UNISA UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Engineering Work Study II Study guide 1 of 1 Units 1 to 6 EWS271LE v9INTRODUCTORY LETTER Ews271L E INTRODUCTORY LETTER LETTER 01 FOR ENGINEERING WORK STUDY Il CODE: EWS271L Ense PO Box 382, UNISA, 0003, Copyright© Unica 2005, In terms of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978 no pat of his material may be reproduced, be stored in avetieval system, be tansmited or used in any form or be published, redisviouied of screened by ‘any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written ‘ermission of Unisa| However, permission to use in these ways any material inthis work that le ‘derived ftom otter sources must be obtaled from the orignal sources. Printed In South Affica by UnisaEWs271L INTRODUCTORY LETTER Dear Student We are pleased that you have decided to enroll for Engineering Work Study I and we are confident that you will find it as interesting as EWS121Q and even more helpful During the course of Engineering Work Study I you will learn more useful techniques that are essential to the smooth functioning of industry Our emphasis will fall on leaming advanced work study techniques and applying these effectively in engineering applications Engineering Work Study is a main subject in the National Diploma Industrial Engineering, which means you will continue with this subject to a third-year level The effort you put into the first level and into this level is of great importance, as your success at the third level will depend on your knowledge, expertise and application ability at the first two levels Engineering Work Study comprises three major areas of interest, namely method study, work ‘measurement, and productivity In levels one and two you lear the principles that will enable you to do application work at the third level Do you recall the reason for studying Engineering Work Study? Quiet simply it is to equip you for your task as an industrial engineering technician You should be able to use this engineering tool in engineering a work environment When you have mastered this subject, you will be able to do the following > Apply advanced work study techniques in the engineering of a work environment, ensuring the efficient and effective functioning of that environment especially a workstation > Set time and work standards that are acceptable to a work environment Communicate these standards to relevant role-players for their approval At the start of each study unit, a set of study outcomes is given These study outcomes tell you ‘what you should be able to achieve after studying this subject You should also know what you should be able to do with your knowledge once you have studied a particular unit Itis important for you to know how the study guide is structured The guide consists of three modules, which comprise 6 study units, subdivided as follows ~ Module ~ Module ~ ModuleC: — one unit A study unit is divided into several topics (see the contents lists) : two units three units ‘Some units contain activities/exercises that you must complete before continuing with the next uunit/part/section The purpose of the exercises is to confirm to you that you have mastered the content of the unit/part/section and the relevant techniques The study guide has been designed so that you can complete the activities or exercises by writing in relevant spaces, provided for this purpose, in the study guide I have tried to leave enough space, but if you want to write down more than the space will allow, you are welcome to write on a separate page or in a separate exercise book ‘At the end of some sections there are questions that you can use to evaluate your progress It is important that you answer these questions before referring to the study material, and definitely before referring to the model answers Your responses will indicate to you how well you have ‘mastered the study material 1EWs271L E INTRODUCTORY LETTER If you experience difficulties in answering the questions you must go back to the section concemed and study it again You will find the answers to these questions as indicated by the “key’ icon (see the icon below) You are also welcome to contact me should you have serious problems in answering any of the questions ‘The response exercises have been structured to guide you You have been given specific lines on which to fill in relevant information or other relevant response indicators such as “I” for true Follow the guidelines and examples carefully Please read the instruction for each assignment very carefully BEEORE ATTEMPTING the assignments There are three assignments but you need only do twa You may choose to do all three assignments Assignment 1 deals with advanced improvement techniques and how you apply these in your own work environment Assignment 2 deals with the way that time and work standards are established at your work place Assignment 3 is a case study ‘You will find ample examples in the study material Follow these examples very closely Although three assignments are set only two willbe fully marked and count towards your year- mark You may choose to submit all three This is recommended as it gives you an opportunity to work out the answers to all the assignments. This ensures better preparation toward the examinations ‘The time allocated for an assignment is based on a rate of one hour per page Should you work more slowly than this, you will need to set aside more time to ensure that assignment deadlines are met, especially in the case of assignments you submit for year mark purposes These should reach TSA on or before the indicated dates (insert the dates on the progress chart — attached to this letter - in the space provided for this when you receive your study material) You will find all three assignments attached to this letter Stick to preseribed assignment format and other requirements (see above) There are a few important key words used in study outcome statements, response exercises and examination questions These words need to be clearly understood. They are EXPLAIN When you are asked to explain a procedure, you should respond with a logical step-by-step description of how to complete the procedure such as making a hot drink, where you start with filling the kettle, proceed to soaking/melting the ingredients, and end with serving the drink Give precise instructions at each step such as fill, switch on, stir or mix Each step must be numbered and given a ttle, followed by a detailed instruction as seen below Step 1 PREPARATION FOR MAKING A HOT DRINK (Detaled instruction) Step 2 MAKING THE DRINK (Detailed instruction) Step3 SERVING THE DRINK (Detaled instruction) Half'a mark is allocated for each factEWs271LE INTRODUCTORY LETTER DESCRIBE If you are asked to describe a theme, you are required to show three aspects of the theme These are ‘The Characteristics that tell what the theme consists of such as a cup consists of a cylindrical bbody and e handle You could describe a stopwatch by saying it consists of a calibrated face, indicators, winding/resetting mechanisms and so on A recording sheet consists of three areas and each area consists of (give the areas) The Intended Purpose or Uses of the theme such as to hold a drink, to show the length of time activities take Tlustrate the Theme by a sketch/diagram such as sketching a stopwatch or revording sheet Half a mark is allocated for each fact about the characteristics and uses, and two to three marks for each illustration DEFINE If you are asked to define something, you are required, usually in one sentence, 10 state the essences of a matter Most of the definitions you are required to work with are given to you in the study guide or the textbook Work study definitions are given in an extensive glossary at the end of the textbook Not all the terms/definitions are relevant ard only those that relate to the study material at the second level of Engineering Work Study will be referred to Usually one mark is allocated for each idea/concept that, lies behind the definition For example, since four concepts go together to form the term “work measurement’, that definition would be worth four marks LIST If you are asked to list, you need only supply a list of the names or terms that are relevant to a matter such as advanced analyses used in work study Usually half a mark is allocated per item on the list WRITE NOTES Here you would write notes on relevant information regarding a topic The ‘opie is usually prescribed, but the choice of what is written is left to you, although you would be guided by the mark allocation and/or specific instructions such as "Write notes on indirect ‘measurement, stating the techniques used and their advantages’ for five marks You would choose ten facts related to the required topie(s) and the mark allocation is usually half a mark per fact You should spend approximately 120 hours on this subject in order to pay sufficient attention to three vital aspects of your studies in Engineering Work Study II These are studying basic subject content, completing required exercises/activities and assignments and revision ‘You will notice that we have supplied a proposed progress chart and record of study hours to help you pece your progress The chart provides an indication of the progress you should be making Shade in the hours you actually spend studying each unit on the record sheet, in the columns provided for each study unit/assignment/revision (X-axis) to reach the number of hours on the Y axis Compare your actual progress with the expected progress so that you will ‘not run out of time, especially when it comes to completing assignments ASSIGNMENT REQUIREME ~ Exmnr_free assignments are expected An error free assignment means NO vwriting/typing errors (please make use of correcting fluid) and no spelling errors (please use spell-checkers/dictionaries)EWS271L E INTRODUCTORY LETTER DO NOT include photocopied work other than illustrations from other documents Should you wish to scan in or copy the work study forms onto your computer please feel free to do so, but be absolutely sure that you have copied these accurately ~ DONOT be late in submitting your assignments! ‘You will note that in the study guide there are various symbols in the margin next to the written text We call these symbols icons, and their meanings are as follows, 1 EXAMPLE AND ILLUSTRATION os) This icon is used where examples are given * To give you a better understanding of the context To help you to apply specific formulas To explain the working of a specific method To clear up uncertainties To illustrate by means of a sketch, diagram or table 2 DEFINITION: Gi This icon is used for definitions and specific statements, which explain the meaning or working of an aspect relating see to the subject 3 FORMULA: a This icon is used for an established form or set of words and symbols that you are going to apply in solving problems 4 EVALUATION: > This icon is used where the information that you are supposed to have mastered is tested, You are given the ‘opportunity to test whether you have reached the objectives set at the beginning These include ~ self-test ~ additional questions ~ true/false responsesEWs271LE INTRODUCTORY LETTER Ss ACTIVE | This icon is used for activities related to the subject, which include textbook references “© making additional notes % thinking about an aspect of the work. + forming opinions “* making summaries * practical activities 6 — SOLUTION: Aay TINSTINSISSY 3-INA s— INR ¥ t z r jaca daocodaododcaodocaocac XH XK HAH KX KKH HN HHH HK HHH KH K KHOR HIN OCI leleleleltel boii te 'SUNOH AGHA Ggoldad AGNLS a1uzsm3 AQNLS 30 GHO9SY + SXSNNV YSLLAT AYOLONGOMLNIENGINEERING WORK STUDY II 3 STUDY TEXT 44 3 MODULES 6 STUDY UNITS EWS 271 LEACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AUTHOR Russel Anderson MODERATOR Sewes van WykCONTENTSEWs271L E OVERALL CONTENTS MODULE A: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 1-01 STUDY UNIT 4: IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES 4-01 4.4. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING WORK STUDY II (EWS271L) 1-01 1.2. ERGONOMICS 1-02 1.3 FEASIBILITY STUDIES 111 4.4 ATTRIBUTE/FACTOR ANALYSIS 1-46 4.5. WORK CONTENT AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 1-28 1.6 IMPROVEMENT INDICATOR ANALYSES 1-30 STUDY UNIT 2:IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 2-01 2.4. INTRODUCTION TO IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES 2.01 22 ERGONOMIC TECHNIQUES 201 23 SYNERGY 243 2.4 FACILITATING 247 2.5 IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMMES 248 2.6 INFORMATION SOURCING 2.24 2.7 UNIT ACTIVITY 224 2.8 UNIT ACTIVITY SOLUTIONS 2.25EWS271L E MODULE B: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES APPLIED 3-01 STUDY UNIT 3: ENGINEERING FOR IMPROVEMENT 3-01 3.4 INTRODUCTION 3-01 3.2. ENGINEERING WORK GROUPINGS FOR IMPROVEMENT 3-01 3,3. ENGINEERING INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION 3.05 3.4 ENGINEERING WORK PLACE SYNERGY 342 3.8 DESIGNING A WORKSTATION 347 3.6 COMPUTERISED NETWORKING AND COMPUTER INTEGRATED BUSINESS (CIB) 3-31 STUDY UNIT 4: INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 4-01 44 INTRODUCTION 401 4.2 SYSTEMS OVERVIEW AND STRUCTURES. 401 STUDY UNIT 5: QUANTITATIVE WORK STANDARDS FOR MANAGING PERFORMANCE 5-01 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5-01 5.2. ESTABLISHING TIME STANDARDS FROM WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 5-01. 5.3 QUANTITATIVE WORK STANDARDS FOR PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT 519 CaiEWS271L E MODULE C: ADVANCED WORK STUDY TECHNIQUES APPLIED 6-01 STUDY UNIT 6: AN ENGINEERING WORK STUDY CASE STUDY 6-01 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6-01 6.2 WORKSTATION ANALYSIS. 6-02 6.3. DESIGNING A WORKSTATION 6.4 WORKSTATION SYNTHESIS 616 6.5 ESTABLISHING WORKSTATION TIME AND WORK STANDARDS 6419 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bi CliSTUDY UNIT 1 > mrcoosWs271L E UNIT CONTENTS NODULE A: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 1-01 STUDY UNIT 1: IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES 1-01 4.1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING WORK STUDY Il (EWS271L) 101 111 Review Engineering Work Study | (EWS121Q) 4-01 142 An Overview 1-01 1.2, ERGONOMICS 1-02 121. Structures in the Workplace 1-02 42.2 Functioning in the Workplace 1-05 123 Behaviour in the Workplace 1-09 124 Section Activity 1-10 1.3 FEASIBILITY STUDIES 41 131 Economic Consideration 1 132 Possible Success 114 133 The Extent of a Study 1-15 134 Section Activity 145 4.4 ATTRIBUTE/FACTOR ANALYSIS 146 141 Factors/Attributes Related to Problem Situations 1-16 142 Factors/Attributes Related to Design 1-18 143 Section Activity 1-24EWS271L E 1.8 WORK CONTENT AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 1-25 151 The Role of Resources in Work Content Analysis 1-28 152 The Role of Process Analysis in Work Content Analysis 1-26 153 The Role of Functional Analysis in Process Analysis 1-27 154 Section Activity 1-29 1.6 IMPROVEMENT INDICATOR ANALYSES. 1-30 161 ABC Analysis 1-30 162 Pareto Analysis, 1-32 163 Value Analysis, 1-34 164 Variety Management 1-35 165 Cause and Effect Analysis, 1.37 1.66 Section Activity 1-39 414iEWS271L E MODULE A: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES STUDY UNIT 1: IMPROVEMENT ANALYSES. ‘STUDY OUTCOMES After studying this study unit you should be able to 1 analyse situcttions for the purpose of improvement 1.1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING WORK STUDY II (EWS271L) Engineering Work Study II will help you gain insight into improvement techniques We and work standards necessary for optimising (make it the best) work situations The purpose of this module is to give you insight into, and an opportunity of applying advanced improvement analyses, methods and techniques while studying work situations Work study methods and techniques are basic to the engineering process Work study techniques apply especially during the analysis, design and industrialising phases of engineering It is essential that you are able to ‘effectively improve’ while engineering or re-engineering a work situation The extent to which synergy, interaction and integration (the three attributes form a co-ordinated work place) materialise in the work place is largely dependent on industrial engineering skills Work study techniques are reliable tools in accomplishing the desired level of co-ordination in a work place 1.1.1 REVIEW ENGINEERING WORK STUDY | (EWS121QE) A helpful way of starting this module is to review Engineering Work Study I Pay particular attention to the basic method study procedure (page 70 in the textbook and 222 Unit 1) Work measurement (page 166 in the textbook and 12 Unit 10) and ergonomics (pages 137 to 146 and 270 in the textbook) are very important to EWS271L 1.1.2 AN OVERVIEW ‘The improvement analyses, methods and techniques tabled below are an overview and are discussed under Units 1 and 2 to provide insight into these ANALYSES, TECHNIQUES ERGONOMIC ANALYSIS ERGONOMICS FEASIBILITY STUDIES ‘SYNERGY FACTORIATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS FACILITATING WORK CONTENT AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS —_ IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES IMPROVEMENT INDICATOR ANALYSES - ABC, AND PROGRAMMES PARETO, VALUE, VARIETY, CAUSE AND EFFECT INFORMATION SOURCING 101ws271L E 1.2 ERGONOMICS ‘An in depth study of ergonomics (the relationship between the worker and his occupation see page 270 7 of the textbook) or human engineering is beyond the scope of this text There are however ergonomic aspects (see the information in this section) especially the ergonomic development in work place design that comes within the confines of this text Work place analysis and design is a highly developed and extensive engineering discipline The area of ergonomic engineering that is of importance in this text is workstation design (see 3.5) This text will provide you with information and a procedure for workst design based on work place analyses, methods and improvement techniques Ergonomic analyses apply to the three ergonomic areas of work place relationships The areas are structures, function and behaviour 1.2.1 STRUCTURES IN THE WORKPLACE Structures in the work place comprise system, physical, human, procedural and organisational/relationship arrangements These are introduced to you by short definitions As the text progresses these definitions are appropriately applied 1.2.1.1 System Structures The general system structure provides a basic structure for adequate system functioning and interaction with other systems This is vital in maintaining order in a workplace, especially a production environment where order and structured activities are basic requirements The system structure also provides the essential boundaries in a work environment as it clearly defines various functions, the logical functioning of work areas (see Unit 4) to minimise confusion and uncertainty The general system structure is illustrated below GENERAL SYSTEM STRUCTURE : — I ol FEEDBACK 1.2.1.2 Physical Structures These structures are the tangible aspects of the work environment and include + Factory Sites:- where production takes place (any manufacturing plant) © Buildings - the structures (brick, metal sheeting or pre-cast 1-02NS271LE walling) in which work is done + The Workplace:- the place where specific work takes place and has a precise layout arrangement of the equipment necessary to do the work * The Workstation:- the space required to produce work Workers, machines and material like at a lathe, combine for this purpose * Machinery and Equipment (including fixtures)- are the instruments such as welders, toasters or computers with which the product is made or services are given 1.2.1.3 Human Structures Humans like machines and other objects need space to function in. The space required for human ‘structures’ or bodies is much less per person at a workstation, than for most machines An area of space is usually allocated to machines or equipment People move around and therefore need many different areas Workers need space for working, interaction, recreation and movement to adequately function People work at their best in the workplace if they are comfortable and can get on with their job Therefore, it is essential to ensure that the human structure fits into a workspace in such @ way that work will be carried out correctly and safely, but in comfort For example, a chair that is too high or too low, or material that is out of normal reach (see page 142 of the textbook) of the worker causes structural incompatibility (discomfort) for the worker Any other structural aspect of the workplace that will cause discomfort to the worker is ergonomically (relationship between the worker comfort and the total job environment) unacceptable * People’ - occupy space and need multiple areas (workstations, passages or restrooms) to carry out required work and work related activities PEOPLE WHO PRODUCE ‘SHOULD NOT BE.... UNCOMFORTABLE BUT RELAXED AND AT EASE WITH ENOUGH SPACE 1-03NS271LE TOGETHER PEOPLE, MATERIALS AND MACHINES PRODUCE 1.2.1.4 Procedural Structures These structures provide the framework by which work can be performed and include © Standard Operating Procedures - these are the documents (such as starting a machine, packing products or using a computer program) that guide workers in the correct way of carrying out either technical or clerical process * Work Instructions - are specific instructions of how to construct (such as cutting material from a pattem or mixing bread dough) an item