically reactive or rubble. There is no simple solution for wellbore instability in such cases. A collapsing weak layer needs high mud weight for stability, but increasing the mud weight could excite instability in fractured layers by mud invasion. Therefore, such cases require careful rock characterization and mud weight optimization, Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids Is wellbore instability impact on the drilling fluid properties? Answer : ‘The wellbore instability is due to the dispersion of the clay into ultra-fine colloidal particles and this has a direct impact on the drilling fluid properties (Charlez and Heugas, 1991). When the wellbore walls become unstable, the spilling of cuttings causes, a disastrous change in the rheological properties of the mud (Beihoffer et al, 1988). Control of Wellbore Instability How PHPA help in borehole stabilisation? Answer : PHPA is a water-soluble anionic synthetic polymer, which is commercially available in dry (granular powder) or emulsified form, ‘The most commonly used in drilling for borehole stabilisation in shale formations is the partially hydrolysed (30%) polya borehole wall, a characteristic often cited as an advantage (Darley and Gray, 1988). How mud pressure differential help in borehole stability? Answer: One of the major mechanisms which can cause shale failure is a formation erylamide. PHPA-clay slurries tend to form a relatively thin filter cake at the pressure increase in combination with swab/surge pressures. In permeable formations, such as sandstones, the pressure differential between drilling fluid and pore fluid (overbalance) generates a filter-cake on the borehole wall that acts as an impermeable ‘membrane. The mud pressure differential will be exerted on the filter cake and provide effective mud pressure support to the borehole wall. How mud weight stabilise the well bore? Answer : The invasion of filtrate elevates the “in-situ” pore pressure in an extended zone around the well bore, ie, as the wellbore pore pressure increases the net effective mud weight overbalance decreases resulting in reduced bore hole pressure support. This can 33168. 109. 170. mm. lead “in time” to the necessity to increas the mud weight in order to stabilise the well bore. Discuss the mechanisms to control invasion of filtrate into shale? Answer : During rock reservoir drilling, the drilling fluid permeates the formation due to the positive differential between the fluid and the reservoir pore pressures. Since portions of drilling fluid are lost to the formations, solids are added to the fluid in order to control invasion by two different mechanisms: internal and external filter cakes. The filter cake imulates on the rock during fluid loss and rapidly seals the area around the borehole to eventually form an internal layer. The larger particles then accumulate on the wellbore surface, initiating the formation of the external filter cake. Which mechanisms reduce flow of the filtrate into shate? Answer : Some theoretical models (Van Oort et al., 1994, 199: , 1999) explain the reduction of the filtrate flow into shale by both mechanisms, an increase of the viscosity leading to a reduction of shale permeability and a flow of mud filtrate into the shale driven by osmotic pressure. What is major advantage of using oil mud over a water mud for shale stability? Answer : The major advantage of using an oil mud over a water mud for shale stability is its ability to set up an osmotic potential between the mud and shale to eliminate water uptake into the shale, Water muds can slow down shale hydration, but never stop it. Why mostly OBM in not preferred for drilling unstable shale? Answer : OBM provide excell nt wellbore stability and afford good lubricity and temperature stability. However, their use becomes restricted by environmental regulations, so that there is a great need for environmentally-friendly WBM able to provide the same acceptable requirements (borehole stability) as OBM. 54Formation Damage & Lost Circulation Materials 7. 173. I, Ws. Give answer of following short questions relating: Formation Damage Causes of Formation Damage ‘Types of Formation Damages Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks, Factors Affecting Formation Damage Control of Formation Damage > Lost Circulation Materials Formation Damage Formation damage causes substantial reductions in oil and gas productivity in many reservoirs. Defined rock Jormation’s permeability? Answer : Rocks allow the flow of a liquid or gas when their pore spaces are connected to form channels, This ability to flow is called permeability, rock formation's permeability should be reduced as little as possible when it is drilled and completed. Defined fluid invasion? How it can be avoided? Answer : The flow of the entire drilling fluid (liquids and solids) into the pores of the rock is usually called fluid invasion. Fluid invasion can be avoided if the drilling fluid forms a stable filter cake on the borehole wall that serves as a barrier to invasion, In extreme cases, use of bridging agents, which are particulate materials such as calcium carbonate, block the formation’s pores at or near the borehole wall. Defined formation damage? Answer : Formation damage may be defined as a process that results in a reduction of the flow capacity of an oil, water, or gas-bearing formation. Or the reduction of rock permeability is referred to as formation damage. Discuss the chemical formation damage? Answer : The chemical formation damage, is not caused by clays. It involves the precipitation of materials in the pore spaces due to a reaction between formation water and the drilling fluid. For example, if a formation’s water contains abundant bicarbonate ions, it could react with a caleium-rich drilling fluid to form pore blocking calcium carbonate. 55176, w7. 8. Causes of Formation Damage Discuss the causes of Formation Damage? Answer : Formation damage can occur during drilling or coring, well completions, production, work over, or subsequent injection of water or chemicals for enhanced recovery. Damage can be caused by mechanical effects (fines mobilization, solids invasion, emulsion formation, water blocking), chemical effects (clay swelling, clay deflocculation, solids and wax precipitation, insoluble precipitates, acid sludges, chemical adsorption, wet ability alterations), and the action of bacteria or extreme temperatures asso ced with thermal recovery processes. Types of Formation Damages Discuss the types of Formation Damages? Answer : Four types of formation damage are typically encountered. One type includes the blocking of pore channels by solids introduced by drilling fluid or by completion, work-over, or injection fluids. A second type of formation damage results from clay- water reaction that yields clay hydration and swelling, or clay particle dispersion and pore plugging by movement with produced or injected water. Although the hydration and dispersion mechanisms are different, both result in reduced productivity or injectivity. A third type of formation damage results from a liquid block that normally is caused by extraneous water introduced into the formation at the well bore during drilling, coring, completion, or work over. This block results from a combination of relative-permeability and capillary-retentive properties that reduces effective permeability to the hydrocarbon. A fourth type of permeability damage is related to the caving and subsequent flow of unconsolidated sands into the well bore. This results in well sand-up with subsequent loss of well productivity Discuss how plugging phenomenon encountered in perforations can lead to an early ‘completion failure? Answer : Gruesbeck and Collins (1982) investigated the plugging phenomenon encountered in perforations in an experimental work. They defined the particle transport efficiency as the mass fraction of particles that can be transported through the perforations relative to the total mass injected. They concluded that perforation diameter 56179, 180, 181. to average particle diameter should be at least 1/6 or greater in order to avoid the perforation plugging. They noted that, in such circumstances, the voids can allow invasion of formation sand into the gravel pack and can lead to an early completion failure. Discuss how higher annular velocities of dritting fluid in reservoirs can cause formation damage? Answer : Marx and Rahman (1984) described a method for evaluating formation damage caused by drilling fluid in reservoirs which may have pressure considerably less than hydrostatic pressure. The method was applied to evaluate formation damage caused by KCLC difference, temperature, annular velocity, and time of contamination as the influencing Uk fluid in two sandstones of 10 mD and 1,000 mD range with pressure variables. The results showed that the pressure difference did not severely damage the rock material tested. As expected, higher annular velocities caused higher filtration rates, thus leading to higher formation damage, The contamination period has a marked influence on the cores with low permeability. Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks Explain why formation damage occur in clastic rocks and not in carbonate rocks? Answer ; Carbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites) are not very reactive with most drilling fluids, so this type of damage is most likely to occur in clastic rocks such as sandstones. Clastic rocks consist of a network of interconnected particles, usually quartz, or feldspar, called framework grains. The pore spaces between these grains may be empty or filled by other minerals. The pore spaces in these rocks may contain clay minerals. Because clay minerals can be highly reactive with drilling fluids, formation damage can occur in clay bearing clastic rocks. Formation damage can also occur in clastic rocks with non-expandable clays such as kaolinite or illite, Clean sandstones that have no clay are not highly vulnerable to chemical formation damage since most framework grains are not reactive. Explain how formation damage occurs in sandstone rocks? Answer : Ifa sandstone contains expandable clays such as smectite or mixed-layer types, the potential for formation damage exists. Ifa drilling fluid causes these clays to swell by cation exchange or further hydration in their interlayer sites, this may cause them to 37182, 183, 184, 185. detach, migrate, and plug the pores, causing a loss of permeability. In rocks whose framework grains are bound together by expandable clays, disaggregation and borehole ‘washout can also occur. Factors Affecting Formation Damage Enlist the general factors that lead to formation damage? Answer : The formation damage can occur due to one or a combination of the following, factors: oor fluid loss control Excessive overbalance High-formation permeability During what conditions formation can be damaged? Answer : The formation can be damaged during drilling, casing and cementing, completion, well servicing, well stimulation and production operations, How physical, chemical and biological parameters damage the oil reservoirs? Answer : The oil reservoirs can be damaged in three different ways. Physically, the formation can be damaged by (a) the invading mud solids that block the pore channels, (b) the narrowing of capillaries due to adsorption of invaded polymers, and (c) water block, emulsion block and gas block. Chemically, the formation can be damaged by the reaction between the filtrate and pore contents and/or matrix materials. Swelling or dispersion of clays and precipitation by the reaction between mud filtrate and the pore contents as well as solution of salts and minerals from the matrix are the main factors. Biologi ly, the formation can be damaged by colonies of bacteria and their precipitated products can block the pore channels (Bennion et al, 1996). Why drilling operation is considered as the primary initiator of formation impairment? Answer : Drilling operation is considered as the primary initiator of formation impairment as virgin formation comes first time in contact with a foreign fluid, i. drilling mud, which invades the formation and plugs the pores around the well bore. During the first few seconds, the drilling fluids are in direct contact with formation before the appearance of mud cake that cause major solid and fluid invasion. These early spurt losses occur before mud cakes have a significant contribution in the overall severity of formation impairment. After the early spurt losses, solid particles in drilling fluid star 58186, 187, 188, 189, 190. m1. bridging the pores and form a mud cake on the formation face. The mud cake essentially stops the solid invasion and reduces the filtration rate. Even the invading filtrate plays a critical role as it reacts with formation rock and cause clay swelling and dispersion and produce precipitation of salt in the pore, which also reduces formation permeability What type of mud impairs the formation permeability more significantly? Answer : The water-based muds (WBM), which are usually used in drilling oil and gas wells, impair the formation permeability more significantly than the oil-based muds (OBM) and the polymer-based muds (Yan et al., 1996). The filtrate generated by WBM. is mote likely to cause physical and chemical reaction with in situ reservoir fluid and rock, and can induce severe damage, Discuss the factors that lead to the severity of formation damage or skin? Answer : The severity of formation damage or skin is directly related to the permeability impairment and depth of that impairment around the well bore. The skin is a function of overbala icle size distribution in the ce pressure, pore izes in the formation and pa drilling fluid, formation permeability and the nature of the drilling fluid used. What parameters affect degree of formation damage? Answer : The degree of formation damage is affected by many parameters including the nature and characteristics of the drilling fluid, formation properties, and operating conditions (Ding et al., 2004) How invasion of particles from drilling fluids contribute in formation damage? Answer : Bailey et al. (1999) studied the invasion of particles from drilling fluids. The particulate invasion was found to be one of the primary mechanisms of formation damage caused by drilling fluids. Particles are forced into the formation generally during the earlier stages of the filter cake growth What are the factors that affect wellbore properties? Answer : Ding et al. (2004) studied the near wellbore damage and natural cles -up of horizontal wells. The near wellbore properties are altered by drilling fluid, fluid-fluid interaction, and fluid-filtrate invasion during overbalanced drilling operations. Control of Formation Damage How formation damage can be controlled? 59192, 193, 194. 195. Answer : The best way to control formation damage is to minimize particle and filtrate invasion by building a fine-quality, low-permeability and high strength mud cake around the well bore (Di and Sharma, 1992). Such external mud cakes are a function of the average pore size in the formation, median particle size of bridging additive materials and their cor ntrations (Bumett, 1996) as well as drilling operation conditions, ie. overbalance pressure. How formation damage caused by water-based fluids can be avoided? Answer : Argiller et al. (1999) analyzed the formation damage potential of water-based drilling fluids. It was claimed that formation damage caused by water-based fluids can be avoided by optimizing the fluid loss reducer and particle size distribution. Lost Circulation Materials Discuss reasons for lost circulation in drilled formations and their encountered results? Answer : Vidick et al. (1988) declared that lost circulation may be encountered due to the presence of highly permeable formations such as highly natural sandstones or larger fractures during drili cor cementing operations. This problem is critical as it increases the drilling costs due to wasted time, the possibility of stuck pipe, and even losing the well. Discuss why Lost Circulation Materials are used in drilling operations? Answer : Drilling fluids are the primarily used materials in drill operations. When the ing fluids are filtrated due to differential hydrostatic pressured. Thus, filtration fluid invades into the formation formation is very porous and has multi-fractures, then more dri and causes formation damage. The fluid loss in drilling operations causes many problems. The fine particles invaded into porous medium plugs the pore spaces and causes reduction in the natural inherent of the hydrocarbon bearing zone. Drilling fluids additives such as Lost Circulation Materials are used for the control of the filtration, Compare performance of thermo set rubber with conventional lost circulation materials? Answer : Wa and Onan (1986) noted that the thermo set rubber performed effectively at tested concentrations in oil based drilling fluids. Nayberg (1987) compared the performance of conventional lost circulation materials with a new material composed of thermo set rubber in different oil-based drilling fluids. The effectiveness of mica; modified hydrocarbons; cellulose fibers; ground walnut shells; a blend of fibers, flakes: 0and granules; and thermo set rubber in controlling fluid loss to simulated medium-size fractured formations were compared. It is shown that the lost circulation materials specifically designed to combat lost circulation in oil-based drilling fluids such as mica, mod hydrocarbons, and cellulose fibers failed at all tested concentrations, 6.Rheological Properties Give answer of following short questions relating: > Rheology > Rheological Properties > Fluid Types > Factors Affecting Rheological Properties Y Chy ¥ Aging Temperature Rheology Rheological properties measured with a rotational viscometer are commonly used to indicate solids buildup, flocculation or deflocculation of solids, lifting and suspension capabilities, and to calculate hydraulics of a drilling fluid, Rheological Properties 196. Discuss properties that determine behavior of the mud as a drilling fluid? Answer : Drilling muds have four basic properties that determine the behavior of the mnd as a drilling fluid: viscosity, density, gel strength and filtration. All of these properties change with temperature and pressure. 