Phys.303-Classical Mechanics Ii - Lectur PDF

Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)
x
y
z
P( x, y, z)
z
y
x
y
x
Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z)

z
az
ax
Az az
ay
Ax ax
Ay a y
ax , a y , and az are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-directions
A ( Ax , Ay , Az ) or
A Ax ax Ay a y Az az
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (,

, z)
0
0 2
z
A ( A , A , Az ) or
A A a A a Az az
Relationships between Cartesian and

Cylindrical Systems
x2 y2 ,
tan
y
1 y
or (tan
) ,
x
x
zz
x cos ,
y sin , z z
Relationships between Cartesian

and Cylindrical Systems
ax cos a sin a
a y sin a cos a

az az
a cos ax sin a y
a sin ax cos a y

az az
ay
ax
Spherical Coordinates (r, , )

0r
0
0 2
A ( Ar , A , A ) or
A Ar ar A a A a
Relationships between Cylindrical

and Spherical Systems
r 2 z2
tan

r sin

z r cos
Relationships between Cylindrical

a sin
a a
az cos
ar
ar cos a
ar sin a
ar sin a cos
a cos a sin
a a
az
az
az

r x2 y 2 z 2
2
2
x
y
tan 1
z
1 y
tan
or tan 1
x
x r sin cos
y r sin sin
z r cos

ay
ax sin cos ar cos cos a sin a
a y sin sin ar cos sin a cos a
az cos ar sin a
az
ar sin cos ax sin sin a y cos az
a cos cos ax cos sin a y sin az
a sin ax cos a y
ax
ar
Differential length and volume

Cartesian coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates
dl dx ax dy a y dz az
dl d a d a dz az
dv dx dy dz
dv d d dz
Differential length and volume

Spherical coordinates
dl dr ar r d a r sin d a
dv r 2 sin dr d d
Exercise 1-1
Given point P(-2, 6, 3) and vector
A y ax x z a y
a) Express P and A in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

b) Evaluate A at P in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical systems.
Chapter 2
Some Methods in the

Calculus of Variations
1- Statement of the problem

The basic problem of the calculus of variations is to determine
the function y(x) such that the integral J is an extremum
x2
f y( x), y( x), xdx
x1
The functional J depends on the function y(x).

The limits of integration are fixed.
The function y(x) is to be varied until an extreme value of J is found.
Y , x yx x
Y(0, x) = y(x) is the function that yields an extremum for J

(x) has a continuous first derivative and
( x1 ) ( x2 ) 0
1- Statement of the problem (Cont.)

If functions of the type Y(,x)
are considered, the integral J
becomes a functional of the
parameter
J ( )
x2
f Y ( , x),Y ( , x), xdx

x1
The condition that the integral has a stationary value

(i.e., that an extremum result) for all functions (x) is:
dJ
0
d 0
This is only a necessary condition; it is not sufficient.
2- Eulers Equation
J ( )
x2
f Y ( , x),Y ( , x), xdx
x1
Y
Y
dY
d
dx ,
x

df
2
dJ
df
dx
d x1 d
Y
Y
dY
d
dx
x

f Y
Y f Y
Y f
d
dx
d
dx dx
Y
x Y
x x
df
f Y f Y
d Y Y
Y , x yx x
Y
Y d
x ;
dx
2
dJ
f d
f
x
dx
d x1 Y
Y dx
df
f
f
f
dY
dY dx
Y
Y
x
2- Eulers Equation (cont.)

2
dJ
f d
f
x
dx
d x1 Y
Y dx
f d
x Y dx dx
1
x2
can be integrated by part
f
d f
u
,
Y
dx Y
u vdx u v uv dx
2
2
f d
d f
f
dx
x dx
x Y dx
dx Y
x1
x1
1
x2
x
Y
0 because x1 x2 0
x1
x2
d
dx
2- Eulers Equation (cont.)

2
f
dJ
d f
x
x dx
d x1 Y
dx Y
dJ
0
d 0
f
d f
x Y dx Y x dx
1
x2
f
d f
x y dx y x dx 0
1
x2
Because (x) is an arbitrary function (subject to the conditions

already stated), then
f
d f
0

y dx y
Eulers equation
3- The Second Form of the Euler

Equation
A second equation may be derived from Eulers equation that is
convenient for functions that do not explicitly depend on x: ( f/ x) = 0
f
f
f
df df y, y , x dy
dy dx
y
y
x
df f dy f dy f dx
f
f f
y y
dx y dx y dx x dx
y
y x
y
f
df
f f
y dx
y x
d f
f
d f
Also
y y
y
dx y
y
dx y
3- The Second Form of the Euler Equation (Cont.)

d f df
f f
d f
y
dx y dx
y x
dx y
d f f
d f df f
y

y
dx y dx x
dx y y
d f f
0 in view of the Euler equation. Therefore,
dx y y
d f df f
y
0
dx y dx x
f
f y
constant
y
f
d
f
0
f y
x dx
y
0
for
x
4- Functions with Several

Dependent Variables
The Euler equation derived in the preceding section is the solution
of the variational problem in which it was desired to find the single
function y(x) such that the integral of the functional f was an
extremum. The case more commonly encountered in mechanics is
that in which f is a functional of several dependent variables:
f f y1 ( x), y1( x), y2 ( x), y2 ( x),..., x
Or simply f f yi ( x), yi( x), x;
Yi , x yi x i x
The development proceeds
analogously as in section 2,
resulting in
dJ
i 1, 2,..., n
f
d f
x i yi dx yi i x dx
1
x2
4- Functions with Several Dependent Variables (Cont.)
dJ
0
d 0
f
d f
x i yi dx yi i xdx 0
1
x2
f
d f
0

yi dx yi
i 1, 2, ..., n
5- Eulers Equations when

Auxiliary Conditions are
Imposed
Consider the case in which f f yi , yi , x , and the auxiliary equation
or equation that is also called equation of constraint g yi , x 0
Example: f f y , y, z , z, x and g y , z , x 0
g
g
g
dg
dY
dZ
dx 0
Y
Z
x
g Y
Y g Z
Z g
dg
d
dx
d
dx
dx 0
Y
x Z
x x
g Y g Z
g Y g Z g
dg
dx 0
Y Z
Y x Z x x
5- Eulers Equations when Auxiliary Conditions are Imposed

(Cont.)
g Y g Z
g Y g Z g
dg
d
dx 0
Y Z
Y x Z x x
g Y g Z
0
Y Z
Y , x yx 1 x
Y
1 x
Z , x z x 2 x
Z
2 x
g Y g Z g
g
1 x 2 x 0
Y Z Y
Z
2 x
g Y
1 x
g Z

(Cont.)
f
dJ
d f Y f
d f Z

dx
d x1 Y dx Y Z dx Z
x2
From section 4:
2
f
dJ
d f
d f
f

1 x
2 x dx
d x1 Y dx Y
Z dx Z
f
dJ
d f f
d f 2 x
1 x dx

d x1 Y dx Y Z dx Z 1 x
x2
f
dJ
d f f
d f g Y
1 x dx

d x1 Y dx Y Z dx Z g Z
x2
f
dJ
d f f
d f g y
1 x dx 0

0

d 0
y dx y z dx z g z
x1
x2

(Cont.)
f
d f f
d f g y
0

y dx y z dx z g z
f
d f f
d f g y

y dx y z dx z g z
1
f d f g
f d f g

z dx z z
y dx y y
The left-hand side of this equation involves only derivatives of f and g

with respect to y and y , and the right-hand sides involves only
derivatives with respect to z and z . Because y and z are both functions
of x, the two sides of the above equation may be set equal to a function
of x, which we write as : -(x).

(Cont.)
1
f d f g
f d f g

x
z dx z z
y dx y y
f
d f
g

x
y
y dx y
d f
g
f

x
z
z dx z
For the general case of n dependent variables, yi, and k constraints,
gk(yi, x):
f
d f
g k
k x
0
yi dx yi k
yi
g k yi , x 0 k 1, 2, ..., m and i 1, 2, ..., n
6- Variational Notation
The symbol was used in the early days of the development of the
calculus of variations to indicate what we have called differentiation
with respect to the parameter . It is just like the symbol d in a
differential except that it warns you that and not x is the
differentiation variable.
dJ
dJ
J
d and J 0
d
d
d 0
f ( Y ,Y , x ) dx
x1
Y , x yx x
x2
J f ( Y ,Y , x ) dx
x1
Y , x yx x
x2
J f ( Y ,Y , x ) dx
x1
6- Variational Notation (Cont.)
f Y ,Y , x ??
f
f
f
df
dY
dY dx
Y
Y
x
Y
Y
dY
d
dx ,
x