or comply with work requirements (specifications) * General Procedures - are procedures (such as applying for leave or requesting materials) that support the operating activities 4.2.1.5 Organisational Structures These structures include all aspects of business and business relationships that ensure the smooth running and the co- ordination of the work environment These are « Functional Structures (see 1 5 3) that show the relationships and interactions of required functions in a work environment + Personnel/People Structures that show the organisational relationships of responsible personneliworkers * Company Structures that show what a company might adopt as their framework of how to relate in the workplace. There are three major types of structures, centralised, decentralised and interactive 1-04wS274L E ‘The organisational structures are illustrated below CEO DIRECTORS MANAGERS TECHNICAL STAFF PRODUCTION WORKERS CENTRALISED STRUCTURE HEAD OFFICE BRANCH A BRANCH B BRANCH WORKERS DECENTRALISED STRUCTURE \— INTEGRATED STRUCTURE 1.2.2 FUNCTIONING IN THE WORKPLACE Functions include system, managerial, technical, organisational and interactive processes ‘The word ‘process’ can be used instead of ‘function’ These two words will often be interchanged in this text In designing an optimum (best) work place it is essential to include the functional aspects as part of ergonomic requirements An overview of the functional aspects given below, provides you with useful information in the event of needing to design a workstation 1-05ws271L E 1.2.2.1 System Processes Each system functions uniquely It is the functioning of the system that constitutes (makes up) the unique nature of an individual system System functioning is grouped into seven types and the processing of each group is outlined below (studied in detail under Engineering Work Study III) we ~ A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM initiates, tansmits/sends/ transports messages/goods/people along a common link means (channelcable‘road'rail), receives messages/goody/people, processes -messages/goods/people and responds to the processed data. E-mail or a bus ride are typical of this system. ~ A CONTROL SYSTEM obtains and communicates requirements after implementation, measures results of processed activities, assesses measured data, compares assessed results, reports outcomes, investigates unacceptable variances and takes corrective action. A monitoring system is a subsystem of a control system. A production or ‘material control system is an example of a control system (see Unit 4). ~ A DECISION MAKING SYSTEM structures a model, simulates, draws conelusions‘indicators, studies indicators, takes decisions, acts on indicators. A network analysis or production meeting is an example of a decision-making system. ~ A DESIGN SYSTEM forms a concept, gains approval for the concept, establishes/proves concept feasibility, transforms the concept into a useful design/practice and tests the design in-use. A layout or jig design system is an example of a design system. ~ AN INFORMATION SYSTEM establishes, generates, formulates, produces, circulates and monitors information. A planning system is an example of an information (see 4.2.2.2). ~ AN OPERATING SYSTEM checks system mechanisms, starts the system, engages/connects the system, drives/runs the system, steers the system on @ course, shuts down. Operating a computer is a good example of an operating system. ~ A PHYSICAL SYSTEM states requirements, procures requirements, installs objects, tests objects in use and puts objects/mechanisms to use ‘The installation of a new work centre like a cell is typical of a physical system. ~ AN ENGINEERING SYSTEM analyses, designs, constructs, industrialises, commissions and maintains. Engineering a workstation is typical of an engineering system. 1-06IWS271L E 1.2.2.2 Managerial Processes Managerial functions comprise six primary or basic functions (planning, organising, financing, staffing, processing, controlling) and three secondary or true functions (co-ordinating, communicating, decision making) These functions are the basis of goal achievement and are applied as the text proceeds ~ Primary Processes => Planning is a statement of desire, projection, prediction, guide, wish or direction in which activities are to be steered in achieving goals. Organising is subdividing of the total workload into parts and allocating required resources to carry out work. Resources can be grouped into eight groups. An easy way to remember these groupings is to start each group with the letter ‘M’ The eight M's are. MACHINES:- MANAGEMENT:- MANPOWER:- MARKETS - MATERIALS:- MESSAGES: METHODS - MONEY:- include equipment, machines, machine tools and plant includes all people who take risks for the sake of promoting the business of the company includes all able people who become capable workers include all opportunities of exchange for the purpose of promoting business includes all materials, (raw materials to finished goods) include all information include all systems, processes, procedures, methods, techniques, information and technology includes all financial activities such as budgeting, costing, capital expenditure = Financing is providing for all aspects such as budgeting and costing that contribute to financial requirements necessary for achieving business goals. => Staffing/Manning ensures that suitable workers are recruited, selected, ‘rained, placed, developed, rewarded and that separation is conducted ‘fairly and with dignity. => Processing is the setting up of procedures, methods, and work standards to ensure good workflow for the purpose of achieving goals in the work environment. => Controlling consists of monitoring (obtaining requirements, measuring processes, assessing the data from the measurement and comparing the ‘assessed results to the requirements) and taking con ve action. 1-07WS271L E ~ Secondary Processes => Co-ordinating is the bringing together of all relevant activities in a business so that the work situation works (functions) toward goal achievement 4 balanced interaction of the primary management processes should result in a well co-ordinated situation. This ensures a smooth flow of communication and provides opportunities for taking reasonable risks while making decisions. => Communicating is initiating, transmitting (passing on), responding to, ‘and minimising negative elements while exchanging information, goods or people. => Decision-making is judging a situation based on facts and accordingly taking action. 4.2.2.3 Technological Processes These are functions that have to do with the ART and SCLENCE of how work is done Part of the ergonomic aspect of work is to maintain a balance between the art and science of work processes The art aspects of technology comprise processes that require skills such as doing something just right, initiative, making ‘it? work, creative thinking by looking for new and different ways of doing things “Art’ aspects also include the aestheties (pleasure) of a situation or product The science aspects of technology include precision requirements such as specification, engineering by analysing, designing and constructing The other science aspect is assessment Assessment processes ensure levels of acceptability (to specification) and capability (error free level) of a product, process and/or worker 4.2.2.4 Organisational Processes These functions should ensure resource allocations as well as ensuring that structures (1 2 1) are in place to perform (1 2 2) work as required This is a good basis for co-ordination at a work place 1.2.2.5 Interactive Processes A work environment comprises many interactive processes These are grouped into three groups those of vertical, horizontal and integrative processes Vertical processes are confined to a specific process, usually technical, such as drilling a hole of raising a purchase order Vertical processes are the ‘main root and stem’ of a particular function such as drilling or purchasing Horizontal processes cross the path of the vertical process in support or complementing of a vertical process Horizontal processes are such as collecting a drill bit from a tool store and measuring diameters to confirm correct hole sizes or becoming familiar with the keyboard of a computer to raise a purchase order A logical procedure and suitable methods should comprise each process The integration (mixing) of vertical (drilling) and horizontal (fetching the drill bit) processes ensures effective and co-ordinated completion of work complying with reasonable requirements such as time and speed 1-08Ews271L E 41.2.3 BEHAVIOUR IN THE WORKPLACE Behaviour in the work place is based on human and inanimate (without a mind) activities The behaviour of people stems from an animated intelligence (mind driven) prompted from learnt behaviour (That which I do because I see similar behaviour such as smiling That which I do because I repeat the same behaviour such as washing every moming That which I do due to forces such as not loosing my pen to avoid a hiding ) and neurological ability (due to the normal or expected body functions such as being able to speak clearly, walk properly or see with both eyes) The behaviour of inanimate (without a mind) objects is programmed, constructed, assisted, projected or gravitated Jogging a machine by means of a ‘start’ button to reach an operating point or switching a machine on to run by means of its mechanisms are examples of programmed and assisted behaviour A ball will move to a bat by means of someone hurling/pitching (projecting) the ball at the bat This is an example of assisted, projected and gravitated behaviour of an inanimate object WORK PLACE BEHAVIOUR 1-09EWS271L E = 1.2.4 SECTION ACTIVITY Analyse your work place by listing from 121 to 123 the ergonomic aspects that comprise your work place and describe these in your own words, below 1.2.4.1 Structures (see 12 1) 1.2.4.2 Functioning in the Workplace (see 1 2 2) 1-10EWS271L E 1.3. FEASIBILITY STUDIES A feasibility study is an essential part of an improvement programme, work study assignment (textbook page 264 5) or industrial engineering project A feasibility study should indicate whether it is economic to study a situation The feasibility study should also indicate the likelihood of success in a study A third use of a feasibility study is to indicate the extent of a study/project 1.3.1. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION Economic considerations should be based on resource requirements The economic considerations in the event of an improvement or engineering study should include all. 1-41WS271L E eight categories of resources The resources should be analysed as follows => MACHINES include equipment, machines, machine tools and plant. A survey of machines, tools and/or equipment required during the study/project from which data collecting should take place and which will contribute to final recommendations. REQUIRED EQUIPMENT AND DATA Questions such as. ‘will additional or new equipment/machines be essential to the study? What costs are likely in using exiting or acquired ‘machines and equipment during the study/project?’ => MANAGEMENT includes all people who take risks for the sake = MANPOWER => MARKETS of promoting the business of the company. Would the study need to be managed and to what extent? Who would be involved and for what period? These are essential questions to determine the feasibility of a study/project. includes all available people who are capable of meeting work requirements The involvement of workers is inevitable during a work study assignment/project Estimating the number of workers required during a study is part of a feasibility study. Are these workers to be employed on a casual basis or is it possible (0 use current workers? Who will pay the workers during the study? What are likely labour relations difficulties during or as a result of the study? What new or specific skills would be required during the study? include all opportunities of exchange for the purpose of promoting business In the main, during 1-12ws271L E = MATERIALS => MESSAGES => METHODS => MONEY @ work study assignmentiindustrial engineering project, the ‘market’ is usually some or other work ‘area within a company or firm This changes the commercial understanding of ‘exchange’ usually on @ financial basis, An inter-company business arrangement is more likely to be interactionary A clear definition of the required study/project is essential. What are the expected outcomes and benefits of the study? What budgetary provision is available for the assignment? Are there likely time constrainis? include all materials; (raw materials to finished goods) During a study/project there will be a need for materials. These are first of all work study recording documents and then other stationary. In addition to the work study stationary, itis also likely that production materials will play a part in the study project assignment Would special materials like mew documents be required? Designing documents is time consuming and could be expensive if these are based on special computer programmes include all information A work study/project assignment requires a great deal of data. Collecting data for an assignment is time consuming and calls for careful attention and planning. Collected data require specific assessments and analyses. Reporting ‘on a study requires skills such as formulating and presenting assessed data include all systems, processes, procedures, ‘methods, techniques and technology. A work study/ industrial engineering assignment requires specific ‘methods of data collection, analyses, optimising and presentation. These all take time, money and effort ‘on the part of the analyst or an assignment team. includes all financial activities such as budgeting, costing and capital expenditure The cost of completing a work study/project assignment is considerable as it includes several expenses. Expenses such as time, expertise and materials should be recoverable from the improved productivity of a situation. 1-13Ws271L E 4.3.2. POSSIBLE SUCCESS Projecting and/or testing the likelihood of success during a study is necessary for ‘economic reasons but short and long term feasibility are as important Will the outcome of the study be an effective improvement? Sufficient evidence in this respect should be presented before a study is launched Evidence gleaning tactics and techniques (see page 59 of the textbook) are necessary in assessing the likelihood of a successful study The following are reconamended tactics and techniques => DETERMINE THE SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING PROJECT OR WORK STUDY ASSIGNMENT. => CONVENE ASSIGNMENT DISCUSSIONS => SURVEY THE PROBLEM/PROJECT BY COLLECTING AND ANALYSIN\ DATA ON: Long (for many years to come), medium (the entire project) and short term (the day-to-day requirements during the study and once the project is operational) implications of the problem Available resources Required resources Resources that are poorly used, misused or neglected Functional relationships of the departmentiwork area Actual production data for a predetermined period Costs over the same period Overtime worked over the same period Worker absenteeism and tumover for the same period Backlog of work in the area Work patterns such as peaks of cyclic activity or slack periods Work flow, or ‘hold-ups’ due to factors outside the control of workers Actual state of the work area or situation from an activity sampling study => REPORT ON THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE SURVEY DATA => MAKE A DECISION BY GOING AHEAD WITH A FULL SCALE STUDY, CONTINUING DISCUSSIONS OR ABORTING THE STUDY 1-14EWs271L E 1.3.3 THE EXTENT OF A STUDY The extent of an industrial engineering project/work study assignment includes the duration or required time to complete the study The extent of the study also indicates the affected period. The period could be short, medium or long term The longer the term of benefit the more support and justification there is for a study assignment to go ahead An assignment tied up with an improvement project is often a ‘good prospect and should receive management support Short-term changes and ‘quick- fix’ requests are suspect and call for close scrutiny before considering the expense of a study oe 1.3.4 SECTION ACTIVITY Select a problem at your work place and outline three outcomes of a feasibility study (see 1 3) to indicate your decision to study Briefly define the problem below 1.3.4.1 Economic Considerations (see 1 3 1)Wws271L E 1.4 ATTRIBUTE/FACTOR ANALYSIS Attribute or factor analysis is essential in a problem and/or design situation Problem areas have similar but different needs The analysis shows the factors by identifying them in a situation Typical geeneric factors are qutlined under 141 and 142 only for awareness Some of the factors are analysed in detailed in other subjects (such as costing) 1.41 FACTORS/ATTRIBUTES RELATED TO PROBLEM SITUATIONS There are any number of factors that can relate to problem situations and design requirements in a work situation In this section only generic factors are mentioned The generic factors outlined below are the more common ones These factors are ~ automation which includes all areas of the work place that can be automated and the highest degree of automation ~ capability of processes which should aim at meeting levels between I and 1,33 Cox (capability index studied in QUTI51Z and QAS221U) ~ capability of workers should aim at meeting levels between 1 and 1,33 Cyx (capability index studied in QUT151Z and QAS221U) ~ complexity of work processes and work integration should be indicated for work place and process design purposes ~ distance that refers to travel ~ economics that imply resource utilisation and natural human movements ~ ergonomics that refers to workers and their occupational interaction ~ movement of ‘bodies’ that indicates the movement of animate and inanimate bodies ~ performance that includes process and worker performances ~ positioning of structures (layout) that should comply with ergonomic and economic considerations ~ quality of materials, products and work that are essential 10 quality assurance requirements and form part of an all embracing approach to excellence in a work place ~ stoppages that include worker, machine and process interruptions ~ supply of resources that is fundamental to completing work ~ time standards that are the basis of work standards e factors listed above are grouped into five generic groups below 1-16EWS271L E 1.4.1.1 Costs Costs are probably one of the most common problems in any work situation It is part of the economics of a problem situation It is often linked to the profitability of the problem situation Monitoring costs stiould be an ongoing accounting and budgetary control activity based on an annual (or other agreed time period) financial budget or plan Monitoring should point out any trend to unacceptable deviations from expected or allowed costs An unacceptable variation in costs is a serious indicator of problems in a work situation and should receive immediate attention Should a situation be identified as being a ‘problem’, cost should be one of the first factors to look for in analysing the problem Any irregularity with costs in an identified situation should indicate a need for further investigation of the situation. 