197. How rheological behavior of drilling fluid assist in fluid treatment? Answer : The rheological behavior is the indication of ability of drilling fluid in (1) hole cleani 1g and hole erosion, (2) suspension of drill cutting, (3) hydraulic calculation, and (4) requirement of drilling fluid treatment 198. How rheological properties of drilling fluid are represented? Answer : The rheological properties of drilling fluid are basically represented by plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength, The yield point is the measured of electrical attractive forces in the drilling fluid system under flowing condition. No bulk movement of the fluid occurs until the applied stress exceeds the yield point. Plastic viscosity indicates the drilled cuttings suspension and hole cleaning abilities under dyt conditions. It is mainly controlled by solid particles inside the drilling fluid. As the drilling process ried on, the plastic viscosity will be increased. This is due to the increase of solid particles. On the other hand, the fluid thickening effect and suspension @19. 200. 201. capabilities under static condition are controlled by gel strength (Chilingarian & Vorabutr, 1983). Discuss field applications of Plastic Viscosity? Answer : Changes in plastic viscosity can result in significant changes in pump pressure in the field. This is extremely important in extended-reach as well as coiled-tubing drilling where longer, smaller-diameter tubulars are used. Itis critical to minimize plastic viscosity in these situations. As a rule, plastic viscosity should be kept as low as practical in all cases because a low PV can result in greater energy at the bit, greater flow in the annulus for hole cleaning, as well as less wear and tear on the equipment, and lower fuel usage. A practical upper limit for the plastic viscosity is twice the fluid weight (Ib/gal). Although this value may seem restrictive for high fluid weights, the solids are so crowded by weight material that these fluids have a very low tolerance for drill solids. The plastic viscosity isa good approximation of the viscosity through the bit nozzles. Discuss field applications of Yield Point? Answer : The yield point is often used as an indicator of the shear-thinning characteristics, of a fluid and its ability to suspend weight material and remove cuttings from the wellbore. Any fluid with a yield point greater than zero, shear thins to some degree. Fluids with very low yield points will not suspend weight material, but fluids with high yield points may not suspend weight material either. Defined Thixotropy? Answer : Thixotropy is the property exhibited by some fluids which form a gel structure ‘hile static and then become fluid again when shear is applied. The reversible variation of viscosity with time is called thixotropy, whether elastic effects are present or not (Bames, 1997), According to Mewis and Wagner (2009), thixotropy should be fully defined as the continuous decrease in viscosity with time when a liquid is flowing from rest and the subsequent increase in viscosity with time when the flow is discontinued. According to Barnes (1997), thixotropic fluids have gel-like properties which disappear ‘when sheared, but reappear when put to rest. Most water-base drilling fluids exhibit this property due to the presence of electrically charged particles or special polymers that link together to form a rigid matrix. 8202. 203, 204. 205. 206. Discuss the structural changes of thixotropic fluids that lead to change in their rheological properties? Answer : The rheological properties of such fluids depend on the time needed by their microstructure 0 evolve from one state to another. Structural changes in a flowing thixotropic liquid are due to two competing effects: break-down due to flow stresses and build-up due to collisions of the particles which form the microstructure. It is obvious that thixotropy always assumes processes at_ microscopic or molecular scales. for changing the fluid consistency. Defined Yield Stress? Answer : Yield stress (or viscoplastic) fluids behave like materials with very large viscosity below an yield stress and like fluids above that yield stress. Discuss how yield stress relates with the rheological behavior of the material? The theological behavior of the material is not because of its flowing below the yield stress (Solid-like behavior), but flowing above the yield stress (fluid-like behavior). Accordingly, the viscosity of the material changes from an infinite to a finite value. The viscosity depend on the applied stress and have a discontinuity as it decreases abruptly from a very high value when the shear increases above yield stress value (Sochi, 2010). Fluid Types Based on their flow behavior, fluids ¢: be classified into two different types: Newtonian and non-Newtonian Fluids. Defined Newtonian Fluids, Answer : Newtonian fluids are those in which the viscosity remains constant for all shear rates providing temperature and pressure conditions remain constant, ‘The base fluids (freshwater, seawater, diesel oil, mineral oils and synthetics) of most drilling fluids are Newtonian. In these fluids, the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate. Viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is the slope of shear-stress/shear-rate line. The yield stress (stress required to initiate flow) of a Newtonian fluid will always be zero (0). Newtonian fluids will not suspend cuttings and weight material under static conditions. When Newtonian fluids (freshwater, seawater, brines and oils) are used for drilling, the hole should be circulated or swept clean periodically and before trips. Defined Non-Newtonian Fluids. 64207. 208. 209. 210. Answer : {on-Newtonian fluids (most drilling fluids fit this general classification) do not show a direct proportionality between shear stress and shear rate. The ratio of shear stress to shear rate (viscosity) varies with shear rate and the ratio is called “effective viscosi but this shear rate must be identified for each effective viscosity value, Differentiate between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids on the basis of their rheological properties? Answer : Fluids may generally be divided into two main groups depending on their rheological properties, known as Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids, such as water, have shear independent viscosity and the shear stress is proportional to the shear rate (Skjaveland and Kleppe, 1992). Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress and shear strain, while non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a non-linear relationship between shear stress and_ shear strain (Aserud, 2001). Factors affecting Rheological Properties Rheological properties of a drilling fluid depend on which what factors? Answer : The theological properties of the water-based fluid are influenced by a variety of fa ors such as influence of clay, weighting materials, the additive, fluid density, and ging temperature and time on the rheological parameters of the drilling fluids According to (Hamed and Belhadri, 2009), the rheological properties of a drilling fluid depend on a number of different factors, including the shape and size distribution of the suspended particles, the volume fraction of particles and the amount and type of polymers, added to the formulation. Clay Discuss the parameters that determine their rheological properties Bentonite-water systems? Answer : Bentonitic clays are largely composed of the mineral montmorillonite and several parameters determine their theological properties, such as the size and shape of the particles, layer charge, exchangeability of cations, structure of the particles, water absorption, high swelling ability and edge charge density (Giiven, 1992). How Clay contents influence rheological parameters of drilling fluids? 652u. 212. Answer : Clay content limit of the drilling fluid refers to the maximum and minimum clay contents (upper and lower limits) in the drilling fluid. When the clay content is between the upper and lower limits, the rheological parameters of the drilling fluid can remain stable at elevated temperatures. It is an inherent property of the drilling fluid. The clay content is required below 17.1 kg/m? when the density of the fluid exceeds 2.0 gem’, When the actual clay content exceeds the upper limit, the fluid tends to thicken, gel or even solidify at high temperatures. If the actual clay content is below the lower limit, the fluid becomes thin at high temperatures and the viscosity decreases after exposure to high temperature. As for the two limits, the upper limit is more important than the lower one. ‘The higher the upper limit and the larger the differential value between the upper and the lower limits, the easier the rheological properties are to maintain. Discuss influence of aging (hot rolling) on rheological properties of fluids containing sodium bentonite and sepiolite? Answer Brine-based fluids containing different contents of sodium bentonite and sepiolite, the plastic viscosity decreased but the yield point increased after aging (hot rolling). As the relative content of sodium bentonite in fluids increased, the yield point of the fluids increased significantly. When the content of sodium bentonite in the fluids was below 2% (w/v), the apparent viscosity changed slightly before and alter aging. As the content of sodium bentonite exceeded 2%, the apparent viscosity increased significantly after aging. This indicates that in the fluid with a high content of sodium bentonite, thermal treatment (hot rolling) promoted the formation of a gel structure of sodium bentonite. However, as the relative content of sepiolite increased, the viscosity and the yield point exhibited little variations before and after aging. This is mainly attributed to the excellent heat resistance of sepiolite, whose structure remained stable during aging. Aging Temperature Temperature heavily influenced the viscosity of the fresh water-based drilling fluid. The viscosity and plastic appare scosity of the fresh water based fluid decreased with an increase in temperature. The brine-based fluid had the lowest apparent viscosity and plastic viscosity at 150°C. Discuss the major factor influencing the rheological properties of oil-based drilling fluids in the deep sections of oil wells? 66213. Answer : The major factor influencing the rheological properties of oil-based drilling fluids is temperature instead of pressure in the deep sections of oil wells. The apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity and yield point of oil-based drilling fluids decrease with increasing temperature, and increase with increasing pressure, and the effect of temperature on the rheological properties is dominate. The effect of pressure on apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity are considerable at ambient temperature and gradually reduces with increas smperature Discuss the effect of temperature on the viscosity of drilling fluids? Answer : Temperature exerts complex influence on rheological properties of drilling fluids and the effect of temperature on viscosity can be classified into three categories. 1) High temperature thinni ‘The viscosity decreases with increasing temperature, causing a reduction in carrying capacity and suspending ability of cuttings then barite sags when breaking circul ‘ion and tripping or settles in the fluid ditch. 2) High temperature thickening. The fluid experiences an increase in viscosity and yield point after aging at high temperatures thus losing its fluidity (gelation after a high temperature treatment). 3) High temperature solidification. The fluid completely lost fluidity (Bland et al., 2006), Why the performance of fluids additives is changed with increasing aging temperature? Answer : Temperature aggravates the degradation of additives, desorption of additives on clay surfaces and the dehydration of hydrophilic groups in additives. Consequently, elevated temperature reduces the effectiveness of fluid additives that protect the clay particles. o7Water-Based Drilling Fluids A Non Inhibitive Muds Give answer of following short questions relating: 214. 215. 216. 27, > Non Inhibitive Muds ¥ Bentonite-Water Muds ¥ Lignite-Lignosulfonate (Deflocculated) Muds Defined Drilling mud? Drilling mud may be defined as a suspension of solids in a liquid phase. Drilling mud consists of solid liquid fractions, solid fractions and chemical additives (Lummus, 1989). AA liquid fraction is the greatest quantities of drilling mud such as water, oil, gaseous, and air. The solid fractions of mud consist of the reactive fraction such as bentonite and attapulgite and the inert solids include barite, limestone, sand, chert, etc. Chemical additives are used to control viscosity, yield point, gel, density and fluid loss properties of mud. Non Inhibitive Muds Defined Non-inhibitive fluids. For what purpose they are used? Answer : Those which do not significantly suppress clay swelling, are generally comprised of native clays or commercial bentonites with some caustic soda or lime. They may also contain deflocculants and/or dispersants such as: lignites, lignosulfonates, or phosphates. Non-inhibitive fluids are generally used as spud muds, Native solids are allowed to disperse into the system until theological properties can no longer be controlled by water dilution Bentonite-Water Muds What is function of bentonite in drilling fluids? Answer : In oil-well drilling, bentonite is added in drilling fluids for viscosity control, to aid the transfer of cuttings from the bottom of the well to the surface, and for filtration control to prevent filtration of drilling fluids into the pores of productive formations. Discusss applications of Bentonite-Water Muds? Answer : Bentonite dispersed in fresh water produces a mud with good cuttings lifts capacity, good drilling rate, and usually adequate filtration control. These bentonite-water 68218. 219, 220. 