Y
Y
dY
d
dx
x

f Y
Y f Y
Y f
df
d
dx
d
dx dx
Y
x Y
x x
df
f Y
Y dx
Y dx
f Y
f dx
d
d
d
Y
x d
x d
Y
x d
df
f Y
f Y
d f
d
d
d
Y
Y
dY
Y
Y
d
d ,
d
dY
Y
Y
d
d
d
f
f
f
Y
Y
Y
Y
dY d
Y Y
dx dx
f d
f
Y dx
J Y
Y
Y dx
x1
x2
f d
Y
x Y dx dx
1
x2
Integrate by parts
f
d f
u
u
,
Y
dx Y
uvdx uv uvdx
v Y
x2
d
Y
dx
d f
f d
Y
dx
x Y dx Y x x dx Y Y dx
1
1
1
x2
x2

x2
x
d
1
2
Y
x1
d f
f d
Y
dx
x Y dx
x dx Y Y dx
1
1
x2
x2
f
d f
J

Y dx
Y dx Y
x1
x2
f
d f
y dx
J 0
y dx y
x1
dY
y Y 0 d x d
d 0
x2
J 0
x2 f
d f
x dx d

x1 y dx y
J 0 0
f
d f
0 Euler equation

y dx y
Chapter 3
Hamiltons Principle
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
Dynamics
Dr. Abdelaziz Sabik
Physics Department College of Sciences
Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
1- Introduction
A particles motion in an inertial reference frame is correctly
described by the Newtonian second law equation:
F ma
where F is the total force acting on the body.
In particular complicated problems, this equation can become
difficult to manipulate.
An alternate method of dealing with complicated problems is
contained in Hamiltons Principle, and the equations of motion
resulting from the application of this principle are called
Lagranges equations.
2- Hamiltons Principle
Of all the possible paths along which a dynamical system may move
from one point to another within a specified time interval, the
actual path followed is that which minimizes the time integral of
the difference between the kinetic and potential energies.
In terms of the calculus of variations, x(t )
Hamiltons Principle becomes
Path
t2
T U dt 0 (1)
t1
t2
i.e. T U dt must be an extremum

t1
t1
t2
In fixed rectangular coordinates (x1,x2,x3), the kinetic energy, T, of a
particle is a function of xi :
T T xi
and if the particle moves in a conservative force field, the potential
energy is function of xi:
U U xi
We define the difference of these quantities to be
L T U Lxi , xi (2)
Equation (1) becomes
t2
where L is Lagrange function or

Lagrangian for the particle.
Lxi , xi dt 0 (3)
t1
The function L may be identified with the function f of the variational
x2
integral (see Chapter 2)
f yi ( x), yi( x), xdx
x1
If we make the transformations:
x t
yi x xi t
yix xi t
f yi x , yix , x Lxi , xi
The Eulers equations (Chapter 2) corresponding to Equation (3):
L d L
0,
xi dt xi
These are the Lagrange

i 1, 2, 3 (4)
equations of motion for the
particle.
Example 1: Plane Pendulum
Problem: Obtain the Lagrange equations of motion for the plane
pendulum of mass m.
Solution: Write the expressions of T
and U to determine L.
dl bd a
dl
v
b
a b a
dt
dt
v 2 b2 2
b
1 2 1 2 2
T mv mb
2
2
U mgy mg (b b cos )
U 0
b cos
dl
1 2 2
mb mgb(1 cos )
2
Calculate derivatives of L by treating as if it were a rectangular
coordinate:
L
d L
L
2
2
mb
mb
mgb sin
dt
L d L
0 leads to:
Applying Lagrange equation
dt
mgb sin mb2 0
L T U
sin 0
b
Problem: Do we obtain the same equation if we use Newtonian
y
mechanics?
Solution: Applying Newtons second law:
T mg ma
a
T cos a y T sin ax mg a y mx ax y a y
(1)
T sin m x
b
T cos mg m y (2)
y
x b sin
x b cos
y b cos
y b sin
x bcos b sin
2
y bsin b cos
2
mg
(1) T sin mbcos mb2 sin
cos
2
T mb mb
(3)
sin
2
cos
(2) & (3) mb cos mb

mg mbsin mb 2 cos
sin
2
cos
mb
mg mbsin
sin
mbcos2 mg sin mbsin2 0
g
sin 0 which is identical with the equation of motion

b
obtained using Lagrangian mechanics.
Remarks regarding Example 1 (Lagrangian mechanics)
1- Example 1 has been solved by calculating the kinetic and
potential energies in terms of rather than x and then applying a set of
operations designed for use with rectangular rather than angular
coordinates.
2- No-where in calculations did there any statement regarding force.
3- Hamiltons Principle allows us to calculate the equations of motion
of a body completely without recourse to Newtonian theory.
3- Generalized Coordinates
Consider mechanical systems consisting of a collection of n
discrete point particles.
We need n position vectors, i.e. 3n quantities must be specified
to describe the positions of all the particles.
If there are m constraint equations that limit the motion of particle
by for instance relating some of coordinates, then the number of
independent coordinates is limited to 3n-m.
One then describes the system as having s = 3n-m degrees of
freedom.
If s=3n-m coordinates are required to describe a system, it is NOT
necessary these s coordinates be rectangular or curvilinear coordinates.
One can choose any combination of independent coordinates as long
as they completely specify the system.
These coordinates need not even have the dimension of length

(e.g. in our previous example).
We use the term generalized coordinates to describe any set of
coordinates that completely specify the state of a system.
Generalized coordinates will be noted: q1, q2, , or simply as the qj.
In some cases, it may be useful to use generalized coordinates
whose number exceeds the number of degrees of freedom, and
to explicitly take into account the constraint relations through the
use of the Lagrange Undetermined multipliers. Such would be the
case, for example, if we desired to calculate the forces of constraint.
The choice of a set of generalized coordinates is obviously not

unique. We choose the set that gives the simplest equations of
motion.
In addition to the generalized coordinates, we may define a set of
quantities consisting of the time derivatives of q j : q1 , q2 , ..., or
simply q j . We call q j generalized velocities.
Transformations from Cartesian coordinates to generalized coordinates
x ,i x ,i q1 , q2 ,..., qs , t x ,i q j , t
1, 2,..., n (n discrete point particles)
i 1, 2, 3 (Cartesian components)
j 1, 2,..., s
x ,i x ,i q j , q j , t
Transformations from generalized coordinates to Cartesian coordinates
q j q j x ,i , t ,
q j q j x ,i , x ,i , t
There are m = 3n-s equations of constraint of the form
g k x ,i , t 0, k 1, 2,..., m
4- Lagranges Equations of Motion in

Generalized Coordinates
L T x ,i U x ,i
L T q j , q j , t U q j , t
L Lq1 , q2 , ..., qs ; q1 , q2 , ..., q s ; t Lq j , q j , t

t2
Hamiltons Principle becomes: Lq j , q j , t dt 0

t1
We get Lagranges equations as
L d L
0,
q j dt q j
j 1, 2, ..., s 3n m
4- Lagranges Equations of Motion

in Generalized Coordinates
The conditions of validity of Lagranges equations:
1-The forces acting on the system (apart from any forces of
constraint) must be derivable from a potential (or several potentials).
2-The equations of constraint must be relations that connect the
coordinates of the particles and may be functions of the time. That is,
we must have constraint relations of the form
g k q j , t 0, k 1, 2,..., m

Generalized Coordinates Example 2
Example 2: The double pendulum
Problem: Consider the case of
two particles of mass m1 and m2
each attached at the end of a
massless rod of length b1 and b2,
respectively. The second rod is
also attached to the first particle.
Derive the equations of motion
for the two particles by using
Lagrangian mechanics.
y
x1
x2
y1
y2
b1
m1
2 b2
m2

Solution: We choose 1 and 2 as the generalized
coordinates.
Starting with Cartesian coordinates:
x1 b1 sin1
x b cos
1
y1 b1 cos1
1 1
y2
x2 b11 cos1 b22 cos 2

y b sin b sin
1
x2
y1
y2 b1 cos1 b2 cos 2
1 1
x1
b1
y1 b11 sin1
x2 b1 sin1 b2 sin 2
2 2
m1
2 b2
m2

We write an expression for the kinetic and potential energies for the
system:
1
T m1 x12 y12 m2 x22 y 22
2
U m1 gy1 m2 gy2 (we take U 0 at y 0)
1
1
1
2 2
2
2 2
2
T m1b1 1 cos 1 m1b1 1 sin 1 m2b1212 cos2 1
2
2
2
1
1
2 2
2
m2b1b21 2 cos1 cos 2 m2b2 2 cos 2 m2b1212 sin 2 1

2
2
1
m2b1b21 2 sin 1 sin 2 m2b2222 sin 2 2

2

1
1
2 2
T m1b1 1 m2b1212 m2b1b212 cos1 cos 2
2
2
1
m2b2222 m2b1b212 sin 1 sin 2
2
1
1
1
2 2
2 2
T m1b1 1 m2b1 1 m2b2222 m2b1b212 cos1 2
2
2
2
U m1 gb1 cos1 m2 gb1 cos1 m2 gb2 cos 2
U (m1 m2 ) gb1 cos1 m2 gb2 cos 2
L T U
1
1
1
2 2
2 2
L m1b1 1 m2b1 1 m2b2222 m2b1b212 cos1 2
2
2
2
(m1 m2 ) gb1 cos1 m2 gb2 cos 2

