PHYSICAL SCIENCE (1st SEMESTER)

CHAPTER 1: ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS

I. Big Bang Theory
Big Bang Theory
- cosmic evolution
- how universe change
- believed to be small and in flash, everything
expanded
- singularity
- at first, primitive people rely to simple structures to
help them understand science
- tools used in analysis: Stonehenge (England),
Chichen Itza (Mexico), Goseck Circle (solar
observatories; calendar)
Big Bang Theory Personalities
Aristotle
- Geocentric Universe
Earth as the center of the universe
Claudius Ptolemy
- complex circular motion
- revolving in loops
- Epicycles
small circular orbits around imaginary centers
Nicolaus Copernicus
- Heliocentric Universe
Sun as the center of the Solar System
Johannes Kepler
- Planetary motion
- improved Copernicus Theory
- Ellipse not Circle
- Sun influenced the speed of a planet
Near - speed up
Far - slow down
Galileo Galilei
- Telescope known to be the most revolutionary
instrument in Science
- proved, saw, revealed through naked eye
- new science scripture passages
- when he stopped proposing it as a scientific
theory and began proclaiming it as a truth, he
stand trial for heresy
Isaac Newton
- how planets and everything moves
- power of Mathematics
- Gravity force which tries to pull two objects
together
Albert Einstein
- Relativity Theory (General & Special Relativity)
the link between space and time
fabric-like
mass = distortion = effect of gravity
- Theory of Bent Light gravitational deflection of
light
- Cosmological constant universe as static

Georges Lemaitre
- priest (religion + science)
- first definitive formulation of the idea of an
expanding universe
- proposed that the universe was already born and
actually expanding (Einstein rejects)
- unimaginably small explosion setting the
universe in motion formation of everything
- Hypothesis of the Primeval Atom / The Cosmic Egg
- the universe was smaller yesterday than today
- Pope Pius XII factual truth from Biblical story of
Genesis
Edwin Hubble
- the universe is the Milky Way Galaxy (1920s)
- Sophisticated telescope
destroyed Einsteins cosmological constant
revealed that our sun is just one of the billions
stars in our Milky Way Galaxy
- Redshift phenomenon
used brightness to measure how far a star is
- Andromeda Nebula
people thought it was just a wistful stardust
inside the Milky Way
Hubble calculated the distance then he
realized that the galaxy is a million light years
away
Universe = billions of galaxies
- Most galaxies are moving away from us (expand)
- calculated the age of the universe (2 Billion)
wrong formula but correct measurements
- Note: Age of universe: 13.8 Billion years
Steady State Theory
- No beginning, No ending
- universe is always expanding but maintaining a
constant average density
Fred Hoyle
- Steady State Theory
- origin of elements (Periodic Table)
- Extreme temperature
Hydrogen Helium
Helium Heavier elements
- Nucleosynthesis
creation of new elements
took place in the core of stars
George Gamow
- hydrogen, helium and the other elements created
in the first fiery minutes of the universe
- hot big bang
Ralph Alpher
- big bang nucleosynthesis & predictions of the
cosmic microwave background radiation
- collaborate with his student, Robert Herman
- Detectable Remnant Heat
Big Bang Theory VS Steady State Theory
- Steady State garnered widespread media
coverage
- Horn antenna (Big Bang)
transmission and reception of microwave
signals
mysterious radiation

Gamow & students

Ed Princeton

Have theory but dont - knew the work of

have
experimental Gamow
apparatus
- primitive instrument but
not sensitive enough
(Robert Dicke & others)

Supported Lemaitre
Penzias & Wilson
- Satellite communication
- accidental discovery of cosmic microwave
background radiation
- radio telescope
- Nobel Prize
Big Bang Theory VS Steady State Theory
- Gamow & Princeton crushed Hoyle
- Hoyles theory of nucleosynthesis was not rejected
- Hoyle never accepted Big Bang Theory

2. Beta Decay [Right]

loss of a beta particle
0-1e / 0-1
73
30

Zn 0-1e + 7331 Ga

3. Gamma Radiation [Right]

emission
00 y
226
88

Ra 22286 Rn + 42 + 00 y

4. Positron Emission [Right]

conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a
neutron along with the release of a positron
0+1e / 0+1
28
15