221. muds are commonly used as spud muds for drilling surface hole; however, they are sometimes used for drilling deeper. How chlorides (CI) ions in the makeup water interfere with the hydration of the bentonite? Answer : Water quality is important in formulating a bentonite-water mud, Less than 5000 mg/L chlorides will not seriously hamper hydration of commercial bentonite. When there is more than 20,000 mg/L. chlorides, bentonite hydration is essentially prevented Adding fresh water to reduce the chloride concentration becomes necessary to allow hydration. How hardness (Ca"* and Mg") ions in the makeup water interfere with the hydration of the bentonite? Answer : Hardness (Ca and Mg") in the makeup water interfere with the hydration of the bentonite, Calcium ion concentration should not exceed 150 mg/L. If greater than 150 mg/L, it should be treated out with soda ash. Treatment with 0.1 Ib of soda ash per barrel of water will remove approximately 100 mg/L of calcium ion, Magnesium hardness, on the other hand, is treated out with sodium hydroxide. At pH of 9.7 magnesium ions will have all been reacted with sodium hydroxide to precipitate Mg(OH)> Lignite-Lignosulfonate (Deflocculated) Muds. Discuss thermal stability and degradation of chrome lignosulfonates and lignosulfonates muds? Answer : Lignite-lignosulfonate muds are thermally stable to approximately 325°F. This temperature limit is dependent upon the mud pH, on the type of lignosulfonate used, the length of time exposed to high temperature and the solids content of the mud. Generally, chrome lignosulfonates perform at temperatures higher than lignosulfonates which do not contain chromium. At temperatures greater than about 325°F, lignosulfonates degrade to form CO; and carbonate ion. At higher temperatures, generally above 400°F, Jignosulfonates may degrade to liberate hydrogen sulfide and sulfide ion, How lignosulfonate control rheology and fluid loss through clay defloceulation? Answer : Lignosulfonate is used to control rheology and provide filtration control through, deflocculation of the bentonite, Deflocculation of clays is the result of adsorption of the negatively-charged lignosulfonate compound on the edges of the clay particles. This causes a disassociation of the clay particles (deflocculation) which causes a reduction in 9222, 223. low shear-rate viscosities and yield point and gel strengths, and improves filtration control by forming a thin, compressible filter cake. Compare thermal stability and filteration control properties of lignite and lignosulfonate? Answer : ignite is used as a filtration control agent and as a secondary deflocculant. It functions as a fluid loss additive up to 400°. Whereas al temperatures greater than about 325°F, lignosulfonates degrade to form CO; and carbonate ion. Compared to lignosulfonate, lignite provides better filtration control at elevated temperatures. It is usually added with lignosulfonate, The ratio of lignite to lignosulfonate is generally 4:1 Discuss Disadvantages of Lignite/Lignosulfonate Muds? Answer : The main disadvantages of lignite/lignosulfonate muds are: > Disperses cuttings, making mechanical removal more difficult, > More annular velocity required for adequate hole cleaning - low rheology. > Hole enlargement in clay-bearing formations. “yh Disposal concerns if it contains heavy metals or Cr’ > — Deteriorate at high temperatures (325°F or greater) forming carbonates and sulfide ions, 70Water-Based Drilling Fluids B, Inhibitive Muds Give answer of following short questions relating: > Inhibitive Muds Y Calcium-Based Muds ¥ Salt-Based Muds ¥ Potassium-Based Muds 224. Defined Inhibitive fluids. For what purpose they are used? 22s. 226. 227. Answer : Those which appreciably retard clay swelling and, achieve inhibition through the presence of cations; typically, Sodium (Na"), Calcium (Ca"*) and Potassium (K"). Generally, K* or Ca‘, or a combination of the two, provide the greatest inhibition to clay dispersion, These systems are generally used for drilling hydratable clays and sands containing hydratable clays. Because the source of the ion is generally a salt, disposal can become a major portion of the cost of using an inhibitive fluid. Defind inhibition? Answer : Consideration to maintain borehole stabilisation in reactive shales by reducing hydration (swelling) and/or dispersion is generally referred as “inhibition”. In drilling fluid, dispersion, and el dil inhibition” covers all the mechanisms that can reduce or/and eliminate swelling, /-water interactions in order to enhance shale wellbore stability dur r Discuss various varieties of inhibitive muds? Answer : Inhibitive salt-based muds use sodium chloride (NaCI) to achieve inhibition. Caleium-based muds use lime (Ca(OH)2) or gyp (CaSO.-2H20), and potassium-based muds use caustic potash (KOH), potassium chloride (KC), potassium carbonate (K,CO3), and other potassium-based additives to achieve inhibition. Calcium-Based Muds Under what condition calcium-based muds are used? Answer ; Calcium-based muds are primarily used to drill intervals of highly reactive shales. They exhibit greater inhibition than sodium-based muds by reducing hydration of clays. Calcium-based muds are highly resistant to contamination. a228. 229, 230, 231. 232. 233. Enlist principal calcium-based muds? Answer: The principal calcium-based muds are: > Lime Muds > Lime/MOR-REX Muds > GypMuds What are the main advantages of Calcium-Treated Drilling Fluids? Answer : Advantages of this system are low cost and high Rate of Penetration (ROP). ‘This system is often extremely shear-thinning. What is rote of lignosulfonate and lignite in Calcium-Treated Muds? Answer : Lignosulfonates are organic acids that supply anions (negative ions) to the fluid. ‘These anions reduce the yield point and gel strengths by neutralizing the cations (positive ions) on the clay particles, thus deflocculating the clay slurry causing clay particles to repel one another. Lignite is an organic acid that also supplies anions to the fluid, thus causing clay part les to repel one another. What is rote of soluble calcium in calcium-based muds? Answer : Calcium systems provide soluble and reserve calcium in a drilling fluid. Soluble calcium performs several functions. It provides wellbore inhibition by mil imizing the hydration of drill solids and exposed shales through base change into calcium-based clays. It makes a drilling uid compatible with formations that contain high concentrations of calcium, such as anhydrite. It precipitates carbonate ions (CO;*) which: result from carbon dioxide (COs) contamination. Why pH of Caleium-Treated muds should be kept high? Answer : As Lignosulfonates and Lignite additives are acidic, so these require an alkaline environment in which to solubilize. Therefore, hydroxyl ions are added usually in the form of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and lime (calcium hydroxide) to inerease the pi. How calcium added to a clay-water slurry may affect yield point, gel strengths and plastic viscosity? Answer : When calcium is added to a clay-water slurry, a base exchange occurs as the cium (Ca™*) cation, which has higher bonding energy, replaces the sodium (Na*) cation on the clays, converting them to calcium-base clays. This cation exchange results R234. 235. 236. 237, 238, 239, in partial dehydration of the hydrated clay particles, reducing the size of the water envelope around the clay particles. The reduction in the size of the water envelope allows, the clay particles to come into contact with one another, resulting in flocculation, Flocculation causes an increase in the yield point and gel strengths. If a deflocculant is not used, the size of the floes of clay eventually will increase and may precipitate out, resulting in a gradual decrease in the plastic viscosity. How Calcium solubility depends upon salinity or chloride (CT) concentration? Answer + Calcium solubility is also directly related to salinity or chloride (CI) concentration. The soluble calcium in seawater is often around 1,200 mg/l and will increase as the salinity is increased, Why use of Chemical defloceutants is limited in Calcium-Treated Drilling Fluids? Answer : Chemi deflocculants reduce the yield point and viscosity dramatically. This can result in inadequate hole cleaning. Therefore, the use of chemical deflocculants in this system should be strictly limited, Under what condition Lime muds are used? Answer : Lime muds may be used where an inhibitive mud is desired and where temperatures do not exceed 300-325°F. They are particularly useful because of their high solids toler nee, Under what conditions Lignosulfonate/Lime systems are used? Answer : ignosulfonate/Lime systems are used to reduce the effects of acid gases such as CO: or HeS and/or to reduce the hydration of formation clays How pH1in Lime muds system is maintained? Answer : Lime muds maintain a concentration of excess lime which is not in solution. Excess (reserve) lime goes into solution only as the pH of the system is reduced by reactions with acidic contaminants incorporated into the system during drilling operations. This results in the excess lime having a buffering effect on the pH, which provides greater stability to the system. Discuss certain limitations of Lime muds? Answer : Lime muds generally are not used when mud densities are below 10 Ib/gal because it is difficult (o maintain rheological properties sufficient to clean the wellbore, Temperatures in excess of 300°F (149°C) may cause severe gelation or cementation of B240, 241. 242, 283. 244. 245. medium and high-lime drilling fluids. This severe gelation, or cementation, is caused by high alkalinity, high concentrations of ive solids and high temperature which combine to form alumino-silica cement. How Lime/MOR-REX Muds differ from Lime muds? Answer : ime/MOR-REX Muds ate similar to the lime muds however, lignosulfonate is not required. Instead, a polysaccharide deflocculant (MOR-REX) is used to counteract theological problems associated with lime muds. What is use of of Gyp Muds? Answer : Gypsum muds were used for drilling massive sections of anhydrite. Lack of an effective deflocculant confined their use to low-density muds that nommally possessed high viscosity and high gel strengths, until the introduction of chrome lignosulfonate as a deflocculant For what purpose Lignosulfonate/ Gypsum systems are used? Answer : The lignosulfonate/ gypsum system is designed to drill anhydrite (CaSO:) and/or provide inhibition while drilling water-sensitive shales by using gypsum (CaSO}-2H,0) as the source of calcium. Si Based Muds Defind satt-Based muds? Answer : Muds are usually called salt-based muds if the sodium chloride content is greater than 10,000 mg/L. NaCl There are three basic salt-based muds: Under what conditions Saturated Salt muds are used? Answer : Saturated Salt muds are used to prevent excessive hole enlargement while drilling massive salt beds. They can also be used to reduce dispersion and hydration of shales and clays. How Ca** and Mg" hardness affect filtration control in Saturated Salt Muds? ‘Answer : Ca" and Mg" hardness do not adversely affect filtration control in Saturated Salt Muds when using starch; however, when PAC is used, hardness should be below 400 mg/L. Saturated salt muds will normally contain soluble calcium due to the formations penetrated and the type of makeup water used. Also, the sodium ions from the salt will undergo a base exchange and release calcium ions from the clay platelets, thereby 4246, 247. 248. 249, 250, contributing to the free calcium. Generally, the presence of calcium does not produce detrimental effects on the mud; except when the pH is increased beyond 12.0 and then the fluid loss will be difficult to control. What is role of starch in Saturated Salt Muds? Answer : Starch is the most common fluid loss additive in saturated salt muds. It is not affected by high levels of hardness (2000-3000 mg/L) and does not adversely affect theology unless drill solids concentrations are outside acceptable limits. Starch has a thermal limit of approximately 250°F, Normally it will not ferment as long as the system is salt-saturated or the pH is above 11.5. What is role of PAC in Saturated Salt Muds? Answer : Polyanionic Cellulose, PAC is added for viscosity and filtration control. PAC functions more efficiently when low-gravity solids are under 6 volume % and hardness is below 400 mg/L. If increases in viscosity of the mud are not desired, low-viscosity PAC can be used to control filtration Discuss certain advantages of NaCl over KCL use in inhibitive muds? Answer : Na* is not as “inhibitive’’ as K* Use of sodium chloride (NaCl) for shale control, however, does have certain advantages over use of KCL. NaCI solutions near saturation have elevated base viscosities and have lower water activities than concentrated KCI solutions, giving rise to higher osmotic pressures. Therefore, they are better equipped to reduce filtrate invasion in shales. Although concentrated NaCl solutions do not make good shale drilling fluids by themselves, they are very effective when run in combination with systems that can enhance shale membrane efficiency (such as silicates, polyols and methylglucoside) by providing the osmotic gradient for shale dehydration. Defind Saltwater muds? Answer : These muds may range from approximately 25,000 mg/L salt up to nearly saturation, often prepared from fresh water or bentonite-water muds. These muds normally contain low solids concentrations, have low densities, have minimal chemical treatment, and possess low viscosities and high fluid losses. Under what conditions Saltwater muds are used? 15251. 252. 253. 254, 255. Answer : Saltwater muds may be prepared intentionally with salt to drill troublesome shale sections. They are used as an inbibitive mud to decrease dispersion and viscosity build-up from drilled solids. Produced brines are commonly used in workover and completion operations. Swelling of formation clays or shales are reduced, They are also. used as low solids fluids to control pressures that are normally encountered in workover and well completion operations. What is role of lignosulfonate and lignite in Saturated Salt Muds? Answer + Lignosulfonates are the most effective deflocculant in Saltwater Muds (especially Seawater Muds) and also contribute (0 fluid loss control. Lignite is added to improve HTHP filtration control, but is ineffective as a deflocculant. It is recommended to presolubilize the Defind Brackish-water muds? Answer 10,000 to 15,000 mg/L. water, brackish water often is used as the makeup water for drilling fluids. What is role of lignosulfonate and lignite in Saturated Salt Muds? Answer : Lignosulfonates are the most effective defloccutants in Brackish-Water Muds ite in causticized fresh water (pH 10.5-11.0). ‘These muds generally are termed brackish-water if their salt content is between In many areas, because of economies or lack of sufficient fresh and contribute to fluid loss control. Lignite is added to improve HTHP filtration control, but may not be an effective deflocculant, depending on makeup water quality. Lignite and lignosulfonates if present in sufficient quantity will aso act as oxygen scavengers. Potassium-Based Muds How Potassium is most effective ion available fo minimize (inhibit) shale hydration? Answer : Potassium is one of the most effective ions available to minimize (inhibit) sha hydration. The inhibitive nature of potassium is achieved by the ionic base exchange of potassium for sodium and/or calcium ions between clay layers, and by fixation of the potassium ion in the crystalline lattice of swelling clay minerals. What is role of K* ions in Potassium-Based Muds? Answer : otassium performance is based on cationic exchange of potassium for sodium or calcium ions on smectites and interlayered clays, The potassium ion compared to calcium ion or other inhibitive ions, fits more closely into the clay lattice structure, thereby greatly reducing hydration of clays. Potassium-based muds perform best on 16256. 257. 258, 259. shales containing large quantities of smectite or interlayered clays in the total clay fra tion. Shallow shales, containing large amounts of montmorillonite, however, still swell in a potassium-based system, How K* ions contribute in shale stabilization? in the Answer : Stabilization of problem shales by potassium ions appears to take plas following manner. When montmorillonite is present, potassium exchanges for sodium and calcium and results in a more stable, less hydratable structure. When illtes are present, the potassium replaces any exchangeable cation impurities in the structure. The potential for further base exchange is substantially reduced after K+ substitution, and the shale is more stable. In mixed-layered clays, potassium works both on the illite and the montmorillonite and reduces the amount of differential swelling that occurs. Therefore, potassium cations stabilize shales which have a larger percentage of illite or illite/smectite layer combinations. Discuss how swelling pressures are clay-specific? Answer : Swelling pressures are highly clay-specific, Thus, the effectiveness of “inhibitors’” in reducing swelling pressures will be different for different clays. For instance, whereas potassium has a strong effect on swelling of montmorillonite, it has hardly any effect on illite and may actually increase the swelling of kaolinite. Can inhibitors reduce swelling pressure down to zero? Answer : Even the best inhibitors cannot bring the swelling pressure down to zero; there will always be residual repulsion between the platelets due to hydration of the clay surfaces and sterical interference between hydrated ions and water molecules, unless complete dehydration and platelet collapse occurs (Bol et al., 1992), Discuss the advantages of Thermally activated mud emulsion (TAME) drilling fluid? Answer + Thermally sctivated mud emulsion (TAME) drilling fluid is an improved KClipolymer mud for the minimisation of mud related borehole instability problems in shales. TAME drill fluid is an inhibitive mud system, which is capable of reducing the effect of the associated pore pressure penetration due to its possession of viscosified filtrate and its ability to cloud-out and block shale pores at the elevated temperature normally experienced downhole. 