L
1
1
1
m1b1212 m2b1212 m2b2222 m2b1b212 cos1 2
2
2
2
L
m2b1b212 sin1 2 m1 m2 gb1 sin1
1
L
2
2
cos
m
b
m
b
m
b
b
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
d L
m1 m2 b121 m2b1b2 2 cos1 2 2 1 2 sin1 2

dt 1

We obtain from Lagranges equation with respect to 1:
m2b1b212 sin1 2 m1 m2 gb1 sin1 m1 m2 b121
m b b cos sin 2 sin 0
2 1 2
1 2
m1 m2 gb1 sin 1 m1 m2 b121

m b b cos 2 sin
2 1 2
Or
g
m2 b2
1 sin1
2 cos1 2 22 sin1 2 0
b1
m1 m2 b1

We have:
1
1
1
2 2
2 2
L m1b1 1 m2b1 1 m2b2222 m2b1b212 cos1 2
2
2
2
L
m2b1b212 sin1 2 m2 gb2 sin 2
2
L
2
cos
m
b
m
b
b
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
d L
m2b222 m2b1b2 1 cos1 2 1 1 2 sin1 2

dt 2

We obtain from Lagranges equation with respect to 2:
m2b1b212 sin1 2 m2 gb2 sin 2 m2b222
m2b1b2 1 cos1 2 1 1 2 sin1 2 0
m2 gb2 sin2 m2b222 m2b1b2 1 cos1 2 12 sin1 2 0

Or
g
b1
2 sin 2 1 cos1 2 12 sin1 2 0

b2
b2

z
Problem:
A particle of mass m is constrained to
move on the inside surface of a smooth
cone of half-angle . The particle is
subject to a gravitational force.
a) Determine a set of generalized

coordinates and determine the constraints.
b) Find Lagranges equations of motion

Solution: Since the problem possesses cylindrical symmetry, we
choose , , and z as the generalized coordinates.
m
The equation of constraint: z cot
So there are only two degrees of freedom for the
z
system. We choose , and as independent
generalized coordinates.
dl d a d a dz az
dl d a d a d cot az
dl d

d d
a
a
cot az v a a cot a z
dt dt
dt
dt
v2 2 22 2 cot2

v2 2 22 2 cot2
The kinetic energy is
T
1 2
mv
2
1
1
1
m 2 m 22 m 2 cot2
2
2
2
The potential energy (if we choose U = 0 at z = 0) is
U mgz mg cot
so the Lagrangian is
L T U
1
1
1
2
2 2
L m m m 2 cot2 mg cot
2
2
2

1
1
1
m 2 m 22 m 2 cot2 mg cot
2
2
2
L d L
The Lagrange equation for is
0
dt
L
L
m2 mg cot
L
m m cot2
d L
m m cot 2 m 1 cot2
dt
d L
m

2
dt sin
L d L
cos
m
2
0 m mg
2 0
dt
sin sin
sin 2
Multiplying each term of the latest equation by
, we find
m

2 sin2 g sin cos 0
which is the equation of motion for the coordinate .
The Lagrange equation for is L d L 0

dt
L
L
L
L
2
0,
Since
0
,
then
is constant
m 2 constant (the angular momentum about the z - axis)

y
Problem:
The point of support of a simple pendulum
of length b moves on a massless rim of
radius a rotating with constant angular
velocity .
y2
a) Obtain the expression for the Cartesian
Components of the velocity and acceleration
of the mass m.
b) Obtain the angular acceleration for the angle .
x1
y1
x2
a
t
x
x
b
Solution: The Cartesian components, x and y, of mass m are

x1 a cos( t ), and x2 b sin
x x1 x2 a cos( t ) b sin
y1 a sin( t ), and y2 b cos
y y1 y2 a sin( t ) b cos

x a cos( t ) b sin , and y a sin( t ) b cos
dx
The velocities are
x a sin( t ) b cos
dt
dy
y a cos( t ) b sin
dt
Taking the time derivative once again gives the acceleration:
x a 2 cos( t ) b(cos 2 sin )
y a 2 sin( t ) b(sin 2 cos )
b) The infinitesimal displacement of m in Cartesian coordinates is
dl dx ax dy a y
The velocity of m: dl dx dy
v
ax a y x ax y a y
dt dt
dt

1 2
1
The kinetic energy is T mv T m x 2 y 2
2
2
x 2 [a sin( t ) b cos ]2
x 2 a2 2 sin2 ( t ) 2ab sin( t ) cos b22 cos2

y 2 [a cos( t ) b sin ]2
y 2 a2 2 cos2 ( t ) 2ab cos( t ) sin b22 sin2
1 2 2 2
1 2 2
T ma sin ( t ) mab sin( t ) cos mb cos2

2
2
1 2 2
1 2 2 2
2
ma cos ( t ) mab cos( t ) sin mb sin

2
2

1 2 2
T ma [sin 2 ( t ) cos2 ( t )]
2
1 2 2
mab [cos( t ) sin sin( t ) cos ] mb [cos2 sin 2 ]

2
1
1
T ma 2 2 mab[cos( t ) sin sin( t ) cos ] mb 2 2
2
2
1
1
T ma 2 2 mab sin( t ) mb 2 2
2
2
The potential energy is U mgy (where U 0 at y 0)
U mga sin( t ) mgb cos

The Lagrangian is
1
1
2 2
L T U ma mab sin( t ) mb 2 2
2
2
mga sin( t ) mgb cos
L d L
0
dt
L
mab cos( t ) mgb sin
L
2
mab
sin(
t
)
mb
d L
2
mab ( ) cos( t ) mb
dt

mab cos( t ) mgb sin
mab ( ) cos( t ) mb 2 0
mab cos( t ) mgb sin mab cos( t )
mab 2 cos( t ) mb 2 0
mgb sin mab 2 cos( t ) mb2 0

1
(mgb sin mab cos( t ) mb 0)

2
mb
g
a
sin 2 cos( t ) 0
b
b
g
a 2
sin cos( t )
b
b
2
Lagranges Equations of Motion in

y
Problem
A simple pendulum of length b and bob
with mass m is attached to a massless
support moving vertically upward with

g
y1
constant acceleration a.
Determine the equations of motion.

U 0
b
Solution:
We choose a fixed Cartesian coordinate system
with y = 0 and = 0 at t = 0. The position and
y
velocity of m become:
1 2
1 2
( where y1 at )
y b cos at
x b sin
2
2
x b cos
y b sin at
x
x

The infinitesimal displacement

of m is dl dx ax dy a y
dl dx dy
ax a y x ax y a y
The velocity of m is v
dt dt
dt
1 2 1
The kinetic energy is T mv m x 2 y 2
2
2
1
T m b 2 2 cos2 (b sin at ) 2
2
1
T m b 2 2 cos2 b 2 2 sin 2 2ab t sin a 2t 2
2
1
T m b 2 2 (cos2 sin 2 ) 2ab t sin a 2t 2
2
1 2 2
1 22
T mb mab t sin ma t
2
2

The potential energy is U mgy (where U 0 at y 0)
1
U mgb cos mgat 2
2
The Lagrangian is L T U
1 2 2
1 22
1
L mb mab t sin ma t mgb cos mgat 2

2
2
2
L d L
0
dt
L
L
2
mab t cos mgb sin
mb
mab t sin
d L
2
mb mab sin mabt cos
dt

mab t cos mgb sin mb2 mab sin mabt cos 0
mgb sin mb2 mab sin 0
(mgb sin mb mab sin 0)
2
g
a
sin sin 0
b
b
1
mb 2
5- Lagranges Equations with Undetermined

Multipliers
Chapter 2 Section 5
For the general case of n dependent variables, yi, and k constraints,
gk(yi, x):
f
d f
g k
k x
0
yi dx yi k
yi
g k yi , x 0 k 1, 2, ..., m and i 1, 2, ..., n

f L
yi q j
Transformations:
x t
yi q j
k ( x) k (t )
g k ( yi , x) g k (q j , t )

Multipliers
We can rewrite the Lagrange equations as
g k
L d L
k t
0
q j dt q j k
q j
the undetermined multipliers, k t , are closely related to the
Forces of constraint.
g k
generalized forces of constraint
Q j k
q j
k

Multipliers Example 6
y
Problem:
A particle of mass m starts at rest on
top of a smooth fixed hemisphere of
radius a. Find the force of constraint,
and determine the angle at which the
particle leaves the henisphere.
y
a
U 0
r
x
Solution:
We choose the generalized coordinates to be r and . The constraint
equation is
g1 (r , , t ) r a 0
The infinitesimal displacement of m : dl dr ar rd a
dl dr
d
The velocity of m : v
ar r
a r ar r a
dt dt
dt

v r ar r a
v 2 r 2 r 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 2 2
The kinetic energy is T mv T mr mr
2
2
2
The potential energy is U mgy U mg rcos
where U = 0 at y = 0
1
1
The Lagrangian is L T U mr 2 mr 2 2 mgr cos
2
2
The Lagrange equation with undetermined multipliers for r is
L d L m
g k
k
0
r dt r k 1
r
L d L
g1
1
0
r dt r
r

