SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES

OBJECTIVE : BASICS
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES USED IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS ALSO UTILISE CARRIER
TRANSIT TIME (LIKE IN VACUUM TUBES)

POWER HANDLING CAPACITIES ARE LIMITED BUT ARE IMPROVING & SOME TUBES HAVE
BEEN REPLACED WITH THESE DEVICES
ACCURATE THICKNESS & CONCENTRATION OF DOPING TAILORS THE TRANSIT TIME &
DECIDES & OF OPERATION
VARACTOR DIODES ARE USED FOR PARAMETRIC AMPLIFICATION

TUNNEL DIODES & GUNN DIODES ARE USED AS OSCILLATORS

IMPATT & TRAPATT DIODES ARE USED AS AMPLIFIERS
PIN DIODES ARE USED FOR ATTENUATION, MODULATION, DETECTION, SWITCHING &
LIMITING
SCHOTTKY DIODES ARE USED FOR MIXING & DETECTION

TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS
HIGH CONCENTRATION / OF CARRIERS IN A OTHERWISE NORMAL DIODE
DECREASES WIDTH OF THE DEPLETION REGION
CONDUCTION BY QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELLING OF
TUNNEL DIODES HAVE ve RESISTANCE REGION & CONDUCT AS HIGH VALUE RESISTANCES
IN REVERSE BIAS
LOW COST, LOW NOISE, HIGH SPEED, HIGH PEAK TO VALLEY CURRENT RATIO etc MADE
DIODE VERY POPULAR FOR RF APPLICATIONS

THE NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION CAN BE USED TO OPERATE THE TUNNEL DIODE AS AN
OSCILLATOR OR AS AN AMPLIFIER
TUNNEL DIODES WERE POPULAR DUE TO LOW COST, DEEP ve RESISTANCE REGION &
SPEED OF OPERATION (ON/OFF TIME ~1nS)

OBJECTIVE : BASICS
P

FORBIDDEN
BAND

TUNNEL DIODE

N
CONDUCTION

BAND

EMPTY STATE
FILLED STATE

VALENCE
BAND

FORBIDDEN
BAND
EMPTY STATE

CONDUCTION BAND
ON n SIDE ALIGNED
TO VALENCE BAND OF p
SIDE CAUSING
TUNNELLING
CONDUCTION
BAND

FILLED STATE

VALENCE
BAND

AT ZERO VOLTAGE NO CONDUCTION POSSIBLE AS SEEN FROM THE DIAGRAM

@ < < CONDUCTION BAND OF n SIDE & VALENCE BAND OF p SIDE GET ALIGNED
CROSS OVER FROM n TO p SIDE REGISTERING CURRENT. THIS IS DUE TO QUANTUM
MECHANICAL TUNNELLING & NOT DUE TO CURRENT OVER POTENTIAL BARRIER
AS > THE BANDS CROSS EACH OTHER & CURRENT STARTS TO DROP UNTIL THEY
CROSS EACH OTHER COMPLETELY
@ > POTENTIAL BARRIER IS OVERCOME & FREE CONTRIBUTE TO CURRENT

OBJECTIVE : BASICS
P

FORBIDDEN
BAND

TUNNEL DIODE

N
CONDUCTION

BAND

EMPTY STATE
FILLED STATE

VALENCE
BAND

FORBIDDEN
BAND
EMPTY STATE

CONDUCTION BAND
ON n SIDE ALIGNED
TO VALENCE BAND OF p
SIDE CAUSING
TUNNELLING
CONDUCTION
BAND

FILLED STATE

VALENCE
BAND

THERE EXISTS A PROBABILITY THAT CARRIERS WILL CROSS THE BARRIER DUE TO
QUANTUM MECHANICAL EFFECTS AND IS WHERE & ARE
BARRIER ENERGY AND BARRIER WIDTH