7260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. Enlist principal Potassium-based muds? Answ + Basically, there are four types of potassium-based muds: > KCl-Polymer (KCI-PHPA) > —— KOHL-Lignite Mads > KOH-Lime Muds > KCl-Cationic Polymer Muds How the concentration of KCI required to inhibit shales varies? Answer : Since some shales are more watersensitive than others, the concentration of KC] required to inhibit these shales varies. Older shales usually require about 10 to 15 Ib/bbl KCI (3.5 to 5.0%) while younger shales may require 30 to 50 Ib/bbl (8.5 to 15%). Under what conditions KCl-Polymer (KCI-PHPA) Muds are used? Answer : KCl-Polymer Muds is used primarily to drill moderately reactive shales. ‘These muds were developed to provide wellbore stability and minimize cuttings dispersion When properly formulated, benefits such as low formation damage and high return permeability encourage their use for drilling water-sensitive formations. Discuss use of KCl in KCl-Polymer (KCL-PHPA) Muds? Answer : Potassium chloride is used to inhibit clay hydration. The amount of KCI actually needed for inhibition is difficult to determine. Older formations which contain lays, require KCI levels in the 3 to 5 wi% range; whereas, younger shales containing hydratable clays, require KCI levels up to 15 wt%. Other sources of K+ may also be used - especially if there are environmental restrictions on chlorides - with little or no effect on performance, ¢.2., KNOs, KC:H02, KCOs, and K;P:0;. Use of CMC & PAC in KCl-Polymer (KCL-PHPA) Muds is chloride ions specific, discuss? Answer : Yuen chloride concentrations are below 50,000 mg/L, either technical-grade or regular-grade CMC are used for filtration control rather than PAC. ity CMC is generally not used because it can have a deflocculating effect. Use of PHPA in KCt-Polymer (KCL-PHPA) Muds is calcium ions specific, discuss? Answ Jess than 400 mg/L before adding PHPA. Why the level of low-gravity solids in KC1-Polymer (KCI-PHPA) muds should be controlled? "HPA is sensitive to calcium and magnesium ions, Calcium hardness should be 78267. 268. 269. 270. 27. Answer : With most muds, low-gravity solids should be maintained at or below 6 volume %, Be use both PHPA and PAC are thought to adsorb on solids (especially clays). In this way PHPA and PAC are continually depleted by adsorption, soit is crucial to remove drill solids as quickly as possible, Incorporating solids into the mud will require more dilution and higher concentrations of PHPA and PAC, hence higher mud costs. Discuss the benefits and limitations of KCUPolymer water based mud systems? Answer : KCU/Polymer water based mud systems are inhibitive. The main application is therefore in drilling hydrated shales. The benefits are (I) inhibitive properties of the *K” ions towards shale, (ii) the encapsulating of cuttings, (iii) coating of borehole wall by polymers. Stable borehole and efficient cuttings removal lead to fast ROP. KCU/Polymer. muds are highly sensitive to drilled solids, with an associated detrimental effect on both viscosity and gels. Discuss applications of potassium chloride polymer systems? Answer : The pota sium chloride polymer system wa developed to stabilize water sensitive shales by means of potassium ion inhibition. The inhibitive nature of this system. minimizes the hydration of shales, which minimizes hole enlargement, bit and stabilizer balling, sloughing shale, and reduction of permeability in productive zones. The other benefits are (1) inhibitive properties of the “K’ ions towards shale, (ii) the encapsulating of cuttings, (ii) coating of borehole wall by polymers. Stable borehole and efficient cuttings removal lead to fast ROP. Under what conditions KOH-lignite muds are used? Answer : In areas where high chlorid snvironmental jons may be objectionable (logging, considerations, etc.) KOH-lignitemud is used. Potassium lignite muds offer inhibition and are flexible enough to be tailored to meet desired drilling requirements Under what conditions KOH-lime muds are used? Answer : KOH-Lime muds are parallel to the Lime Muds, except that KOH is used instead of NaOH to control alkalinity and to limit lime solubility. A KOH-Lime Mud provides two types of shale-inhibitive ions: Ca and K*. It can be run as: low lime, intermediate lime or high lime. Under what conditions KCI-Cationi Polymer muds are used? 7)272. 273. 274. 275. Answer : Cationic (positively charged) polymer along with a potassium salt are used to inhibit reactive shales. KCI-Cationic Polymer muds are generally considered to be the ‘most inhibitive water-based muds, although even they cannot perform as well as oil- based muds. How Cationic Polymer make the clays resistant to swelling and dispersion? Answer : The cationic polymers are high-molecular weight versions of the cationic surfactants that are used to make clays organophilic for oil-based muds. The cationic polymer, along with K* from KCI (or other potassium salt), adsorb on clays to reduce the repulsion between clay particles and reduce the adsorption of water. This makes the clays, in shales resistant to swelling and dispersion, What is the rote of Salts in Cationic & Anionic polymer muds? Answer : The salt makes s ightly anionic polymers, like XCD (xanthan gum) compatible with the cationic polymer; without it, the oppositely charged polymers would react with each other and remove themselves from the mud. Why KC1-Cationic Polymer muds are expensive to maintain? Answer : KCl-Cationic Polymer muds are among the most expensive to maintain. The strong reaction between the cationic polymer and shales leads to rapid depletion of the polymer. The cost of main ning excess polymer in the system is, however, higher than that of any other water-based mud. Discuss effect of concentrated brines of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Zn2+ over shale water content, pore pressure and swelling pressure? Answer : Concentrated brines of Ca** Mg” and Zn* are popular as base Huid for hig density, low-solids drilling and completion fluids. Two factors make them suitable for shale drilling: (i) their filtrate viscosities are high which will slow down hydraulic flow, and (ii) they can generate very high osmotic pressure (on the order of 1000 bars; however, membrane efficiencies are on the order of 1-10% so that the effet c osmotic pressure acting is attenuated to 10-100 bars) that may be used to (partially) offset the hydraulic mud overbalance. There is downside also, however. Divalent ions will diffuse into the shales since the fluid-shale membrane is leaky and allows for ion transport from the mud to the shale. When these ions exchange at clay sites for more inhibitive ions such as K’, then the swelling pressure may increase, leading to shale instability. When these 80276. 277. 278, 279, 280. muds are used, one should carefully balance their beneficial effect on shale water content and pore pressure, and their potentially detrimental effect on the swelling pressure. Discuss advantages of KCL muds? Answer : The main performance shortcoming of KCI is its inability to prevent filtrate invasion and mud pressure penetration in shales. The viscosities of KCI solutions are close to that of water, even at salt-saturation levels. KCI cannot plug pore throats or modify shale permeability. In addition, osmotic pressures generated by concentrated KCL solutions are moderate (typically < 20 MPa) and membrane efficiencies are low (typically 1-2%) due to the relatively high mobility of KCI in shale. Thus, osmotic backflow of shale pore fluid induced by KCI muds (with effective osmotic pressures in the range 0.1— 1.0 MPa) will be negligible. How Formate and Acetate Salts are suitable for shale drilling? Answer : The concentrated formate and acetate brines (MCOOH, MCH,COOH. M: K', Cs); their filtrate viscosities are high and they generate very large osmotic pressures. ‘These monovalent salt systems, however, may have a much more beneficial effect on the swelling pressure, Especially potassium formate (KCOOH) seems especially suitable for shale drilling (van Oor et al., 1996a) by reducing swelling pressure, shale water content and pore pressure at the same time. This ck 1995), m is supported by field experience (Howard, Discuss the benefits and limitations of KCUGypsum/Polymer mud systems? Answer : KCUGypsunyPolymer mud is an inhibitive system used for drilling hrdratable shales. The system combines the inbibitive properties of K* and Ca™ to stabilise the formation. Like all polymer muds, KCI/ Gypsum! Polymer mud systems are highly sensitive to drilled solids, with an associated detrimental effect on both viscosity and gels, What is Cloud Point Temperature (CPT) of a polyglycol also discuss its applications? Answer : The Cloud Point Temperature (CPT) of a polyglycol is the temperature at which, it changes from water soluble to water insoluble. When CPT is reached, the polyglycol starts to come out of solution and an otherwise clear liquid starts to become opaque and cloudy. Control of CPT is critical for the inhibitive characteristics of the fluid. What is effect of high concentration of salts on clay minerals and drilling fluid additive 81Answer : The chemicals, salts such as potassium chloride, sodium chloride and divalent brines are widely used for inhibition of water-sensitive shales. The use of high concentration of salts retard the hydration and swelling of water-sensitive shales, However, these salts in large quantities adversely affect the environment. These salts also flocculate the clay minerals resulting in both high fluid losses and an almost complete loss of thixotropy. Further, increasing salinity often decreases the functional characteristics of drilling fluid additives. 2Water-Based Drilling Fluids Polymer Fluids Give answer of following short questions relating: > Polymer Fluids, ¥ Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds ¥ High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds ¥ Silicate Mud System 281. Defined polymer fluids. For what purpose they are used? Answer : Those which rely on macromolecules, either with or without clay interactions to provide mud properties, and are very diversified in their application. These fluids can be inhibitive or non-inhibitive depending upon whether an inhibitive cation is used Polymers can be used to viscosify fluids, control filtration properties, deflocculate solids, capsulate solids. The thermal stability of polymer systems can range upwards to 40°F. In spite of their diversity, polymer fluids have jons. Solids are a major threat to successfully running a cost-effective polymer mud system. 282, Discuss applications of polymer fluids? Answer : Polymer fluids contain polymers with greatly diversified applications. These fluids contain polymers to viscosity polymers to control filtration, polymers to deflocculate, polymers to provide high-temperature stabilizatio ete. Polymers fluids also reduc tuttings dispersion and stabilize the wellbore through encapsulation, 283. How polymer viscosifiers are better than bentonite clay? Answer : In polymer fluids, primary viscosification is provided by high molecular weight polymers such as PHPA, PAC, XC polymer, etc. Polymer fluids generally contain only minor amounts of bentonite or clay solids to build viscosity (usually less than 5% by volume total low-gravity solids), they are less prone to rheological and filtration property fluctuations resulting from the effects of contaminants on the clay structure, 284. Enlist principal polymer muds? Answer : Polymer fluids can be divided into two general polymer mud categories: > — Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds > High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds 83285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291, Under what conditions Non-Dispersed Polymer muds are used? Answer : In many areas clear water cannot be used as a drilling fluid because of its effect on formations and the lack of sufficient viscosity to properly clean the hole. In these circumstances Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds are used to closely simulate the drilling characteristics of clear water. Non-dispersed Polymer muds have found their best application in areas where formations are hard and penetration rates are slow. ‘These muds do not perform well in areas with long intervals of reactive shales because of their intolerance to solids contamination, Also, salt, saltwater flow, gypfanhydrite, and cement contamination will severely limit the use of these muds Discuss composition of Non-Dispersed Polymer muds? Answer : Most Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds are composed of water with varying quantities of bentonite and polymers. Polymers are added to the system to build viscosity either through fl added to provide filtration control culation of the solids or by viscosifying the water phase. They are also Enlist common Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds? Answer : Some of the more commonly used Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds are: > Bentonite Extender - BEN-EX Muds > Low-Solids PAC/CMC Muds » —_Low-Solids PHPA Muds Discuss function of Bentonite Extender in BEN-EX Muds? Answer : Bentonite Extender - BEN-EX is a bentonite extender which doubles the yield of good quality bentonite and functions as a selective flocculant. It is sensitive to both Cl and Ca" contamination, Discuss function of Sodium Polyacrylate (SPA) in BEN-EX Muds? rylate (SPA) is added for filtration control. It is also add to Answer : Sodium polys control theological and filtration properties and acts as a selective flocculant. What problem can be encountered by addition of excess soda ash in polymer muds? Answer : Because most polymer additives are Ca sensitive so continued use of heavy concentrations of soda ash can cause viscosity problems due to “ash gels Low-solids PAC/CMC muds is advantageous over BEN-EX Muds? 84292. 293. 294. 295. 296. Answer : Low-solids PACICMC muds use cellulose-based polymers rather than sodium polyacrylate polymers that are used in BEN-EX Muds. The cellulosic polymers have greater tolerance to calcium and salt than do the acrylate polymers. Hardness needs to be Jess than 400 mg/L as compared to 250 mg/L. for acrylate polymers. Cellulosic polymers can function in a chloride environment up to saturation; whereas, acrylate sodium polymers do not function well above 5000 mg/l. chloride. Discuss importance of Low Solids PACICMC and BEN-EX Muds? Answer : With Low Solids PAC/CMC muds and BEN-EX muds, a minimum solids fluid can be formulated to maximize ROP and provide good hole cleaning capability. In addition, the inhibitive nature of these fluids is easily increased by the addition of KCL or poly (propylene glycol). They provide viscosity, solids encapsulation and limited fluid loss control. PHPA is used to viscosify drilling fluids with a minimum quantity of clay and to assist in borehole stabilization. Discuss how Low-Solids PHPA Muds are effective inhibitors? Answer : Low-Solids PHPA Muds (partially hydrolyzed potyacrylamide) are used to inhibit shale. ‘These acrylate/ acrylamide polymers absorb onto clay surfaces. Thus, because PHPA is a long-chemical molecule, it can effectively link a number of clay platelets together creating viscosity with a minimum concentration of low-gravity solids. High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds. For which purpose, High-Temperature Defloceulated Polymer Muds were developed? Answer : High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds were developed to extend the temperature stability of conventional polymer muds. They are designed to tolerate, in addition to contaminants the inclusion of inhibiting ions such as KCI or NaCl Discuss some major drawbacks to the high-temperature deflocculated polymer muds? Answer : The major drawback to the high-temperature deflocculated polymer muds is that they become difficult to control at densities above about 14.0 Ib/gal. Viscosity can become difficult to control when the solids loading is high and when the mud contains polymeric fluid loss additives. What is major difficulty in formulating high-temperature water-based muds? 85297. 