Black soil is black in colour due to the presence of one or more of these :

1. Titaniferous magnetite
2. Organic compounds of Iron and Aluminium
3. Colloidal hydrated double Iron and Aluminium Silicate
4. Soluble humus
Steps to Improve Roads on Black Cotton Soils
Generally, lands with black cotton soils are fertile and very good for agriculture, horticulture,
sericulture and aquaculture. Good irrigation systems exist, rainfall is high and people are affluent in
these areas. Though black cotton soils are very good for agricultural purposes, they are not so good
for laying durable roads. Good road network is a basic requirement for the allround development of an
area. Unfortunately, poor road network is hampering the full fledged development of the otherwise
prosperous
areas.
For developing a good and durable road network in black cotton soil areas, the nature of soils shall be
properly understood. Black cotton soils absorb water heavily, swell, become soft and lose strength.
Black cotton soils are easily compressible when wet and possesses a tendency to heave during wet
condition. BC soils shrink in volume and develop cracks during summer. They are characterised by
extreme hardness and cracks when dry. The stability and performance of the pavements are greatly
influenced by the sub grade and embankment as they serve as foundations for pavements. On such
soils suitable construction practices and sophisticated methods of design are to be adopted. In the
present paper, reasons for poor condition of roads in B.C soils and measures to be taken for
construction
and
improvement
of
roads
on
BC
soils
are
presented.
Following are some of the important reasons for poor condition of roads in BC soil terrain.

Nature of BC soils

Poor drainage facilities

Use of gravelly soil in base and sub-base

Improper estimate preparations

Plying of overloaded vehicles and iron wheeled tractors trolleys/carts

Damage of roads during collection of materials

Forming roads on canal banks and tank bunds

Nature of Black Cotton Soils

Roads running in black cotton soils are known for bad condition and unpredictable behavior for which
the nature of the soil contributes to some extent. Nature of blackcotton soils is discussed here.

a.

BC soils absorb water heavily, swell, become soft, lose strength, easily compressible and has
atendency to heave during wet condition.

b.

BC soils shrink in volume and develop cracks during summer. They are chracterised by extreme
hardness and cracks when dry.

c.

Soils are called highly expansive when Free Swell Index exceeds 50%. Such soils undergo
volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking and general unevenness due to
seasonal wetting and drying.

d.

BC soils produce a CBR value of 2 to 5% if compacted efficiently

Indian Road Congress code IRC: 37-2001, Guidelines for design of flexible pavements, suggested
the following in Appendix 4 for pavement on expansive soils.

a.

Buffer layer: Providing a non expansive layer of 0.6 to 1m thick prevents ingress of water
into expansive soil layer and counteracts swelling. It also reduces the harmful effects of
heaving and reduces the stress on expansive layer.

b.

Blanket course: A blanket course of at least 225 mm thick composed of coarse/medium sand or
non plastic moorum with PI less than 6% shall be provided for full width of formation over
expansive subgrade.

c.

Drainage: Appropriate surface drainage and subsurface system to prevent ingress and retention
of water in the pavement structure.

d.

Thick BT surfacing: Desirably, 40mm thick BT surfacing shall be provided to prevent ingress of
water.

. Definition of CBR:It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with
standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding
penetration of a standard material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration
test developed by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing
capacity of subgrade soil for design of flexible pavement.
Tests are carried out on natural or compacted soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and the
results so obtained are compared with the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil strength
of the subgrade soil.

2. APPARATUS Used:

Mould

Steel Cutting collar

Spacer Disc

Surcharge weight

Dial gauges

IS Sieves

Penetration Plunger

Loading Machine

Miscellaneous Apparatus

3. CBR Test PROCEDURE:

Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.

Weigh of empty mould

Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)

After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.

Take sample for determination of moisture content.

Weight of mould + compacted specimen.

Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked CBR.

Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.

After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.

Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.

Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.

Apply the load and note the penetration load values.

Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the value
of CBR.

Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required degree
of compaction.

USES AND SIGNIFICANCE of California Bearing Ratio Test:

The CBR test is one of the most commonly used methods to evaluate the strength of a sub
grade soil, sub base, and base course material for design of thickness for
highways and airfield pavement.

The california bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade
strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is
the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.

This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as unsoaked
state.

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

PURPOSE
The purpose of this laboratory is to determine the unconfined compressive strength
of a cohesive soil sample. We will measure this with the unconfined compression
test, which is an unconsolidated undrained (UU or Q-type) test where the lateral
confining pressure is equal to zero (atmospheric pressure).
INTRODUCTION The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method
of soil shear testing because it is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of
measuring shear strength. The method is used primarily for saturated, cohesive
soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The unconfined compression test is
inappropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the materials would fall apart
without some land of lateral confinement. To perform an unconfined compression
test, the sample is extruded from the sampling tube. A cylindrical sample of soil is
trimmed such that the ends are reasonably smooth and the length-to-diameter ratio
is on the order of two. The soil sample is placed in a loading frame on a metal plate;
by turning a crank, the operator raises the level of the bottom plate. The top of the
soil sample is restrained by the top plate, which is attached to a calibrated proving
ring. As the bottom plate is raised, an axial load is applied to the sample. The
operator turns the crank at a specified rate so that there is constant strain rate. The