P 0+1e + 2814 Si

Alan Guth
- Inflation Theory & Hyper expansion
Gravity splits off from the super forces as the
universe expands it cools sets off burst of
energy fueling hyperinflation of the universe
Inflation locks in the uniformity of the universe
- Forces of Nature
Weak Nuclear Forces
Electromagnetism
Gravity
Strong Nuclear Forces

5. Electron Capture [Left]

drawing of an electron into an atoms
nucleus
0-1e / 0-1

II. Nuclear Reaction

19
9

Atom - from the word atomos

- indivisible and the smallest unit of matter

Chernobyl (Russia)
- nuclear meltdown due to explosion of power
plant
- strong power of radiation that can cause cancer
Geiger counter
- instrument used to measure radiation
Nuclear Reaction
- processes in which a nucleus either:
Nuclear Fusion - combines with another
nucleus
Nuclear Fission - splits into smaller nuclei
- these process involve the emission of energetic
particles of an atom, a phenomenon known as
radioactivity
Types of Nuclear Reaction
1. Alpha Decay [Right]
loss of alpha particle
42He / 42
235
92

U 42 + 23190 Th

40
19

K+ 0-1e 4018 Ar

6. Bombardment of Alpha Particle [Left]

addition of alpha particle
42He / 42

F + 42He 2211 Na

7. Neutron Emission [Right]

release of neutron
10 n
2
1H

+ 31H 42He + 10 n

Note: Reaction should be balanced in both sides of

equation. The sum of the atomic mass and number
in left side is equal to that in the right side of the
equation

III. Stellar Formulation, Evolution and Explosion

Primordial Nucleosynthesis
- After the Big Bang, as the temperature continued
to decrease, protons and neutrons were able to
combine to make light nuclei
beginning of the period referred to as the
era of primordial nucleosynthesis (making
nuclei)

- the first such reaction become energetically

favored was that of a single proton and neutron
combining to produce a deuterium nucleus, with
the excess energy carried away by a gamma-ray
proton:
Deuterium
- is an isotope
of Hydrogen

Bottleneck

Creation of Primordial Elements

- In the early universe, once the deuterium
bottleneck was cleared, the newly formed
deuterium could undergo further nuclear reactions
to form Helium
- This could happen by means of two different
reaction pathways:

Notes:
- Nuclei with mass number greater than 7 did not
survive in the early universe because there are no
stable nuclei with a mass number of eight.
- The reactions that by-pass this bottleneck take
much longer than the few minutes that were
available for nucleosynthesis at this time.
- The ratio of protons to neutrons had, by this time
reached about 7 proton : 1 neutron. Neutrons were
bound up in nuclei, they no longer decayed, and
the ratio remained essentially fixed from here on.
- The vast majority of the neutrons ended up in
nuclei of Helium-4
- By the time the universe had cooled to a
temperature of about 3x108 K after 1000s, the
particles had insufficient energy to undergo any
more reactions.
- The era of primordial nucleosynthesis was at an
end, and the proportion of the various light
elements was fixed.
Formation of Heavier Elements
Gravity force shrink and
collapse of star
Energy thermal pressure
opposes gravity

This uneven distribution allowed gravity to act in the

areas of higher concentration to initiate the
clumping of matter

- As a result, gravity was able to initiate the collapse

of H and He into more concentrated areas of gas
- As the clouds of H and He (called Nebulas)
collapsed, the atoms were speeding up as they
were pulled toward the center by gravity.
1. velocity of the atoms = temperature
2. Atoms became more tightly packed that
lead to: density, and frequency of collisions
between atoms then the mass of H and He
became more spherical.
- At this stage the mass of H and He is called a
Protostar
- The temperature inside a star is not uniform
- The central region (called the core) is the hottest,
with the temperature decreasing as you move out
toward the surface of the star.
- The temperature and density continued to
increase until nuclei reached what is called the
flash point
- This allows strong nuclear force to bind smaller
nuclei together, forming a more massive nucleus
(Nuclear Fusion)
- Tremendous amounts of energy are released, and
this energy is what causes the star to shine.
- With the original mixture of H and He, the flash
point that was reached first is that for H Hydrogen
Burning
- Once the fusion of H has begun in the core:
1. H is being converted to He (accompanied
by a release of energy)
2. During most of a stars lifetime this is the
primary fusion reaction that powers the star
- As time passes, the fusion process causes He to
accumulate in the core.
no. of He nuclei = H fusion
The temperature and density in that region
increases in the core
With the formation of this central He core, the
H fusion continues in a layer surrounding the
He core, where the He concentration is
lower.
This layer is referred to as a shell. The rate of
hydrogen burning is boosted due to the
increase in temperature of the He core.
The
same
process
continues
leading
to
formation
of
heavier
elements
- Finally, silicon going to Ni
(this product is radioactive
and decays to form Iron)
- Stars that reach this stage
are called red supergiants