FERMI LEVELS ARE NOT IN FORBIDDEN BAND DUE TO HIGH DOPING & TUNNELLING OF
WILL HAPPEN DUE @ < < ACROSS TO p TYPE TO FILL EMPTY VALENCE BAND
STATES @ SAME ENERGY LEVELS. INCREASES
@ FORWARD BIAS OF > TUNNELLING CURRENT STARTS TO DROP TILL >

FROM THEN ON NORMAL FORWARD BIASED DIODE CURRENT WILL FLOW

TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : VI CHARACTERISTICS
HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CARRIERS IN A OTHERWISE NORMAL DIODE
THIS DECREASES WIDTH OF THE DEPLETION REGION
TUNNEL DIODES HAVE ve RESISTANCE REGION & CONDUCT AS HIGH VALUE RESISTANCES
IN REVERSE BIAS
REVERSING OF CURRENT IS VERY FAST AND HENCE LENDS ITSELF TO RF APPLICATIONS

TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : USE OF ve RESISTANCE REGION FOR OSCILLATIONS
d

R
a

WHEN V IS INCREASED TO , I INCREASES UP TO . VOLTAGE ACROSS INDUCTOR IS

CURRENT STARTS TO DROP & CHANGE IN SLOPE OF CURRENT CAUSES TO REACT TO

LEVELS TO SUSTAIN AND SLAMS THE VOLTAGE TO POINT a

THE VOLTAGE IS MUCH HIGHER THAN WHAT IS AVAILABLE BEFORE THE DIODE & V ACROSS
THE INDUCTOR STARTS TO DROP.

AS V DROPS TO VALLEY POINT, AGAIN CHANGE OF CURRENT SLOPE IS DETECTED @ c &

TRIES TO MAINTAIN THE VOLTAGE BY SLAMMING THE VOLTAGE TO POINT b

SCHOTTKY DIODE

SHOTTLY DIODE IS A METAL ON SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION CONSISTING OF ONLY n+

SUBSTRATE, n INTRINSIC LAYER AND METAL

THE METAL (MOLYBDENUM, PLATINUM, CHROMIUM, TUNGSTEN OR SILLICIDES) LAYER

ACTS AS THE ANODE

VI CHARACTERISTICS - SCHOTTKY DIODE

I
SHOTTKY DIODE

pn JUNCTION DIODE

LOWER TURN ON VOLTAGE (150 mV COMPARED TO 700 mV IN PN DIODES)

USED FOR FAST SWITCHING APPLICATIONS OR AS RECTIFIERS (EVEN IN RF DOMAIN)

SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS
@ HIGHER FREQUENCIES, THE DIODE BIAS IS SWITCHED FROM FORWARD BIAS TO
REVERSE BIAS VERY FAST

DUE TO FINITE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME & THE PRESENCE OF DEPLETION LAYER,
NORMAL pn DIODE IS INCAPABLE OF SWITCHING OFF & PASSES APPRECIABLE CURRENT
IN THE ve RF CYCLE
SCHOTTKY DIODE IS A METAL-SEMI CONDUCTOR (n-TYPE) JUNCTION DIODE
MAJORITY CARRIERS IN BOTH METAL & n-TYPE MATERIAL ARE . HENCE NO
DEPLETION LAYER IS FORMED
ADDITIONALLY, THE CARRIERS ARE ALL & THERE IS NO RECOMBINATION.
HENCE, THE DIODE SWITCHES TO ON STATE AT VOLTAGES MUCH LESSER THAN THE
CONVENTIONAL pn DIODE
THERE IS ALSO NO CONDUCTION SEEN IN ve RF CYCLE (REVERSE BIAS) DUE TO NO
DEPLETION LAYER/STORED CHARGE. THIS ALLOWS FASTER OPERATION

SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS
SCHOTTKY DIODES HAVE SMALLER DUE TO ABUNDANCE OF MAJORITY CARRIERS
THIS ENSURES LESSER DROP ACROSS DIODE AND MUCH LESSER HEATING AND LOWER
DEPENDENCE ON TEMP EFFECTS
SCHOTTKY DIODES ARE USED AS RECTIFIERS @ HIGH FREQUENCIES DUE TO THEIR FAST
SWITCHING
THEY ARE ALSO USED EXTENSIVELY AS DETECTORS AND MIXERS IN THE RF DOMAIN
THERE IS A PROBLEM OF FINITE REVERSE CURRENT

SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION AS DETECTOR
AT < , CHARACTERISTICS OF FWD BIASED DIODE IS APPROX PARABOLIC
HENCE, WHERE THE MICROWAVE SIGNAL IS = ()

CONSTANT

=
= = .

SERIES EXPANSION OF THE CURRENT GIVES

= +
+

THUS DIODE dc CURRENT INDUCED IN o/p Txn LINE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO RF

OR . HENCE THE NAME SQUARE LAW DEVICE
REVERSE BIASED o/p IS ZERO & ONLY ENVELOPE OF +ve CYCLE IS DETECTED

SCHOTTKY DIODE DETECTOR

I
DETECTED ENVELOPE o/p

CONDUCTING
PORTION

ENVELOPE OF AMPLITUDE
MODULATED RF SIGNAL
DETECTED o/p
TO CRO
MODULATED RF
IN WAVEGUIDE

SHORTED END
PHYSICAL MOUNT IN
WAVEGUIDE FOR DIODE

SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PRACTICAL ASPECTS IN APPLICATION AS DETECTOR
AT > , CHARACTERISTICS OF FWD BIASED DIODE DOES NOT FOLLOW SQUARE
LAW AND IS REQUIRED TO BE APPROPRIATELY ATTENUATED
NOTE THAT THERE IS NO BIASING CIRCUIT & THE DIODE IS JUST MOUNTED IN THE
WAVEGUIDE (REMEMBER REFLEX KLYSTRON EXPERIMENT IN THE LAB)
THE DIODE IS MOUNTED ON A STRUCTURE & REST OF THE WAVEGUIDE CONTAINS
MATCHING ELEMENTS TO KEEP < .

PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXTREMELY VERSATILE DIODE USED IN MICROWAVE & FIBER OPTICS
+

PIN DIODE HAS A LARGE INTRINSIC REGION ENCLOSED WITHIN HIGHLY DOPED p & n
REGIONS
IN pn JUNCTION DIODES, CHARGE IS STORED IN THE DEPLETION REGION WHICH
RECOMBINE DURING REVERSE BIAS CONDITIONS
DURING THE RECOMBINATION (REVERSE RECOVERY TIME) THE DIODE CONDUCTS

IN pn DIODES, THE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME IS OF THE ORDER OF , BUT IN PIN DIODES,
IT IS SEVERAL MAGNITUDES MORE
REMEMBER REVERSE RECOVERY TIME FROM DIODE THEORY WHICH IS A MEASURE OF THE
TIME IT TAKES TO REVERSE THE CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN THE DEPLETION REGION
SINUSOIDS ACROSS A DIODE ALTERNATELY FORWARD & REVERSE BIAS THE DIODE CAUSING
ALTERNATE CONDUCTION & NO CONDUCTION STATES

PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXTREMELY VERSATILE DIODE USED IN MICROWAVE & FIBER OPTICS
+

AS THE FREQUENCY OF OPERATION INCREASES, THE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME BECOMES

COMPARABLE TO THE RF CYCLE & pn DIODES CONDUCT PART OF THE RF CYCLE
IN PIN DIODES DUE TO VERY LARGE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME, THE ENTIRE RF CYCLE IS
CONDUCTED DUE TO STORED CHARGES THAT HAVE NOT RECOMBINED
PIN DIODES HAVE LOUSY PERFORMANCE AS RECTIFIERS
CHARGES STORED IN THE INTRINSIC REGION DEPEND dc BIAS APPLIED TO THE DIODE