load is gradually increased to shear the sample, and readings are taken periodically
of the force applied to the sample and the resulting deformation. The loading is
continued until the soil develops an obvious shearing plane or the deformations
become excessive. The measured data are used to determine the strength of the
soil specimen and the stress-strain characteristics. Finally, the sample is oven dried
to determine its water content. The maximum load per unit area is defined as the
unconfined compressive strength, qu. In the unconfined compression test, we
assume that no pore water is lost from the sample during set-up or during the
shearing process. A saturated sample will thus remain saturated during the test
with no change in the sample volume, water content, or void ratio. More
significantly, the sample is held together by an effective confining stress that results
from negative pore water pressures (generated by menisci forming between
particles on the sample surface). Pore pressures are not measured in an unconfined
compression test; consequently, the effective stress is unknown. Hence, the
undrained shear strength measured in an unconfined test is expressed in terms of
the total stress. APPARATUS The loading frame consists of two metal plates. The top
plate is stationary and is attached to the load-measuring device. The bottom plate is
raised and lowered by means of a crank on the front of the loading frame. After the
soil sample has been placed between the plates, the bottom plate is gradually
raised; the resistance provided by the stationary top plate Department of
Construction Engineering Advanced Geotechnical Laboratory Chaoyang University
of Technology -- Unconfined Compression Test -- 2 applies an axial force to the
sample. Although the loading frames in our laboratory are hand operated, electric
motor-driven and hydraulic load frames are common. Loads are measured with a
calibrated proving ring or an electronic load cell. Vertical deformations are
measured with a dial gauge; the dial gauge is attached to the top plate and
measures the relative movement between the top and bottom plates. We will be
performing a strain-controlled test, in which the load is applied at a constant rate of
strain or deformation
PROCEDURE
1. The first step in the procedure is to examine the loading frame. Turn the crank
and learn how to read the load and deformation dial gages. Determine the
calibration constant for the proving ring and the units of the deformation dial gauge.
2. We will be shearing the samples at a strain rate of 1% per minute. From the
length of your soil sample, determine the deformation at 1% strain. Depending on
the units of the vertical deformation dial gauge (usually 0.001 inches or 0.0001
inches), determine the number of dial divisions per 1 strain- Practice turning the
crank at his number of dial divisions/minute. It is important that the soil sample not
be sheared faster than this specified rate
3. Measure the initial height and diameter of the soil sample with calipers. It is
unlikely that the sample will be a perfect right cylinder. Therefore, it will be

necessary to find the average height and diameter by taking several measurements
in different places along the soil sample. The measurements should be taken by
more than one member of a lab team to be sure that the calipers are read correctly.
If you have any questions about how to take measurements with calipers, ask the
laboratory instructor for instruction.
4. Record the weight of the soil sample and determine the total (moist) unit weight.
5. Place the soil sample in the loading frame, seat the proving ring and zero the
dials.
6. During this lab you will record the load applied at specified strain values. It is
recommended that readings be taken at strains of 0,0.1,0.2, 0.5, 1,2,3,4,5,6,8, 10,
12 14, 16, 18 and 20 percent. You should prerecord the vertical deformation dial
readings at these strain values. With the measured initial height of sample (H0), the
desired percent strain () and the initial dial reading (S0), calculate the dial readings
(S) as follows: 0 0 ) 100 S S ( H = +
7. Readings of force (F) are taken from the proving ring dial gauge and the stress
applied to the ends of the sample (01, or major principal stress) is computed as
follows: A F 1 = where A is the cross-sectional area of the sample. Because the soil
sample height decreases during shear and the volume of the sample remains
constant, the cross sectional area must increase. For a saturated soil that
undergoes no volume change during shear (no flow of water into or out of the
sample), the equivalent or average area (A) at any strain (e) is computed from the
initial area (Ac) and the assumption that volume is conserved: = 1 A0 A
Department of Construction Engineering Advanced Geotechnical Laboratory
Chaoyang University of Technology -- Unconfined Compression Test -- 3
8. Shear the sample at a strain rate of 1% per minute. Typically, the sample fails in
one of two ways. In stiffer clays, a distinct failure plane forms. For this type of
failure, it is likely that the point of failure will be indicated by the measurement of a
peak and then a decrease in load. If this is the case, continue to take four or five
readings past the point of failure. (Caution: before you stop shearing the sample, be
sure that the sample has failed.) A "barreling" failure is more typical for softer clays.
In this type of failure, a distinct failure plane doesn't form, rather the sample bulges
in the middle The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is the maximum value 1,
which may or may not coincide with the maximum force measurement (depending
on the area correction). It is also equal to the diameter of Mohr's circle as indicated
in Fig. 1. The undrained shear strength (su) is typically taken as the maximum shear
stress, or: Su qu 2 1 = If 1 continues to increase up until 20 vertical strain, i.e.
does not reach a maximum and then decrease, the sample has failed by "barreling".
In this case, qu is defined as the value of 1 measured at 20% strain.