- The production of elements stopped when Iron (Fe)

was formed.
- Fe nuclei are the most stable of all atomic nuclei
because when they undergo nuclear reactions,
they dont release energy, but absorb it.
- At this point, the star has already exhausted its
nuclear fuel
Formation of Heaviest Elements
- As the red giant star exhausted the nuclear fuel of
elements, its core started to collapse that
eventually led to the explosion of the star
Supernova
- This explosion release a huge amount of nuclear
energy and produced other elements heavier than
iron (Neutron capture & Radioactive decay)

History of Atoms & Matter

400BC Democritus

- proposed that all matter is made up of very

small particles called atoms which cannot
be divided into smaller units
Aristotle
380 - proposed that all matter was continuous
320BC
and can be further divided infinitely into
smaller pieces
1799 Joseph Proust
- proposed the Law of Definite Proportions
A given compound always contains the
same, fixed ratio of elements
John Dalton
1808
- proposed the Law of Multiple Proportions
Elements can combine in different ratios
to for different compounds
formulated atomic theory
Daltons Atomic Theory
- Elements are made up of small indivisible particles
called atoms
- In any given pure elements, the mass and other
properties of all the atoms are the same. Atoms of
different elements differ in mass and other
properties.
- Compounds are composed of atoms of more
than one element. The constituent atoms in a give
compound are present in a consistent or constant
whole number ratio.
Law of definite proportions & Law of multiple
proportions
-In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created
nor destroyed. They simply combine, separate or
rearrange.
Law of conservation of mass

1869 Mendeleev - arranged the periodic table

1890 Becquerel & Curie - observed radioactivity
causes breakdown of
some atoms
Rontgen
discovered
x-rays
1895
1897 J.J. Thomson - discovered electrons
- proposed the Plum Pudding
1904
Model of Atom
1913 Niels Bohr - proposed that electron orbits
around the nucleus
1919 Ernest Rutherford - discovered protons
1932 James Chadwick - discovered neutrons
Atomic Models

Bohrs Atomic Model

Wave Model

Plum Pudding Model (J.J. Thomson)

Structure of an Atom
- Electrons are like negative plums embedded in a
pudding of positive matter
- The negative charges of the electrons are
balanced out by the positive charges in the atoms
making the atom overall neutral
- There are spaces between atoms

Ernest Rutherfords Atomic Model

- An atom is composed of two regions:

1. The Nucleus, which is the center of
the atom, contains protons and
neutrons
2. The outer region of the atom,
which hold its electrons in orbit
around the nucleus
- Each electron has a negative charge (-1)
equal to the positive charge of a proton (+1)
- Neutrons are uncharged particles found
within the nucleus
- Neutrons are slightly heavier than protons
- Electrons are 1840x lighter than a proton
- Equal number of electrons and protons
make an atom electrically stable

Atomic Number & Mass

Schrdinger's model
- Allowed the electron to occupy three-dimensional
space.
- Three quantum numbers, to describe the orbitals in
which electrons can be found.
- The three coordinates that come from
Schrdinger's wave equations are:
principal (n) - size
angular (l) - shape
magnetic (m) orientation
Quantum Numbers

- In neutral atom
Protons = Electrons
- Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the
number of electrons in neutral atom.
- All atomic nuclei contain both neutrons and
protons except Helium (H) which has 1 proton but
no neutron
Isotopes
- Products of nuclear reactions and it is described
as atoms that have the same atomic number but
different atomic masses

Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

1
H - Protium
2
H - Deuterium
3
H - Tritium
Ions
- products of reactions that involve only the
electrons (chemical reactions)
- During chemical reaction, the number of protons
remain the same in the atomic nucleus but the
electrons may be lost by an atom and gained by
another
- the loss or gain of 1 or more electrons leads to the
formation of an atom with a net positive or
negative charge, respectively
Cation - positively charged ion
Anion - negatively charged ion

Principal quantum number (n)

