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Application Note 140 October 2013 Basic Concepts of Linear Regulator and Switching Mode Power Supplies
Application Note 140 October 2013 Basic Concepts of Linear Regulator and Switching Mode Power Supplies
Application Note 140 October 2013 Basic Concepts of Linear Regulator and Switching Mode Power Supplies
October 2013
Basic Concepts of Linear Regulator and Switching
Mode Power Supplies
Henry J. Zhang
ABSTRACT
This article explains the basic concepts of linear regulators
and switching mode power supplies (SMPS). It is aimed
at system engineers who may not be very familiar with
power supply designs and selection. The basic operating
principles of linear regulators and SMPS are explained
and the advantages and disadvantages of each solution
are discussed. The buck step-down converter is used as
an example to further explain the design considerations
of a switching regulator.
INTRODUCTION
Todays designs require an increasing number of power
rails and supply solutions in electronics systems, with
loads ranging from a few mA for standby supplies to over
100A for ASIC voltage regulators. It is important to choose
the appropriate solution for the targeted application and
to meet specified performance requirements, such as
high efficiency, tight printed circuit board (PCB) space,
accurate output regulation, fast transient response, low
solution cost, etc. Power management design is becoming
a more frequent and challenging task for system designers,
many of whom may not have strong power backgrounds.
A power converter generates output voltage and current
for the load from a given input power source. It needs to
meet the load voltage or current regulation requirement
during steady-state and transient conditions. It also must
protect the load and system in case of a component
failure. Depending on the specific application, a designer
can choose either a linear regulator (LR) or a switching
mode power supply (SMPS) solution. To make the best
choice of a solution, it is essential for designers to be
familiar with the merits, drawbacks and design concerns
of each approach.
This article focuses on nonisolated power supply applications and provides an introduction to their operation and
design basics.
LINEAR REGULATORS
How a Linear Regulator Works
Lets start with a simple example. In an embedded system,
a 12V bus rail is available from the front-end power supply.
On the system board, a 3.3V voltage is needed to power an
operational amplifier (op amp). The simplest approach to
generate the 3.3V is to use a resistor divider from the 12V
bus, as shown in Figure 1. Does it work well? The answer
is usually no. The op amps VCC pin current may vary under
different operating conditions. If a fixed resistor divider
is used, the IC VCC voltage varies with load. Besides, the
12V bus input may not be well regulated. There may be
many other loads in the same system sharing the 12V rail.
Because of the bus impedance, the 12V bus voltage varies with the bus loading conditions. As a result, a resistor
12VDC BUS
R1
3.3V
VCC
LOAD
R2
+
VX
AN140 F01
an140fa
AN140-1
Q1
3.3V
LOAD
CO
VO = 3.3V
+
VFB
RB
VCC
LOAD
RA
VCC
+
VCE
R1
CURRENT
AMPLIFIER
ERROR
AMPLIFIER
12VBUS
FEEDBACK
REGULATOR
VIN = 12VBUS
LINEAR REGULATOR
+
VX
VREF
AN140 F03
VX
an140fa
AN140-2
IN
LT1083
ADJ
10F
5V AT 7.5A
OUT
121
1%
10F*
TANTALUM
365
1%
*REQUIRED FOR STABILITY
AN140 F04
work with low headroom (VIN VO) are called low dropout
regulators (LDOs).
It is also clear that a linear regulator or an LDO can only
provide step-down DC/DC conversion. In applications that
require VO voltage to be higher than VIN voltage, or need
negative VO voltage from a positive VIN voltage, linear
regulators obviously do not work.
100
POUTPUT
VO IO
V
=
= O
POUTPUT +PLOSS VO IO +(VIN VO)IO VIN (1)
EFFICIENCY %
80
60
40
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
VO/VIN
0.8
1
AN140 F05
IN
VIN
1.2V TO 36V
VCONTROL
1F
OUT
SET
RSET
VOUT = RSET 10A
VOUT
2.2F
AN140 F06
AN140-3
LT3080
VCONTROL
OUT 10m
SET
VIN
4.5V TO 30V
VIN
LT3080
VCONTROL
1F
OUT 10m
SET
VOUT
3.3V
2A
100F
165k
AN140 F07
AN140-4
A quick answer is high efficiency. In an SMPS, the transistors are operated in switching mode instead of linear
mode. This means that when the transistor is on and
conducting current, the voltage drop across its power path
is minimal. When the transistor is off and blocking high
voltage, there is almost no current through its power path.
So the semiconductor transistor is like an ideal switch. The
power loss in the transistor is therefore minimized. High
efficiency, low power dissipation and high power density
(small size) are the main reasons for designers to use
SMPS instead of linear regulators or LDOs, especially in
high current applications. For example, nowadays a 12VIN,
3.3VOUT switching mode synchronous buck step-down
supply can usually achieve >90% efficiency vs less than
27.5% from a linear regulator. This means a power loss
or size reduction of at least eight times.