298. 299, 300. 301. 302. Answer : ‘major difficulty in formulating high-temperature water-based muds is that bentonite is affected by elevated temperatures, first gelling excessively and then becoming inert at extreme temperatures. Enlist commonly used High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds? Answer : Some of the more commonly used High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds are: > THERMA-DRILL > PYRO-DRILL. > DURATHERM > POLYTEMP Defind THERMA-DRIL mud system? Answer : THERMA-DRIL is a high-temperature polymer drilling fluid system sold by Baroid that utilizes prehydrated bentonite for suspension and some filtration control. That is function of THERMA-THIN in THERMA-DRIL mud system? Answer ; THERMA-THIN, a liquid polyacrylatefterpolymer, is used as a deflocculant and to control high-temperature gelation. It is a liquid polyacrylate terpolymer used to reduce the viscosity of the mud. Its also effective in the presence of chlorides and aids in filtration control. It is used to pretreat the mud system prior to drilling cement. This product does not contain any chrome. Defind function of THERMA-CHECK in THERMA-DRIL mud system? Answer : THERMA-CHECK, a vinyl-sulfonate co-polymer, is used to control filtrate (HTHP fluid toss) up to 425°R. It has good salt stability and will tolerate moderate levels ofca Defind PYRO-DRIL mud system? Answer : PYRO-DRIL is a high-temperature mud system sold by Milpark. This system uses a MILTEMP, a sulfonated, styrene mal cium contamination. anhydride, as a high-temperature deflocculant used to reduce viscosity and high temperature gelation. Defind function of PYRO-VIS in PYRO-DRIL mud system? Answer : PYRO-VIS is a sugar beet extract and is used to provide carr ng capacity without addition of bentonite. It is not affected by chlorides or other contaminants such as carbon dioxide and calcium from anhydrite 86303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. Defind function of PYRO-TROL in PYRO-DRIL. mud system? Answer : PYRO-TROL is an acrylamide-acrylmido methyl propane sulfonic acid which provides high-temperature fluid loss control in high salt content muds. It is not compatible in high hardness or when pH is greater than 11.0 as it will be chemically modified and give off ammonia, It has shown some shale stability and lubrication benefits. What is function of KEM-SEAL in PYRO-DRIL mud system? Answer : KEM-SEAL, an acrylate-acrylamide compound, provides filtration control in saltwater brines and high hardness environments. It can be used for filtration control in environments where PYRO-TROL is not used. KEM-SEAL will increase viscosity in freshwater systems, but will not increase viscosity in higher chlorides environments. Defind function of CHEMTROL X in PYRO-DRIL mud system? Answer : CHEMTROL X is a lignite-polymer blend high temperature fluid loss additive used in the Pyro-Dril system when the chlorides are less than saturation and the hardness level is low (< 500 mg/L), Why CHEMTROL X should be presolubilized in fresh water before its use? CHEMTROL X should be presolubilized in fresh water containing caustic soda iff the CHEMTROL X is to be added to salt water mud systems. CHEMTROL X added to Answer : a salt water mud system directly will be ineffective as a fluid loss additive. Defined DURATHERM mud system? Answer : DURATHERM is a high-temperature mud system sold by M-I Drilling Fluids. This mud system uses small concentrations of bentonite for suspension. XP-20, a modified chrome lignite containing potassium, is used as a fluid loss additive and viscosity stabilizer. What are the functions of MELANEN-T and RESINEX in DURATHERM mud system? Answer : MELANEX-T, a melanin polymer derivative, is used as a high-temperature defloceulant to reduce viscosity and higl temperature gelation. RESINEX, a resin polymer, is used for HTHP filtration control and can be used to replace the XP-20 in salty environments For which purpose XP- 20in DURATHERM mud system? 7310. Bul. 312. 313. Answer : XP-20 is « modified chrome lignite containing potassium. This product provides fluid loss control and is also used to control viscosity at high temperatures. It is normally used in fresh to seawater system. Defind POLY TEMP mud system? Answer : The IDF POLY TEMP mud system uses POLY TEMP, a vinyl sulphonate- vinyl amide co-polymer of low to medium molecular weight, to reduce filtrate. POLY TEMP can be used in a seawater or freshwater system. Defind function of HI-TEMP, PTS-200 and IDSPERSE XT in POLY TEMP mud system? Answer : [-TEMP 1 is a polyanionic lignin fluid loss additive used in low salinity mud systems. PTS-200 is an alkaline pH buffer and temperature stabilizer used to increase the temperature stability of the system by removing oxygen... This additive will raise the pH ‘o around 10, IDSPERSE XT is a high temperature stable liquid polymer used to control the viscosity of the system especially in the presence of salt. This product does not contain any chrome and will minimize high temperature gelation of the mud system, Silicate Mud System Under what conditions Silicate mud systems are used? Answer : Silicate mud system is a highly inhibitive and environmentally friendly water based mud systems. It is particularly suitable for drilling reactive formations such as clays and Shales, highly dispersible formation such as chalk and unconsolidated sands. This mud system utilises sodium or potassium sili ie to provide primary inhibition while ‘monovalent salts such as sodium and potassium chloride provide the secondary inhibtion, Discuss the shale inhibition mechanisms of Silicate mud systems? Answer : Silicate mud provides shale inhibition by two mechanisms. Monosilicates polymerise easily to form negatively charged oligomers which can easily penetrate the shale micropore structure as mud filtrate. In the first mechanism, as the oligomers (filtrate) with pH of +/- 12 penetrate the shale micropore fabric, it comes in contact with pore fluids ( pH +/- 7). The pore fluids dilute the filtrate (lowers the pH ) resulting in the formation of silicate gels, which forms a membrane around the shale walls. In the second mechanisms, the oligomers react with free polyvalent cations (Ca‘* and Mg" ) in the shale pores to form insoluble precipitates. The gelled and precipitated silicates. thus, stabilise the shales by providing physical barriers, which prevents further mud filtrate 88314. ws. 316. invasion and pore pressure penetration. The wellbore and shale are thus ‘pressure isolated! Discuss the possible inhibition mechanisms of the silicate based system? Answer : The significant powerful inhibition of the silicate based system chiefly comes, from several directions: (1) packing of wieldy distributed particles into microstructure, these particles are formed when sodium silicate is exposed to aqueous suspensions. (2) Chemical bonding of silica oligomers onto surfaces of drill cuttings and formation, which, result in prevention of clay from swelling and dispersion, (3) The precipitation of the silicate with divalent ions formed in formation and microstructure could prevent fluid orfand filtration from weakening the formation, (4) Under high temperature (especially higher than 105 °C), a conerete substance would form on the surface of clay particles by condensation reaction, this special material prevents the swelling and dispersion of clay (5) Addition of KCI could enhance the inhibition of the system (Guo et al., 2006). How chemical reactions between sodium silicate and clay minerals present in shale provide the strongly inhibitive character? Answer : The chemical reactions between sodium silicate and clay minerals present in shale provide the strongly inhibitive character. Once the soluble silicate contact the surface of shale, a reduction in the pH value will take place and the reaction of silicate with the divalent cations (Ca or Mg™) onJin the shale will occur to form a film-like barrier that can prevent the solid particles and filtrate of drilling fluids from invading into the micro-fractures of shale. Moreover, the self-polymerization of silicate also provides a physical barrier to play the same role. Sometimes, the ultra-fine calcium carbonate can be used to enhance the packing ability (Guo et al, 2006), Discuss the additives used to modify water muds for shale stability? Answer : Salinity-controlled oil mud is superior to water muds for shale stability. Many formations, however, can be drilled with water muds designed for shale stability. Additives used to modify water muds for shale stability are: (1) cations-potassium (K’), caleium (Ca”) and ammonium (NH:); (2) inorganic mixed-metal systems mixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) and mixed-metal silicate (MMs); (3) cationic polymers; (4) coating polymers-partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and (5) refined polyhydroxy compounds-polyglycerides, polyglycols and glucosides. 8937. 318. 319. 320. 321. Discuss how cations and polymers optimize shale stability? Answer : Many times cations and polymers are used tagether to optimize shale stability Also, most polymers used in drilling fluids will coat shales to some extent, but the PHPA (Clark et al, 1976) and PVA (Wingrave, 1991) are generally accepted overall to be the best polymers. The polyols inhibit clays and shale swelling (Chenevest, 1991). The miscible/immiscible state of the polyol can change the transient pore pressures on the surface ofthe in-situ shale (Downs et al., 1993) Discuss how PHPA & silicate-containing fluids provide borehole stabilization & shate swelling inhibition? Answer; PHPA is a water-soluble anionic synthetic polymer, which is commercially available in dry (granular powder) or emulsified form. It is most commonly used in drilling for borehole stabilization in shale forma jons. PHPA-clay slurries tend to form a relatively thin filter cake at the borehole wall, a (Darley and Gray, 1988). Moreover, silicate-containing fluids show good shale swelling characteristic often cited as an advantage inhibition, low depletion rate and high rate of penetration (ROP) and additionally they are environmentally friendly (Tare and Mody, 2000). Discuss how potassium salts inhibits shale swelling? Answer : otassium salts have been used for a long time as swelling inhibitors in WBM. The inhibition is explained by the possible penetration of small non-hydrated ions into the porosity of the shale (Simpson et al., 1994), thus forming an effective s emipermeable ‘membrane. Filtration across the cake depends upon what parameters? Answer : Some researchers (Benna et al., 1999 and Benna et al., 2001) have shown that the filtration across the cake depends on several parameters such as initial clay content, wgaregate association, water retention and permeability, experimental particle or conditions, ete Discuss synthetic polymers to stabilize water-based mud properties at high temperatures? Answer : Several synthetic polymers have been developed to stabilize water-based mud properties at high temperatures. Plank (1992) described the following co and ter- polymers as having good high-temperature stability: (1) Deflocculants: maleicanhydride styrene sulfonate copolymer and maleic hydride sulfonated vinyl toluene copolymer. 90Q) Fluid Loss Controllers: AMPS-n-methyl-n-vinyl acetamide acryl amide terpolymer, AMPS. .o-dimethyl acrylamide copolymer, and AMI inyl-2-pyrrolidone copolymer. 91Oil-Based Muds Give answer of following short questions relating: 322. 323. 324. 325, 326. Oil and synthetic liquids Y Oil Mud Additives ¥ Oil Mud Properties Oil and synthetic liquids Defined Oil Based mud system? Answer : An oil base fluid can be defined as a drilling fluid which has oil as its continuous or external phase and the water, if present, is the dispersed or internal phase ‘The solids in an oil base fluid are oil wet, all additives are oil dispersible and the filtrate of the mud is oil, The water, if present, is emulsified in the oil phase. Classify Oil Based fluids? Answer : There are two basic classifications of oil-based fluids; invert emulsions and all oil muds. The oil used in these types of oil base fluids can range from crude oil, refined oils such as diesel or mineral oils, or the non-petroleum organic fluids that are currently available. The latter type fluids, variously called inert fluids, pseudo oils, non aqueous fluids and synthetic fluids, are now considered more environmentally acceptable than diesel or mineral oils Defined Conventional all-oil mud systems? Answer : These systems do not contain water in their formulation. In practice, while drilling they incorporate small amounts of water from the formation and cuttings. Most will tolerate only very little water and rarely contain more than 5% water. Since water is not present, asphaltic type materials are required to control the fluid loss and viscosity and there is only a minimum requirement for emulsifiers. What problems encountered by water contamination in Conventional alt-oil muds? Answer : If the water becomes a contaminating effect, the mud should be converted to an invert emulsion. If the water is not quickly emulsified, the solids in the mud can become water wet and will cause stability problems. The water wet solids will blind the shaker sereens and loss of whole mud will occur. Defined Invert emulsions systems? 92327. 328. Answer : Invert emulsion drilling fluid refers to system in which water droplets are uniformly dispersed in a continuous oil phase. The emulsified water droplets act as pseudo solid particles to block the formation pore and reduce filtration Loss. In addition these water droplets will assist in support weight material by increasing the viscosity and gel strength of the emulsified system, However excessive water tends to destabilized the invert emulsion system. Hence optimum water content should be for the desired properties of drilling fluid system. OR Invert emulsion drilling fluids are mixtures of two immiscible liquids: oil (or synthetic) and water. These contain oil (or synthetic) as the extemal or continuous phase and water (brine) as the internal phase of the emulsion. Water is an integral part of the invert emulsion and can contain a salt such as calcium or sodium chloride. They may contain 50% or more water. This water is broken up into small droplets and uniformly dispersed in the external non aqueous phase. These droplets are kept suspended in the oil (or synthetic) and prevented from coalescing by surfactants that act between the (wo phases. Categorize Invert emulsions systems? Answer : They ca 1 be sub classified in two separate categories a) Conventional. These are “tight” and very stable emulsions that have zero API (100 psi) fluid loss. They usually have high electrical stability and a controlled HTHP fluid Joss less than 10 cm* at 500 psi (3,447 kPa) and 300°F (149°C), with no water in the filtrate. b) Relaxed! filtrate, These are slightly less stable emulsions purposefully run with hi HHP filtrates than conventional invert emulsion muds. It is normal for them to have some water in the HTHP filtrate. They may also have measurable API (100 psi) filtrate The emulsions are loose, and the electrical stability will be lower than that of conventional invert emulsion muds. Why emulsifiers are used in Invert emulsions systems? Answ Special emubifiers are added to tightly emulsify the water as the intemal phase and prevent the water from breaking out and coalescing into larger water droplets. These water droplets, if not tightly emulsified, can water wet the already oil wet solids and seriously affect the emulsion stability. 93329, 330. 331. 