1.4.1.2 Productivity Productivity indices are strong indicators of a situation that could be developing problems From indices such as labour utilisation, profitability and value added it is possible to detect existing or potential problems Other indices are performance of individual workers, worker groups, process utilisation (see pages 280 8 to 281 5 of the textbook) 1.4.1.3 Work Flow Work flow includes direction and integration of work Both these aspects of workflow are essential in a work process to be productive Direction implies the direction of the physical flow of work as material flows from workstation to workstation to be processed The other aspect of direction is the procedural aspect. This includes the logistics of the work process where a clear “path” of activity is mapped out This path should follow a line of progression and sequence such as first boiling water before brewing and finally drinking the brewed tea Integration includes vertical and horizontal interaction This interaction establishes a synergy of activities that assures work place co-ordination Work, workers, machines and materials interact to ‘harmonise’ and balance the workflow A balance in the worktlow is maintained by ensuring equilibrium of the required resources at each workstation The way in which work resources combine assures productive work flow in the work place The correct number of workers is essential in balancing a work situation The number of workers is not the only important aspect regarding workers but their skill, capability and attitude are as important for adequate workflow The utilisation of workers is another important aspect in favour of workflow harmony Workers who are used as fifth rate machines to do low skill, highly repetitive, routine work will upset the equilibrium of the workflow, as they are too slow and inaccurate to meet work requirements of quality and quantity An appropriate machine capable of high-speed accurate work is the correct resource for ensuring workflow in a high speed, repetitive process Mechanisation (CAD/CAM and CIM) is essential for high volume production, which in turn ensures integrated workflow ‘The quality of materials plays an important role in integrating work flow and work balance as poor materials often cause work hold-ups, production rejects and scrap 117ws271L E Materials are vital in assuring workflow, as it is normally the material that requires processing Although material processing is the basis of workflow it also requires integrated horizontal support processes such as material supply (see 1222 - “Interactive processes’) with which to interact People, materials and machinery/equipment with methods, money, management and information assure productive workflow integration This integration creates a network of co-ordinated workflow in the work place A co-ordinated, balanced work situation leads to productive goal achievement 1.41.4Ergonomics Ergonomics is an important factor in factor analysis but is sufficiently discussed under 1 2 and 22 1.4.1.5 Division of Work Division of work refers to the organisation of work ‘The organisation of work comprises the areas of subdivision and allocation Subdivision takes place on two levels One level is the functional level The other level is the interactive level ‘The functional leve! subdivides into functions/processes, procedures, tasks/operations and activities Activities and tasks group into process of functional groups To be feasible processes should follow a systematic procedure Functional analysis plays an important role in work content analysis (see 15) and system analysis and design (part of Engineering Work Study III study material) The interactive level ensures work synergy Synergy of the vertical and horizontal activities provides the basis of work accomplishment - ‘getting things done’ (see 1413) If neglect to buy coffee powder/granules before I want to drink a cup of hot coffee (horizontal activity), all my knowledge of coffee making will not produce a cup of hot coffee (vertical activity) The applicable integration (synergy) of the horizontal and vertical activities ensures the probability of hot coffee for me Allocation of resources finalises the organisational function of work and system functioning Once the functional content of work or a system is defined it is essential to identify the required resources (see eight M’s under 1222 and 13 1) and allocate these to ensure the probability of work results (the cup of coffee) One or several resources (ingredients, kettle and utensils) might be required to complete a task The concern of the one who allocates these resources should be the “effective use’ (see page 262 2 of the textbook, term "Work Study, Organisation Study and O and M’) of such resources I should make as many tasty containers of coffee as I can, avoiding spillage and miss-use (pouring the coffee powder on the table to draw a picture in) of the coffee (material resource) 1.4.2. FACTORS/ATTRIBUTES RELATED TO DESIGN Generic factors in design situations include technical feasibility, time, Research_and Development (R&D), costs, performance, design feasibility These generic factors are discussed below Design implies physical objects such as equipment (jigs), layout of work areas and systems (see 1 22 1 ‘System Processes’) Physical objects are not the 1-18EWS271L E only aspects of worrk that are designed There are non-physical aspects such as cybernetics (the science of control systems) Providing appropriate control (such as “go-no go’ gauges) in work situations is essential for maintaining a delicate work balance A typical example of this is the control of timing when making a hot drink The control system should ensure that the non-physical aspect of say, timing interface (such as warming a cup), during the production process, is adequately synchronised (such as in an automatic vending machine) to present a delightfully hot drirak Approximately 10% of envisaged design projects come to fruition (actually happen) Factor analysis should aim at minimising design projects that are likely to fail and aborting these as quickly as possible The factor analysis should also indicate likely, successfiul projects and the requirements for these projects 1.4.2.1 Technical Feasibility This factor is vital to the success of a design project Technical feasibility comprises two aspects standard practice and/or engineering Standard practice implies that the technique is established and in common use such as hoisting heavy objects with rigging gear or moving objects without applying motorised power by making use of gravity feeders Investigating and identifying the application of such standard facilities is an essential factor in a design project It is very likely that the standard practice will continue once the design is in use In designing a control system, as an example, it is likely that a statistical control chart (see QUTISIZ and QAS221U) will be useful for monitoring purposes in the application of the control system The control chart can also be used during the design process to set limits/standards for the control system Control charts are established statistical and monitoring techniques that are easily adapted to various control situations Should no standard, technical practice be available, the other technical possibility should be considered, that of engineering But one of the phases of engineering is design, making it necessary to design for a design situation This is frequently the case in situations where new or unusual features or facilities are required in a new or redesigned situation An example of this would be engineering an instrument such as a unique jig for a workstation when designing the workstation (the sandwich cutter — EWS121Q and ATO331Q) The jig needs to be designed and constructed before the workstation design is completed The jig then provides the necessary technical feasibility that complements the design of the workstation ‘Once the engineering aspect provides the technical feasibility in a situation it often becomes the established, common or standard technical practice The added benefit of the engineering aspect is to escalate the growth of feasible technology 1.4.2.2 Time Time is a fundamental factor in the synergy of work Time is ‘available but may be manipulated Available time is freely available and like the air we breathe, it is there whether itis 1-19EWS271L E used or not This ‘available’ time is the basis from which the timing requirements of a work situation is structured and manipulated All situations are time based and “controlled” Any work situation is “judged” by its use of time Time is used as a major ‘measuring instrument’ or ‘metre stick” The phrase ‘time is money’ indicates the essence of the roll time has in the work situation Manipulated time is a highly contrived instrument in the work place. Extensive measures have been taken from very early times to hamess and measure time (manipulate it) From the sundial to highly sophisticated, digitised chronometers (time ‘measuring instruments) the importance of time manipulation becomes more relevant and more exacting. This manipulation is also a factor in work and work place design, You have already studied how to manipulate time when you studied about time studies and Activity Sampling (see page 198 and 215 textbook) in Engineering Work Study I The study of how to manipulate time is continued under Module B of this text, Time manipulation provides an excellent basis for setting quantitative work standards or limits In designing and managing a work situation one of the essential aspects is feasible work limits or standards Standards are essential to fair and equitable expectations in the work place Standards are also essential in remaining viable in the market place “Can a company ‘deliver’?” is the testing question If there is no evidence of ‘delivery’ the reputation of the company is in serious jeopardy One sure way of ensuring ‘delivery’ is by working to work standards One vital factor in work standards is a good quantitative (numbers) basis What could be more reliable as a quantitative basis than time standards (see pages 196 to 199 of the textbook)? Work standards are recommended, as the ‘limits’ needed to ensure reasonable work place expectations The work standards that should be based on time standards are worker, group and management formance, labour and overhead costs and production output targets These standards provide a basis for production management such as production scheduling and cost control The factor of time manipulation plays an important part in appropriate work and work place design Poor timing in a work process is a recipe for work place conflict and estrangement If not between supplier and customer then surely between workers and management Many a labour dispute situation could be avoided if good time ‘manipulation is introduced in a work place 1.4.2.3 Research and Development (R&D) This is a factor in the work place design that spells ‘money’ Most R&D activities are costly The aspect of R&D that is usually responsible for high costs is experimentation Finding optimum-engineered solutions is time consuming, which in turn is costly “Time compression’ (reducing the time to establish R&D) should be a serious consideration during research and development (R&D) activities Finding and/or adopting time compression techniques such as digitising specifications or simulating a work situation on computer, is the correct route to follow in R&D activities Long- winded approaches can no longer be justified Computer integrated R&D can save up 1-20WS271LE to 90% of the time it usually takes for outmoded experimental practices Variety also plays a major role in generating costs A particular type of variety that applies in R&D situations is the wide variety and multiplicity of results required These results should produce valid, accurate and confirmed R&D outcomes These outcomes should be feasible but like time compression, variety reduction methods are essential during R&D projects Capitalising on existing data, statistical modelling or other simulation methods to arrive at valid confirmed solutions, is recommended Implementing R&D results often require innovative and ‘high-tech’ industrialising, methods These methods are often expensive, calling for large sums in capital expenditure Therefore proposals resulting from R&D activities should be feasible, valid, accurate and confirmed to ensure acceptable industrialising practices These proposals often become the basis for work place/workstation design MILITARY R&D IS TYPICALLY EXPENSIVE R&D do not only apply to product development R & D applies equally to workstation and other work place developments, especially the development of ergonomic aspects 1.4.2.4Costs _The element of cost is vital in all aspects of a work place Costs consist of direct and indirect resource needs such as materials, manpower, machinery and money in production A customer is willing to pay for costs that make the product useful and valuable but not for unnecessary expenses The greater the expense of producing a product the smaller the profit, as profit is the difference between income and expenditure Costs are generated as a result of expenditure (what is spent on production) Expenditure can result in irretrievable losses or value added investments Irretrievable losses come as a result of expenditure incurred where there is no prospect of financial recovery such as repeated and regressive material handling or scrapped materials/products Value added expenditure results in retrievable costs Retrieving costs in a value 121WS271L E added situation is possible as the costs are ‘bought’ with the product by a delighted customer Customers desire/demand products because they see these as ‘valuable’ The reason customers see products as valuable is that these products are produced in a way that meets their specific needs In order to produce a valuable product the producer must combine and accumulate costly production resources in a way that will satisfy the needs of the customer Every time a processes is applied to the product it costs the producer money but during the process the product also becomes more valuable It is the very spending of money that is making money! This expenditure is desirable, as it is the basis of the business cycle It is also the process of investment Investment_means that a business makes money from money True it costs a ‘company money to produce but by producing a valuable product the company earns money from selling, the product ‘The product usually sells at more than it costs to produce therefore earning money for the company The ‘extra’ money or profit may be used for work place or product enhancement This in turn enables the company to provide the market place with an even more valuable product ‘The enhancement process becomes the basis of advancing product excellence and value The objective should be to eliminate loss and only promote value/investment in the work place This objective is not realised by chance but by design The work place must be engineered to guarantee financial recovery and avoid loss It is not in the interest of any company to ‘allow for error and failure” but to prevent these, especially in financial matters 1.4.2.5 Performance The term performance refers to the ability to carry out, a notable feat/action or to achieve under testing conditions Both these references are applicable to the work environment and should be considered criteria when engineering a work place The traditional view of work performance is limited by mainly confining it to quantitative requirements, often debatable and untenable, such as meeting delivery targets with antiquated machinery Often a worker’s performance is judged by outmoded criteria such as long working hours or keeping of many useless records or intense physical effort Itis essential that performance criteria be feasible Performance criteria should reflect reasonable and comprehensive expectations in the work place Reasonable or fair/equitable expectations should be based on valid (proven) and/or agreed expectations rather than adopted or assumed requirements These expectations should also be negotiated by relevant role players rather than dictated by a few dominant players Performance criteria should also reflect a far more comprehensive base than simply that of quantity Often individual and group initiatives are seriously limited due to quantity demands Qualitative aspects such as an individual’s quality of involvement, , alert 1-22EWS271L E interactive behaviour, initiative contributions, responsible decision _m: productivity improvements should become aspects of the performance factor ing and Performance measuxrements with regard to qualitative performance are more innovative than the limited criterion of only output targets A comprehensive qualitative performance index wwill need to be ‘outcomes’ based rather than only results orientated An outcomes based performance might not be repeatable from day to day but should rather be based on the negotiated needs of each day or period It will not always be possible to quantiffy an outcome-based index This should not ring alarm bells or prevent a work grouap from setting outcomes based performance indices The definition of * Outcomes based performance is to show evidence of a ‘visible effect or desired result’ The key words in the definition are those of ‘visible’, ‘effect” and ‘desired’ One might say that ‘effect’ embodies accomplishment and significance The terms accomplishment and significance open important insights into outcomes based performance These insights are discussed below P as an aspect of performance, is even more challenging than possibly “effect” ‘Desired’ includes the ideas of preferred and choice The terms ‘preferred’ and ‘choice’ play an influential role in outcomes based performance as discussed blow “Accomplishment” as an aspect of performance should include indices of success, achievement, proficiency, attainment, completion, fulfilment, quality and acquisition The aspect of ‘significance’ should ensure that during performance an agreed measure of gravity, weight, moment, consequence and sense is manifest in a work situation These criteria form the basis of performance analysis and adjudication Until these vital criteria of performance are recognised and adopted in a work environment, weak, low level performance will continue The challenge of re- engineering and introducing significant approaches into the work place is huge The catalytic influence of Industrial Engineering in effecting these changes should be a prominent work place contribution More important, should be an initiative of Industrial Engineering specialists to engineer changes physically and tactically The giddy decision on the part of management to even think, let alone, dare to introduce aspects of preference and choice into the work place, in the minds of many come close to anarchy The belief that possibly management control and dictatorship will be jeopardised in the work place has for decades prevented true progress in the work piace It is the very reason for the mounting evidence of poor performance, of fostering a ‘make me’ syndrome amongst workers Analysed critically, it is evident that the whole premise of industrial and labour relations, in all its pompous statute, comes as a result of the reluctance of management to introduce meaningful worker participation in the work place Companies that have braved worker participation find that they do not experience labour dissatisfaction, long, costly strikes and disputes, generally poor worker performance or a need for pompous, childish ‘discipline’ of adults in the work place 1-23EWS271L E The more workers are excluded from ehoice and decision making the greater the evidence of poor, nonchalant performance in the work place Participation and ownership are not merely political slogans but very deep-seated psychological and organisational need s in the work place Performance, as a factor of work, in future should reflect a significant worker “desire” to participate in a work milicu (surroundings) Without a significant shift toward meaningful worker participation in the work place dynamic, very little true progress in work contribution and performance will be evident 1.4.2.6 Design Feasibility This factor is essential to the entire work place. Design feasibility sFhould not only refer to product design It especially refers to work. place design when used in an industrial engineering context The design of systems in the work palace is vital Systems design is a key contribution that comes from industrial engineering, in the work place Systems are essential ‘tools’ in the work place as these provide the work place with order, continuity and s1 During the feasibility phase of the design procedure the essential activities are set ing an objective, modeling, simulating, evaluating and confirming/establishing As a factor of design, design feasibility is a predictor and an evaluator of the final design A predictor is an instrument that indicates ‘direction’ Design feasibility has this function whether, designing a product, system or work place The direction given during the design process usually becomes the operational process after the installation of a design Design feasibility also establishes criteria by which to adjudicate the effectiveness of a design before and after installation ‘The criteria established during the design feasibility phase that should enable management to adjudicate existing situations with a view to possible redesign or re-engineering Design feasibility should also enable management to present the envisaged design to relevant “customers” Customers comprise any role-players who either request and/or ‘pay’ for the final design The design feasibility allows ‘customers’ to accept the envisaged design in principle Customers can participate by giving the go-a-head to complete the design or make meaningful changes cc 1.4.3 SECTION ACTIVITY List five aspects that are important in the following five design factors from your own work place 1.4.3.1 Technical Feasi ‘The information below comes from 1 421 and serves as an example of how to do the activity You might wish to choose other aspects for this factor If so write your selection next to the ones listed below STANDARD PRACTICES 1-24EWs271L & ENGINEERING P*ROCESS ESTABLISHED TECHNIQUES INVESTIGATING AND IDENTIFYING APPLICATIONS DESIGN 1.4.3.2 Time (see 1422) 1.4.3.3 Research and Development (R&D) (see 1 4 2 3) 1.4.3.4 Costs (see 1424) 1.4.3.5 Design Feasibility (see 1426) 4.5 WORK CONTENT AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS Any work situation consists of a unique content One could think of work content in the same way as thinking of a bag filled with different or similar items (things) or of a book filled with information In the same way the arrangement of the contents of a book provides a 1-25EWS271L E measure of underst-anding for readers In a similar way the content of work should provide content and structure in the work place Work ‘items’ cormprise two major components The components are resources, and processes The required resources and processes should integrate to form ‘work content and structure’ This integration is also considered as being the ‘work-flow structure” 1.5.1 THE ROLE OF RESOURCES IN WORK CONTENT ANALYSIS Resources could iriclude all or a combination of the eight resources listed under 1.3 1 The resource-requirement of any work situation is directly linked to both the vertical and horizontal processes (see 1 2 2 5) 1.5.2 THE ROLE OF PROCESS ANALYSIS IN WORK CONTENT ANALYSIS ‘There are many processes but these can be classed into five groups (see 1 22) Activities from the various groups are necessary for work interaction The flow of work forms a web of integration by imtertwining the vertical and horizontal processes The analysis