Q1
SW
+
+
IC(IN)
VO
IL
+V
GS1
D1
ICO
CO
LOAD
VIN
D TS
TS
VL
SW
VGS1
VSW
VIN
DUTY
CYCLE
Q1
VL
T
VO(DC) = AVG[VSW]= ON VIN
TS
(2)
IL
IC(IN)
VO
IL
VIN VO
VL
VO
ICO
CO
LOAD
VIN
IL
SW
+
+
IL
D1
IC(IN)
VO
IL
VIN
ICO
CO
ICO
LOAD
VO
AN140 F08
AN140-5
(5)
Equation (5) is the same as equation (3). The same voltsecond balance approach can be used for other DC/DC
topologies to derive the duty cycle vs VIN and VO equations.
Power Losses in a Buck Converter
DC Conduction Losses
With ideal components (zero voltage drop in the ON
state and zero switching loss), an ideal buck converter
is 100% efficient. In reality, power dissipation is always
associated with every power component. There are two
types of losses in an SMPS: DC conduction losses and
AC switching losses.
The conduction losses of a buck converter primarily result
from voltage drops across transistor Q1, diode D1 and
Q1
SW
IC(IN)
VIN
VO
IL
ICO
Q2
CO
VGSQ1
LOAD
VGSQ2
DUTY
CYCLE
AN140 F09
AN140-6
POUTPUT
POUTPUT +PCON_LOSS
3.3V 10A
= 96.45%
33W +1.2W
(11)
TON
Q1
VGS
QGD
TOFF
QGD
t
VDS
IDS
EON
EOFF
t
AN140 F10
AN140-7
IL(P-P) =
(14)
(15)
AN140-8
1
,
ESR CO
(16)
(17)
L
RAMP
+
ESR
VIN
CO
VO
R
LOAD
VC
R2
DT S
VFB
RAMP
+
COMPARATOR
COMP
VC
TS
D = k VC
R1
D
PWM
VIN 1+ S
VO
SZ_ESR
GDV (s)= =
D 1+ S + S2
O Q O2
DCR
1+
1
R 1
O = 2fWO =
L CO
L CO
1+ ESR
R
VREF
AN140 F11
FEEDBACK CONTROL
an140fa
AN140-9
CF
220pF
DB
RILIMT
732
VIN
ILIMT
RILIMB
57.6k
CVCC
4.7F
TG
SENSE
ILIMB
INTVCC
CSS
0.01F
C2
330pF
VIN
5V TO 26V
CIN1
330F
35V
QT
CB
0.1F
L1
0.36H
SS
SW
FREQ
BG
FB
BOOST
LTC3775
RSET
39.2k
RA
10k
RSENSE
0.003
+
QB
PGND
COUT
470F
2.5V
2
VOUT
1.2V
15A
MODE/SYNC
COMP RUN/SHDN
SGND
RB
10k
R2
C1 4.7k
3.9nF
AN140 F12
Figure 12. The LTC3775 Voltage Mode Synchronous Buck Supply Offers
a High Step-Down Ratio
an140fa
AN140-10
RSEN
+
KI
ESR
VIN
ERROR OP AMP
OUTPUT
VO
R
LOAD
~IOUT
R2
INDUCTOR
CURRENT
SIGNAL
IL SIGNAL
COMPARATOR
CURRENT MODE CONTROL
VFB
COMPENSATION
NETWORK
SLOPE
COMP
VC
TOP FET
GATE SIGNAL
R1
D
PWM
SLOPE COMP
ERROR
0P AMP
VREF
AN140 F13
an140fa
AN140-11
INTVCC
VIN
RPGD
100k
CIN2
22F
2
LTC3833
VIN
4.5V TO 14V
CIN1
180F
16V
VOUT
PGOOD
SENSE
SENSE+
RUN
VRNG
TG
MODE/PLLIN
SW
EXTVCC
L1
0.47H
DB
CITH2 47pF
RITH 84.5k
RT 137k
TRACK/SS
RSENSE
1.5m
BOOST
CSS 0.1F
CITH1 220pF
MT
INTVCC
RFB2
15k
CB
0.1F
INTVCC
RFB1
10k
CVCC
4.7F
COUT2
100F
2
COUT1
330F
2.5V
2
MB
BG
ITH
VOUT
1.5V
20A
PGND
RT
SGND
VOSNS+
VOSNS
AN140 F14
Figure 14. Fast, Controlled-On-Time Current Mode Supply Using the LTC3833
ILOAD
20A/DIV
ILOAD
20A/DIV
VOUT
50mV/DIV
ILOAD
20A/DIV
VOUT
50mV/DIV
VOUT
50mV/DIV
IL
20A/DIV
IL
20A/DIV
50s/DIV
VIN = 12V
VOUT = 1.5V
LOAD TRANSIENT = 0A TO 20A
AN140 F15a
IL
20A/DIV
5s/DIV
VIN = 12V
VOUT = 1.5V
LOAD STEP = 0A TO 20A
AN140 F15b
5s/DIV
VIN = 12V
VOUT = 1.5V
LOAD RELEASE = 20A TO 0A
AN140 F15c
Figure 15. LTC3833 Supply Offers Fast Response During Rapid Load Step Transients
an140fa
AN140-12
the complicated equations and makes loop compensation a much simpler task [6]. The LTspice simulation
tool integrates all of Linear Technologys part models and
provides additional time domain simulations to optimize
the design. However, bench test/verification of loop stability and transient performance is usually necessary in the
prototype stage.