332. Oil Mud Additives Why in Oil based muds, surfactant additives are used in excess amount? Answer : Oil base mud drilling fluids have surfactant additives such as emulsifiers and oil-wetting agents. These OBM surfactants are mainly the wettability alteration material (Yan et al., 1993). An excess amount of emulsifiers and oil wetting agents is often added to maintain the stability and theological properti Azar, 1988), of the mud system (McKinney and Defined soaps? Also discuss their applications? Answer : Some emulsifiers are soaps that are formed by the reaction of a fatty acid ester with an alkali (such as lime) where the hydrogen on the fatty acid is replaced by a metal, such as calcium from lime. Soaps made with sodium are water-soluble and form oil-in- water emulsions. Water-insoluble soaps are formed when metals heavier than sodium (such as calcium) are substituted for the hydrogen of the fatty acid. The water-insoluble soaps are used in oil-muds. Calcium soaps are used extensively as the primary emulsifier in invert emulsion muds. Differentiate between Primary emulsifiers and Secondary emulsifiers? Answer : Calcium soaps are the primary emulsifier in oil muds. Soap emulsions are very strong emulsifying agents but take some reaction time before emulsion is actual formed, Wetting agents prevent solids from becoming water wet while the emulsion is forming Emulsifiers surround the water droplets and prevent their coalescence. Secondary emulsifiers are very powerful oil wetting chemicals. Generally these products, do not form emulsions as well as the primary emulsifiers, but this oil wet solids before the emulsion is formed. Used to readily emulsify any water intrusions quickly. Typically, these additives are polyamides or imidazolines. Describe the function of thinners? Answer : It is long known that above around 120 °C and in conditions of high salinity, bentonite slurries begin to thicken catastrophically (Elward-Bemry and Darby, 1992). The flocculation of bentonite suspensions at high temperatures could be resolved with the addition of thinners to reduce the rheology of the mixture but many thinners degrade over the same temperature range. A thinner with high thermal stability is lignite (Briscoe et al., 1994) and recent evidence (Mihalakis et al., 2004; Kelessidis et al., 2005) demonstrated 94333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. the stabilizing effect of Greck lignite in terms of rheological and filtration control of bentonite slurries. How clays can be used as viscosifiers in oil based muds? Answer : Although emulsified water increases viscosity, viscosifiers and gelling agents are also required. Untreated clays cannot be used as viscosifiers because they do not hydrate and yield in oil or synthetic fluid. If the clays are first coated with an amine, so that they are organophilic, then they will yield and viscosify in oil and synthetic fluids. oil based muds? How yield of organophitic bentonite clays can be improve Answer : Organophilic bentonite clay needs a polar activator (water or alcohol) to produce the maximum yield. Therefore, their yield decreases as the oil or synthetic to water ratio increases. These clays yield faster with incr wed shear and temperature. However, if the amine is not temperature-stable, and decomposes, the clay will become an inert solid. Discuss alternative non-clay viscosifiers? Answer : Altemative non-clay viscos fiers include asphaltic materials, fatty acid gellants and polymers Discuss weight materials used in oil based muds? Answer : arite is the most common weight material used in oil and synthetic-base muds. Calcium carbonate is also use |. particularly in lower-density packer fluids, where it is easier to suspend than either barite or hematite. Hematite may be used in high-density muds where its high specific gravity helps minimize the total solids content of the mud. Discuss how use of fltration-control additive is specific o temperature? Answer : Gilsonite or asphalt, amine-treated lignite and polymers are the most common filtration-control additives. Asphaltic fluid loss additives generally consist of gilsonite or asphalt derivatives. Gilsonite has high temperature stability (40°F) whereas asphalt is not as temperature stable (350°F). Defined function of Organophilic lignites in oil based muds? Answer : Organophilic lignites used as high temperature fluid loss additives. They also will aid in the emulsification of water especially at high temperatures. A lignite is eated with an amine to make it oil dispersible. It controls fluid loss by plugging and can be used ath concentrations without causing excessive viscosities (20 Ib/bbl +/-). 95339. 340. 341. 32. Defined function of Organophilic gellants in oil based muds? Answer : Organophilic gellants are viscosity builders that are made from bentonite, hectorite or attapulgite treated with an amine to make them oil dispersible. Bentonite is most commonly used and is compatible with diesel and mineral oils up to 350°F. For temperatures above 3507F, especially in mineral oil formulations, the hectorite based clay should be used. Organophilic attapulgite is used to improve the suspension properties of packer fluids without appreciably increasing the viscosity. Defined function of Polymeric viscosifiers in oil based muds? Answer : Polymeric viscosifiers are the additives that increase the viscosity of oil muds in the presence of organophilic bentonite, especially when the organophilic bentonite performance is reduced by high temperatures; they work up to 400°F. A high molecular weight sulfonated polystyrene becomes effective only when the temperature exceeds 250°F. For what purpose hydrated Lime and quick Lime are used in oil based muds? Answer : Lime (hydrated or slaked lime Ca(OH),) is used in all oil ase muds for alkalinity control to increase the Poyt and maintain some excess lime. In conventional systems, itis used in higher concentrations as a source of calcium for forming calcium soaps with the primary emubifiers. It is used in all oil-base mud systems as a source of alkalinity when drilling acid gases (CO2 and H2S). Quick lime (CaO) is sometimes used as a source of calcium and alkalinity in oil-base muds. In humid or wet (rainy) environments, hydrated lime should be used instead of quick lime. In conventional systems, qui lime will react with the emulsifiers to form calcium soaps. Quick lime reacts with water to evolve heat and form calcium hydroxide ime, Ca(OH),). The evolution of heat may be helpful in building emulsions. Quick lime can be used in oil-base mud systems as a source of alkalinity when drilling acid gases (CO; and HS). Oil Mud Properties What is range of density of Oil mud? Also discuss effect of temperature & pressure on it? Answer : Mud weight of oil muds ranges from 7.5 Ibi/gal to over 22.0 Ib/gal. Downhole density is affected by temperature and pressure more than water base muds, Temperature will decrease the density of oil muds due to expansion and pressure will increase the 96.383. 344. 345. density due to compression of the oil phase. Discuss effect of temperature and pressure on funnel viscosity, plastic viscosity, Yi ld point ‘and Gel strength? Also discuss their treatments? Answer : Viscosity is affected by temperature and pressure. As the temperature increases, viscosity decreases. Conversely, as the pressure increases, the viscosity increases. The funnel viscosity of an oil mud is greatly affected by temperature. The higher the temperature the lower the plastic viscosity. Reduce plastic viscosity by solids control or dilute with base oil. Yield point is affected at temperatures where mud is normally tested but may be greatly affected by temperatures above 350°F. Increase yield point by additions of organophilic clay, oil polymers or water. Decrease with wetting agents or thinners or dilution with base oil. Gel strengths behaves similar to yield point. Increase with organophilic clay, water or rheological modifiers. Decrease with wetting agents or thinners or even dilution with base oil Defined Electrical Stability of Oil based mud? Answer : The electrical stability (E.S.) of an oil-based drilling fluid is the stability of the emulsions of water in oil, or the amount of the voltage required to break down the emulsion and allow the emulsified water droplets to connect (ie, coalesce) allowing electrical current to flow. Strong emulsions require high voltages to coalesce the water droplets and break down the emulsion, The electrical stability is recorded in volts, Enlist factors affecting the electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : There are several main factors that affect electrical stability: Water content —— Water-wet solids > Emulsification > Temperature > Type of solids effect of Water contents on the electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : There are several main factors that affect electrical stability: Water content: As the water content increases, the distance between the water droplets decreases, allowing for easier electrical circuit completion through coalescence and a reduction in the electrical stability, 747. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. How Water.wet solids influence electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : A water-wet solid has a thin film of water on its surface that functions to conduct electricity like a water droplet. Solids in an invert emulsion reduce electrical stability when they become water-wet How Emulsification affect electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : The degree of emulsification affects water droplet size. Droplets are normally larger in new and unstable mud systems, resulting in low emulsion-stability values. Increased shear and temperature exposure will form smaller droplets and a better emulsion, This incre: es electrical stability values as does increased emulsifier and wetting agent concentration. What is effect of temperature on the electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : The temperature at which the electrical stability measurement is made will change the value obtained. This temperature should always be recorded with the electrical stability value. For trend analysis, the same temperature should be used. How Type of solids influence electrical stability of Oil based mud? Answer : The type of solids in the mud will influence the electrical stability. For example, FER-OX (hematite) and other iron oxide materials may reduce the electrical stability of an invert emulsion mud. Discuss relationship between Electrical and Emulsion stability of Oil based mud? Answer : Electrical stability is an important indicator of emulsion stability, but it should rot be used as an absolute value or indication of its condition. A mud with a high but declining electrical stability may not be as stable as a mud with a lower but stable electrical stability. Muds with extremely low emulsion stability will have filtrate and theological indications as well as low and declining electrical stability values. A well defined downward trend or a rapid drop indicates the emulsion is weakening. What is aniline point? Answer : The anili c point is the temperature below which an oil containing 50% by volume aniline (C,H,-NHs) becomes cloudy. Oils having an aniline point above 140°F are considered acceptable to use. The aniline point relates to the percentage of arom: in the base fluid - the lower the aromatic content the higher will be the aniline point. Defined Water activity (Aw) of drilling fluids? 98354. 355. 356. 357. 358. Answer : Water activity (Aw) is a measure of the chemical potential for water to be ans erred between mud and shales. Activity is measured using the vapor pressure ‘an be estimated based on the chemical (relative humidity) of shale or mud, or it composition of the brine (salinity), Pure water has an Aw of 1.0. Calcium chloride brines used in most non-aqueous emulsion muds have an Aw between 0.8 (22% wt) and 0.55 (34% wt). Lower values for activity are more inhibitive. Discuss relationship between Salinity and Controlled Activity of Drilling fluids? Answer : The CaCl: content of the mud should be maintained at a concentration that will balance or be equal to the Aw of the formation. CaCl; concentrations above 38% are not recommended due the near saturation of the brine, which can cause fluid instability. Salt crystallization from supersaturated solutions heating and cooling can produce water-wet solids and unstable emulsions. How Water activity (Ay) of mud can alter shale stability? Answer : Clay-ci maining formations swell and are weakened by the adsorption of water, ‘The possibility exists that the water from an emulsion mud can alter shales if the Aw of the shale is lower than the activity of the mud. The key to inhibition is to “balance” the activity of the mud with that of the shale so that the adsorption of water on to the shales is theoretically reduced to zero. How semipermeable membranes contribute in shale stability? Answer : he transfer of water between an emulsified brine and a shale is often compared to osmosis. The theory of controlled activity describes the oil-base or synthetic fluid and emulsifiers surrounding the water droplets as a semipermeable membrane. Shale control using this controlled (or balanced) activity is limited mainly to oil-base and synthetic emulsion muds. Water-base muds containing additives (such as glycols and silicates) exhibit only weak semipermeable membrane characteristics. For what purpose CaCl; is used in Oil based mud? Calcium chloride (CaCl) salt is used in most oil-base mud systems to reduce the activity (Aw) of the mud for shale inhibition. Discuss Water activity (Ay) of CaCl, and NaCl in Oil based mud? Answer : CaCh is normally used to obtain activities from 1.0 to 0.40. Sodium chloride (NaCI) may be used to obtain activities from 1.0 to 0.75 (saturated NaCl). A wide variety 99359. of alternative internal phase chemicals can be used to reduce activity. Why CaCl, brines are preferred for oil-base muds to balance formation salinity than Nac? Answer : Calcium chloride brines are used as the internal phase of most oil-base muds as they can balance the formation salinity of most formations. Most shales were formed in marine environments containing complex salts with calcium chloride, magnesium chloride and sodium chloride which have a greater affinity for water than sodium chloride brine, even when saturated. Similarly when CaCl is added to a saturated NaC] brine, the activity is reduced. Activity is based on mutual solubility. Since CaCl; has a greater solubility than NaCl, sodium chloride will precipitate as fine solids at conditions above saturation, 100High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) Drilling Fluids Give answer of following short questions relating: 360. HPHT Factors affecting Drilling Fluids Behavior Effects of HTHP conditions on: ¥ Rheological Properties ¥ Organophillic Clays ¥ Polymers Brine-Based Drilling Fluids conditions effect the performance of drilling fluids by altering its rheological at high pressure up to 3000 psig and high temperature up to 300°C. Factors affecting Drilling Fluids Behavior Discuss the major factors influencing drilling fluids behavior in relation to deep well conditions? Answer : The major factors influencing drilling fluids behavior in relation to deep well conditions are’ 1 Temperature effects, including thermal degradation of organic additives Solid contamination (drilled solids) Chemical contamination (salt, sour gasses), Acceleration of degradation and solid liquid phase reactions with increasing temperature. Other considerations are: Almost continuous change of the solid and liquid phases with depth (due to change in drilled formations, solid control, dilution, chemical treatments). Hydrothermal alteration of the minerals (reaction, dissolution, precipitation) at elevated temperatures. Complex chemical media and equilibrium that affects system stability, additive downhole performance and high temperature reactions. Effect on Rheological Properties 361. What problems are associated with drilling mud at high temperature? Answer : Drilling mud characteristic and rheological properties will be effected by high temperature effect. With increasing temperature of drilling fluids, viscosity will 101362. 363. 