Chapter 2: PLATE

TECTONICS:
The Unifying Theory

Grotzinger Jordan
Understanding Earth
Seventh Edition

Active Plate Margins

Rates and history of plate motion

A sensitive magnetometer
records magnetic anomalies,

Magnetic anomalies
Vine and Matthews
(1963)

seafloor areas of high

and low magnetic
values
An oceanic survey over the Reykjanes Ridge, part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
southwest of Iceland, showed an oscillating pattern of magnetic field strength.

Sea floor as a magnetic tape recorder

The present orientation of the Earth's magnetic field is referred to as
Normal Polarity. i.e. Magnetic north points in the direction of geographic
north
A sensitive magnetometer
records magnetic anomalies,

Iceland

MidAtlantic
Ridge

Symmetrical bands
on both sides. Why?
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Geodynamo System
Earths magnetic field is generated due to vigorous convection in
the Fe-rich fluid outer core.
Strength and orientation of the
magnetic field varies
weak and horizontal at
the equator
strong and vertical at the
poles

Figure: Earths magnetic field

and magnetic lines of force. The
magnetic north is inclined by 11
from the axis of rotation.
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Inclination = 90

The magnetic field magnitude at

the surface of the Earth: 0.5 Gauss
The magnitude varies over the
surface of the Earth in the range
0.3 to 0.6 Gauss.

Inclination = 0

The magnetic equator is where the

dip or inclination (I) is zero
Inclination = -90

Magnetic inclination is the angle between the horizontal plane and the total
magnetic field vector, measured positive into Earth. In other words inclination
is the angle of pull down toward the earth that the magnetic field exerts on a
compass needle.
Magnetic Declination: is the angle between magnetic north and true north.
Declination is considered positive east of true north and negative when west.
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Thermoremanent Magnetism:
Magnetic material when cooled below 580 C (curie
temperature for magnetite) become magnetized in the
direction of surrounding magnetic field-

magnetite common mineral in basalt

Records the direction and inclination (and also field

intensity) of the Earth's magnetic field at the time of
formation.

Magnetic time scale developed

Subchrons
5.0 Ma

4.0

Gilbert
reversed chron

3.0

Gauss
normal chron

2.0

1.0

Matuyama
reversed chron

Present

Brunhes
normal chron

black = normal polarity

blue = reverse polarity

Magnetic isochrons on the sea

floor- Dating Oceanic Crust

(note that there is no sea floor older than 200 myrs)

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Estimating Rate of Plate motion-Global

Positioning System (GPS) Satellites
24 satellites are currently
in orbit 20,000 km above
the Earth as part of the
NavStar system of the U.S.
Department of Defense.

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Calculating Spreading Rate

Distance of 7th normal

stripe is about 40 km
from the ridge crest.
The age is about 4
million years.

Spreading Rate = Distance (cm)/Age (years)

= (40 x 105)/(4 x 106) = 1 cm/yr
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Example relative plate velocities

East Pacific Rise (Pacific and Nazca plates)

138 to 150 mm/yr
South Atlantic (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
34 to 35 mm/yr
Southern Ocean, south of Australia
70 to 75 mm/yr
Southern Ocean, south of Africa
14 mm/yr
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Reconstructing the history of plate

motions

1. Assembly and breakup of the

supercontinent Rodinia

2. Assembly and breakup of the

supercontinent Pangaea
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Geologic Time-Scale
EONS

ERAS

PERIODS
Quaternary
-----------------

Cenozoic 65 my
Tertiary

Phanerozoic 540 my Mesozoic 245 my

Proterozoic 2.5 by
Archean 3.9 by
Hadean
4.65 by

Paleozoic 540 my

EPOCHS
Holocene
Pleistocene
----------------Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene

Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic

Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian

PRECAMBRIAN
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RODINIA: Late Proterozoic, 750 Ma

Evidence from:
rock types, fossils,
paleoclimate, and
paleomagnetism

The Earths geography 1 Ga ago. began to break up about

750 million years ago. Lets see continental motion!
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The pre-Pangean
pattern of
continental drift
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ASSEMBLY OF PANGAEA

PANGAEA (a) Early Triassic, 237 Ma

Pangaea is formed

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BREAKUP OF PANGAEA

(b) Early Jurassic, 195 Ma

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BREAKUP OF PANGAEA

(c) Late Jurassic, 152 Ma

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BREAKUP OF PANGAEA

(d) Late Cretaceous, Early Tertiary, 66 Ma

much like today in some ways

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The present-day & future world

The modern world has
been produced over the
past 65 Ma. India collided
with Asia, and is still
pushing northward.

50 MY in the future:
Africa will move N and close Mediterranean
Sea
E Africa will detach (Red Sea rift zone) and
move to India
Atlantic Ocean will grow and Pacific will
shrink as it is swallowed into trenches.
W California will travel NW with the Pacific
Plate (LA will be swallowed into the Aleutian
trench in 60 Ma).

What causes plate motion?

Mechanism known as mantle convection.
Source of heat driving mantle convection is radiogenic heat
(decay of heat producing elements (HPE) U, Th, K in mantle)

Convection Cell

Figure: Mantle convection. Source: USGS

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Mantle convection: the engine of

plate tectonics
The underlying
fundamental driving force
for mantle convection is
gravity

Upper
mantle
700 km

Lower
mantle

Theory 1: whole
mantle convection
(Geophysical
Evidence)

2900 km
Outer core

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Mantle convection: the engine of

plate tectonics

Theory 2:
stratified mantle
convection
(Geochemical
Evidence)

Boundary near
700 km separates
the two convection
systems.

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Mantle Plumes

spreading
centers
and hot
spots

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Mantle Plumes- Hawaii

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The Wilson Cycle

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Theory of Plate Tectonics and the

Scientific Method
Plate tectonics is not a dogma, but a confirmed theory
whose strength lies in its simplicity, its generality, and
its consistency with many types of observations.
This theory has survived so many attempts to prove it
wrong and has been so important in explaining and
predicting so many phenomena that geologists treat
the theory as fact.
Reasons why proof and acceptance took so long: very
cautious approach of many scientists studying this
issue; global scale of the problem; and specialized
technology required to gain data took time to develop.
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Thought questions for this chapter

1. What is the theory of plate tectonics?

2. What are some of the geologic characteristics of plate

boundaries?

3. How can the age of the seafloor be determined?

4. What is the engine that drives plate tectonics?

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Key terms and concepts

Continental drift
Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary
Geodesy
Island arc
Isochron
Magnetic anomaly
Magnetic time scale
Pangaea
Plate tectonics
Relative plate velocity
Rodinia
Seafloor spreading
Spreading center
Subduction
Transform fault

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