WITH LESSER BIAS, THE DIODE CAN BE MADE TO CONDUCT LESSER

THUS PIN DIODES CAN BE USED AS CURRENT CONTROLLED RESISTOR VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR
EXTENDING THE ARGUMENT, THE PIN DIODE CAN BE MADE TO CUT OFF ALSO (LARGE
INTRINSIC REGION BETWEEN THE p & n REGIONS HAVE NO CARRIERS IF dc BIAS IS LOW)
THUS PIN DIODES CAN BE USED AS AN RF SWITCH THROUGH dc BIAS CONTROL VOLTAGE

PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PIN AS AN ATTENUATOR
UNDER FORWARD BIAS, CARRIERS ARE INJECTED ACROSS JUNCTIONS TO I REGION BUT DO
NOT RECOMBINE IMMEDIATELY (LOW RECOMBINATION TIME )
THIS RESULTS IN A STORED CHARGE
=
=

COMBINING THE EQUATIONS, WE SEE THAT IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO dc BIAS

IS . @ = AND IS , @ =
THUS VARIATION OF THE BIAS OF THE DIODE FORWARD BIAS CAN CHANGE THE
RESISTANCE LEADING TO USE OF THE DIODE AS AN ATTENUATOR @ RF FREQUENCIES
IT MAY BE NOTED THAT THE DIODE RESISTANCE INCREASES WITH LOWERING OF
FREQUENCIES DUE TO RECOMBINATIONS IN THE INTRINSIC REGION. ( REDUCES IN
COMPARISON TO THE RF CYCLE)

PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : RECAP
+

THE DIODE HAS A LARGE INTRINSIC REGION WITH HIGHLY DOPED p & n REGIONS
DUE TO THE LARGE INTRINSIC REGION IT PERFORMS POORLY AS A RECTIFIER BUT THERE
ARE OTHER APPLICATIONS

LARGE DEPLETION REGIONS UNDER FORWARD BIAS STARTS CONDUCTION VERY EARLY
(COMPARED TO OTHER DIODES) & IS THUS SUITABLE FOR HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATIONS
AT LOW FREQUENCIES, DEPLETION REGION CARRIERS GET NEUTRALISED; BUT @ RF, THERE
ISNT ENOUGH TIME FOR REMOVAL OF CHARGES (BUCKET ANALOGY).
REMEMBER REVERSE RECOVERY TIME FROM DIODE THEORY. HENCE, IT CONDUCTS
DURING THE ENTIRE RF CYCLE
HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE dc BIAS & VARYING
THE dc BIAS CAN CHANGE THE RESISTANCE. HENCE, THE PIN DIODE CAN BE USED AS A
VARIABLE ATTENUATOR

PIN DIODE SWITCH

OBJECTIVE : PIN DIODE AS A SWITCH
UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITIONS, THE PIN DIODE BEHAVES LIKE A PARALLEL PLATE
CAPACITOR WITH A LOW CAPACITANCE < .
THIS PRESENTS A VERY LARGE IMPEDANCE TO RF SIGNALS AND THIS PROPERTY ALLOWS
THE PIN DIODE TO BE USED AS A SWITCH
VERY LARGE dc REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE (500V) ALLOWS LARGE RF SIGNALS
ACROSS PIN DIODES BUT THE BIAS NEEDS TO BE SUFFICIENTLY ve TO KEEP THE RF
SWITCHED OFF
dc bias

RF in

RF out

THE DIODE REMAINS IN OFF STATE OR ON DUE TO dc BIAS & ALLOW THE RF THROUGH IN
OFF STATE AND SHORT THE RF TO GROUND IN ON STATE

PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PIN DIODE AS AN TR / ATR SWITCH
dc bias
A
TXR
c

/4
RXR

B
WHEN TXR IS TRANSMITTING AND RXR IS OFF
dc BIAS MAKES A & B FORWARD BIASED
/4 (QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER) INVERSES IMPEDANCE OF POINT d @ POINT c
THUS, POINT c LOOKS LIKE OPEN
ALL TRANSMIT POWER GOES TO THE ANTENNA & NONE TO THE RXR