- describes the size of the orbital
- indicates the main energy level occupied by an
electron
- Values: (1,2,3 and so on)
- cannot be zero
The larger the value of (n) the further the shell
is from the nucleus.
As the value of (n) increases, the energy gap
between successive shells decreases
Azimuthal quantum number ()
- aka Angular momentum quantum number
- describes the shape of the orbital
- Values: any integer between 0 and n - 1
- Letters are assigned to the orbitals depending on
the values
- Orbitals that have the same value of the principal
quantum number form a shell.
- Orbitals within a shell are divided into subshells that
have the same value of the angular quantum
number.
- describes the shape of the orbital.
s orbital = spherical shape
p orbital = dumbbell shape
d and f orbital = complicated shape

- Protons = Atomic Number

- Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons
- Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number
- Charge of an ion = Protons - Electrons
CHAPTER 2: ELEMENTS
I. Quantrum Numbers
Bohr model
- One-dimensional model that describes the
distribution of electrons in the atom.
- Described the size of the orbit, which was
described by the n quantum number.

Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

- number of possible orientations
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- Indicates the spins of the electrons
- Values: + and
- The (+) and (-) signs refer to orientation of the spin
but not the electric charge
- The orientation of electron is normally upward or
downward in diagram
- Upward orientation is given (+) sign
- Downward orientation is given (-) sign

Orbital Letter Designation

Letter

Max no.
of
Electrons

Integers

-1, 0, +1

10

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2

14

-3, -2, -1, 0, +1,

+2, +3

II. Electron Distribution

Electron Configuration

Orbital Diagram

- Boxes and arrows represents the orbitals and the

electrons
- The up and down orientation of arrows represent
the 2 magnetic SPINS of the electrons
Aufbau Principle
- Electrons should occupy first the orbitals with lower
energy before those with higher energy.
- Energy Level (n)
Paulis exclusion
Principle
- No two electrons in an
atom can possess the
same set of quantum
numbers.
Hunds rule of
maximum multiplicity
- The most stable
arrangement
of
electrons in subshells is
the one with greatest
number
of
parallel
spins.

Noble Gas Electron Configuration

- shorthand configuration
- For elements with high atomic number
- Use of Core symbols (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
- Written as element symbol inside bracket
- Represented by the noble gas that belongs to the
row before that of the element questioned
III. Periodic Table
A. Early Attempts to Arrange Elements
John A.R. Newlands
- Law of Octaves
- Arrangement based on atomic masses and
regularities every 8 elements
Julius Lothar Meyer & Dmitry Mendeleev
- Separately proposed arrangement of elements
based on atomic masses
Dmitry Mendeleev
- Published the idea first
- Improveme nt of Newlands work
- Use of eka = first
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley
Atomic number = no. of protons determines the
order of elements in the table
B. Arrangement of Elements
Periods/Series
- are arranged horizontally across the periodic table
(rows 1-7)
- These elements have the same number of
valence shells.
- New period row = New shell
Family/Group
- are arranged vertically down the periodic table
- Group 1- 18 or 1-8 A,B
- These elements have the same number
electrons in the outer most shells, the valence shell.
IV. Lewis Dot Symbol
Lewis Dot Symbol
- Named after Gilbert Newton Lewis
- Lewis dot symbol or Lewis structure
- Consists of the symbol of an element surrounded
by 1 or more dots
- Each dot corresponds to every valence electron
in an atom
Valence Electron
- Electrons found in the outer most shell of an orbital
- Those that occupy the shell with the highest value
of n
Writing Lewis Dot Symbol
- Electrons are placed up to two on each side of
the elemental symbol for a maximum of eight,
which is the number of electrons in a filled s and p
shell.
- We place a single electron on each side before
pairing them up (this is related to Hund's rule).
- No. of electrons in each atom is the same as the
group no. of the element, except for He and
transition elements

CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

I. Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Compound
- A substance formed when two or more elements
join together chemically in definite amounts
Octet Rule
- A rule stating that bonded atoms tend to possess
or share a total of eight valence shell electrons
Chemical Bonds
- form when atoms lose, accept or share electrons
Atoms by themselves are less stable
Atoms in compounds combined through
chemical bonding more stable source
- Electrical attraction between the nuclei and
valence electrons of an atom and which binds
atoms together. Also called intramolecular force.
Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic Bond
Results from the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another. This bond exists between a
metal that has a tendency to lose electrons
and a nonmetal that has a tendency to
accept electrons. (Metal + Nonmetal)
The subsequent cation (positively charged)
and anion (negatively charged) combine
because of mutual electrical attraction
Example: Na (Metal) & Cl (Non Metal)