L
mr 2 mg cos
r
L
mr
r
d L
mr
dt r
g1
1
r
L d L
g1
1
0 mr 2 mg cos mr 1 0 (1)
r dt r
r
The Lagrange equation with undetermined multipliers for
L d L m
g k
L d L
g1
k
0
1
dt k 1
dt
1 2 1 2 2
g1 (r , , t ) r a
L mr mr mgr cos
2
2
L
d L
L
2
mgr sin
mr 2
2
mr
r
mr
dt
is
0
g1
0

mgr sin 2mrr mr 2 1 0 0
mgr sin 2mrr mr 2 0 (2)
Next, we apply the constraint to equations of motion (Eq. (1) & (2)):
r is constant (r a) r r 0
Then these equations of motion become
ma2 mg cos 1 0 1 ma2 mg cos
(3)
mga sin ma 0 sin (4)

a
To find the force of constraint 1 , we must determine 2. For this,
we integrate Equation (4).
2

d g
g
d
g
sin ,
sin ,
sin ,
d
dt a
dt a
a
g
d
sin
d a
d sin d
a
d a sin d
1 2
g
cos( ) constant at t 0, 0, and 0
2
a
g
g
1 2
g
g
0 constant constant
cos
a
a
2
a
a
2g
2g
2
1 ma2 mg cos
cos
a
a

2g
2g
cos
mg cos
a
a
1 2mg cos 2mg mg cos
1 3mg cos 2mg
1 ma
1 mg (3 cos 2)
Which is the force of constraint. The particle falls off the hemisphere
at angle 0 when 1 = 0.
1 0 3cos0 2 0
cos 0
2
2
0 cos1 48,2
3
3
6- A Theorem Concerning the Kinetic Energy

If we consider the fixed rectangular coordinates, the kinetic energy
of one particle will be expressed as:
1 3
T mxi2
2 i 1
We now wish to consider in more detail the dependence of T on
the generalized coordinates and velocities.
xi xi q j , t ,
j 1, 2, ..., s
s
dxi
xi dq j xi dt
dt
t dt
j 1 q j dt
xi
xi
dxi
dq j
dt
t
j 1 q j
s
xi
xi
xi
q j
t
j 1 q j
s

xi2 . For this lets take, for
The following step is to find

example, s = 2.
2
xi
xi
xi
xi
xi
xi
q1
q2
xi
q j
q1
q2
t
t
j 1 q j
xi
xi
xi xi
xi
xi

x
q1
q2
q1
q2
q2
t q1
q2
t
q1
2
i
xi xi xi xi xi xi
x
q1
q1
q1
q2
q1
q1 q1 q1 q2 q1 t
xi xi xi xi xi xi
q2
q1
q2
q2
q2
q2 q1 q2 q2 q2 t
2
i
xi xi xi xi xi xi
q1
q2
t q1 t q2 t t

xi xi xi xi xi xi
x
q1
q1
q1
q2
q1
q1 q1 q1 q2 q1 t
xi xi xi xi xi xi
q2
q1
q2
q2
q2
q2 q1 q2 q2 q2 t
2
i
xi xi xi xi xi xi
q1
q2
t q1 t q2 t t
xi xi
xi xi
xi xi
2
xi
q1q1
q1q2
q1
q1 q1
q1 q2
q1 t
xi xi
xi xi
xi xi
q2 q1
q2 q2
q2
q2 q1
q2 q2
q2 t
xi xi xi xi xi
q1
q2
q1 t q2 t t

xi xi
xi xi
xi xi
x
q1q1
q1q2
q1
q1 q1
q1 q2
q1 t
xi xi
xi xi
xi xi
q2 q1
q2 q2
q2
q2 q1
q2 q2
q2 t
2
i
xi xi xi xi xi
q1
q2
q1 t q2 t t
2
xi xi
xi xi
xi
2
xi
q j qk 2
q j
t
j 1 k 1 q j qk
j 1 q j t
2
Therefore, in general:
xi xi
x x
x
q j qk 2 i i q j i
t
j 1 k 1 q j qk
j 1 q j t
s
xi2

xi xi
x x
x
q j qk 2 i i q j i
t
j 1 k 1 q j qk
j 1 q j t
s
xi2
1 xi xi
xi xi
1 xi
T m
q j qk m
q j m
q j qk
q j t
t
j 1 k 1 i 1 2
j 1 i 1
i 1 2
s
T a jk q j qk b j q j c
j 1 k 1
j 1
1 xi xi
xi xi
1 xi
a
m
,
b
m
,
c
where jk
j
q j qk
q j t
i 1 2
i 1
i 1 2 t
3
A particularly important case occurs when the system is scleronomic,

so that the time does not appear explicitly in the equations of
transformation; then the partial time derivatives vanish:
xi
0,
b j 0,
c0
t

Under these conditions, the kinetic energy becomes
s
T a jk q j qk
j 1 k 1
Now, we want to determine an expression for ql q

l 1
l
s
Lets take s = 2, so: T a11q1q1 a12 q1q 2 a21q2 q1 a22 q2 q 2

T
T
a12 q1 a21q1 2a22 q2
a21q1 a22 q2 a12 q1 a22 q2
q2
q2
s
s
2
2
T
T
In general,
alk qk a jl q j
a2 k qk a j 2 q j
ql k 1
q2 k 1
j 1
j 1
T
T
q1
q 2
q1 a11q1 a12 q 2 a11q1 a21q 2
q1
q 2
q 2 a21q1 a22 q 2 a12 q1 a22 q 2

q1
T
T
q2
q1 a11q1 a12 q2 a11q1 a21q2
q1
q2
q2 a21q1 a22 q2 a12 q1 a22 q2
T
T
q1
q2
a11q1q1 a12 q1q2 a11q1q1 a21q2 q1
q1
q2
a21q2 q1 a22 q2 q2 a12 q1q2 a22 q2 q2
T
T
q1
q2
2a11q1q1 2a12 q1q2 2a21q2 q1 2a22 q2 q2
q1
q2
2
2 2
T
ql
2 a jk q j qk
ql
l 1
j 1 k 1
s
s
T
ql
2 a jk q j qk 2T
ql
l 1
j 1 k 1
s
7- Conservation of Energy
L Lq j , q j , t , then the total derivative of the lagrangian becomes
s
L
L
L
dL
dq j
dq j
dt
j
t
j 1 q j
j 1 q
s
dL
L dq j
L dq j L dt
j dt t dt
dt
j q j dt
j q
dL
L
L
L
qj
qj
j
dt
t
j q j
j q
But Lagranges equations are:
L d L
q j dt q j
dL
d L
L d
L
q j
q j
dt
dt q j j q j dt
t
j
dL
d L
q j
dt
dt q j
j
dL s d L
q j
dt j 1 dt q j
L d q j L
j q dt
t
j
dL
d L L
t or
q j
q t
dt
j dt
j
s
d
L L
L q j
dt
q j t
j 1
We introduce a new function H, the quantity in the parentheses,
called the Hamiltonian of the system:
s
H L q j
j 1
L
q j
so that
dH L
dt
t
L
0)
If the Lagrangian is explicitly independent on time (i.e.
t
then the total time derivative of H is zero and H becomes a constant.
s
L
dH
L
If
0, then
0 H L q j
constant
t
dt
q j
j 1
If the potential energy U does not depend explicitly on the velocities:
U U xi
If we exclude the possibility of an explicit time dependence in the

transformation equations:
xi xi (q j )
U
0
Therefore: U U (q j )
q j
L T U T
q j
q j
q j
T U q j
j
T U E H
L q j
j
T
H
q j
L
H
q j
T U 2T H
where E is the total energy
The Hamiltonian H is equal to the total energy E only if the
following conditions are met:
1-The equations of the transformation connecting the rectangular
and generalized coordinates must independent of the time (the
system is scleronomic.)
2-The potential energy must be velocity independent.
8- Canonical Equations of Motion

Hamiltonian Dynamics
If the potential energy of a system is velocity independent, then the
linear momentum components in rectangular coordinates are given by
T L
pi
xi xi
By analogy, we extend this result to the case in which the
Lagrangian is expressed in generalized coordinates and define the
generalized momenta according to
pj
L
q j

L d L
Lagranges equations are

q j dt q j
L d
pj
q j dt
L
The Lagrange equations of motion are then expressed by p j
q j
We have:
L q j
j
L
L
H , and
pj
q j
q j
Consequently, the Hamiltonian becomes: H p j q j L

L
We may solve Equation p j
for the generalized velocities, q j ,
q j
and express them as
q j q j (qk , pk , t )

Thus, in equation H p j q j L , we may make a change of
variables from the (q j , q j , t ) set to the (q j , p j , t ) set and express
the Hamiltonian as
H qk , pk , t pk q k Lqk , q k , t
k
H H qk , pk , t ,
L Lqk , qk , t
The total differential of H is therefore