In general, the performance of the closed voltage regulation
loop is evaluated by two important values: the loop bandwidth and the loop stability margin. The loop bandwidth
is quantified by the crossover frequency fC, at which the
loop gain T(s) equals one (0dB). The loop stability margin
is typically quantified by the phase margin or gain margin.
The loop phase margin m is defined as the difference
between the overall T(s) phase delay and 180 at the
crossover frequency. The gain margin is defined by the
difference between T(s) gain and 0dB at the frequency
where overall T(s) phase equals 180. For a buck converter, typically 45 degree phase margin and 10dB gain
margin is considered sufficient. Figure 16 shows a typical
Bode plot of loop gain for a current mode LTC3829 12VIN
to 1VO/60A 3-phase buck converter. In this example, the
crossover frequency is 45kHz and the phase margin is 64
degrees. The gain margin is close to 20dB.
Figure 16. LTpowerCAD Design Tool Provides an Easy Way to Optimize the Loop Compensation and Load Transient
Response (3-Phase, Single-Output LTC3829 Buck Converter Example).
an140fa
AN140-13
100k
680pF
5k
0.1F
TG1
0.6H
SENSE1+
SENSE1
LTC3829
VFB
DIFFN
DIFFP
0.6H
VOUT
1.2V
50A
0.002
BG2
SENSE2+
SENSE2
TG3
SW3
20k
VIN
SW2
DIFFOUT
VIN
6V TO 28V
BG1
FREQ
ITH
TK/SS
0.002
22F
35V
3
PGND
TG2
SGND
20k
SW1
BOOST1
BOOST2
BOOST3
PCB Layout
VIN
INTVCC
4.7F
VIN
0.6H
0.002
BG3
SENSE3+
SENSE3
COUT
470F
4V
4
AN140 F17
Figure 17. A 3-Phase, Single VO High Current Buck Converter Using the LTC3829
an140fa
AN140-14
This application note uses buck converters as a simple example to demonstrate the design considerations of SMPS.
However, there are at least five other basic nonisolated
converter topologies (boost, buck/boost, Cuk, SEPIC and
Zeta converters) and at least five basic isolated converter
topologies (flyback, forward, push-pull, half-bridge and
full-bridge) which are not covered in this application note.
Each topology has unique properties that make it suited
for specific applications. Figure 19 shows simplified
schematics for the other nonisolated SMPS topologies.
There are other nonisolated SMPS topologies which
are combinations of the basic topologies. For example,
L
BOOST CONVERTER
+
+
LOAD
CO
VOUT
VIN
DUTY
BUCK/BOOST CONVERTER
VIN
CO
LOAD
VOUT
DUTY
VIN
LOAD
CUK CONVERTER
CB
L2
L1
CO
VOUT
DUTY
VIN
(a)
L2
LOAD
SEPIC CONVERTER
CB
L1
CO
VOUT
DUTY
ZETA CONVERTER
CB
(b)
Figure 18. Examples of (a) a Discrete 12VIN to 3.3V/10A LTC3778
Supply; (b) a Fully Integrated 16VIN, Dual 13A or Single 26A
LTM4620 Module Step-Down Regulator
VIN
DUTY
LOAD
CO
VOUT
AN140 F19
AN140-15
VIN
CIN
SW1
VOUT
COUT
C
SNS+
LTC3789
R1
SNS+
SNS
R2
AN140 F20
SUMMARY
In summary, linear regulators are simple and easy to use.
Since their series regulation transistors are operated in a
linear mode, supply efficiency is usually low when output
voltage is much lower than input voltage. In general, linear regulators (or LDOs) have low voltage ripple and fast
transient response. On the other hand, SMPS operate the
transistor as a switch, and therefore are usually much more
efficient than linear regulators. However, the design and
optimization of SMPS are more challenging and require
more background and experience. Each solution has its
own advantages and drawbacks for specific applications.
AN140-16
RSENSE
SNS
REFERENCES
[10] M. Subramanian, T. Nguyen and T. Phillips, SubMilliohm DCR Current Sensing with Accurate Multiphase
Current Sharing for High Current Power Supplies, LT
Journal, Jan. 2013.
[11] B. Abesingha, Fast, Accurate Step-Down DC/DC
Controller Converts 24V Directly to 1.8V at 2MHz, LT
Journal, Oct. 2011.
[12] T. Bjorklund, High Efficiency 4-Switch Buck-Boost
Controller Provides Accurate Output Current Limit, Linear
Technology Design Note 499.
[13] J. Sun, S. Young and H. Zhang, Module Regulator
Fits a (Nearly) Complete Buck-Boost Solution in 15mm
15mm 2.8mm for 4.5V-36Vin to 0.8V-34V Vout, LT
Journal, Mar. 2009.
an140fa
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