of the work content should provide insight to the way and extent of intertwining. This is illustrated by adding boiling water to a tea bag for the purpose of serving a drinkable cup of tea The temperature of the water intended for making the tea should be within certain temperature limits to ensure a palatable cup of tea The horizontal activities of planning and timing are essential in the vertical activities of pouring on the boiling water, drawing, gamnishing and drinking the tea If the water poured onto the tea bag takes place too long after the kettle boiled it will impact on all the other vertical activities such as not melting the sugar sufficiently and being lukewarm before drinking is complete If the boiling water is poured on too soon after boiling, there is a danger of drinkers getting their tongues scalded Work content analysis depends largely on factor analyses such as technical feasibility, timing and performance but also on functional analysis (see 153) These analyses are painstaking exercises (as illustrated above) and require a systematic approach to ensure an acceptable measure of objective reliability ‘The purpose of these analyses should also be to design and eventually implement a productive workflow The objective of the analyses should be to ensure a comprehensive work content An analysis of a work situation is essential for design and evaluation purposes The design needs often become the operational or functional situation after implementation of the design You study the application of design needs under Module B Evaluation of an existing work situation is essential to judge the suitability and legitimacy (the right to continue) of the work situation The results of the analyses should be seen like puzzle pieces These are required during the design phase Once the information from the analyses is available it is possible to ‘put’ the design together and eventually construct a ‘work structure’ of ‘picture’ These work structures comprise processes like making a hot drink, mixing rubber compound, building and moulding a conveyor belt or building a building If the work structure/picture is correctly and adequately designed before the work process 1-26EWS271L E begins itis possible to predict and manage the work-in-process. ‘The ability to predict the work process and resource requirements are essential to predicting expectations (performances) ancl outcomes (work quality, duration times, and costs) Consequently managing the work situation relies on proactive activities such as monitoring instead of continuously correcting, work and/or requiring more resources to correct errors 1.5.3 THE ROLE OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS IN PROCESS ANALYSIS Functional analysis is an essential analytical tool to determine the required activities, processes, functions and groupings in a work situation It is also possible to indicate appropriate resource requirements from the analysis The functional analysis procedure comprises four phases The phases are activity analysis, task_grouping, identifying processes/finctions and synthesising The procedure applies from activity analysis to structuring but is as easily applied from structuring to activity analysis The steps taken in applying the procedure will depend on the required information Should one desire structuring as the end result of the analysis then one should follow activity analysis to structuring If one for example wishes to evaluate an already existing structure then if is. necessary to start with the structure and confirm functions, tasks and finally actual and required activities Once the analysis is complete it is possible to determine and allocate required resources. Resource allocation should complement required processes so that work content is complete and adequate (see 1 5) The functional analysis is the most basic organisational analysis as it indicates and identifies all the structural (systems, physical, procedural and organisational) requirements in a work place Work content is basie to work organisation as organisation depends on structuring and processing such as the volume and type of resources The process procedure is also an important aspect (do I use a kettle, urn or coffee machine, do T fill the kettle, allow the water to boil and then put the tea bag in the cup or do I put the bag in the cup then fill the kettle etc) The integration and synergy of structures and processes form an integral part of co-ordinated work content and flow Therefore functional analysis is vital to work content and place structuring Functional analysis follows a defined procedure The procedure is explained below 1.5.3.1 Activity Analysis Activity analysis is a painstaking and exhaustive exercise. One draws up a random but exhaustive list of every single activity or work ‘element (see textbook page 274 9) such as scooping sugar, pouring water into the cup or slicing the bread, in a work situation A process chart is a suitable device for recording the analysis data (see page 89, 101 and 109) 1.5.3.2 Task Grouping Task grouping is the next phase of functional analysis The activities or elements are grouped together in ‘natural’ tasks, operations or work eycles (see page 131 under ‘remarks’) Tasks are usually worker related such as scooping sugar, pouring the sugar into the 1-27awS271L E drink, stirring drink to melt the sugar and tasting to ensure the sweetness and temperature of a hot drink This is the sweetening task Should one continue the task- grouping one would find that adding milk to a hot drink is similar to adding sugar and therefore combining/grouping the two sub-tasks into the ‘garnishing task’ makes ‘natural’ sense The actions (collecting ingredients, pouring ingredients and checking quality of the product) in the two sub-tasks are also basically the same The idea of an operation usually implies a relationship between a worker and a machine Typically, in the snack-making example slicing the bread with some sort of cutter (representing, the machine in the operator-machine relationship) would represent the relationship ‘The operation consists of collecting the bread, preparing for cutting/slicing and slicing/cutting Typical of a work evele would be the task of producing the toasted sandwiches The work cycle would consist of filling and preparing the sandwiches, loading the toaster, allowing the sandwich to toast and removing (unloading the toaster) the toasted sandwich As soon the first sandwich is complete the next sandwich is ready for toasting This work cycle is repeated until all the sandwiches are toasted. Assuming there were many toasters in the kitchen it would be possible to set up a cycle within a cycle by creating a cycle of work for each toaster and for a group of toaster Say there are three toaster in the workstation, the operator would load the toaster, fill a sandwich, remove a sandwich by going from one toaster to the next forming a broader work cycle These arrangements pose options for work organisation and engineering 1.5.3.3 Identifying Processes/Functions __ Identifying _processes/functions is the next phase of functional analysis Processes/functions can be grouped into various groupings but there are two main categories of functions The categories are system and business System functions/processes are defined under 1221 The business functions/ processes are manufacturing/producing, financing, administering, staffing, engineering, ‘marketing and selling, distributing and procuring The other important aspect of identifying functions/processes is to identify the main function or reason for existing This is often referred to as a mission statement It is possible to identify all other relevant functions from the main function In the snack making example the main function would be ‘to produce wholesome, palatable tea- time snacks effectively and efficiently’ The main function should always indicate one single outcome In the example it is to ‘produce’ It is consequently important to identify complementary and support functions to the main function Complementary functions to the main function of ‘produce’ could be an operating process that checks mechanisms (kettle or toaster) It could also include preparing for production (fills kettle or switches on toaster) Starting production (loads toaster) is another possibility It includes running production (allows water to boil, sandwich to toast and tea to draw) Steering production on a course is often included (follows tea making or sandwich filling procedure) It also includes shutting down production (switch off kettle or toaster) 1-28Ews271L E Support functions should ensure that the main function is materialising effectively and efficiently The support functions (planning the type of sandwich or buying the milk) should ensure the s-ynergy of the main function (Should one boil the water, pour it on the tea bag only to discover that the milk is up One would need to run to the local café to buy milk The drink would not be wholesome or palatable as the tea would be cold by the time the milkc arrived ) Ensure the main function is managed by planning for, and providing sufficient milk at all times Ensure the main function is funded adequately by budgeting for sufficient milk Ensure the activities of the main function are engineered (Design an operating system for buying satchels of milk, two jugs — one to pour and one to thaw satchels Freeze the satchels of milk As soon as a thawed satchel is open take out a frozen satchel, let it thaw while using the first satchel, ready for use In this way milk will always be available ) Ensure the product is ready for use or sold soon after production 1.5.3.4 Synthesising Once tasks are grouped and functions and processes identified it is possible to synthesise or structure work The structuring processes are an engineering process and are discussed under 3 2 and 3 3 2 = 1.5.4 SECTION ACTIVITY Write a paragraph, in your own words, about ‘Work Content Analysis’ (approximately 120 words), make use of an example to show that you are able to apply the techniques 1-29ws271LE 1.6 IMPROVEMENT INDICATOR ANALYSES Work place and workstation design based on work place improvement indicator analyses is the topic of discussion in this section Only a limited number of techniques are discussed and studied in this section The techniques selected for discussion are considered as the more frequently used and generally useful techniques These techniques indicate a need for improvement These techniques also indicate the extent to which improvement is required The selected techniques are ABC, Pareto, value, variety reduction and cause and effect analyses The use and procedure of each technique are given below Study the procedures well This will enable you to apply these analyses in future 4.6.1. ABC ANALYSIS ABC analysis, originally intended for inventory holding analysis, can also be applied to other tangible resources such as money and people 4.6.1.1 Use of the Technique for Improvement Any work situation that shows or is perceived as being financially unbalanced could be analysed by means of an ABC analysis The result of the analysis can indicate potential relationship problems These relationships are usually financially based The relationship is based on resource percentages and the value of the resource Typically raw material is an example Items of raw material add up to 100% of the raw material holding of a company The items of raw material add up to a total money value or 100% money value of the raw materials ‘The ABC analysis subdivides the total raw material holding into three subgroups of A, B and C Where group A consists of items that are most valuable Group B of items that are of medium value While group C consists of very low value items A recommended combination of these groups could be to hold 20% of raw material stock comprising 75% stock value in group A Group B could comprise 30% holding and 20% value Group C would comprise 50% of the stock holding and 5% of the value ‘A company can adopt these limits as their stock holding criteria It becomes a simple matter to monitor any deviations and prevent further deviations In this way it is possible to maintain ‘zero defect” in stock holding Assuming a company wishes to improve their stock holding position By selecting the ‘ABC analysis they will establish a reliable stock holding indicator Say they wish to reduce their stock holding significantly, by 10% Where should they begin? ‘The ABC analysis indication provides a clear indication They should seriously consider the ‘A’ group Although the C group is 50% of their holding it will at best allow for about 4% stock holding improvement A very minor decrease (2%) in the holding of group A can decrease the holding value (7,5%) significantly 1-30ws271LE It is equally easy to analyse the supplier availability of raw materials by applying the ‘ABC analysis In the case of availability it could indicate the raw material items that are essential to hold and the ones that are freely available on call This would mean that holding costs (46% of holding costs are for storage) could reduce dramatically It is possible in the same way to analyse say all employees ‘The analysis will show that a small group of employees earn high salaries or wages The ABC analysis is classed as a relationship and/or proportional analysis. By making use of percentages as a basis for quantifying the three groupings (A, B and C)iit is possible to show the relationship and proportions As the relationship is relative (relative frequency refer to Qualitative Techniques 1) it is possible to compound the whole situation into an ogive to look likes the curve below 1.6.1.2 ABC Analysis Technique Procedure The steps in the ABC technique are as follows ~ Step No. 1 Determine the Topic of Analysis tis essential that the ‘topic’ of analysis should be precise. The topic should be financially based Typical topics are inventory-related ‘expenses, remuneration of employees or maintenance expenses ~ Step No. 2 Set Margins/Limits for Each Group The limits/margins for groups A, B and C are money values In the case of inventory related items it is based on the value of an inventory item In the case of remuneration it is based on the annual/ hourly income of an employee Maintenance limits are based on annual maintenance expenditure Maintenance groupings could be based on individual equipment or on maintenance processes The individual equipment is preferable Very expensive items are grouped in the A group Moderately priced items are in the B group Inexpensive items are in the C group Determine the percentage limit of groups A, B and C as portions of the entire cost of a topic These percentages become the ‘limits’ of each group 1-31NS27ILE ~ — Stego No. 3 Conduct an Audit ‘The financial records of a company are an ideal source of information for conducting the audit The records should provide infoxrmation on the individual/unit and the relevant money value List eacky item/person under the predetermined value group (A, B or C) ~ Steg No. 4 Report on the Audit Report on the audit by showing the results on a compound graph (see graph under 1 6 1 1) with a superimposed ogive Attach the list of the items recorded during audit ~ Step No. 5 Designate/Classify Relevant Entities/Topics Classify all present and future items/people into relevant entities/topics in A, B and C groupings Use the groupings as a means of monitoring topics such as raw material holding By monitoring the entities it is possible to keep related costs at a 1.6.2 PARETO ANALYSIS The Pareto analysis is named after Mr Pareto who observed that in general there is a proportion in life of 80/20 Twenty percent of what we do results in eighty percent of what is important to us Going to work is one (:: 20% of our activities) of many ‘things’ that we do but it brings in most, if not all (80 to 100%) our income In the same way there are activities in the work place that have this same proportion One such is the time spent on errors (20%) bout these time results in 80 or more percent of all production defects 1.6.2.1 Use of the Technique for Improvement Pareto. analysis. is a proportional analysis Proportional analyses are useful as these apply to many situations such as classifying the proportions of different types of defects ‘There is one more important use of applying Pareto analysis that of prioritising Say the example of defects is continued then which defect is most common 4.6.2.2 Pareto Analysis Procedure The steps in the Pareto analysis procedure are as follows ~ Step No. 1 Select the Topic for Analysis It is essential that the “topic” of analysis should be precisely selected The topic should be quantifiable (have a quantity) Typical topics are the number of stock items, number of employees, number of defects, number of machines, ete ~ Step No. 2 Group Topics into Subgroups Group each topic into subgroups such as stock common items, type ofdefect, worker group The group description should consist of 1-32WS271L E specific characteristics that can identify an individual item and class it as part of a specific group such as bare spots on a moulding, all tumers or wing nuts Step No. 3 Conduct an Audit Conduct an audit by counting the number of items/people that fall into relevant subgroups Record the results of the audit An example of this is the number of different defects from a particular production run such as bare spots, indistinct lines on mouldings and excessive spue when moulding rubber compound Step No. 4 Assess the Results of the Audi Assess the results of the audit by calculating percentages of each grouping, arranging the groups in descending order of percentage value and displaying the results on a Pareto graph to look . like this GROUP % GROUP SIZE Ais the group that comprises the highest percentage occurrence, B next with C and D progressive less The “X’ axis shows the size (number of items) of the group Step No. 5 Respond to the Pareto Analysis It is possible from the graph to conclude which of the subgroups is most important and requires most attention If group A receives attention first a large portion of the problems will disappear Many benefits could result from attending to group A first and then to B, C and D (it is possible to have many groups not only four) The Pareto analysis becomes a guide to effectively managing a situation The analysis serves as a set up and maintenance devices for an effective work place It is possible to analyse an unfamiliar or unsatisfactory situation by means of a Pareto analysis Set up a situation such as reducing movement in a work place The reduction in movement could improve production and productivity by 60% or more The reduction in movement would improve worker performance, as workers would be able to worker faster with less effort 1-33WS271L E ‘The problem of say poor tooling could be addressed in a similar way by eliminating the problem and ensuring that tools are planned, organised controlled and maintained during production The same tactics are possible in the case of say time keeping, material use and production defects 1.6.3 VALUE ANALYSIS There are several aspects to ‘value analysis” that are important in the introduction to this section of this text. Initially value analysis intended the analyst to focus on the design related activities rather than improvement possibilities The tactic of value consideration has lead to more Considerations than only design factors It has lead to economics and economics form part of productivity Mr L D Miles in about 1950 introduced the idea of value analysis as a disciplined way of ‘attacking’ costs Although the emphasis is on cost reduction the process is an analytical one There are close ties with the basic Method Study procedure, as you will see under 1632 Two of the pillars of the value analysis procedure are those of ‘identifying’ the functions and ‘finding’ alternatives ‘An additionally important matter is that of ‘value’ In a situation the matter of value is not only monetary There are other perceptions of ‘value’ The three ideas that are important to this section of the text are those of ‘exchange’, ‘use’ and ‘esteem’ value These three ideas of value are interrelated Exchange value is derived from use and esteem values The formula for exchange value is EXCHANGE VALUE = USE VALUE+ ESTEEM VALUE Use and esteem values are highly subjective evaluations and cannot be objectively determined but are estimated on the basis of individual estimates However subjective these might be, their role in determining exchange value is important The benefits of this analysis technique can differ widely Generally, speaking though most benefit is derived from applying the technique, especially in cost reduction. 