H
H
H
dH
dqk
dpk
dt
pk
k qk
t

According to equation
H qk , pk , t pk q k Lqk , q k , t
k
we can also write
L
L
L
dH qk dpk pk dqk
dqk
dqk
dt
qk
qk
k
t
L
dH qk dpk pk dqk p k dqk pk dqk dt
t
k

We have:
H
qk
pk
p k
H
qk
L H
t
t
H
H
H
dH
dqk
dpk
dt
pk
k qk
t
L
dH qk dpk p k dqk dt
t
k
Hamiltons equations of motion

or
Canonical equations of motion
The description of motion by these equations is termed
Hamiltonian dynamics

We have
H
H
H
H
H
dH
dqk
dpk
dt, q k
and p k
pk
pk
qk
k qk
t
then
H
dH ( p k dqk qk dpk )
dt
t
k
dH
dqk dpk H dt
pk
qk
dt
dt
dt t dt
k
dH
H
p k qk qk p k
dt
t
k
dH H
dt
t

1- If H does not explicitly contain the time ( H t 0 ), then the
Hamiltonian is a conserved quantity (dH/dt = 0).
2- We have seen previously that the Hamiltonian equals the total

energy E=T+U if the potential energy is velocity independent and
the transformation equations do not explicitly contain the time.
3- If the potential energy is velocity independent and the
transformation equations do not explicitly contain the time, and if
H t 0 , then H = E = constant.

Hamiltonian Dynamics Example 7
Problem:
Use The Hamiltonian method to find the
equations of motion of a particle of mass
m constrained to move on the surface of
a cylinder defined by x2+y2=R2. The
F
particle is subject to a force directed
toward the origin and proportional to
the distance
x
of the particle from the
origin: F k r
Solution: dl d a d a dz az
R d 0 dl Rd a dz az
dl
d dz
v
R
a az v R a za z
dt
dt
dt
m
z
v2 R22 z 2

1 2 1
T mv m( R 22 z 2 )
2
2
1
1 2
2 2
T mR mz
2
2
The potential corresponding to the force F is

U F d l k r ar dr ar rd a r sin d a
dl in spherical coordinates
U k r dr
1 2
kr
2
1
1
U k x2 y 2 z 2 k (
R2 z 2 )
2
2
x2 y2
2
r
1
1 2 1
2 2
L T U mR mz k ( R 2 z 2 )
2
2
2
The generalized coordinates are and z, and the generalized momenta
are p and pz:

p
L
2
p mR
mR 2
L
pz
pz
mz z
z
m
2
2
p
1
1 pz

2
m
T mR
2
2
mR 2 m
1
1 2
2 2
T mR mz
2
2
p2
p z2
T
2
2mR
2m
Because the potential energy is velocity independent and the
equations of transformation between rectangular and cylindrical
coordinates do not explicitly contain the time, then
H , z, p , pz T U
p2
pz2 1 2 1 2
H
kR kz
2
2mR
2m 2
2

The equations of motion are therefore found from the canonical
equations:
H
p
0 p constant (1)
H
p z
kz (2)
z
p
H
2
mR
(3)
2
p mR
H p z
z
mz p z (4)
p z m
Equations (1) & (3) give p mR 2 constant
The angular momentum about the z-axis is thus a constant of the
motion (the z-axis is the symmetry axis of the problem.)

Combining Equations (2) & (4), we find
mz p z
mz kz
k
z z 0
mz kz 0
m
z Asin0t
k
z z 0 where
m
2
0
2
0
The motion in the z direction is therefore simple harmonic.

Problem:
U 0
Use the Hamiltonian method to find the
equations of motion for a spherical pendulum
of mass m and length b.
Solution:
dl dr ar rd a r sin d a
r b dr 0
dl bd a b sin d a
dl
d
d
v
b
a b sin
a
dt
dt
dt
x
x
v b a b sin a
v2 b22 b2 2 sin2

1 2
T mv
2
1 2 2 1 2 2 2
T mb mb sin
2
2
U mgy U mg (b cos )
U mgb cos
1 2 2 1 2 2 2
mb mb sin mgb cos
2
2
The generalized momenta are then
L
p
2
p mb
mb 2
p
L
2
2
p mb sin
mb 2 sin 2
L T U

Because the potential energy is velocity independent and the
equations of transformation between rectangular and spherical
coordinates do not explicitly contain the time, then
H , , p , p T U
2
1 2 p 1 2
H mb 2 mb 2 2 sin 2 mgb cos
2
mb 2
mb sin
p
p2
H
mgb cos
2
2
2
2mb
2mb sin
The equations of motion are therefore found from the canonical
equations:

p2 2 sin cos
H
p

mgb sin
2
4
sin
2mb
p2 cos
p
mgb sin
2
3
mb sin
H
p
0 p constant (1)
p
H
p
H
(2)
2
2
2
p mb
p mb sin
Combining Equations (1) & (2), we find mb2 sin2 ( ) constant
The angular momentum about the y-axis is thus a constant of the
motion (the y-axis is the symmetry axis of the problem.)

Problem:
y
Consider a simple plane pendulum consisting
x
of a mass m attached to a string of length r0. U 0
x
After the pendulum is set into motion, the
length of the string is shortened at a constant rate
dr
g
constant
dt
The suspension point remains fixed. Compute the
y
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian functions. Compare
m
The Hamiltonian and the total energy, and
discuss the conservation of total energy for the system.

Solution: The generalized coordinates are r and .
dr
constant dr dt, and dr dt
dt
r t constant
r0 (0) constant constant r0
r t r0
x r sin
y r cos
x r sin r cos
y r cos r sin
x sin r cos
y cos r sin
v2 x 2 y 2 ( sin r cos )2 ( cos r sin )2

v 2 2 sin 2 2r sin cos r 2 2 cos2
2 cos2 2r sin cos r 2 2 sin 2

v2 2 r 22
The kinetic energy, T, and the potential energy, U, of the system are
expressed as
1
1
1
T mv 2 m 2 mr 2 2
2
2
2
U mgy mg (r cos ) mgr cos
y
so that the Lagrangian is
1
1 2 2
2
L T U m mr mgr cos
2
2
1
1
2
L m m(t r0 ) 2 2 mg (t r0 ) cos
2
2

The Hamiltonian, H, is
L
L
H q j
L L
q j
j
L
p
2
m
(
r
)
m(t r0 ) 2
p
p
1
1
2
2
H
p m m(t r0 )
2
2
m(t r0 )
2
2
m(t r0 )
mg (t r0 ) cos
p2
1
2
H
mg (t r0 ) cos
2
2m(t r0 )
2

The total energy, E=T+U, is
1
1
2
T U m m(t r0 ) 2 2 mg (t r0 ) cos
2
2
2
1
1
p
2
2
mg (t r0 ) cos
T U m m(t r0 )
2
2
2
m(t r0 )
2
p
1
T U m 2
mg (t r0 ) cos
2
2
2m(t r0 )
H E m 2
H
0
t
dH dE
dt
dt
dH
dE
0
0
dt
dt
The total energy is not

conserved.
Chapter 4
Central-Force Motion
Dr. Abdelaziz Sabik
Physics Department College of Science
Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
1- Reduced Mass
Consider the motion of a system consisting of two bodies affected
by a force directed along the line connecting the centers of the two
bodies (i.e., a central force).
Path of m1
Path of m2
F12 (r ) F21 (r ) F (r )

dr1 r1 r1 dr2 r2 r2
m1
r

F12 (r )
r r1 r2
r r1 r2
d
r
1
F21 (r )
m2
U F12 (r ) dr1 F21 (r ) dr2
U F (r ) dr1 F (r ) dr2
r
d
r
2
r1
r1
U F (r ) (dr1 dr2 )
r2
r2
dr1 dr2 (r1 r1) (r2 r2)
dr1 dr2 (r1 r2 ) (r1 r2) r r dr

O
1- Reduced Mass
U F (r ) dr U (r )
dU
F (r ) U (r )
ar
dr
The force F (r ) points radially and depends only on r.

m1
CM
r1
CM Center of Mass
CM
m2
r2
(a)
m1

R0
r1
m2
r2
(b)
Figure. Two methods to describe the position of two particles.

(a) From an arbitrary coordinate system origin, and
(b) from the center of mass.
1- Reduced Mass
r
r1 and 2 are the position vectors for, respectively, m1 and m2.