364. decreasing, this condition will make cuttings or chips are not effective carried and sludge will be occurs at base hole bore (pipe sticking) (Nur et al, 2009), How rheological properties are affected at high temperature? Answer : The theological properties of water-based drilling fluids under downhole conditions may be very different from the properties measured at surface conditions. This is observed because the temperature and shearing affect the drilling fluid properties. An increase in the temperature will reduce the effectiveness of the most drilling fluid additives that would maintain the rheological, fluid loss and electrochemical properties. Excessive heating may cause solidification of drilling fluids. If a case of stuck pipe is encountered, circulation may continue for a long time and aging of the drilling fluid comes under consideration. Agi if affects the theology of drilling fluids along with temperature, and investigation shows that the effect of dynamic aging is greater than static aging (Ali and Marhoun, 1990) Discuss how electrochemically and chemically, high temperature affect rheological Properties? Answer : Electrochemically, an increase in temperature will increase the ionic activity of electrolytes and the solubility of any partially soluble salt that may be present in the mud. This could change the balance between the interparticle attractive and repulsive forces and also the degree of dispersion and flocculation in the mud systems. In some occasions, this can also affect the emulsion stability of oil-based muds. (Schramm, 1992). All these phenomena have a bi impact on rheological properties, especially as far as viscoelasticity and thixotropy are concerned. Chemically, all hydroxides react with clay minerals at temperatures above 90 °C and for ‘many kinds of muds this can result in a change in the structure and also a change in the theological properties (Maglione et al., 1996). Effect on Organophillic Clays What is effect of HTHP conditions on Organophilie clays and also discuss the resulting problems? Organophilic clays in HTHP conditions fail to provide sufficient viscosity to the fluid due to thermal thinning and thermal degradation, thereby destroying their viscosifying capacity (Portnoy et al., 1986). In temperatures in excess of 350F, it is undesirable to use 102365. 366. 367. organophilic clays due to the continuous need to replenish clay and the build up of inert solids in the mud which results from the degraded organophilic clay. The build up of such solids along with the deliberate addition of low gravity solids to build up the viscosity of the fluid in HTHP conditions results in high plastic viscosity (PV) of the fluid. A high PV of the drilling fluid results in increased equivalent circulating density (ECD) caused by increased pump pressures needed for pumping such a fluid (Nicora et al, 2001). A fluid with a high PV also has a detrimental effect on the rate of penetration (ROP), as an increase in number of solids in the fluid slows down the penetration rate (Beck et al., 1995). Effect on Polymers What is effect of HTHP conditions on polymeric components of drilling fluids and also discuss the resulting problems? At HTHP conditions, however, the polymeric components of drilling fluids are likely to experience thermal degradation (Oakley et al., 2000) which results in breakdown of the emulsion and fluid phase separation. This can cause serious operational problems, including the undesirable phenomenon of barite sag (Taughol et al, 2005). Brine-Based Drilling Fluids Discuss applications of Brine-based reservoir drilling? Fluids Brine-based reservoir drilling fluids are a special class of fluids designed to minimize formation damage, provide efficient hole cleaning, help reduce wellbore cleanup time and cost, and maximize reservoir producibility. Discuss use of conventional fluid loss control additives and their limitations for brine- ‘based drill-in fluids? Conventional fluid loss control additives for high performance brine-based drill-in fluids include nonionic water-soluble polymers such as starches, derivatized starches, gums, derivatized gums, and cellulosics, Cross-linked starches are often considered the benchmark of performance for reservoir drill-in fluids but, they do not exhibit the thermal stability required at temperatures exceeding 300°F for extended contact periods. Conventional linear synthetic polymers are also utilized, but the addition of these polymers can dramatically increase viscosity, resulting in increased equivalent circulating 103density (ECD) and decreased drilling rates. Often these systems require other additives such as phyllosilica c (clay) particles to achieve effective fluid loss control. However, adding clay can be problematic in drillin fluids since removing clay from the reservoir rock can be difficult and may result in irreparable formation damage (Ezell et al., 2010). 104Scomi Oiltools Drilling Fluids A HYDRO-FOIL System Give answer of following short questions relating: 368. 369, 370. 371. 372. What type of mud formulation system is used to drill moderately reactive shale? Answer : HYDRO-FOIL is a KCL/ PHPA low solids, non dispersed drilling fluid system that is used primarily to drill moderately reactive shales. It can be used effectively at temperatures up to 275 - 300 °F (135 - 149°C). Discuss the primary shale inhibition mechanism in HYDRO-FOIL system? Answer : The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL. system are: 4. The cation exchange of potassium ions with the clay to reduce hydration and swelling in conjunction with; b. HYDRO-CAP XP a partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (PHPA) which adheres to the surface of the drilled cuttings, encapsulating them, and also ct is the well bore reducing the hydration of clays in the formation. Discuss the application of HYDRO-FOLL system in a range of salinity conditions? Answer: The HYDRO-FOIL system can be used in any salinity from freshwater to near NaCl saturation, although in the higher salt content systems increased polymer concentrations will be required as the polymer does not fully uncoil and hydrate. How potassium carbonate in HYDRO-FOIL fluid system help to regulate pore pressure transmission effect? Answer : When using a HYDRO-FOIL system formulated with potassium carbonate a third mechanism of inhibition is speculated. The calcium ions in the interstitial (pore) fluids will cause the carbonate ions in the filtrate to precipitate, plugging the pore throats and reducing the pore pressure transmission effect. Discuss PHPA depletion rates depending on the reactivity of the formation? Answer ; The HYDRO-CAP concentration in the system will deplete while drilling as the PHPA encapsulates the cuttings and coats the wellbore ‘Typical Depletion Factors Highly reactive shales 6 - 8 Ib/bbl (17.1 — 22.8 kg/m*) Moderately reactive shales 4 - 6 Ib/bbl (11.4 - 17.1 kg/m?) 105373. 374, 375. 576. ‘Low reactivity shales 2 - 4 Ib/bbl (5.7 — 11.4 kg/m*) Why in HYDRO-FOIL fluid system, pH should be maintained in the range 8.5-9.5? Answer : This should be maintained at 8.5 — 9.5. High pH will result in hydrolysing of the polymer, at pH above 10.0 hydrolysis of the PHPA will start resulting in the release of ammonia gas (NH,) which is very evident on the rig even at low concentrations. What modification is done white drilling cement using HYDRO-FOIL fluid system? Answer : If cement has to be drilled then the mud should be pre-treated with using a low polyacrylate thinner such as HYDRO-THIN. ty of HYDRO-FOIL fluid system depends? Answer : The HYDRO-FOIL system is effective in a range of temperatures from 275 — molecular wei What are the factors upon which thermal st 300 °F (135 - 149 °C), thermal stability being dependent on the type and concentration of salt in the formulation and the use of oxygen scavengers. Why HYDRO-FOIL fluid system is sensitive to cement contamination? Answer : HYDRO-FOIL is particularly sensitive to cement contamination, Cement contamination increases the calcium ion content and the pH of a fluid which has the effect of hydrolysing the PHPA polymers, thus increasing filter loss and reducing theology 106Scomi Oiltools Drilling Fluids B OPTA-FLO System Give answer of following short questions relating: 377. 578. 379, 380. 381. 382. How reservoir sections with zero or minimal formation damage are drilled? Answer : OPTA-FLO is a water based ‘Drill In’ Fluid (DIF) designed to drill reservoir sections with zero to minimal formation damage. How OPTA-FLO mud formulation system control filtrate and mud leak off into Sormation? Answer : OPTA-FLO DIF systems are based on bridging methods which provide a positive control of filtrate and mud leak off over a wide permeability range, into the formation, while providing filter-cakes which are readily removed by the produced fluids. How effective hole cleaning is obtained in reservoir sections having minimal formation damage? Answer : A premium quality non xanthan based viscosifier has been selected for use in the OPTA-FLO system. OPTA-VIS is readily dispersible in makeup water, is highly shear thinning, does not leave any residue and may be completely removed with aci treatments . OPTA-VIS increases the LSRV & LSYP to provide excellent suspension properties for effective hole cleaning How fluid loss is controlled in reservoir sections with low formation damage? Answer : A. premium grade starch product developed for applications in DIF, OPTA- STAR PLUS is very effective at reducing the fluid loss and providing a thin, tough and low permeability cake. The filter cake formed is lifted off with low pressures Which chemicals provide effective hole cleaning in minimal damaged formations? Answer : OPTA-CARB, sized calcium carbonate panicles, high grade ground marble provide an effective sealing on the formation surface to minimising uid and/or solid invasion of the pay zone. How polymer damage is removed which is caused by starch based products? 107383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389, Answer : An alpha starch based products used in the OPTA-FLO Drill-In fluids system primarily in mylase enzyme designed to remove polymer damage caused by the horizontal and multilateral wells. Why KCl is used in mud system designed for damage formation? Answer : Potassium chloride is used as an clay / shale inhibitor where clay and or shale formations are inter layered in the producing sand. The concentration required will be based on the extent of the clay / shale layers but will generally vary from 3 ~ 89% in OPTA-FLO systems Why KCLuse is avoided in shale having kaolinite fractions? Answer : KCI should not be used if Kaolinite is present. KCI can destabilise Kaolinite in shales and causing Kaolinitic fines to mobilize and migrate in reservoir rocks. How premium grade starch and zanthum gum in mud system are protected from bacterial degradation? Answer : OPTA-STAR PLUS and OPTA-ZAN may be subject to bacterial degradation in under saturated brines. A biocide such as Glutaraldehyde should be used in the system. Why OPTA-FLO system is prevented while drilling cement plug and casing shoe? ‘Answer + Because quality of polymers can be adversely affected by drilling cement. How even low concentration of filration polymer provide tight fluid toss in OPTA-FLO system? Answer : Despite the relative low concentration of polymer filtration controllers this fluid system has tight filter loss due to the synergetic relationship between the polymers and the bridging materials Why MgO is recommended as pH buffer in calcium based systems with calcium ions greater then 1000 mg/l? Answer : MgO is recommended as a pH buffer for most systems but particularly so in calcium based systems where the calcium level is > 1,000 mg/l Why only citric acid is used to reduce pH to around 10 in cement contaminated OPTA- FLO system? Answer : If cement contamination occurs citric acid may be used to reduce the pH to around 10 ~ do not use acid to reduce the pH further as it will be dissipated on the calcium carbonate in the system, 108390. 391. 392. 393. What are the possible reasons for high PV & high YP in mud system used for minimal formation damage? Answer : Possible Reasons © Solid build up ‘+ Inefficient or inadequate solid removal © Increase MBT value What are the possible reasons for high API Fluid loss in OPTA-ELO mud formulation? Also discuss their recommended treatments? Answer : Possible Reasons ‘© Shift in particle size. ‘+ Polymers degrading © Bacterial problem What are the possible reasons for low values of LSRV & YP in OPTA-FLO system and discuss treatments for these problems? Answer : Possible Reasons + Polymers degrading ‘© Excess water added through shaker cleaning or from other places Why hydro-cyclones are not used in solid control operation while drilling damaged reservoir formation? Answer : Do not use Hydro-cyclones as OPTA-CARB will be discarded, unless excessive sand build up requires intermittent use to reduce the sand content, in which case fresh additions of bridging agent must be made to maintain the concentration, The hydro- cyclone discharge must be tested to ensure that excessive amounts of bridging material are not being diseanted. 109Scomi Oiltools Drilling Fluids c RHEO-PLEX System Give answer of following short questions relating: 394. 395. 396. 397. 398. Which mud formulation system is used for deviated hole sections, depleted reservoirs & unconsolidated formations? Answer : RHEO-PLEX applications include drilling deviated hole sections, milling, depleted reservoirs and unconsolidated formations. It must be noted that the fluid can provide chemical inhibition if used with 3% KCL Discuss the chemistry of mechanism that impart RHEO-PLEX fluid System an excellent rheological profile under its static & dynamic conditions? Answer : The mechanism for interactions between the individual MMO ~ bentonite complex is weakly electrostatic. This electrostatic interaction is readily broken by mechanical means and reforms once the stress is removed which explains the extreme thixotropic behaviour, i.e. why the RHEO-PLEX fluid instantly shear thins with the application of mechanical agitation. This chemistry gives the RHEO-PLEX fluid a unique rheological profile that exhibits high flat gels which are fragile and easily broken with the start of circulation, but reform immediately when the fluid is static giving very effective cuttings suspension. Why hardness is minimized below 400 mg/l in mud system used to drill depleted reservoir section? Answer : It is recommended that the hardness be minimized. The interaction of the between the MMO and the bentonite is enhanced if the hardness is below 400 mg/l Why use of PAC, CMC materials are incompatible in RHEO-PLEX fluid System? Answer : PAC or CMC materials are incompatible with the MMO / bentonite complex. Filtration control is provided by the use of HYDRO-STAR CMS, a non ionic starch. Why in RHEO-PLEX system rheology is corrected with dilution not by use of polymeric defloceulants or lignosulphonate thinners? 110399. 400. wl. Answer : The theology of the system is based on RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA complex. In the e ent that the theology is too high do not treat the system with polymeric deflocculants or lignosulphonate thinners, Correct high rheology with dilutio Why pH is maintained in the range of 9.5-10 in RHEO-PLEX fluid System? Answer : It is imperative that the pH is maintained in the range specified 9.5-10. The interaction between the RHEO-PLEX and the bentonite is optimised in this pH range. Why RHEO-PLEX mud system is avoided to drill cement? Answer : RHEO-PLEX is highly sensitive to divalent and polyvalent cations. Cement should not be drilled with the system. Discuss the viscosity profile mechanism of RHEO-PLEX fluid System? Answer : RHEO-PLEX is a mixed metal oxide system, MMO, providing a highly thixotropic water based fluid that is both environmentally friendly and cost effective. The system shear thins, provides exceptional hole cleaning, is stable above 300 °F (149 °C) and delivers an enhanced rheology profile and stability that is easy to design, mix and maintain. When RHEO-PLEX is added to the bentonite suspension the species displace the resident cations and forms a bond on the surface of the bentonite platelets. The system is based on the unique interaction between the MMO cationic specie and the bentonite platelet, The anionic specie bonds to the negative charged sites of the bentonite forming a complex which structures the fluid and provides its unique gels and viscosity profile. The system is viscous at rest and once shear stress is applied it thins, only to regain its viscosity once the stress is removed, utCentrifugal Separation Devices Decanting Centrifuges Give answer of following short questions relating: M2. 3. 4. ws. 06. How the concentration of drill solids and bentonite in the mud is calculated? Answer : The concentration of drill solids and bentonite in the mud can be “roughly” calculated from the retort, chlorides and MBT with a material balance solids analysis. How the solids are classified according to their specific gravity? Answer : Solids, classified by specific gravity (S.G.), may be divided into two groups. 