1.6.3.1 Use of the Technique for Improvement Value analysis should apply first and most importantly in identifying function “What does ‘it” do?” The other important aspect of the analysis is to identify relevant costs Costs are usually indicators of a ‘healthy’ or “ailing” 1g” (sick) situation Effective costs will show as ‘value adding’ while ailing costs show as ‘expense generating’ Costs that cannot be recovered or that deplete profits and that cripple growth in a product or situation is expense generating “What does ‘it’ cost?” 4.6.3.2 Value Analysis Procedure The steps in a value analysis procedure are based on ‘Gage’s steps” (Mr Gage proposed twelve steps) The major steps include ~ Step No. 1 Select the Topic for Analysis Any relevant topic for analysis may be selected Topics can include 1-34ws271LE such as design situations, cost_generating situations, complex products, complex production and administrative process and procedures or large forecast usage Step No. 2 Determine the Costs For the purpose of value analysis it is best to work on marginal (the extra cost of an additional item/activity when it occurs) costs rather than absorption (aggregate of overhead items equally divided) costs Step No. 3 Record Relevant Data Record relevant facts, figures and other details about the situation Record all the functions of the situation ‘Ask and record the information resulting from the five questions listed below WHAT IS IT? WHAT DOES IT COST? HOW MANY PARTS ARE THERE? WHAT DOES IT DO? HOW MANY ARE REQUIRED? Step No. 4 Determine the Primary Function From the list under step 3, indicating all the functions, select or determine the primary function Determine all the ways of achieving the primary function by ways such as “brainstorming” Step No. 5 Assign Costs to All the Altematives Assign costs to all the alternatives for the purpose of selecting the ‘most suitable alternatives Indicate the activities such as enhancing the use of raw materials or cutting down on components that will add value Step No. 6 Select the Most Cost Effective Alternatives Select the most cost-effective alternatives for development and improvement purposes Incorporate these into the proposed product, process and procedure or work situation 1.6.4 VARIETY MANAGEMENT Variety is part of the dynamic of a work place but it must be managed to ensure an economic approach to variety The old adage of ‘if you have space it will be filled” is pretty much true of variety If variety is not managed it will run rampant In any work environment one is bound to find variety in materials, work methods, machines, parts/components/ingredients and even the skills of people 1-35 This element ofEws271L E variety is essential isn the work place but unchecked it could become a serious drawback to the productivity of a company Too many ‘things’ usually result in unnecessary costs and extravagant use of resources Three import critexia are required to guide management in managing variety These criteria are simplif# cation, standardisation and specialisation Simplification implies the reduction of unnecessary variety Standardisation has to do with the management of necessary variety Specialisation calls for specific and special knowledge in a work situation 1.6.4.1 Use of the Technique for Improvement Variety management is essential to the general productivity of any work place The work place functions/areas that should receive particular attention in this regard are those of marketing, design, product, productions and people ‘The benefits to marketing are keeping in line with world class policies of high product volume and quality but low cost and variety This intensifies the selling effect Design benefits are gained by greater design productivity especially in time compression strategies Generic design techniques and approaches are operational such as standardised, programmed laser technology rather than the individual drafting ability of different designers. Products are simplified, more ergonomically effective such as electronic rather than mechanical activation (one type of remote, press button switch rather than several manual switches - knob, flick or slide) of switches (to mention but one group of products) Production benefits by longer production runs, dramatically reduced changeover times and minimum material handling It is possible to list many more improvements based on variety management The list of benefits to production is almost endless The variety in regard to people revolves around their abilities. Many people with many different skills can become counter productive in the work place Therefore it is essential to consider multiskilling workers ensuring work enrichment, more job satisfaction and more effective use of the human resource in the work place 1.6.4.2 Variety Analysis Procedure The steps in a variety analysis procedure are as follows ~ Step No. 1 Select the Topic/Area for Analysis Select the work place function/area (marketing, design, product, production or workers) where it is necessary to manage variety ~ Step No. 2 Conduct an Audit Establish the degree of variety of the selected function/area by conducting an audit Observe/collect especially aspects that are complicated, excessive, outmoded and/or unnecessary An affinity diagram (see QAS 221 U) is a useful tool for this purpose ce Step No. 3 Record Relevant Data Record all observation on a ‘T’ or ‘L’ shaped matrix (see QAS 221 U) or single column process chart (see EWS 121 Q) 1-36WS271L E ~ Step No. 4 Assess the Results of the Audit Assess the recorded information by totalling, calculating percentages, degrees of simplification, standardisation and what might be eliminated ~ Step No. 5 Report on the Assessment Report the findings of the assessment and recommend proposed reductions in variety 1.6.5 CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS This form of analysis is effective and many analysts make use of the technique as it quickly provides a clear ‘picture’ of a problem situation The technique is also called ‘Ishikawa’ (after its originator) or ‘fishbone” (drawn in the shape of a fishbone - see below) The ‘effect’ or topic/incident/situation of investigation/concern is registered on a central, horizontal line with the ‘causes’ recorded on diagonal, vertical lines, linking in with the single horizontal line to look like a fishbone This is illustrated below / we > EFFECT —_—/ \ 1.6.5.1 Use of the Technique for Improvement Cause and effect analysis is usefull for ‘mapping’ inputs that effect a selected situation (initially used by its originator - Mr Ishikawa to analyse quality-related situations) The prime purpose of this technique is to identify causes that cause problems in a situation Once the causes are identified it should be easy to look for ways of overcoming the problems It also helps in creatively finding a variety of possible solutions to the problem It is a systematic way of solving a problem It is a quick, effective substitute for recording details ofa problem situation All the basic requirements of a Work Study technique are contained in this technique The Ishikawa diagram records details but provides and overview ‘picture’ of a situation It records information systematically ready for examination It also shows the application of relevant resources These are all criteria of a suitable Work Study technique (see page 262 2 Textbook) The major differences between the Ishikawa diagram and a process chart is that it provides an overview ‘picture’ of a problem While the Ishikawa diagram does not provide an exact ‘flow’ of the process, as is in the case of the flow chart, it often 1-37WS271L E includes the process An overview of a problem is vital to a comprehensive study of a problem situation 1.6.5.2 Cause ard Effect Analysis Procedure The steps in a cause and effect analysis procedure are as follows ~ Step No. 1 Select the Topic/Area/Situation for Analysis Select a problem situation requiring improvement The problem situation should be clearly stated as it is the basis of the ‘effect’ statement ~ Step No. 2 Draw Up the Basis of the Ishikawa Diagram Use the problem statement as the basis of the “effect” statement Draw a straight horizontal line on a large sheet of paper (flip chart) or board, writing the statement in line with the horizontal line Do it like this > SECRETARY’S WORK LOAD (See textbook page 89, 123 and 131) ~ Step No. 3 Conduct a ‘Brainstorming’ Session Conduct a brainstorming session to establish likely causes that effect the situation In the situation of the secretary's workload, causes such as equipment, ergonomics, increased workload and working conditions might be causing the problem ~ Step No. 4 Draw Up the Remainder of the Ishikawa Diagram Once the causes are identified these are placed on vertical, diagonal arrows on the basic diagram Add clarifying information on side arrows Do it like this >SECRETARY’S WORK LOAD (see textbook page 89, 123 and 131/2) EXCESSI WORK VOLUME INCREASED BY 20% OVER 6 YEARS LIGHTING, CUSTOMER BASE INCREASED BY 40% OVER 6 YRS OYfMODED FURNITURE 2RGOXOMICS INCREASED WORK LOAD 1-38EWs271L E ~ Step No. 5 Assess the Results on the Ishikawa Diagram Assess the results of the cause and effect analysis by ranking the causses and placing the causes on a Pareto graph to show the order of imp ortance and likely solutions ~ Step No. 6 Find Likely Solutions to Causes of the Problem Call a meeting to brainstorming acti problem induct another brainstorming session From the ies should come proposed solutions to the — 1.6.6 SECTION ACTIVITY Explain the steps below, of how to apply the five improvement-analysis techniques, from 16120 16.52 1.6.6.1 ABC Analysis Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 1.6.6.2 Pareto Analysis Procedure Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 1-39EWS271LE Step 4 Step 5 1.6.6.3 Value Analysis Procedure Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 166.4 Variety Analysis Procedure Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 1-40Ews271L & 16.6.5 Step 1 Cause and Effect Analysis Procedure Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 1-41STUDY UNIT 2WS271L E UNIT CONTENTS STUDY UNIT 2:IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 2-01 2.4. INTRODUCTION TO IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES 2.01 22 ERGONOMIC TECHNIQUES 2.01 221 Instrumentation and Controls 201 222 Ergonomic Orientation 2-03, 223 Worker Comfort 2-06 224 Anthropometrics 240 225 Movement Economy 240 2.26 Extent of Automation 240 227 Section Activity 21 2.3 SYNERGY 243 2.31 Management 243 23.2 Physical Aspects 2415 233 Economy 245 234 Section Activity 2416 24 FACILITATING 247 2.5 IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMMES 248 251 Strategic Issues 218 252 Strategic Procedure 224 2.6 INFORMATION SOURCING 2-26 2.7 UNIT ACTIVITY 224 2.8 UNIT ACTIVITY SOLUTIONS 2.25 aiEWS271L E STUDY UNIT 2: IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND TECHNIQUES: STUDY OUTCOMES After studying this study unit you should be able to: 1 apply improvement techniques 2.4 INTRODUCTION TO IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES The improvement techniques that you study in this unit are ergonomic techniques, synergy, facilitating, improvement strategies and programmes and information sourcing In co- operation with the analyses studied in Unit | it is possible to analyse and improve situations that are, apparently problematic The techniques mentioned above and the analyses studied in Unit 1 provide you with some of the most useful ‘tools’ in practising Industrial Engineering It is essential that you apply these tools appropriately To provide you sufficient opportunity of applying these tools you are given activities and assignments to help you in the application of these ‘tools? You study a case study in Module E (Unit 11) to help you prepare for your assignments. This case study could also be a useful guide should you wish to apply the analyses and techniques at your own work place 2.2 ERGONOMIC TECHNIQUES Combined with ergonomic analyses, ergonomic information provides the basis for this vitally important improvement technique There are several categories of ergonomic information that apply in comprising this technique The categories are those of instrumentation and controls, orientation, comfort (auditory, visual and thermal), anthropometrics, movement economy and the extent of automation There are three zones of ergonomic influence in this section These zones are the workstation, workstation work space and workstation instrumentation 2.2.4. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS Some pointers about instrumentation and controls are given in this section These pointers will help you to identify and distinguish required instruments and controls needed for an ergonomically adequate workstation An instrument should provide a worker with information about the work situation Information from instruments falls into two groupings those of quantitative and/or sensory recognition (information via your eyes, ears, touch or smell) Controls are visual indicators and manual manipulators that assist a worker in completing a task quickly, accurately (correctly/within requirement) and precisely 2-01ws271L E (exactly/to requirement) The arrangements of instruments and controls should comply with specifi c ergonomic considerations These are discussed below 2.2.1.1 Instruments The identifying characteristics are described and illustrated below => physical characteristics of the instruments are such as size, shape, bulk, position or mechanical driver = visual/information from instruments include quantitative or sensory recognition such as temperature degrees, microns, voltage indications or the ring from a bell => positional requirements include positions such as vertical, horizontal, high up, eye level or waist level x AB Sse => operational sequences include fixed sequences such as starting and jogging a machine in sequence => functional groupings comprise all the same activities together such as starting, jogging, change over, speed/movement variances or lifting 2.02WS271L E FUNCTIONAL GROUPING OF A WORKSTATION 2.2.1.2 Controls The identifying characteristics are described and illustrated below => _ the physical attributes of workers such as anthropometrics, dexterity and/or sex => physical requirements include speed, accuracy, force, range and safety => functional groupings comprise all the same activities together such as starting, jogging, change over, speed/ movement variances and lifting => _ orientation comprises focal points, direction, fixed position, colour, shape and dimension KEY BOARD FIXED POSITION GROUPING MACHINE BUTTONS 2.2.2 ERGONOMIC ORIENTATION Orientation at a workstation is essential for quick, accurate and precise activities ‘Aspects such as focal points, direction, fixed position, colour, shape, dimension are part of helping workers to find their way around a workstation 2.03WS271LE To assist a worker in producing quickly, accurately and precisely it is essential to arrange and/or to group ixastruments, controls and tools at the workstation There are a few examples of orientation below Itis much easier to see all the ‘blue’ knobs/dials or the ‘red’ buttons/levers when these are placed together on a panel or work surface Arranging all changeover levers/dials on the right hand side of a panel is another acceptable arrangement Placing digital displays in red and vertically on the left of a control panel helps the operator to follow the information quickly and easily Directional indicators, such as international indicators are easy to recognise and follow as these are in symbol form rather than words The following pictures illustrate that point CIA The same principle of clear indicators holds in arranging a workstation or work place This is illustrated by clearly indicating such as movement directions These help workers to orientate to their work place’station with ease ‘A worker cannot look at two places at once but this is often expected when carrying out two or more physical activities at the same time By providing orientating devices such as shaped knobs, pedals or stoppers it is possible for a worker to use other sensory resources such as touch when performing more than one task at the same time 204WS271L E is irafluenced by the positioning of objects, lighting, worker fatigue, colour blindness andi attitude (the worker’s feelings such as ‘Its too difficult to see’) VISUAL ACUITY ON A FOCAL POINT Objects positioned more than 5 degrees outside of the centre of vision distort visual acuity Therefore essential viewing of objects during the production process must be positioned within a radius of + 5° of the central point of vision When designing a workstation it is essential to pay particular attention to lighting as it will assist in visual acuity especially of a focal point al acuity is seriously influenced by eye fatigue Eye fatigue occurs as a result of a wide focal area, a rapidly changing focal point (a new/different object every second), an erratic focal point (eye jumping from/to different focal positions) Visual acuity is decreased when workers become fatigued and their focal judgement becomes impaired Therefore workstation positioning for visual acuity should strive to satisfy three eriteria © Minimum visual range © Provide fixed positions of objects/items © Minimise dependency on visual adjudication (judging changing positions of items) SEVERAL FOCAL POINTS REQUIRE VISUAL ADJUSTMENTS 2-05Ws271L E 2.2.3 WORKER COMFORT This section is the crux of workstation design A worker is expected to assure quality production This is possible if the worker is assured of a work place that conforms to comfort criteria Comfort criteria include body and psyche comfort Body comfort comprises the body structure (anatomy) specifications (anthropometrics - see 1214) and body functioning (physiology) requirements (auditory, visual and thermal - see below). These criteria should be part of the work place arrangement Important physiological criteria listed below should help you in work place but especially, workstation design 2.2.3.1 Auditory Requirements There are specific requirements for the auditory comfort of a worker These requirements are described below => maximum ear protection (enclose workstations from production machinery or/and enclose machinery and/or provide workers with protective devices such as ear muffs) based on * decibel counts EAR MUFFS maximum auditory recognition (sound indicators such as warning belishwhistles/alarms placed in auditory range, machinery ‘pitch’ funnelled to a worker for easy recognition ensuring auditory acuity) FUNNELLED SOUND a decibel is the unit of measure that indicates the intensity of sound. The higher the decibel value the more intense the sound ‘An acceptable decibel range is between 60 and 90 decibels (abbreviated as dB) Sound intensity above 95 dB should indicate a need for auditory protection especially if the noise is a constant, ongoing one 2-06ws271L 2.2.3.2 Visual Requirements There are specific requirements for visual comfort of a workeer These requirements are described below => maxinraum visual acuity is influenced by the lighting position relativ € to the focal point of the object/item at a workstation There are several lighting relationships Optimum light intens ity (bright/dull) is one Deflection is spreading the light to avoid shadows Positioning deflected lighting directly above and sthinning toward the focal point at a workstation is recommended Daylight and artificial lighting combinations often provide ideal lighting conditions Worker distance from a focal point will play a role in lighting relationships These factors in the lighting relationships ensure visual acuity for visual distinction and discrimination => maximum visual and worker safety comfort includes the positioning of lighting This is critical to the comfort of workers Aspects such as ~ the surroundings of the workstation ~ the optimal size of the workstation ~ the optimal (best) focal point ~ type of lighting required ~ workstation work surfaces ~ light deflection to avoid glare or shadows ~ minimum strobing or flickering ~ minimising shadows or eye fatigue Correct lighting intensity is vital to the comfort and delivery of a worker LIGHTING INTENSITY 2.2.3.3 Thermal Requirements There are specific requirements for thermal comfort of a worker These requirements are described below => maintaining a required constant temperature is often difficult as it affects all the ‘bodies’ or structures in a work place but should nonetheless meet the needs of the various 207aws271L & structures Therefore conditions in a work area should separate ‘bodies/structures to accommodate these in an effort at maintaining suitable temperatures = different ‘bodies’ require different temperature zones. The difficulty is that various bodies occupy the same space but that the temperature zones/requirements of these bodies are not the same In a laboratory for instance, electronic equipment, people and materials associate but each body requires a different temperature zone Extremely hot or cold conditions for certain of the materials, cool conditions for some of the equipment but mild conditions for the workers => temperature needs of ‘bodies’ require consideration while preparing, planning and organising a workstation The structural arrangements necessary to engineer an adequate workstation should include temperature requirements Structures such as shields, screens, ducts, enclosures, heating/cooling apparatus are relevant for thermal level maintenance => adequate thermal levels should be considered as part of structural arrangements Levels such as the following are vital to comfort ~ AIR TEMPERATURE To regulate air temperature at a workstation consideration of thermal equipment, temperature zones and structural arrangements of thermal installations are vital for structuring an optimum workstation arrangement ~ AIR HUMIDITY Maintaining air humidity (level of wetness) is as essential as maintaining temperature levels If the air humidity is too moist, stuffiness results If the air humidity is too low 208WS271L E parched conditions occur that leave people and often objects in a dried out condition Fabrics could sustain darmage as a result of dry conditions in a work area Providing moisturising equipment is an essential part of optimising conditions at workstations ~ RADIANT TEMPERATURE Shielding workers and sensitive objects from radiating heat such as an open heater or furnace is vital to their health and well being Equally essential, is