2. Covalent Bond
formed when sharing of an electron pair
between atoms exists. This occurs between
nonmetals. (Nonmetal + Nonmetal)
It could be polar or nonpolar.
Polar Covalent Bond - a pair of electrons is
unequally shared between two atoms.
- Nonmetals : different elements
Example:

Nonpolar Covalent Bond - where two atoms

share a pair of electrons with each other.
- Nonmetals : same elements
- Example:

Polyatomic Ions - ions that are composed of

two or more atoms that are linked by
covalent bonds
N = Rule x # of Atoms
A = Valence x # of Atoms
B=N-A
NBE = A - B
# of Bonds = B 2
# of Lone pairs = NBE 2

Note:
N - Needed eA - Available eB - Bonding eNBE - Nonbonding e-

A. Single Bond
Example: H2O
Atoms

H2
O

2x2=4e8x1=8e-

1x2=2e6x1=6e-

12e-

8e-

Total
Lewis Structure

Note:
Central Atom
least electronegative
Exception with Hydrogen

B. Charged
Example: NH4+1
Atoms

N
H4

8x1=8e2x4=8e-

5x1=5e1x4=4e-

16e-

9e-

Total

B=(N-A) 12-8
= 4e- 2
= 2 bonds
NBE=(A-B) 8-4
= 4e- 2
= 2 lone pairs

B=(N-A) 16-8
= 8e- 2
= 4 bonds
NBE=(A-B) 8-8
= 0e- 2
= 0 lone pairs

Lewis Structure

Polarity
Formal Charge - charge of each atom
Tail Arrow

Sigma

FC = Valence - [NBE+
Example: FCN = 5 - [0+

8
]
2

= 5 - [0+4]
=5-4
= +1

1
(B)]
2

FCH = 1 - [0+

2
]
2

= 1 - [0+1]
=1-1
=0

Arrangement of electron
pairs about an atom Black
lines give the directions of
electron pairs about atom A.
The blue lines merely help
depict
the
geometric
arrangement of electron
pairs.

Molecular Geometry

Electronegativity
- is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons
toward itself.
- Atoms of elements with high electronegativity
have a greater tendency to attract electrons
compared to those with low electronegativity.
Dipole
- refers to the two partially charged regions or poles
of a molecule.

B. Nonmetal & Nonmetal

- the least electronegative element is named first
- if the compound contains hydrogen, hydrogen is
named first
- the number of atoms of each element is indicated
- by a prefix
- if the first element only has one atom the prefix is
not used
- the name of the element has the suffix 'ide'

The absolute value of the electronegativity

difference (EN) between two atoms gives an idea
of the type of chemical bonds that can exist
between them.

least electronegative + number prefix, most

electronegative element, suffix 'ide'

EN = (Larger Value) - (Smaller Value)

Ionic bond EN 1.7
Polar covalent bond 1.7 > EN > 0.4
Nonpolar covalent bond EN 0.4
Compound

NaCl
ICl
H2

More
electronegative atom
Chlorine
Chlorine
None (Same
electronegat
ive)

EN

Type of
Chemical
Bond

3.0-0.9=2.1
3.0-2.5=0.5

Ionic
Polar

2.1-2.1=0

Nonpolar

Octet Rule
- Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons until
they are surrounded by eight valence electrons.
Duet Rule
- states that hydrogen and helium may have no
more than two electrons in their valence shells.
Molecular Geometry and Polarity
VSEPR
(Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory)
- A method used to explain the geometry of
molecules by considering the repulsion of electron
pairs around the central atom. Since electrons all
have a negative charge, the electron clouds will
repel each other and they separate as far apart as
possible.
3. Metallic bond
are bonds holding the metal atoms where
there are highly mobile valence electrons.
Naming Compounds
A. Metal & Nonmetal
- the name of the element has the suffix 'ide'
- dont have need any prefix
Example:
KCl = Potassium Chloride
AgBr = Silver Bromide
Mg3N2 = Magnesium Nitride

Prefix
1

Mono

Hexa

Di

Hepta

Tri

Octa

Tetra

Nona

Penta

10

Deca

Example:
CO = carbon monoxide
CO2 = carbon dioxide
H2O = dihydrogen monoxide