The relative vector: r r1 r2
m1r1 m2 r2
The center of mass vector: R
m1 m2

Translational motion of the system is uninteresting, so we use R 0

R 0 m1 r1 m2 r2 0

m1 (r r2 ) m2 r2 0
m1r1 m2 (r1 r ) 0

(m1 m2 )r1 m2 r 0
m1r (m1 m2 )r2 0
r1
m2
r
m1 m2
r2
m1
r
m1 m2
1- Reduced Mass
1 2 1 2
Lagrangian: L m1 r1 m2 r2 U (r )
2
2
Substitute in the Lagrangian r1 and r2 :

2
1 m2 2 1
m1 2
r m2
r U (r )
L m1
2 m1 m2
2 m1 m2
2
1 1 m1m2
1 1 m1m2 2
r U (r )
L
2 m1 m1 m2
2 m2 m1 m2
2
1 m1m2 2 1
1
r U (r )
L
2 m1 m2
m1 m2
2
1 m1m2 2 m1 m2
r
L
U (r )
2 m1 m2
m1m2
1- Reduced Mass
1 m1m2 2
r U (r )
L
2 m1 m2
m1m2
Reduced mass
m1 m2
1 2
L r U (r )
2
We reduced the problem of the motion of two bodies to an equivalent
one-body problem in which we must determine only the motion of a
particle of mass in the central field described by the potential
y
function U(r).
2- Conservation Theorems
Conservation of angular momentum

We define the angular momentum as L r p
The vector L is orthogonal to both r and p , by nature of the cross

product.
dL d
dL d r d p
r p
pr
dt dt
dt
dt
dt

dL
v v r F 0
dt
r F 0 because, F is proportional to r and the cross product of

two parallel vectors is zero.

L r p constant
If a particle is subject to a central force only, then its angular

momentum is conserved, and its motion takes place in a plane.
y
We have only a two-dimensional

problem, and the Lagrangian may
then be conveniently expressed in

r
a plane polar coordinates
1 2
L r U (r )
2
L
1
2
2 2
L r r U r
2
L
p r 2 constant
p constant
Denote p by : r 2 constant
Note : can be negative or positive.

Conservation of total energy
Discussion is restricted to conservative systems (i.e. E=constant)
E T U constant
1 2
1
E v U (r ) E r 2 r 2 2 U (r )
2
2
2
1
1
Remember :
E r 2
U (r )
2
2
r
2
2 r
3- Equations of Motion
1 2 1 2
E r
U (r )
2
2
2 r
Assume U(r) is specified, and solve for

1 2
1 2
E U (r )
r
2
2 r
2
r 2 E U (r ) 2 2
dr
2
2
E U 2 2
r
dt
This equation can be solved for dt and integrated to yield the solution
t = t(r). An inversion of this result then gives the equation r = r(t).
We are interested in the equation of the path in terms of r and .
Starting with:
d dt
d
dr dr
dt dr
r
Substitute:
2
2
and
E U 2 2
r
r
r
Integrating, we have equation of the orbit = (r):
(r )

2 dr
r
2 E U
2
2r
constant (17)
We can also attack the problem using Lagranges equation for the
coordinate r:
L d L
0
r dt r
L
U (r )
2
r
r
r
1
L r 2 r 2 2 U (r )
2
L
d L
r, and r
r
dt r
L d L
U (r )
0 r 2
r 0
r dt r
r
U (r )
r r 2
r
(18)
1
Making a change of variable: u
r
du du dr
d dr d
du
1 dr
1 dr dt
1 r
2
2
2
d
r d
r dt d
r
We have 2
r
du
1 r
1 r 2
r
2
2
d
r r
r
Next, we write
d 2u
d du d dt d

r
r
2
d
d d d d dt
d 2u 1
r r
2
d

2
2
2
2
d
u
1
d
u
2
r 2 r r
r 2 2
2
2
2
r
d
r
d
2
r
2
2 2 d 2u
1
2
2 2 4
r 2 u
(19 a)
2
r
r
d
2
r 2 3
r
2
r
2
3
u
(19 b)
2
Substituting Equations (19-a) and (19-b) into Equation (18), we obtain

the transformed equation of motion:
2 2 d 2u 2 3
1
F 2 u
2u
2
d
2 2 d 2u
1
F u 2 u
d
u
d 2u
1 1
u 2 2 F
2
d
u u
which we may also write as
d2 1 1
r 2
2 F r
2
d r r
(21)
This form of the equation of motion is useful if we wish to find the

force law that gives a particular known orbit r = r().
3- Equations of Motion Example 1

Problem:
Find the force law for a central field that allows a particle to move
in a spiral orbit given by r = k 2, where k is a constant.
Solution: We use Equation (21) to determine the force law F(r).
First, we determine
d 1 d 1
2k
2

2 2 4 3
d r d k
k
k
d 2 1 d d 1 d 2 2 3k 2
3

2
d r d d r d k
k 2 6
r k 2
2
2
r
r
1
k
2 , 4 2 ,
2
4
k
k
6 1
k 4

Then
d 2 1 6 k 2 6k
2
2
2
d r k r
r
d2 1 1
r 2
From Equation (21): 2 2 F r , we now determine F(r)
d r r
6k 1
r 2
2 F (r )
2
r
r
2 6k 1
F (r ) 2 2
r r
r
2 6k 1
F (r ) 4 3
r
r

Problem:
Determine r(t) and (t) for the problem in Example 1.
Solution:
2
dt r
k 2 4
2
Rearrangement of the above equation gives
4
d
dt
dt
2 4
2
k
k
1 5
4
d k 2 dt 5 k 2 t C
where C is an integration constant

15
15
(t ) 2 t 5C
k
or
(t ) 2 t C
k
We solve for r(t):
r k
r (t ) k 2 t C
k
5 k
r (t )
t C

25
25
The integration constant C and angular momentum needed for

equations r(t) and (t) are determined from the initial conditions.

Problem:
What is the total energy of the orbit of the previous two examples?
1 2 1 2
Solution: The total energy is E r
U (r )
2
2
2 r
We need and U(r).

U (r ) F (r )dr
2 6k 1
6 2 k dr 2 dr
U (r ) 4 3 dr
3
4
r
r
r
r
6 2 k 1 2 1
U (r )
3 2 const.
3r 2r
2 2 k 1 2 1
where we have let U() = 0
U (r )
3
2
r 2 r
2
and
r
d
r
2
dr r
d d dr
d
r
dt dr dt
dr
dr
r
r 2 d
dr
r
dr
r
so :
2k
2 kr
r k
2k , and
d
k
d
k
2
4
k
2
and
r 2 3
r
2 kr
2
r
r
1
1 2
2
U (r )
We have the total energy of the orbit is E r
2
2
2 r
2
1 4k 2
2
2 2 k
2
E 2 3
0
2
3
2
2 r 2 r
r
2 r
E = 0 if U(r = ) = 0
4- Centrifugal Energy and the Effective

Potential
In the preceding expressions for , (r), and so forth, a common
2
term is the radical E U (r )
2 r 2
2
If we interpret the quantity U c (r )
as a potential energy,
2
2 r
then the force that must be associated with Uc is
U c
2
Fc
3 r 2
r
r
Fc: centrifugal force (traditionally called)
Uc: centrifugal potential energy of the particle.

Potential
2
effective potential energy
V (r ) U (r )
2
2 r
For the case of inverse-square-law central-force motion:
k
(gravitational attraction (F(r) < 0)), from which
2
r
k
U (r ) F (r )dr constant
r
F (r )
Assume U () 0 constant 0
The effective potential function for gravitational attraction:
k
2
V (r )
r 2r 2

Potential
k
2
V (r )
r 2r 2
1 2
r V (r )
2
1 2
r 0
2
E V (r )
E1
r2 r3
r1
r4
1 2
r
2
E2
E3
Figure: The effective potential, V(r), for gravitation attraction.

Potential
If E 0 (e.g. E = E1): The particle moves toward the force center
(located at r = 0) from infinitely far away until it strikes the
potential barrier V(r1) at the turning point r = r1 and is reflected
back toward infinitely large r. the motion is unbounded r1 r <.
If Vmin < E < 0 (e.g. E = E2): the values r2 and r4 are the turning
points, or the apsidal distances, of the orbit. The motion is bounded
r2 r r4.
If E = Vmin (e.g. E = E3): r = r3, and then = 0 for all values of
the time; hence the motion is circular.
5- Planetary Motion Keplers Problem

If F (r )
k
r2
U (r )
k
r
From Equation (17) we obtain:
r dr
2
k
2
2 E
2
r 2 r
constant
1
The integral can be evaluated if the variable is changed to u
r
1
du 2 dr
du
r
r
constant
2
2 2
E ku
u
2

2

r
du
constant
2
2k
2
E
u
2
2
Using the standard form of the integral
1
1 2ax b
sin
constant
2
2
a
ax bx c
b 4ac
dx
2k
2
For a 1; b 2 , and c 2 E , we obtain
2u 2k
2
1
1
constant
sin
2
(1)
2
k
8E

2
2


2 2k
2
r
sin( constant)
2
2
8E
2 2

As r goes to zero, the total energy E goes to infinity, and if we define
the origin of so that the minimum value of r is at = 0, then
sin(0 constant )
1 constant
sin( constant ) sin( ) cos

2
2
2
2 2k
1
2
2
2k r
r
cos
2
2
2
2k 8E 2k
8E
2
2
1
2
2
2k

cos
2 1
1
k r
2
2 E
1
k 2
cos
2 1
1
k r
2 E 2
1
k 2
Let us now define the following constants:
and
1 cos
2 E 2
1
k 2
1
1
then cos r
This is the equation of a conic section with one

focus at the origin. Conic sections are formed by
the intersection of a plane with a cone.
: eccentricity
2: latus rectum of the orbit