preventing body heat from dissipating (vanishing) to cold objects like walls, windows, cabinets, other steel objects Preventing damage or injury from radiating heat or dissipating body heat is an integral part of optimising a work place ADEQUATE THERMAL PROTECTION ~ RATE OF AIR MOVEMENT Air should move at approximately 10 metres per minute at a constant temperature of + 20°C to be comfortable Some suitable apparatus like an air conditioning unit should be installed in a work area to ensure the combination of temperature and air movement Maintaining a comfortable airflow at a work place is essential to worker comfort Often workstations are positioned in thoroughfares causing uncontrolled fluctuations in temperature and air movement Preventing fluctuation is part of providing an acceptable work place 209WS271L E 2.2.4 ANTHROIPOMETRICS Anthropometrics j>rovide the measurement data required to allocate adequate space and movement comfort for a worker at a workstation (see pages 145 and 146 of the textbook) Workspace at a workstation should allow a worker enough room for all required movemerts to complete expected tasks comfortably ‘Anthropometrics prescribe seating and standing requirements for minimum and maximum normal and/or ecomomic movement at a workstation The prescribed data are contained and available in relevant BSI specifications and standards as well as from SABS in Pretoria It is essential to consult these standards before planning and preparing a workstation 2.2.5 MOVEMENT ECONOMY Often naturaVeasy movement refers to motion/movement economy Easy or natural movements are based on the shape and arrangement of body parts in accomplishi ‘Natural movements comprise six categories of movement These categories are ~ minimum ~ rhythmical ~ simultaneous (same time) ~ _ habitual ~ symmetrical (circular) ~ continuous Review the information about ‘motion economy’ on pages 137 to 139 and 142 of the Work Study textbook and pages 10 and 11 of EWS121Q E 2.2.6 EXTENT OF AUTOMATION Computer integrated manufacture/processing (CIM) is a requirement for world class- workstations Computer integrated excellence (CIE) should be a strategic objective and striving for all work centres Exciting prospects for automating are on the market Prospects such as on line CIM workstations, remote control of processes, computerised modem connections, laser technology, at reasonable prices with driver software CIE includes internal and external processes that are integrated by computer to increase work place _co- ordination CIE should also reduce and even eliminate paper work Instead of tedious, repetitive work and rework processes it is preferable to automate by programming and networking processes This ensures a ‘kaizan’ (do it right the first time) approach to all processes In setting up/designing a workstation it is essential to analyse and consider these requirements 2-10Ews271L E = 2.2.7 SECTION ACTIVITY Write notes on sections 2 2 1 to 2.2 6 to show that you have sufficient insight to apply ergonomic improve-ment techniques While you are writing the notes refer to examples from your work pla.ce to support your statements on ergonomic improvements 2.2.74 2.2.7.2 2-414EWs271L E 2.2.7.3 2274 2.2.7.5 242aWS271LE 2.2.7.6 2.3 SYNERGY Synergy is the combined effect of ‘bodies'/entities/substances working together that exceeds the sum of their individual effect. This is an important idea when it is present in a work place Togetherness or co-ordination or synergy in a work place is an essential aspect of a productive work place It ensures that work materialises as required Often important plans fail because there is little or no synergy in a work place Work is done ina haphazard way and a great deal of blame or failure results The solution is not to find the ‘guilty’ party but to engineer a synergy within a work place Synergy does not come ‘naturally’ There are several basic aspects that comprise the technique of synergy These are work place management, physical aspects and economy 2.3.1 MANAGEMENT The work place as a whole entity should embody togetherness This togetherness should be visible at all workstations/areas There are few more successful ways of accomplishing the required togetherness than by a well ‘managed’ work place A well managed work place should comprise the primary/basic management functions (planning, organising, financing, manning, processing and controlling) which should result in workers being able to co-ordinate, communicate and make decisions about their workstations These three secondary management functions are in essence worker empowerment By providing a work situation that has potential for adequate management it is the best way of ensuring co-ordination/togethemness of the work place Adequate management includes ample administration 2-13EWS271LE 2.3.1.1 Planning Planning is the first essential of ample administration, as it should begin long, before any activities do. Planning should embrace the long, medium and short term Svtrategic aspects of the work place such as capacity, technology, equipment, tooling, processing, work ethics, philosophy and policies are essential pre- operational considerations Planning operational aspects include such as workstation arrangements, work flow, material flow and usage, time requirements, adequate tooling, communication facilities and decision making procedures 2.3.1.2 Organising Like planning, organising is vital to sound administration Organising is basecl on planning initiatives Organising is ‘making it work” It is all very well to say that “2 capacity is required to produce but if the correct number and machines are not procured and enough space to work in is not there, then all the planning in the world will not make ‘it’ happen It is also no use providing machines after the work should have been complete Therefore timing is an essential element of organisation and synergy Too little, too late smacks of poor organisation Organising is vital to synergy Subdividing work economically includes a balanced approach to work division (not too much at a time or overloading/under loading any one area) Providing adequate and sufficient resources (relevant M’s) to do quality work is an essential part of synergy These activities are basic to work flow and interface continually to ensure a work place synergy Organising ensures that resources (including adequate funding) and activities meet at the right time and are adequately supplied to ‘let it work” The ‘flow’ of work is an essential element of work place synergy 2.3.1.3Manning It is vital to ensure that workers are capable and able to perform in the work place Manning is part of synergy and efficient administration No productive work is possible without capable (error free work while taking full responsibility) workers Too many work environments suffer as a result of tolerating and fostering ‘lame’ workers Too many companies expect too much of unskilled workers and consequently non-conformance is rife Assisting workers by providing training and not ‘entertainment’ (unrelated courses) is part of synergy Along with proper training should go an adequately engineered work place Workers who have to ‘make do’, scrounge for tools and other needed resources or cower to some ignorant poorly qualified overseer are not producing optimally These are all demeaning work place practices that breakdown and even destroy togetherness in a work place Workstations should be orderly, with an adequate supply of resources and meet ergonomic requirements (see 12 and 22) The flow of work should be orderly allowing horizontal interaction (see 1 4 1 3) Time allocated to workers to complete tasks should be adequate 2.3.1.4 Monitoring This is another vital aspect of managing a situation to ensure synergy Setting, communicating, measuring, assessing and reporting enables ‘managers to keep the work place together/co-ordinated An adequately designed workstation should provide a workplace where a worker can 244EWS271L E perform to meet expectations This assists workers in monitoring their own progress and performance, minimising the need for excessive supervision Self-monitoring is an important aspect of worker empowerment It effects synergy as workers are free to contribute to the success of a work situation rather than coercing workers to contribute 2.3.1.5 Test of True Management The test of true management, togetherness and synergy is the ability of a worker to ‘deliver’ If a worker can produce conforming products in target time without constant supervision then it is safe to accept a worker is sufficiently empowered and the worker will deliver Workers who are able to co-ordinate their workstations by optimally utilising resources, working. to specification and requirements and complying with ergonomic constraints such as minimum movement are also in control of the their work situation is a sure sign of ‘togetherness’ If workers are assisted in communicating about their work place/station such as providing triggers (Kanban type system) and signals (set of lights for maintenance altering), achievement indicators (target boards or tally/totals/percentage areas or displays) it contributes to synergy and empowerment, Workers are consequently in a position to manage their own workstations The point will be reached where decision making will be on the basis of logical, thoughtful considerations rather than thoughtless prompting from a supervisor The level of responsibility is increased as cause and effect becomes clearer Synergy is closer as workers work consequently rather than ‘brainlessly’ The co-ordination of each workstation contributes to the overall synergy of the work place The strain of management being on only one person, the supervisor, is greatly relieved as workers are able to co-ordinate, communicate and make decisions for their own work areas 2.3.2 PHYSICAL ASPECTS The physical requirements include the workstation equipment, arrangement, the flow and handling of material and work through the workstation ‘These aspects are covered sufficiently under Facility Layout and Material Handling 1! (FLM271$) 2.3.3 ECONOMY The economy of a work environment embodies the utilisation of all human and other resources A work place should have only those structures that will ensure optimal functioning (see 121 and 122) While designing a work place it is essential that thorough design analyses (see Unit 1) be applied Thorough analyses will contribute to optimising the work place design, especially optimising the allocation of resources Movement economy (see textbook page 145/6) is part of the idea of using resources optimally 2-415Ews271L E = 2.3.4 SECTION ACTIVITY Write notes on sections 23 1 to 233 to show that you have sufficient insight to apply synergy techniques. While you are writing the notes refer to examples from your work place to support your statements on synergy 2.3.4.1 2.3.4.2 2-46WS271L E 2.3.4.3 2.4 FACILITATING Facilitating refers to promoting a cause, making it easy to accomplish, or helping something to get ahead All these references are true of Work Study/Method Study objectives (see textbook page 68 and 2622), summarised in one word - ‘IMPROVEMENT’ These references are also true of the function of an Industrial Engineering specialist ‘A major part of Industrial Engineering is facilitating Industrial Engineering should promote a well-planned, organised, structured and functioning work environment This promotes an effective, efficient and productive work environment Providing effective systems, processes and procedures ‘make it easy’ to accomplish work Workers work more effectively if work is properly organised, resources are appropriately supplied and are adequate ‘An important aspect of facilitating is ‘helping’ The ability to listen to ‘customers’ (all workers and management as well as paying customers form part of this group), comprehend, grasp and interpret/understand their requirements is an essential part of helping Designing a work place is typical of ‘helping’ Improving a work process or method is another way of ‘helping’ Facilitating also refers to an ombudsman (someone who investigates complaints) or umpire (someone who gives a final decision) Both these terms imply that opposing parties require help ‘The ‘help’ in these cases can range from severe disagreement to the opinion of a third party It might also mean that parties who need to find a common bond and come to consensus would require help in reaching an agreement It is necessary for a facilitator to follow a laid down procedure when facilitating The procedure follows the steps below Step No. 1 DETERMINE THE SUBJECT OF THE DEBATE Step No. 2. ARRANGE A FORMAL MEETING 2-17ws271L E Step No. 3. CONDUCT THE MEETING Step No, 4 RECORD ALL INFORMATION FROM ALL PARTIES Step No. $ ASSESS THE INFORMATION Step No, 6 RECOMMEND A SOLUTION 2.5 IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMMES Improvement programmes and projects should be planned and executed systematically If improvements are installed on a haphazard basis it might cause further problems such as confusion, duplication or shortsighted decisions The recommended way of approaching improvements is strategically The strategic approach implies that improvements are seen i a long term, overall and predictable ‘big picture’ ‘The strategic approach avoids fragmented, isolated, confusing and costly ventures The strategic approach is based on a set procedure The procedure entails a thorough analysis (usually a SWOT analysis) of a situation From the analysis it is possible to identify and prioritise improvement areas These areas comprise long term issues on which action is taken 2.5.1 STRATEGIC ISSUES There are several strategic issues that are relevant to this text These issues are work place philosophy, work ethics, appropriate technology, work place facilities, work processes and procedures and resource allocation 2.5.1.1 Work Place Philosophy (reason for being/existing in business) Work place philosophy is basic to a strategic approach as it guides and directs all role players in their vision and mission of the business they are about Often companies are not clear on this basic matter of the reason for engaging in business The often-heard response is to ‘make money/profit’ While this eventually might be true it should not be the reason for existing as a company Reasons such as producing a particular quality product/service, contribution to the community, enhancement of the economy are better reasons From these motifs (dominant ideas), if they are correct, will come the required money/profit An accurate and honest philosophy then, should direct all resulting business of a company 2.5.1.2 Work Ethic (code of moral conduct) Work ethic should be the next strategic issue to consider as it is directly linked to work place philosophy Work ethics should include worker and management conduct It is the essence of true motivation Say not only, “what can the company do for me but what can I do for the good of the business of the company’ If I hold back on my honest best (and sometimes my honest best is not the best) then I am directly inflicting ‘injury’ on myself Commonly known as ‘shooting myself in the foot’ (a criminal offence) Slacking does not only hurt the company but it could loose me my job and income in the end The long-term effects are probably the most serious - damaging the economy Management in tum needs to give more than lip service to moral conduct Often 2-18EWS271L E hollow or twisted psromises give rise to deep-seated unhappiness in the work place Unrealistic expectations such as non-standardised work or production targets set for ideal working conditions are expected of workers These expectations are under conditions of poorly maintained old equipment making it almost impossible for workers to perform as expected, thoroughly demoralising the workers Often management request workers to come forward with ideas and initiative Once the worker produces the ideas these are discarded by their manager as unsuitable only to discover a little while latter that a manager claims the ideas as his/her own, gaining the accolades for those same ideas Mangers allow workers to take on responsibilities beyond their capabilities and glibly say ‘Give the worker enough rope to hang him or herself” Over worked, exhausted workers are hastily blamed for ‘botch ups’ but most work place errors are traceable to poor management such as lack of communication, little or no worker support or reluctance to provide adequate resources Even large international principles are participants of the cycle of unethical behaviour by supplying faulty or incorrect components Purposely turning South African companies into ‘dumping’ grounds and then pointing fingers at poor performance from South African companies eventually forcing the local businesses to close These unethical practices harm the business of companies and the country, provoking a lack of business confidence that in the end causes serious damage to business relationships and professionalism. The extent of unethical, covert practices in powerful consortiums is devastating One could muse on these unacceptable practices for ages but that would only cause severe depression and even anger Companies that have adopted a more positive approach to work ethics (especially transparency, participation and empowerment) have gained immense benefits such as revitalising their business, increasing turnover by as much as 400% One might ask what are these companies doing to effect such a turn around in their business They are taking a rather radical approach, even ‘scary’ They are opting for total transparency and participation Companies are literally starting their organisation from ‘scratch’ on the basis of total honesty - no hidden agendas They are truly sharing, their financial matters, the management of the company, the burden of the responsibilities and all decision making related to the company You might ask but ‘What do people with little or no education know or understand of business dealings and integrated financial matters? How can they participate in making decisions on these matters? Changes to total transparency are not simple or at the ‘flick of a finger’ but need a lot of careful attention and management The important issue in this section is that of true transparency and whether dealings in the company are honest Genuine progress and success in business are based on the principles of true transparency and equity The issue of ethics in the work place is one of the most 2-19ws271L E important matters for Industrial Engineering consideration when designing a work place 2.5.1.3 Appropriate Technology The selecting and providing of appropriate technology is a major task of Industrial Engineering The study of available technology should be an ongoing practice of an Industrial Engineering specialist Technological progress is rampant (frenzied, climbing) and keeping up with technological advancements is a mental feat However demanding it might be to keep abreast of technology, it is essential to adequate and appropriate strategic decisions As technology changes at such a rapid pace it is even more important to keep abreast It is vital to maintain a strategy to technological involvement for the benefit and competitive edge of the company’s business 2.5.1.4 Work Place Facilities This is another prime task of Industrial Engineering, It is discussed and studied in detail under the subject Facility Layout and Material Handling Il (FLM 271S) Providing appropriate facilities to work in is probably the most basic task of Industrial Engineering and therefore calls for a great deal of attention on the part of the Industrial Engineering specialist Facilities and technology strategies go hand in hand as these are inseparable ‘The physical aspects such as building material and the arrangement of machinery and equipment should be part of a company’s strategic decisions These tasks are the direct responsibility of Industrial Engineering specialists These matters should not merely be on an advisory basis but incumbent on Industrial Engineering (This shift away from merely being an advisory function to an incumbent function should be part of the strategic approach in a company ) 2.5.1.5 Work Processes and Procedures A. considerable amount of time and effort by the Industrial Engineering specialist is spent on devising/designing, and providing for appropriate work processes and procedures One of the major requirements of an acceptable quality system is the defining, establishing and recording of processes and especially work procedures Often work procedures are assumed in companies and more often left to the good judgement of an operator These ill-founded practices are strategically and operationally unacceptable Every endeavour on the part of the Industrial Engineering specialist should be made to systematically correct the situation by enlisting relevant resources to provide required procedures ‘Work processes and procedures should be projected on the basis of sufficient objective evidence that they are appropriate and suitable rather than on simply a heuristic (trial and error - ‘just grew’) basis Various analytical techniques (see Unit 2) but especially Method Study or Modapts (a PMTS system based on kinetic body movements) will establish the information needed to project required processes and procedures 2-20EWS271LE The projection pro gramme is a major strategic process as it is an ongoing programme but also forms part of other strategic decisions such as required technology changes in facilities An example of this would be the procedure of slicing bread while making a snack In an improved