WHEN TXR IS OFF AND RXR IS ON

dc BIAS IS ADJUSTED TO TURN OFF A & B
POWER FROM ANTENNA SEES POINT c AS A SHORT (SINCE B IS OPEN)
POWER FLOWS TO THE RECEIVER AND NO POWER TOWARDS THE TXR

AVALANCHE EFFECT
OBJECTIVE : HISTORY
READ PROPOSED THE READ DIODE (THEORETICAL) IN 1958
CONSISTS OF n+ p i p+ SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE
DIODE OPERATED IN REVERSE BIAS CONDITION AT NEAR BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

EXCESS CARRIERS CAUSE AVALANCHE EFFECT DUE TO

IMPACT IONISATION TRIGGERED TRANSIT TIME OPERATION
TRAPPED PLASMA AVALANCHE TRIGGERED TRANSIT TIME OPERATION

IMPATT dc TO RF EFFICIENNCY 5% TO 10%

TRAPPAT dc TO RF EFFICIENCY 20% TO 60%
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION CREATED IN VI CHARACTERISTICS WHICH IS USED FOR
OSCILLATOR MODE
AMPLIFIER MODE

READ DIODE

AVALANCHE REGION

SPACE CHARGE REGION

n+

INACTIVE REGION

p+

i (or v)

E
+
+
+

DRIFT REGION (L)

DOPING
LEVELS

1020
5 x 1016

1013

0.5

READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN
DIODE IS REVERSE BIASED NEAR THE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
DIODE IS MOUNTED IN A RESONANT CAVITY
CAVITY IMPEDANCE IS MAINLY INDUCTIVE AND IS MATCHED TO THE CAPACITIVE DIODE
p REGION IS THIN COMPARED TO THE REST OF THE REGIONS. THIS IS THE HIGH FIELD OR
AVALANCHE REGION
THE i REGION IS CALLED THE DRIFT SPACE & i + p REGION IS SPACE CHARGE REGION
DURING AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN, HIGHEST FIELD OCCURS @ n+- p JUNCTION

THIS DROPS QUICKLY & REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH THE i REGION WELL BELOW THE
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
CARRIERS (HOLES) IN THE HIGH FIELD REGION HAVE ENOUGH ENERGY TO KNOCK OUT
ELECTRONS TO THE CONDUCTION BAND CREATING ELECTRON HOLE PAIRS
MOVE TO THE n+ REGION AND HOLES DRIFT TO THE p+ REGION

READ DIODE

AVALANCHE REGION

SPACE CHARGE REGION

INACTIVE REGION

RF

n+

p+

i (or v)

- +
- +

DRIFT REGION (L)

-

- +
DOPING
LEVELS

+
0 /2

3/2

EXTERNAL CURRENT

HOLE
CURRENT

/2 /2

READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN
DURING +ve RF CYCLE, WHEN + > A VERY HIGH FIELD IS CREATED @ +
JUNCTION

HIGH FIELD CREATES HOLE CURRENT WHICH INCREASES EXPONENTIALLY. THE

AVALANCHE EFFECT TAKES PLACE ONLY @ THE + JUNCTION WHERE A VERY SHARP
PULSE IS CREATED
THE FIELD DROPS QUICKLY AND REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH THE i REGION WHICH IS
WELL BELOW THE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
MOVE TO THE n+ REGION AND HOLES DRIFT TO THE p+ REGION
DURING THE NEGATIVE RF CYCLE, + < . THIS CAUSES THE AVALANCHE
EFFECT TO CEASE & THE HOLE CURRENT DECAYS EXPONENTIALLY

READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN
THE AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION PROCESS STARTS @ = & REACHES A PEAK @
= /
BEYOND / , THE CURRENT DECAYS RAPIDLY.
THE CURRENT PULSE COMMENCES @ MAX RF CYCLE & REACHES ITS PEAK @ =