1,
E0
Hyperbola
1
E0
Parabola
0 1 Vmin E 0
Elipse
0 E Vmin
Circle

For planetary motion, the orbits are ellipses.
a
Figure 6. The geometry of

elliptic orbits is shown in b
terms of parameters , ,
a, and b. F and F are the
foci.
rmin
rmax
k
a
2
1
2E
b
semimajor axis
2 E
semiminor axis
rmin a1
rmax a1

d r r (t2 ) r (t1 )
Areal Velocity

d r v dt
1
dA
r
(
t
)
v
dt
dA r (t ) d r
2
2
1
dA 1
r (t ) v rar (rar r a )
dt 2
2
dA 1 2
r
dt 2

r 2
r (t2 )
dA
constant
dt 2
Thus, the areal velocity is constant in time
dr
r (t1 )

Period for Elliptic Motion ()
2
dt
dA
dA
dt 2
2
0 dt 0 dA
A
The area of an ellipse is given by A ab

2
2
k
ab
2E
3 2
2 E
k
2
(46)

k
a
2E
k
E ;
2a
k
2a

2a
k
(47)
From Equations (46) and (47), we obtain:
k
2
2 2a

2 k
2
4
3
2

a
k
For planetary motion, we identify k = Gm1m2

k
G m1 m2
G: gravitational constant
F r 2
2
r
r
G 6.6741011 N m2 / kg 2

2
4
3
2

a
k
2
4
2
a3
G m2
m1m2
4 2
m1 m2 3
a
a3
Gm1m2
G(m1 m2 )
4 2
2
if m1 m2
Keplers problem
2
4
For Kepler, 2
a 3 . He didn' t put the condition m1 m2
G m2
The Keplers statement is correct only if the mass m1 of a planet
can be neglected with respect to the mass m2 of the Sun.

Keplers Laws
1- Planets move in elliptical orbits about the Sun with the Sun at
one focus.
2- The area per unit time swept out by a radius vector from the Sun
to planet is constant (dA/dt is constant).
3- The square of a planets period is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis of the planets orbit (2 proportional to a3).
Chapter 5
Motion in a Noninertial
Reference Frame
Dr. Abdelaziz Sabik
Physics Department College of Science
Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic
University
1- Reference Frame
70km/ h
80km/ h
Car " A"
Car " B"
Stationary observer
- To a passenger in car A, the speed of car B is 10km/h.

- To the stationary observer, the speed of car B is 80km/h.
Question: Which observer is correct ?

Answer: They both are
This simple example demonstrates that the velocity of an object
depends on the frame of reference in which it is measured.
1- Reference Frame
Conclusion:
For the laws of motion to have meaning, the motion of bodies must
be measured relative to some reference frame.
Inertial Reference Frame
A reference frame is called an inertial frame if Newtons laws are
valid in that frame.
For example, if a body subject to no force moves with constant
velocity in a certain coordinate system, that system is, by definition,
an inertial frame.
Consequence:
An inertial reference frame is one that is not accelerating.
1- Reference Frame
Fictitious Forces
A fictitious force, also called a phantom force, pseudo force,
dAlambert force or inertial force, is an apparent force that acts on
all masses in a non-inertial reference frame.
The fictitious force, Ff , does not arise from any physical interaction
but rather from the acceleration a of the non-inertial reference frame
itself.
Example of fictitious forces in linear motion
A small sphere of mass m is hung

by a cord from the ceiling of a
car that is accelerating to the right.
Acceleration a 0
Noninertial
observer
y
x
Inertial
observer
1- Reference Frame
According to the inertial observer at rest
- The forces on the sphere are the force T exerted
by the cord and the force of gravity.
- The acceleration of the sphere is the same as that
of the car.
- The acceleration is provided by the horizontal
component of T.
- The vertical component of T balances the force
of gravity.
mg
Fx T sin ma
F T mg ma F T cos mg 0 (1)
y
1- Reference Frame
According to the noninertial observer riding in the car
-The cord still makes an angle with the vertical.

- The sphere is at rest and so its acceleration is zero.
- Introduction of a fictitious force to balance the horizontal
component of T.
- The net force on the sphere is zero.
Ff
mg
Fx T sin Ff 0
F T mg Ff manoninertial 0 F T cos mg 0 (2)
y
1- Reference Frame
Remarks concerning the example:
1- If we recognize that Ff = mainertial = ma, then (1) and (2) are
equivalent; therefore, the noninertial observer obtains the same
mathematical results as the inertial observer does. However, the
physical interpretation of the deflection of the cord differs in the
two reference frames.
2- The introduction of the fictitious force permitted us to apply
Newtons second law to the sphere in noninertial frame.
3- In noninertial frame, the effective force is defined as
Feff T mg Ff manoninertial
2- Rotating Coordinate Systems

Consider two systems of coordinate axes:
- "fixed" or inertial axes (O,x,y,z)
- "rotating" axes (O,x,y,z) that may be in motion with respect to the
inertial system.
y
z z out of page
P
dr
O O
d
r
r dr
O O
Figure 1. two systems of coordinate axes. System (O,x,y,z) rotates

by an angle d with respect to (O,x,y,z). P is fixed in (O,x,y,z).

d r fixed
r d
where the designation fixed indicates that the

quantity dr is measured in the fixed coordinate
system.
In vectorial form: d r fixed d r where d is the instantane ous

axis of rotation
d
dr
dt fixed dt
d
The angular ve locity of the rotation :
dt

dr
r for P fixed in rotating coordinate system
dt fixed
dr
If point P has a velocity
0 with respect to the rotating
dt rotating
coordinate system then the time rate of change of r in the fixed

coordinate system :

dr
dr
r
(3)
dt fixed dt rotating
The validity of Equation (1) is not
limited to a displacement vector.
In fact, for any arbitrary vector Q , we have
dQ
dQ

Q
(4)
dt
fixed dt rotating

Applying Equation (4) for Q :
d
d
d
dt rotating
0
( ) fixed ( ) rotating
(5)
Angular acceleration is the same in both the fixed and rotating

systems.

Consider now O O and the system (O,x,y,z) rotates arbitrary
relative to (Oxyz).
P
R
O
r : vector position of P relative to

the rotating axes (Oxyz).
r : vector position of P relative to

the fixed axes (Oxyz).
R : vector position of O relative to

the fixed axes (Oxyz)
dR
d r
dr
r R r

dt fixed dt fixed dt fixed

dR
dr
dr
dt fixed dt fixed dt rotating

We define
d r
v f rf
velocity of point P relative to the fixed axes

dt fixed

dR
linear velocity of the moving origin, O, relative
V R f
dt fixed to the fixed axes.
dr
velocity of point P relative to the rotating axes
vr rr
dt rotating
therefore
v f V vr r (6)
is the angular ve locity of the rotating axes

y
x a x y a y z a z
y a y

r is the velocity due to the rotation
of the moving axes
a y
xt
z a z
z
a z
zt
x a x
yt
a x
3- Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces
Newtons equation, F ma, is valid only in an inertial frame

of reference.
The sum of the forces acting on the particle as measured in the fixed
inertial system:
d vf
F ma f m
(7)
dt fixed
From Equation (6):
dV
d vf
d r
d vr
r
(8)
dt fixed
dt fixed dt fixed dt fixed

d vr
d vr
dV
vr a r vr
Rf
(
9
)
dt fixed
(10)
dv
where ar r
is the acceleration of the particle in the
dt rotating
rotating coordinate system (O,x,y,z).
dr
dr

dt fixed
dt rotating
dr

vr r (11)
dt fixed
Combining Equations (6) (11), we obtain
F ma f mR f mar m r m r 2m vr
(12)

To an observer in the rotating coordinate system, the effective force
on a particle is defined as
Feff mar (13)
Feff F mR f m r m r 2m vr (14)
F : the sum of the forces acting on the particle as measured in the

fixed inertial system.
mR f : due to the translational acceleration of the moving coordinate
system relative to the fixed system.

m r : due to the angular acceleration of the moving coordinate
system relative to the fixed system

m ( r ) : centrifugal force and is directed outward from the
center of rotation (see figure below).