work situation it would fall away altogether as the strategy would be to opt fOr process simplification and the resulting tactic for pre-prepared ingredients (buy sliced bread) when making sandwiches It is possible by Modapts or MTM (Methods Tirme Measurement) to prescribe and predict that the only movements required are at the workstation (where the snacks are made - see EWS121Q Annex E) 2.8.1.6 Resource A Mocation Resource allocation is a strategic aspect that calls for advice to management as well as organisational engineering Organisational engineering includes workload allocation Workload allocation determines the required amount and nature of work that each worker and/or workstation should produce in a given period of time such as a minute, hour or shift (see Unit 5) Workstation resource (relevant M’s) allocations depend on the workload allocation Resource allocation is a strategic issue Resources (especially equipment, materials and skills) that are applicable today might be completely outmoded by tomorrow and especially in two to five years from now In the example of snack making a s spreading a slice of bread might be redundant in future Instead the snack maker might need the skill of operating or programming an automatic snack-making machine The sandwich-making process in future might be fully automated To ensure that one ends up with a sandwich or snack of your choice, one would have to gain skill in operating the sandwich-making machine and/or skill in programming the sandwich ‘making machine The sandwich-making machine could be computer operated or electro-mechanically designed to ‘pop up’, “slot in’, “flap open’ or ‘drop out” parts of or the whole sandwich Jam, butter, cheese or even meat for the purpose of the sandwich-making, machine will be processed in a different way It might be possible for the automatic sandwich- making machine to process slabs of cheese Cheese might need to be in a more malleable (mouldable) form Slabs of cheese might change to tubes or granules of cheese The same could be true of butter (or margarine) The idea of a sandwich in an chine might change completely to crackers, whirls, meringues or a delectable variety of snacks affecting the relevant resource allocation in future Therefore the resources (equipment, materials and skills) needed in future could change dramatically It could as easily be that all that is needed is more or less of the present resources Whatever the needs, a thorough analysis will help in establishing the correct future resource needs 2.8.2. STRATEGIC PROCEDURE Its essential to follow the set procedure to achieve a strategic approach ‘The procedure is described below 221Ws271L E FIRST PHASE: ANALYSING There are several suitable analyses for collecting relevant data on strategic issues but the one analysis that is most frequently applied is the SWO'T analysis as it highlights the strategic aspects of controllable, internal issues and non-controllable, external issues connected to a work situation The Strengths and Weakness of a company/firm are controllable The company can do “something” about these issues Issues such as the technology they select or the resources they allocate If they have a technological ‘weakness’ in the form of being twenty years behind other companies that produce similar products then it is possible for the company to do something about updating the relevant technology If the quality of the products that the company produces is on par with world class products then this strength is something the company should seek to ‘maintain and even improve It is essential to list all strengths and weakness of all the controllable situations within a company A list of the non-controllable issues is as essential in a strategic analysis The Opportunities and Threats also play an important role in the strategic analysis (possibly an even greater role than the controllable elements) To a greater extent it is more important to consider ‘things’ that one has little or no control over, as one needs to provide more specifically to cope with these It is also important to be aware of issues labelled, as a ‘threat’ Often these so-called threats are in fact hidden opportunities such as other companies producing the same or a similar product This might be the very opportunity your company needs to take the Tead in the market by moving ahead and developing a new more exciting product Because of your long years of experience in producing the product and your profound product knowledge you have the ‘competitive edge’ in the market place to make a move of this nature A company does not always consider these moves due toalack of strategic insight Only when a company 2-22WS271L E SECOND PHASE: THIRD PHASE: FOURTH PHASE: takes the initiative to analyse their situation will these facts come to light Once the facts are available, it becomes easy to identify essential issues such as the need for improved technology or pinpoint hidden strategic opportunities IDENTIFYING From the listings of the SWOT position of a company it is possible to identify possibilities within and outside of a company These possibilities could be for improvements, avoiding future danger or confirmation of a company’s position Whatever the case might be, it is possible to identify it from the listings Once issues are identified it is possible to start taking action Action in strategic issues is crucial Great caution should also be taken that the action is appropriate, bringing long-term benefits to a company It is not possible to take action on all issues at once Therefore it is necessary to prioritise identified issues PRIORITISING joritising depends on two important conditions timing The second is the importance of The first an issue It is possible to determine the importance from a Pareto analysis that is based on the SWOT analysis listings The issues from the SWOT analysis listings become improvement areas or projects The projects require action SETTING ACTION PLANS Drawing up a strategic programme initially does strategic action planning The programme can be displayed on a table to look like this PRIOR. IMPROVEMENT AREA TARGET] AcT_] The table indicates the priority order of the various projects Each project can then be managed by making use of ‘Network Analysis’ like PERT 2-23WS271LE 2.6 INFORMATION SOURCING Information sourcing is essential to any profession but very essentially to Industrial Engineering The Industrial Engineering specialist should be a source of information in a work place/envirorument The Industrial Engineering specialist should also keep ‘abreast? of industrial and busirsess movements, especially progress Information sourcing is possible by scanning relevant monthly magazines and journals A study and follow up of articles published in the ‘monthlies” is helpful in acquiring information and keeping abreast with information on industry and business at large Keeping a file for relevant information is essential In the file you can store contact lists, latest information updates, pertinent articles, tables, strategic information and a host of other relevant information You should compile your own contents list for information relevant to your file It is essential to have the file at hand or ready for quick access, at all times Often associates at work request information on a particular subjectitopic It is as a result of these requests that an Industrial Engineering specialist surveys relevant reading matter to find required information The resulting find might also be useful in future and therefore a copy of the information should be stored in your information file The file should be managed and administered to remain relevant information The management of the file entails designing, preparing, arranging and updating the file on a regular basis i 2.7 UNIT ACTIVITY Respond to the statements below by a T for true or F for false STATEMENT RESPONSE 271 Facilitating implies promoting a cause 272 Facilitating is a function of Industrial Engineering 273 Facilitating consists of providing easy processes 274 ‘Arrange a formal meeting’ is the first step in facilitating 2.75. Improvement programmes and projects are always systematic 276 Astrategic approach avoids confusing ventures 277 Work place philosophy includes a company’s vision and mission. 278 Work ethics imply that workers should control the work place 279 Unethical practices harm the business of companies 2-24WS271LE STATEMENT RESPONSE 2710 Maintaining, technology is always beneficial 2711 Strategic resource allocation might imply a different way of making jam 2712 SWOT listings identify possi ies 2.8 UNIT ACTIVITY SOLUTIONS Solutions are given under the last number of the statements under 2 7 17,2 7,3 F,4 F,5 F,6 7,7 7,8 F,9 7,10 F,1l T,12 T 2-25STUDY UNIT 3 OD mrcoosEWS271L E UNIT CONTENTS MODULE B: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES APPLIED 3-01 STUDY UNIT 3: ENGINEERING FOR IMPROVEMENT 3-01 3.4. INTRODUCTION 3-01 3.2 ENGINEERING WORK GROUPINGS FOR IMPROVEMENT 3-01 821 Engineering Work Groupings 3-02 322 Seetion Activity 3-04 3.3 ENGINEERING INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION 3-05 3.31 Engineering Interaction in the Work Place 3-05 3.3.2 Engineering Integration in the Work Place 340 333 Section Activity 341 3.4 ENGINEERING WORK PLACE SYNERGY 3412 3.41 Formulating Syneray 343 3.42 Integrating 313 3.43 Evaluating 3-45 344 Maintaining 316 3.45 Section Activity 347 3.5 DESIGNING A WORKSTATION 347 351 Visualising a Workstation Concept 347 3.52 Gaining Concept Approval 3-24 3.53 Establishing/Proving the Concept 324 KaTEWS271L E 354 Implementing the Workstation Proposal 3-28 355 Testing the VVorkstation Design in Use 3-28 3.56 Monitoring tha Layout in Use 3-28 357 Conclusions 3:29 358 Section Activity 3-29 3.6 COMPUTERISED NETWORKING AND COMPUTER INTEGRATED BUSINESS (CIB) 3-31 361 Manufacturing, Process-Enhancement Facilities 3.33 362 Computer Integrated Business (CIB) 3:36 363 Section Activity 3:38 siiEWs271LE MODULE B: ADVANCED IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES APPLIED STUDY UNIT ENGINEERING FOR IMPROVEMENT ‘STUDY OUTCOMES After studying this study unit you should be able to 1 engineer situations for the purpose of work place improvements 3.1. INTRODUCTION we Improvement is the main objective of Engineering Work Study (see textbook page 262 2 and 11 of this text) There are four areas of the work environment that should essentially be engineered to effect improvement The four areas are work groupings, interaction and integration, synergy and workstation design Unit 3 covers information on how to engineer work groupings comprising worker teams and/or inanimate groups such as cellular groupings The information in this unit is intended to provide you with insight on how to engineer interaction and integration in the work place One of the important tasks that you are expected to carry out is to engineer work place synergy This unit has information that shows you how to do this In this unit workstation design is discussed and evaluated for the purpose of showing you how to apply this process The emphasis in this unit is on the term ‘engineering’ for the purpose of work place improvements The engineering process comprises six functions The functions are analysing, designing, constructing, industrialising, commissioning and maintaining a work situation ‘The engineering process is applied with other improvement methods like method study to improve the work place 3.2 ENGINEERING WORK GROUPINGS FOR IMPROVEMENT This section applies to the engineering of worker teams and inanimate groupings A group comes into being as soon as two or more ‘bodies’ are clustered together for a common purpose Groupings are also referred to as ‘societies’ or ‘aggregates’ These are rather important references Society is defined as “Parties united by a common aim, interest or principle.” Aggregate is defined as “Several entities that collect, unite or add_up together.” These are exact definitions of work groupings, as you will see from the discussions in this section ‘The discussions on the engineering of groupings are as follows ~ under the engineering process These two processes ~ under the method study process integrate and combine ~ showing how to structure a grouping 3-01Ews271L E 3.2.1. ENGINEERING WORK GROUPINGS Work groupings imply a team of only workers, a team of workers and a machine, a team of workers and machines or a team of one worker and one machine The appropriate grouping for a particular work situation is essential To effect this the engineering rocess should be applied To apply the engineering process effectively it is necessary to combine it with the method study process (see textbook pages 69/70) You can follow the combined process below 3.2.1.1 Obtain and Record the Facts ‘The first phase of engineering a work group is to obtain the relevant facts Obtaining relevant facts for a situation is essential to analysing the situation Relevant facts about work groups include required/desired work process, resources, outputs/results and constraints (limits) ~ Work processes imply all conversions, throughputs, workings, activities, functions and actions (see 1 5.3) that are required to transform or utilise resources into useful conforming products ~ Resources include the eight-M's as defined under 13 1 ~ Qutputs/Results imply relevant outcomes/results These are usually relevant to the criteria/requirements of a situation like ‘palatable sandwiches ~ Constraints most often refer to financial (budgets), time (time standards) or capacity (to do with volume) limits ‘These facts should be recorded in a systematic way to ensure that later reference is easy and accurate There are several appropriate recording methods and devices Some of the more useful methods are charts, tables and diagrams Devices include flow charts and diagrams, graphs, L-shaped charts, fishbone diagram, T-shape matrix and Gantt chart, to mention but some 3.2.1.2 Examine the Facts The second phase of engineering is to examine the facts Examine implies analysis, testing and exploring Analysis is the detailed and varied scrutiny of the collected facts Appropriate analyses as described under 1 2 to 1 6 should apply Testing implies that, during examination of the collected facts, it is possible to establish the validity of the facts Testing by statistical methods is recommended Methods such as establishing levels of confidence, accuracy or probability testing can be used Exploring is essential to creative engineering Exploring should rely on convergent (to a correct/logical conclusion) and divergent (apparently unrelated, unusual ideas) thinking Techniques of fluency, originality and flexibility are basic to exploring. Fluency indicates the speed at which it is possible for a person to generate new ideas These ideas should be original, novel or stunning to impact creatively The many different ways in which an idea is used and the number of situations to which the idea is applied indicate flexibility 3.2.1.3 Structuring Groupings The third phase of engineering groupings is to structure the groupings The structuring process includes conceptualising, developing 3-02Ews271L & and testing the design of a work grouping Each work grouping (see 321 above) should be subjected to the structuring/design process Designing an engineering process that applies when structuring The phases of designing are ~ CONCEPTUALISING/VISUALISING ~ APPROVING THE CONCEPT ~ DEVELOPING THE CONCEPT ~ TESTING THE DEVELOPMENT ~ ESTABLISHING THE DESIGN ~ IMPLEMENTING THE DESIGN ~ TESTING THE DESIGN Conceptualising/visualising implies a general or ‘notion’ From the analysis of the facts it is possible to form a general idea/notion of an appropriate work grouping Information about the work process, the required resources and expected outcomes will indicate a specific grouping Bear in mind that at this stage of structuring, the envisaged grouping is an idea or notion So often undeveloped ideas are implemented as the final grouping This results in disjointed working conditions causing poor working conditions and dissatisfaction in the work place An example of this would be to group only one worker and one machine together while after development it became clear that two machines were needed for an appropriate grouping Describing should define characteristics of say machines and worker skills These are the results of analysing a situation It should indicate the purpose of items or objects being described Sketches or examples should illustrate the items/topic/objects Present the report to role-players who need to participate in approving the concept It should be quite clear from the report that the purpose of the presentation is for approval and not implementation Development entails the collecting, using or simulating data on the work grouping The purpose is to simulate the situation so that dependable mns are possible Simulation can be by statistical methods such as 1n (normal or chi), a probability or regression model It can be by method study methods such as flow charts, diagrams or string diagrams Simulations, especially animated computer programs that allow users to apply ‘what-if tactics are ranked as effective simulation tools An example of this is the initial idea of having only a one worker and one machine grouping By running an animated program one would soon be able to judge the outcome The simulation can also show to what extent expectations would be met These simulation indicators and projectors are vital in designing appropriate groupings Adjust the development to meet the projections indicated by that from the simulation Run the adjusted groupings on the same simulator to test and 3-03EWS271LE confirm that optimum adjustments are made Establish the developed grouping by writing a final report for the purpose of recommending that the grouping be accepted and implemented Implement the established grouping ready for action Implementation should be carefully planned and arranged 3.2.1.4 Installing the Approved Grouping The fourth phase of engineering groupings comes as a result of implementing the approved grouping design This phase installation Installation comprises activating and testing a grouping (see Unit 6) Activating comprises the initial running and operating of machinery It is important to ‘monitor the activating process to observe and adjust minor aspects of the grouping As soon as activating is complete it is essential to test the grouping under ‘normal’ working conditions Select a batch/item to follow through the work process of the designed grouping ‘An example of this would be the toasting process Aspects such as the physical positioning of the toaster, materials (bread slices, fillings) and worker, the timing, the ease with which the worker fills the sandwich, loads and unloads the toaster should be observed Any difficulties or errors should be recorded Adjustments in respect of difficulties and errors should be effected before ‘handing’ the grouping to a responsible person for the purpose of continued operating 3.2.1.5 Maintaining the Grouping _The fifth phase of engineering groupings is maintaining the grouping Maintenance should be on a short term and long term basis. The long-term maintenance should include monitoring of performance and throughput (see Unit 6) | 3.2.2 SECTION ACTIVITY Explain in your own words how to engineer work groupings (see 3 2 1) 3.2.2.1 Obtain and Record the Facts (3.2.1.1) 3.2.2.2 Examine the Facts (3.2.1.2) 3-04EWS271LE 3.2.2.3 Structuring Groupings (3.2.1.3) 3.2.24 (3.2.1.4) 3.3 ENGINEERING INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION Interaction is defined as ‘acting reciprocally’ implying mutual interchange (give and receive mutually) or complementary (to make whole or complete) action Integration is defined as “the combination of diverse elements/parts to complete a situation’ Neither interaction nor integration just ‘happens’ in the work place Although one often gets the feeling that management fondly imagine this to be so Careful engineering is necessary to ensure an integrated interaction in the work place 3.3.1. ENGINEERING INTERACTION IN THE WORK PLACE There are many areas of interaction in the work place On closer scrutiny though, it is clear that there are four major interacting role-players The role-players are people, entities (things - equipment, materials), processes (happenings) and information These role-players need to act reciprocally to effect interaction Effective interaction requires four criteria to ensure effective interaction These criteria are balance, support and common objectives and strivings 3.3.1.1 Balance — The criterion of balance requires that no one role-player dominate the work situation During the engineering process, especially during the 3-05EWS271L E design phase it iss essential to pay close attention to the component parts of the work situation A typical example of this would be, to have only one bread knife but three people wanting to use the knife at the same time Too many people and too few tools unbalance the situation unbalanced position would cause people to be dissatisfied (stancling around waiting and not producing) It would a cause of under utilised resourcess (too many people) Resources would be over utilised over utilised (the knife slicing bread, cheese and tomatoes) Productivity suffers as a result of an imbalance (low Out put - slices in relation to high resource input - workers) Low stuns are also obvious in an unbalanced situation (not enough slices to make sandwiches in tixne for teatime) An unbalanced workflow is another indicator of unbalance (toaster and boiling water waiting to be