THUS HOLE CURRENT IS ABOUT OUT OF PHASE WITH THE RF VOLTAGE

THIS APPEARS AS A NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION SINCE V IS REDUCING WHILE THE
CURRENT IS INCREASING

THE CARRIER CURRENT PULSE INDUCES IN THE EXTERNAL CIRCUIT

FLOWS IN THE EXTERNAL CIRCUIT IN THE TIME DRIFTS TO THE + REGION
AS SEEN FROM THE DIAGRAM LAGS BY

READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : SUMMARY
DRIFT VELOCITY IS APPROXIMATELY 107 cm/s AND FIELD IS ABOUT 5 kV/cm
AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =

THE CAVITY MUST BE TUNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE EQUATION =

= .
WHEN INCREASES, ENERGY OF OSCILLATION INCREASES FASTER THAN POWER
DELIVERED PER CYCLE AND OSCILLATOR OPERATES IN THE STABLE REGION

IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : POWER OUTPUT & EFFICIENCY
MAX VOLTAGE THAT CAN BE APPLIED ACROSS DIODE IS =
MAX CURRENT OF THE DIODE IS = = =

MAX POWER OF THE DEVICE IS = =

EFFICIENCY IS GIVEN BY =

THE ac CURRENT IS VERY SMALL @ APPROXIMATES

IMPATT DIODES HAVE AN EFFICIENCY OF 30%

MAX POWER OUTPUT VARIES AS

@ HIGHER

DUE TO AVALANCHE EFFECT IMPATT DIODES ARE NOISY ; GaAs BEING BETTER THAN Si
TRAPPATT ARE p+- n - n+ DIODES IN WHICH A PLASMA OF TRAPPED CHARGES ARE CREATED
THEY HAVE HIGHER EFFICIENCY, LOWER POWER AND LOWER FREQUENCY OF OPERATION

IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PRACTICAL ASPECTS
MOST POWERFUL OSCILLATORS IN THE MICROWAVE DOMAIN UPTO kW
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES OF THE ORDER OF 70 v REQUIRED & THIS MAY RESTRICT USAGE
TO APPLICATIONS THAT DO NOT HAVE WEIGHT / SPACE CONSTRAINTS
WHILE POWER IS HIGH, THERE IS A LOT OF PHASE NOISE AND IS LIKELY TO BE USED ONLY
IN TRANSMITTER SECTIONS RATHER THAN AS AN LO IN THE RECEIVER

TUNING RANGE IS MUCH LESSER THAN GUNN DIODES

GaAs IMPATTS PERFORM BETTER THAN Si @ < 40 GHz
IMPATTs HAVE BE ENGINEERED TO HAVE < %. READ DIODE PREDIDCTED 10%
MAY BE USED AS PUMP SOURCE IN PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS PROVIDED NOISE IS
CONTROLLED

IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : RECAP
BASED ON THREORETICAL READ DIODE
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN OCCURS VERY NEAR THE p REGION
ELECTRIC FIELD AT p-n JUNCTION IS VERY HIGH AND CAUSES ACCELERATION OF CARRIERS
ACCELERATED CARRIERS COLLIDE WITH LATTICE STRUCTURE FREEING UP MORE CARRIERS
AND THE PROCESS CONTINUES EXPONENTIALLY AS LONG AS REVERSE BIAS IS ABOVE VB
dc BIAS IS VERY CLOSE TO VB & RF NOISE IN THE FREQUENCY OF INTEREST TAKES THE
DIODE ABOVE VB OR BELOW
THIS CAUSES CURRENT PULSES TO BE LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 180
DUE TO _ve RESISTANCE REGION, THE IMPATT MOUNTED IN A CAVITY CAN BE USED AS
AN OSCILLATOR (WITH TUNING OF CAVITY REACTANCE AT ZERO)
INPUT RF CAN ALSO BE AMPLIFIED USING AN IMPATT DIODE