1. High density solids, S.G. > 4.2 (weight materials) 2. Low density solids, $.G. from 1.6 to 2.9, (average of about 2.6). These include sand, clays, shales, dolomite, calcium carbonate and many fluid treatment materials. Discuss the barite recovery application of centrifuge? Answer : Centrifuges separate low-gravity solids from barite, but this would only be possible if all barite in a system was above 3 to 4 microns and all low-gravity solids were below the 4 to 6 micron range. Under field operating conditions, approximately 10% barite is below 3 microns in size and 20% to 50% of low-gravity solids are below 6 microns size The solids removed with a centrifuge are the very fine particles which have a greater relative effect on theology than the coarser particles. Discuss the types of decanting centrifuges depending on the G-force, rpm, cut point, and ‘feed capacity? Answer > Barite Recovery Centrifuge High Volume Centrifuge High Speed Centrifuge Discuss the use of barite recovery centrifuge? Answer : Used primarily for viscosity control. Operational parameters, RPM range of 1600 to 1800 rpm Gforce generated from 500 to 700 Gs 2w7. Ws. 409, M0. Cat point will be between 6 to 10 microns for low-gravity solids and 4 to 7 microns for high gravity solids. Discuss the use of high volume centrifuge? Answer : Used primarily for discarding low-gravity solids from the fluid. It is so named because processing rates range from 100 to 200 gpm. Operational parameters, RPM range of 1900 to 2200 rpm Gforce generated from 800 Gs Cut point will be between 5 to 7 microns for unweighed fluids. Discuss the use of high speed centrifuge? Answer : Used for removel of low gravity solids from unweighed fluid system. Operational parameters, RPM range of 2500 to 3300 rpm Gforce generated from 1200 to 2100 Gs Cat point can be as low as 2 to 5 microns, Feed rates will range from 40 to 120 gpm How incorporated drilled solids in mud system effect drilling operations? Answer ‘The incorporation of drilled solids (low specific gravity solids) in the mud system is inevitable in all drilling operations. However, their presence leads to many problems which include:- 1. Unstable theology Expensive mud treatment Differential sticking Formation fracture/lost circulation 2 3. 4 5. Reduced penetration rate. 6. Increased drilling problems (increased torque and drag) 7. Increased wear on drilling equipment 8, Impaired hole quality (thicker filter cakes and formation impairment). 9, Inereased waste product volumes, What are benefits of removing excessive drilled cuttings from completion fluids? 113a. 42. 4B. a4. as, Answer : The benefits of removing excessive drilled cuttings from the fluid include the following. Reduced fluid treatment costs Reduced torque and drag Increased penetration rates, Reduced system pressure losses, resulting in lower equivalent circulating density (ECD) and fewer instances of lost circulation Lower water requirements Better cement jobs Less differential sticking Less waste, resulting in reduced environmental impact and lower disposal costs Reduced formation damage Discuss effect of drilled solids on plastic viscosity of drilling fluids? Answer: Plastic viscosity depends primarily on the size, shape, and number of solids in the fluid, Progressive increases in plastic viscosity can indicate a build up of drilled solids. Discuss effect of drilled solids on Yield Point & Gel Strength of drilling fluids? Answer : When yield values and gel strengths become excessive, treatment with a dispersant or deflocculant s usually indicated. As the concentration of solids increase, these treatments become less and less effective. At some point, continued treatments will result in an increase in the fluid’s overall rheological properties, Discuss effect of drilled solids on the quality of filter cake? Answer : Depending upon the size and shape of the solids, fluid loss may either increase or decrease. In general, the quality of the filter cake will deteriorate (ie., become thicker and softer). Discuss effect of fine and coarse solids on viscosity of drilling fluid? Answer : The removal of very fine particles from the fluid produces a greater reduction in viscosity than does the removal of an equivalent volume of coarser solids due to the difference in surface area. Classify dri ing mud solids and discuss their effect on mud density? 46. a7. a8. 49, 20. Answer : Drilling mud solids may be separated into two categories: Low-Gravity Solids (LGS), with Specific Gravity (SG) in the 2.3 to 2.8 range, and High-Gravity Solids (HGS), with SG of 4.2 or higher. Weight materials such as barite or hematite comprise the HGS category and are used to achieve densities greater than 10.0 Ib/gal (SG>1.2).. Daill solids, clays and most other mud additives fall into the LGS category and often are the only solids used to obtain densities up to 10.0 Ib/gal (SG <1.2). Discuss parameters for efficient operations of decanting centrifuges? Answer: Efficient operation processes up to 140 GPM (530 L/min) with a 6 0 10 micron cut on weighted mud systems; processes up to 250 GPM (946.4 L/min) with a 5 to 7 micron cut point on unweighted mud. Why solids are preferred to remove during first circulation through surface equipment? Answer : Solids that are not removed during the first circulation through the surface equipment are subjected to mechanical degradation by the drill bit, reamers and mud pumps during each ci culation cycle until they are too fine for removal by mechanical How removal of sand and drilled cuttings is related with mud viscosity? Answer : Field observations verify that low mud viscosity, combined with a low mud flow rate, promote the settling of larger and heavier solids. Therefore, the removal of sand and drill cuttings by settling or centrifugal force is practical and beneficial. If the mud contains barite, however, then it may settle, too. What should he viscosity of fluid for efficient centrifuge operation? Answer : For efficient centrifuge operation, the effluent viscosity should be 35 to 37 secigt. Ifthe viscosity is above 37 sec/qt, the slower setting rate lowers efficiency. If the viscosity is much below 35 sec/qt, too much water is being added. This will cause turbulence inside the bowl, reducing its efficiency. Discuss the effect of discarded mud solids beneficial for drilling operations? Answer However, using a centrifuge will discard some beneficial mud additives (solids) like bentonite and lignite. If treatments are not adjusted to account for this loss, mud properties may be compromised, increasing the potential for drilling problems such as differential pipe sticking. Therefore, when a centrifuge is being used, bentonite and other treatments must be increased to maintain good filter-cake quality. usa2. 22. How efficiency of a centrifuge is checked? iencies are influenced by mud weight and mud viscosity. During Answer : Centrifuge e' centrifuge operation, the underflow should be analyzed regularly to determine the amount of low-gravity solids and barite being removed and retained. ? How excessive viscosity of fluid is not economic Answer : The viscosity of the fluid should not be higher than that required for hole cleaning and barite suspension. Changes in plastic viscosity can result in significant changes in pump pressure in the field. 116Solid Contents & Specific Gravity Give answer of following short questions relating: 23. Differentiate between weighed and unweighed drilling mud? Answer : Un-weighted mud refers to any mud which has not had barite added. This mud type normally has a density of less than 10.0 Ibs/gal. (1.2 SG) Weighted mud refers to any mud which has had barite added, This mud type has a density greater than 10.0 Ibs/gal (1.2 SG) 24, Discuss brine as weighing material? Answer ; Solids free brines are frequently used as completion or workover fluids. A number of types of clear brine are commercially available, including ammonium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, calcium bromide, sodium formate, and potassium formate. In practice the halide brines are most commonly used because they usually represent the lowest cost for a given density #25, Defined specific gravity? Discuss specific gravity of mud solids? Answ ‘The weight of a specific volume of a substance compared to the Weight of the same volume of water. Specific Gravity of Mud Solids High Gravity Solids (HGS): SG ranges from 2.6 to 5.1 Usually used to increase mud weight Barite is most common SG=4.2 Low Gravity Solids (LS); SG ranges from 1.1 to 2.6 Includes commercial solids and drilled solids. Average SG is 2.6 Sand = 2.6, Clay = 2.4,Limestone = 2.5 26, What is specific gravity of water, oil, barite and hematite? SGofWar = 10 SG of Oil 084 SGofBarite = 42 SG of Hematit 5 the primary action of API barite (SG 4.2)? Answer: The API barite is used for increasing density to 20 Ib/gal 28, What 27. Whai the primary action of Hematite (SG 5.0)? Answer: The Hematite is used for increasing density to 25 Ib/gal. uy29. What is the primary action of ground limestone (SG 2.8)? Answer: The ground limestone is used for increasing density to 12 Ib/gal 18.Solid Contents & Filtration Control Give answer of following short questions relating: 430. Bl. #2. 83. Discuss the effect of colloidal size particles on filtration control? Answer : Slurries with high concentrations of small particles form filter cakes of lower permeability. Generally, colloidal-size particles (less than 2 microns), such as bentonite, provide the highest amount of the fluid-loss control, Optimum control, however, is obtained by having a wide range of particle sizes. Smaller particles seal openings between the larger particles to form a low-permeability cake. Wha effect of bentonite (colloidal clays) on filter cake permeability? Answer : Flat particles with large surface area, such ay bentonite, can form a filter cake that resembles the shingled roof of a house. Flat particles are more effective than spherical or irregularly shaped particles since they form a more closely packed cake. In addition, filter cakes that contain bentonite are compressible. Hydrated, high-quality bentonite is essential in obtaining a low-permeability filter cake. Bentonite particles are small (many less than 0.05 microns); have a large surface area; have a flat, plate-like shape and can be deformed easily. As the hydration of the particles is increased, the permeability of the resulting filter cake is decreased. Freshwater bentonite filter cakes have a permeability of about | microdarey, Discuss the effect of flocculation and deflocculation of clay platelets on filter cake permeability? Answer : Deflocculation and dispersion of clays also are important for filtration control Bentonite and clay particles are very thin, flexible solids with large, planar surfaces. When the clay platelets are deflocculated, they are deposited in more of a flat orientation in the filter cake. They overlap to obtain a low permeability filter cake with good filtration control However, if the mud system is flocculated, the bentonite particles will not lay flat but will orient themselves in an edge-to-face matrix, which causes high-permeability filter cakes and poor filtration control Discuss reactive and unreactive solids in mud system? 19BA. 85. 86. 7. #8. Answer : Solids in muds range from highly reactive clays and biopolymers to unreactive solids such as calcium carbona c, barite and hematite. The shape, size and distribution of the solid particles; the ratio of reactive solids to nonreactive solids; and the way the solids react to their chemical environment determine how the solids will affect the filtration rate, Equal concentrations of different solids will have vastly different fluid losses. What should be concentration of drill solids for good filteration control? Answer : For good filtration control, the drill solids content of the mud should be kept as low as practical. A rule of thumb many operators use is to keep the drill solids below a ratio of 2 Ib of drill solids for every 1 Ib of bentonite, How particle size distribution property of weight material relate with permeable formations? Answer : Weight material does not contribute to cake compressibility, but often provides a particle size distribution that aids in primary bridging and particle plugging permeable formations. Relate high solid concentration with fluid loss control? Answer : High solids concentrations are also detrimental to effective fluid-loss control When the solids are too high, the available water is not adequate to solubilize the deflocculants or to allow the filtration control additives to function. Therefore, treatments act as additional solids, compounding the situation and do not function as intended. This is a classic problem in deflocculated systems with lignosulfonate and complex salt muds with starch. In this ease, adding liquid for dilution or new volume allows the chemicals to be effective, resulting in a reduction in filtration rates. Relate low gravity solid contents of the mud with filter cake thickness? Answer : The increase in filter-cake thickness with time also can be minimized by controlling the undesirable low-gravity solids content of the mud. Solids must be considered not only in terms of the volume percent, but also with regard to the quality and function, Desirable drilling fluids solids include weight materials, viscosifiers, filtration control additives and various other chemical additives. Which one is beneficial for water base filter cakes between Wyoming bentonite and clay rich drill solids? 12089. 00. wi. 42. 4B. 4. Answer : Hydrated Wyoming bentonite is highly compressible and beneficial in water base ter cakes. Drilling in shales generates clay-rich drill solids, but they are much less hhydratable and compressible than premium bentonite. Which elay is efficient fluid loss control additive for water based drilling fluids? Answer : API-grade bentonite is the primary clay used in water-base drilling fluids and usually comes from Wyoming, hence the name “Wyoming” bentonite (sodium bentonite). It has one of the highest yields (.e., it generates the largest volume of mud at a given viscosity) and is one of the most hydratable clays found anywhere; it is considered a premium product, Wyoming bentonite is the best product to use in formulating a mud with good filter-cake properties “and filtration control Enlist the clays that do not provide filtration control but still used as mud additives? ‘tapulgite (SALT GEL) and sepiolite (DUROGELT) are needle-shaped clays used as mechanical colloidal viscosifiers in high-salinity brines. They do not provide Answer filtration control What should be the quality of Wyoming bentonite in weighed and unweighrd drilling Sluids? Answer : The quality of Wyoming bentonite should be limited in weighted and high- temperature applications to the 7.5 to 15 Ib/bbl range. Unweighted fluids often use 15 to 30 Ib/bbI bentonite, depending on the makeup water chemistry and the desired viscosity Any concentration above 7.5 Ib/bbl will provide a good basis for filter cake and filtration characteristics Why quantity of bentonite is limited in weighed and unweighed fluids? Answer : Bentonite not only provides filtration control, but also increases viscosity; therefore, quantities should be limited in weighed and unweighed fluids. How sodium bentonite provide low permeability filter cake? Answ ‘odium bentonite surfaces have a high electro-charge density. This high charge density promotes hydration in freshwater by attracting many layers of water molecules to its surface. These hydrated bentonite particles deform and compress readily under pressure and form very low-permeability, low porosity filter cakes, Why the ratio of drill solids to bentonite is controlled in a drilling fluid?5. 6. 7. 8 0. Answer : The total drill solids content and the ratio of drill solids to bentonite must be controlled to optimize a drilling fluid’s properties and performance. Why the bridging agents are used in mud system? Answer : In highly permeable formations with large pore throats, whole mud may invade the formation (depending on the size of the mud solids). In such situations, bridging agents must be used to block the openings so the mud solids can form a seal Discuss medium and average particle sized bridging agents? Answer : Bridging agents should be at least one-half the size of the largest openi Such bridging agents include calcium carbonate, ground cellulose and a wide variety of other lost-circulation materials Discuss the factors affecting filtration across the cake? Answer : Filtration across the cake depends on several parameters such as initial clay content, particle or aggregate association, water retention and permeability Why floceulants are added in unweighted water-based fluids? Answer : With unweighted water-based fluids, chemical flocculation can be used to cause colloidal and ultra-fine particles to form aggregates large enough to settle and to be separated by centrifuges. Discuss the parameters that control filter cake thickness and depth of filtrate invasion? 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