2m vr : due to motion of the particle in the rotating coordinate
system. This term is called the Coriolis force.
r

m ( r )

Figure. Overhead view of a horizontal
turntable that is rotating counterclockwise
relative to an inertial frame. The turntables
angular velocity points up out of the page.
as seen by observers on the turntable, the
two objects sliding on the table are subject
to Coriolis forces. Irrespective of the masses
positions and velocities, the Coriolis force
always tends to deflect the velocity to the right.
Deflectedpath
vr
Fco
m
v
r
Fco
Centrifugal and Coriolis forces are not forces in the usual sense of the
word. They are fictitious forces introduced by our desire to write
Feff mar
We thus have: Feff ma f mR f m r noninertial terms
4- Motion Relative to the Earth

The Earth is not really an inertial frame for the following reasons:
1- its orbital motion around the Sun experiences a centripetal
acceleration of about 4.410-3m/s2 directed toward the Sun.
2- its rotational motion about its own axis once every 24 hours, a
point on the equator experiences an additional acceleration of
33.710-3m/s2 directed toward the center of the Earth.
3- the motion of the solar system with respect to the local galaxyetc
The motion of Earth with respect to an inertial reference frame is

dominated by Earths rotation about its own axis. The effects of
the other motions are small by comparison.
Therefore lets explicitly take the Earths surface as the rotating
frame and the center of Earth as the fixed frame.

a y
a z
a z
a y
a z
R
Ra z
g0 g0 a z
a x
g0
z(up)
a x
O
O
y(east)
x(south)
x
N
W
S
-The origin of the fixed

frame of reference at the
center of Earth (point O
in Figure).
-The origin of the rotating
frame of reference at latitude
and longitude (point O
in Figure).
- Axis - z parallel to R and g 0 :
R R a z , and g 0 g 0 a z
-Axis-x tangent to a great circle passing

through the North and South poles.
- Axis - y is such that a y a z a x

We can describe the motion of a moving object close to the surface
of Earth by applying Equation (14):
F F mR m r m r 2m v (14)
eff
In the fixed inertial frame: F S mg 0

(15)
where S : sum of the external forces other than gravitatio n
mg 0 : gravitatio nal attraction to Earth.
ME
g 0 G 2 a z ,
g 0 9.8m / s 2
R
G : gravitatio nal constant ( 6.6741011 N .m 2 / kg 2 )
M E : mass of Earth ( 5.97361024 kg )
R : the Earth' s radius assuming a spherical Earth ( R 6378km)
dR
dR
dR
R f R and R Ra z 0
dt r
dt f dt r

therefore R f R
dR
d ( R)
dR
d

Rf

R
dt
dt f dt f
dt f
f
The value of Earth' s angular ve locity is practically constant in time

( 7.3 105 rad / s)

d
(16) So we neglect r
0
dt f
dR

R f R
(17)
dt f

From Equations (14) to (17), we obtain:
Feff S mg0 m R r 2m vr

FCf m R r
is the centrifugal force

z

r
Figure. Centrifugal force directed

outward from the center of rotation.

m ( r )

r R r

g g0 R r
is what we experience (and measure) on
the surface of Earth as the effective g
The direction of g at a given point

is in general slightly different from
the true vertical. The situation is
represented schematically in figure
with considerable exaggeration.
g0

FCo 2m vr is the Coriolis force

In simpler terms: Feff S mg FCo
(18)

(r R)
4- Motion Relative to the Earth Example 1

Problem:
Show that the small angular deviation of a plumb line from the
true vertical (i.e., toward the center of Earth) at a point on Earths
surface at a latitude is
R 2 sin cos
g 0 R 2 cos2
Solution:

g g0 R
a z

a z
( R) a z ( a z Ra z )

( R) R 2 a z (a z a z )
a
2
( R) R a z (sin( ) a y )
2

a y
( R) R 2 cos (a z a y )
a x

( R) R 2 cos a R 2 cos (cos a z sin a x )

z
g g0 a z R 2 cos2 a z R 2 cos sin a x
g g0 R 2 cos2 a z R 2 cos sin a x
gx
R sin cos
tan
g z g 0 R 2 cos2
2
tan very small
gx
tan therefore
gz
R 2 sin cos
g 0 R 2 cos2

Problem: (Refer to Example 1)
What is the value of the maximum deviation (max)?
Solution:
R 2 sin 2
2( g 0 R 2 cos2 )
d R 2 2 cos 2 ( g 0 R 2 cos2 ) sin 2 (2 R 2 cos ( sin ))
d
2
( g 0 R 2 cos2 ) 2
d R 2 2 cos 2 ( g 0 R 2 cos2 ) sin 2 (2 R 2 cos sin )
d
2
( g 0 R 2 cos2 ) 2
d
0 ( g0 R 2 cos2 ) cos 2 R 2 sin 2 cos sin 0
d

( g0 R 2 cos2 )(cos2 sin2 ) 2 R 2 cos sin cos sin 0
g0 cos2 g0 sin2 R 2 cos4 R 2 cos2 sin 2 2 R 2 cos2 sin 2 0
g0 cos2 g0 sin 2 R 2 cos4 R 2 cos2 sin 2 0

cos2 ( g0 R 2 cos2 R 2 sin2 ) g0 sin2
cos2 ( g0 R 2 ) g0 sin 2
g R 2
; 45
tan 0
g0
Using R 6378km, g 0 9.8m/s 2 and 7.3 105 rad/s

g0 R 2
tan
g0
2
the maximum deviation is max
R 2 sin 90
0.002 rad
2
2
2( g 0 R cos 45 )

Problem:
Find the horizontal deflection from the plumb line caused by the
Coriolis force acting on a particle falling freely in Earths gravitational
field from a height h above Earths surface.
Solution: F S mg 2m v
eff
r

S 0 (particle falling freely)
Feff mar
From the above equations, we obtain

mar mg 2m vr ar g 2 vr
az ( cos ax sin az )

a x
a y
a z

vr cos 0 sin
x
y
z

vr ( y sin ) a x ( z cos x sin ) a y ( y cos ) a z
ar x a x y a y z a z and g g a z
y sin
x 0
y 0 2 ( z cos x sin )
z g
y
cos
x 2 y sin
Lets solve these using the
y 2 ( z cos x sin ) ( Eq. a) method of successive
approximations.
z g 2 y cos

First write the equations for = 0. This is the zeroth-order
approximation.
This gives the following equations:
x 0, y 0, z g (zeroth order approximat ion)
After integration, these lead to:
x 0,
y 0, z gt ( Eq. b)
After an other integration, we get the solutions:

1
x 0, y 0, z h gt 2
2
where we have used initial conditions appropriate to dropping the
object from rest from high h.

We have:
x 2 y sin
y 2 ( z cos x sin ) ( Eq. a)
z g 2 y cos
x 0,
y 0, z gt ( Eq. b)
We then plug Equations (b) into our original equations (a) to get the
first-order approximation:
x 0, y 2 gt cos, z g (first - order approximat ion)

1
1 2
3
x
0
,
y
gt
cos
,
z
gt
Integrating twice, we get:
3
2
The only equation that has changed is the y equation, which shows
that there will be an eastward deviation (y has an easterly direction
as already mentioned in this section).

We can repeat this process again to get a second-order approximation
and so on, but the first order is good enough for our purposes which
to show the effect of Coriolis force on the free falling particle.
The time, T, for which the particle reaches the bottom is:
1 2
2h
z h gT 0 T
2
g
The horizontal deflection is then:
1
8h3
y g
cos
3
3
g
or
1
8h 3
y
cos
3
g
An object dropped from a height of h=100m at latitude =45 is

deflected approximately 1.55cm (neglecting the effect of air resistance)

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Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z)

Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (,

Relationships between Cartesian and

Relationships between Cartesian

Spherical Coordinates (r, , )

Relationships between Cylindrical

Relationships between Cylindrical

Relationships between Cartesian

Relationships between Cartesian

ax sin cos ar cos cos a sin a

a y sin sin ar cos sin a cos a

ar sin cos ax sin sin a y cos az

a cos cos ax cos sin a y sin az

Differential length and volume

Differential length and volume

a) Express P and A in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

Some Methods in the

1- Statement of the problem

f y( x), y( x), xdx

The functional J depends on the function y(x).

Y(0, x) = y(x) is the function that yields an extremum for J

1- Statement of the problem (Cont.)

f Y ( , x),Y ( , x), xdx

The condition that the integral has a stationary value

f Y ( , x),Y ( , x), xdx

2- Eulers Equation (cont.)

can be integrated by part

2- Eulers Equation (cont.)

Because (x) is an arbitrary function (subject to the conditions

3- The Second Form of the Euler

3- The Second Form of the Euler Equation (Cont.)

4- Functions with Several

4- Functions with Several Dependent Variables (Cont.)

5- Eulers Equations when

5- Eulers Equations when Auxiliary Conditions are Imposed

5- Eulers Equations when Auxiliary Conditions are Imposed

5- Eulers Equations when Auxiliary Conditions are Imposed

The left-hand side of this equation involves only derivatives of f and g

5- Eulers Equations when Auxiliary Conditions are Imposed

g k yi , x 0 k 1, 2, ..., m and i 1, 2, ..., n

6- Variational Notation (Cont.)

6- Variational Notation (Cont.)

6- Variational Notation (Cont.)

6- Variational Notation (Cont.)

i.e. T U dt must be an extremum

where L is Lagrange function or

If we make the transformations:

The Eulers equations (Chapter 2) corresponding to Equation (3):

These are the Lagrange

(2) & (3) mb cos mb

sin 0 which is identical with the equation of motion

These coordinates need not even have the dimension of length

The choice of a set of generalized coordinates is obviously not

1, 2,..., n (n discrete point particles)

Transformations from generalized coordinates to Cartesian coordinates

There are m = 3n-s equations of constraint of the form