Proctor Compaction Test

C
O
N
C
E
P
T
The Proctor compaction test is a laboratory geotechnical testing method used to determine the soil
compaction properties, specifically, to determine the optimal water content at which soil can reach its
maximum dry density. The original test is offren reffered to as Standard Proctor Test, which was later
modified and reffered to as Modified Proctor Test. The difference between the two tests lies mainly in
the compaction enegry.

DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE

The Proctor compaction test consists of compacting soil samples at a given water content in a
standard mould with standard compaction energy. The standard Proctor test uses a 4-inch-diameter
mould with the compaction of three separate layers of soil using 25 blows by a 5.5 lb hammer falling
12 inches.
In the Proctor test, the soil is first air dried and and then separated into 4 to 6 samples. The water
content of each sample is adjusted by adding water (3% - 5% increments or more depending on the
type of the soil).
The soil is then placed and compacted in the Proctor compaction mould in three different layers
where each layer receives 25 blows of the standard hamer. Before placing each new layer, the
surface of the previous layers is scratched in order to ensure a uniform distribution of the compaction
effects.
At the end of the test, after removing and drying of the sample, the dry density and the water content
of the sample is determined for each Proctor compaction test. Based on the whole set of results, a
curve is plotted for the dry unit weight (or density) as a function of the water content. From this
curve, the optimum water content to reach the maximum dry density can be obtained.

STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST

Introduction:For construction of highways, airports, and other structures, it is often
necessary to compact soil to improve its strength. Proctor (1933) developed a
laboratory compaction test procedure to determine the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction of soils, which can be used for specification of field compaction. This
test is referred to as the Standard Proctor Compaction Test. It is based on
compaction of soil fraction passing No. 4 U.S. sieve.
Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.

Compaction mold
No. 4 U.S. sieve
Standard Proctor hammer (5.5 lb)
Balance sensitive up to 0.01g

5. Balance sensitive up to 0.1g

6. Large flat pan
7. Jack
8. Steel straight edge
9. Moisture cans
10.Drying oven
11.Plastic squeeze bottle with water
Proctor Compaction Mold and Hammer: The Proctor compaction mold and
hammer is 4 in diameter and 4.584 in height. The inner volume is 1/30 ft 3. The
height of fall of the hammer is 12.
Procedure
1. Obtain about 10 lb of air dry soil and break the soil lumps.
2. Sieve the soil on a No. 4 U.S. sieve. Collect all the minus 4 sieve materials
(about 6 lb) in a large pan.
3. Add water to the minus 4 sieve materials and mix thoroughly to bring the
moisture content to about 5%.
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate (not extension), W1 (lb).
5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.
6. Pour the moist soil in three equal layers. Compact each layer uniformly with the
Standard Proctor hammer 25 times before each additional layer of loose soil is
poured. At the end of the three-layer compaction, the soil should extend slightly
above the top of the rim of the compaction mold.
7. Remove the extension carefully.
8. Trim excess soil with a straight edge.
9. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate + compacted moist soil,
W2 (lb).
10.Remove the base plate from the mold. Extrude the compacted moist soil
cylinder using a jack.
11.Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).
12.From the moist soil extruded in step 10, collect a moist sample in a moisture can
(step 11) and determine the mass of moist soil + can, W4 (g).
13.Place the moisture can with soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14.Break the rest of the soil cylinder by hand and mix with leftover moist soil. Add
more water and mix to raise moisture content by 2%.
15.Repeat steps 6-12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist
soil (W2) will first increase with the increase in moisture content and then
decrease. Continue the test until at least two successive decreased readings are
obtained.
16.The next day, determine the mass of the moisture cans + soil samples, W5 (g)
(from step 13).
Calculation
1. Determine weight of the mold W1(step 4).
2. Determine weight of the mold + compacted moist soil , W2 (step 9).
3. Determine weight of the compacted moist soil = W2-W1.

4. Moist unit weight = weight of the compacted moist soil / volume of mold =
(W2 - W1) / (1/30 ft3).
5. Determine mass of moisture can, W3 (step 11).
6. Determine mass of moisture can + moist soil, W4 (step 12).
7. Determine mass of moisture can + dry soil, W5 (step 16).
8. Compaction moisture content , w (%) = (W4 - W5) x 100 / (W5 - W3).
9. Dry unit weight d = / (1 + w (%) / 100).
General Comment
1. Plot a graph showing d vs. w (%) and determine the maximum dry unit weight
of compaction, d(max).
2. Also determine the optimum moisture content corresponding to d(max).
3. Why does the weight of the mold + base plate + moist soil (W2) first increase
with an increase in moisture content and then decrease? Discuss.

Test
W1 (lb)

DATA SHEET:
Standard Proctor
Compaction Test
Volume of mold =
1/30 ft3

W2 (lb)
W2 W1 (lb)

(lb/ft3)
Moistur
e can
No.

W3 (g)
W4 (g)
W5 (g)
w (%)
d
(lb/ft3)

Weight of hammer = 5.5 lb

No. of blows / layer =

25
No. of layers = 3