used) There are several. ways in which the situation can be brought into balance One could buy more knives but until a thorough study is made of the situation this should not be done One of the people in the kitchen could be appointed to do all the cutting/slicing {allocating of tasks and dividing of work) It is also possible to do away with slicing altogether and buy sliced bread, eliminating the slicing operation In engineering interaction-balance it is essential to aim at the ultimate or best change, like eliminating slicing by buying sliced bread A limited number of interacting components in a work situation are in the interest of better balance and a more productive situation Balance also includes workload and line balancing. This ensures a balanced process flow along required flow lines Workload and line balancing are described in Facility Layout and Material Handling (FLM 2718S) under “Line Balancing’ 42 2 The balance creates a synergy in the workflow interaction ensuring that no one task/operation delays or pressurises any other task/operation ‘The balance in the workflow should ensure a constant, uninterrupted flow of work The smooth flow of work ensures delivery and productivity by using minimum resources and maintaining a work flow momentum Applying a technique like Line Balancing, it becomes an engineering ‘tool’ for designing, constructing, installing and maintaining work place interaction Line balancing automatically creates a balance in the work place introducing a systematic flow of work to meet the criterion of balance The objective is to find a balancing tool’ that will assist in the ultimate/best work place improvement 3.3.1.2 Support The criterion of support requires the engineering of adequate and sufficient support Support includes systems, mechanisms and processes Support should adequately interact with the vertical route in a work process Systems (see 12 2 1) need to be adequate and appropriate An example of this is the procurement system The procuring/buying bread is a support system to the process of making sandwiches The buying/procuring system is a communication system as it initiates (orders sliced bread), transmits (gives the order for bread by telephone - the common link means - cable) The bakery receives the order (messages), processes the messages (by preparing the bread for delivery), and responds (by delivering the bread on time) It will be of no use to the worker making the sandwiches if the bread only arrives at three (15 00) in the afternoon as the sandwiches are suppose to be ready at 10 00 3-06EWs271L E Support systems raed to be predicable to be adequate and appropriate It implies that a support systena should interact with the work situation in a way that ensures satisfaction and work momentum like for the purpose of scheduling work (bread arrives on time to have sandwiches at 10 00 every morning) Mechanisms imply physical devices, process_techniques and work methods, Mechanisms are ir2 place to ensure those processes work and that action takes place Physical devices comprise all plant, machinery, tooling, tools, jigs and equipment Tequired to do the ‘job’ efficiently These devices should be appropriate and suitable to ensure an effective, conforming product that meets meteorological (dimensions of the sandwich) and aesthetic (patterned rib markings from the snackwich toaster) specifications/requiirements The appropriate device/mechanism contributes to, and consequently supports the work process promoting a reciprocal work situation In the example of the snackwich, the mechanism stapports sandwich production by producing delicious looking ribbed sandwiches of the same size and dimensions This mechanism (snackwich) eliminates the need for the sandwich maker to constantly measure and adjust the sandwich to meet required dimensions or carve ribbed markings on a sandwich Process techniques should support production processes Process techniques or special ways of working are for the purpose of producing a product/item effectively and efficiently In the example of making snackwiches it would be far more efficient to have a dish of melted butter to dip a slice into (butter both sides of a slice in seconds) than trying to carefully balance the slice on its edge while buttering it It would also be better to place the buttered slice onto a broad spatula immediately after butter dipping Placing the ingredients onto the bottom slice and placing the top slice onto the filling can fill the sandwich Tilting the spatula forward easily loads the sandwich into the snackwich toaster Loading (sliding onto the toaster platen) the sandwich into the toaster would be facilitated by the melted butter on the bottom slice This way of loading the toaster is far more effective than trying to load it by picking up the sandwich by hand and dropping out some of the ingredients It is also better than trying to force a small spatula under the sandwich after putting it together This disturbs the composition of the sandwich moving ingredients from one end of the sandwich to the other The disturbance results in the sandwich bursting in the toaster and becoming a non-conforming product Appropriate process techniques are essential in engineering a work place but even more essential in operating a work place Process techniques ensure effective interaction in the work place by integrating resources effectively This is done in eliminating unnecessary handling of materials while providing fussless equipment and efficient work methods to assist workers in being capable Work methods in conjunction with process techniques and mechanisms provide an integrated work environment Work methods are the ‘how’ of the work place - the way in which work is done Work methods, perhaps more than any other form of support, are basic to work place interaction If a worker or mechanism does not follow a standard procedure it is not possible to expect conforming products or capable processes There are two components of a work method These are the vertical and horizontal 307EWS271L E aspects A close interaction of these two is vital to an effective work method Any serious division of the two components will result in unaccomplished, disrupted processes The vertical component should ensure a logical progression of activities to complete 2 required task/operation The horizontal component should ensure that the vertical component is adequately supplemented and supported In the example of making a hot drink the vertical procedure is to boil the water, after the water has boiled collect ingredients, prepare the drink, add the boiling water to the ingredients in the cup/mug/container, draw/stir and garnish Should the horizontal interaction be delayed, neglected or inappropriate the vertical process is disrupted Say the water has boiled but the ingredients or the container are not available, the water cools down and will need re-heating This is a disrupting activity in the vertical process In addition to the re-heating there is no milk to garnish the drink Someone has to go to the nearest café for more milk By the time the person returns with the milk the drink is lukewarm or cold This further disrupts the vertical process The drink needs re-heating or remaking These disruptive, unproductive activities cause the vertical procedure to become dysfunctional An improved vertical procedure would be to check on and collect the ingredients and container, switch on the kettle, prepare the drink (scoop coffee into container), pour on boiling water and garnish The vertical procedure is free of disruptions in the improved work method An even more helpful tactic to the vertical process is to maintain a stock replenishment system that ensures materials (like milk) are always available A significant advantage of a well-supported and systematic vertical process (boil water while preparing the drink rather than first boiling the water) is saving process time 3.3.1.3 Common Objectives and Strivings The criteria. of | common objectives and strivings imply a common platform In a work place it is essential to engineer a common basis from which action takes place It is essential to establish the ‘common platform before expecting performance or results from the work place The opposite is most often the case Role-players are expected to perform and produce results where they have not had an opportunity of negotiating performance conditions and/or criteria This is a serious area of contention in the work place and has been the basis of many a dispute in the work place Matters of commonality include desired results, work place behaviour, performance criteria and work place culture Consensus in the work place on the matters of commonality is vital to work place synergy Desired results include objectives, goals, aims and established work standards It is an essential component of a work place to set realistic expectations These expectations are the guidelines and indicators to/of work place performance Objectives are statements that define the purpose and extent of work expectations and intentions As an objective is a statement of intent it is proper to start the statement with the word ‘to’, which indicates purpose and intent An objective is broad enough to include all relevant activities but specific enough to distinguish a situation and to measure the required performance ‘As an example the objective for the snack-making situation could be stated in the following way ‘To make palatable, conforming snacks for morning tea each day.’ 3-08EWS271L E The purpose and. intention is to make snacks for morning teatime It is possible to ‘measure’ when the snacks are to be made It is possible to measure whether the snacks are palatable by the relish with which the snacks are enjoyed It is possible to determine the measure of conformance by having specifications for the drink and the sandwich Specific production processes and procedures are laid down to guide the producer in the sraack making process The snack-makingz objective is broad but specific enough to guide, direct and conclude the level of perfoxrmance while making snacks The statement provides sufficient insight to evaluate the smack-making situation and conclude the level of performance during the process The extent to which expectations are met while producing snacks is easily and objectively concluded from the objective statement Work place beBsaviour is a ‘barometer’ (measuring instrument) of work place ‘commonality and cohesion It indicates the extent to which the work place strives together Work place behaviour applies to inanimate objects/"things’ as much as to people People who smile at work, walk with a spring in their step, enthusiastically ‘get’ on with their work, Come to work on time or even before, enquire and think about what they do are showing typical mannerisms and signs that indicate a high level of involvement with their work situation People who show indeference (no respect) to their work place indicate that they are not truly involved or even interested in their work place The psychological aspect of the ergonomic relationship has either broken down or was never established Work place objects that are poorly maintained and are constantly out of order (behaving or functioning poorly) indicate a serious lack of interest on the part of management and responsible workers The extent to which machinery is in order is one of the major responsibilities of the Industrial Engineering function This does not imply that the Industrial Engineering function should physically do maintenance of plant and equipment Industrial Engineering should ensure mechanisms like appropriate maintenance systems are operational The smooth flow of work through a work process or the adequate work performance is another indicator of a ‘together’ work place with a properly defined commonality ‘The behaviour in the work place should indicate a meaningful basis of commonality It should show the extent to which togetherness has been established ‘The situation should reveal a definite ‘we are’ (common decision making and togetherness) rather than suffer under an ‘I is’ (incorrect and inappropriate for only one person to insist on making all decisions) syndrome A way of bringing synergy into the work place is urgently needed One often gains the impression those work place role-players all have their own ‘goal posts’ or ‘agendas’ in defiance of the ‘togetherness’ or commonality of the work place Performance criteria contribute largely to an objective, common platform of equitable work expectations being a means for all role-players to perform with insight and ease Established (involve all role-players), realistic (can be done) performance criteria are essential for providing a situation in which role-players can commit themselves to participating in the work situation 3-09EWs271L E Performance criteria are usually expressed as work standards These are usually expressed in quaintitative terms like output targets (two snackwiches each day). Work standards comprise quantitative indicators like time standards (standard time, allowed time), naterial_usage (stock levels, stock demand, replenishment periods), financial_standards (pricing, tariffs) that should guide management and workers in acceptable levels of performance Performance criteria are described and discussed under Unit $3 Work place culture is the element or component of a work place that has been neglected and/or taken for granted causing great dissension and disruption (contrived at times but nonetheless there) The ‘record’ needs to be corrected It is no longer possible to base the culture of a work environment on only one of the traditional approaches (Euro-centric, management dominated or ethnic) It is essential that a ‘common’ culture be established in the work place A common culture should derive from the needs of the work place rather than the influence of empowered groups (financial owners or shareholders) within the work place A common culture should be based on issues such as participation, togetherness/ team spirit, cohesion, contribution, responsibility, initiative, empowerment, quality (product and work) and respect These issues represent the needs of a work place Participation is fundamental to performance Without participation it is not possible to perform There is no way that I can kick a goal in a soccer match if I am sitting in the crowd and only watching the game I must be a player to score or help in scoring A player makes a contribution to the outcome of the game by scoring or helping to score If, as a soccer player, I only play to please myself and do not ensure that my contribution is in the interest of the game 1 will seriously spoil the chances of a win for my team I have @ responsibility to the team and the game to make a quality contribution The way I contribute to the game also tells fellow players about my respect for them, the equipment and the game The days of telling workers what to do and making all the decisions on their behalf are over It is no longer sound work place strategy to force workers to do unacceptable/unpleasant tasks as part of a power game Where workers are expected to adopt a ‘shut up and drink your blood’ (have no say in decision making) policy The time has come for empowerment in realistic decision making on issues that concern workers Far more input should come from workers in terms of strategic issues such as processing, income distribution and staffing Workers should be given far more insight into strategic decisions, action programmes and reasons for decisions and actions Workers should also have the opportunity of debating and proposing changes to proposed strategic actions The days of the ‘we only work here’ culture to a ‘this-is-my-company’ culture is essential in overcoming economic and productivity difficulties for a company Companies who are serious about an appropriate work place culture have seen almost magical changes (from serious financial difficulties to making a profit in four months) in their companies when these changes are made 3.3.2 ENGINEERING INTEGRATION IN THE WORK PLACE Integration under 31 is defined as ‘the combination of diverse elements/parts to complete a situation’ The ‘diverse elements’ comprise the components of the work 3-10EWS271L E place There are nrzany entities in a work place but itis possible to group these into four groupings The groupings are products, resources, structures and functions Products include all work place results like goods, services, information, documents and decisions Thhis is the work place component that should clearly indicate the measure of integration The results/outcomes of the work place need to conform to requirements to indicate the level of integration Unacceptable goods or services indicate the lack of synergy in the work place (see 3 3 3) Resources include the eight-M’s as defined under 1222 Resource utilisation (use and replenishment) is an indicator of the level of productivity and the economic positions of a work place This indicator also shows the balance (see 3311) The balance in the work place shows the level of integration Structures include system, physical, procedural and organisational structures (see 121) The degree to which work place structures are in_place and developed complements the integration of the work place In the example of snack making it is essential to structure the situation by equipping the kitchen adequately such as the correct number of knives (physical structures) Providing procedure to know how to slice bread (procedural structures) Being able to rely on a system that replenishes and supplies resources (system structures) Being able to know who is responsible for required processes (organisational structures) These structures ensure standardised (fixed ways of doing things) approaches for dependable results (a correct slice for a conforming sandwich) Functions include (see 122) managerial, technical, organisational and interactive processes It is mainly in the component of ‘doing’ that integration is evident If, in the example of snack making there is no management (planning when to serve a snack), method of manufacture (how to make the snack), organisation (who is to make the snack) and interaction (who/what works together) there will be no active or meaningful integration ‘CIE’ should in fact mean ‘COMPLETE (rather than only computer) Integrated Excellence’ A completely integrated situation should be characterised by an embracing synergy, a harmonious balance and an enchanting flow of events and activities It should be like watching liquid mercury flowing from someone’s neck to belly button on his/her bare skin There are no hold ups or delays, only a smooth flow of the glib, shimmering liquid quietly, easily flowing down a strong or beautiful chest creating a scene of pure sensual pleasure The same sensation should be experienced when one observes @ work situation once it is completely integrated 3.3.3. SECTION ACTIVITY Complete the activities below 3.3.3.1 Summary from Key Words Complete the sentences below starting with selected key words from sections 3 3 1 1 to 3 3 13 to summarise section 3 3 1 3-11EWS271LE Balance (see 3 3. 1 1) in the work place implies. eee Support (see 3 3. 1 2) refers to __ Common objectives and strivings (see 3 3 1 3) include 7 3.3.3.2 Summarise Complete the sentences below to summarise section 332 Integration is defined as _ ‘The components are . __and Products include Structures include 7 SO Functions include 3.4 ENGINEERING WORK PLACE SYNERGY In this text synergy is defined as ‘the combined effects of component parts that exceeds the sum of their individual effects’ Synergy is the result of bringing component parts together in a way that will compound their combined effect by strengthening their strengths into a balanced whole To engineer synergy in the work place it is necessary to follow a set 3-42Ews271L E procedure The synergy procedure comprises four phases fornulating, integrating, evaluating and maintaining a situation 3.4.1. FORMULATING SYNERGY To establish synergy in the work place it is necessary to formulate a work situation. In formulating a situation it is essential to systematically compose the content of the situation for the purpose of defining and prescribing such a situation The composition of the work place comprises two major factors These factors are the variables and non-variables or constants Variables can change in either structure and/or function Variables are experienced in aspects such as speed, quantity, intensity, taste, duration, personal whims, or types In the example of snack making it is possible to encounter variables such as white or brown bread, one or two sandwiches, coffee, tea or soup It is essential for the purpose of synergy to listdefine all variables Unidentified/uncontrolled variables are mainly responsible for a break down in work place synergy Say the snack maker suddenly has, what is considered as a bright idea The idea is to change the hot drink to ‘mocha’ (mixture of coffee and chocolate) Added to the change of the drink is the probability of only 10% that the recipient (customer) of the drink will be pleased with it These variables have become potential disruptions (unhappy customer, wasted ingredients and time) in the synergy of the snack making situation because they where unidentified and uncontrolled, in fact unformulated (not on a menu) Itis expected that a work situation should cope with relevant variables The problem is not the variables but the uncontrolled nature of the variables Therefore in the interest of work place synergy it is essential to define and describe variables and to indicate the influence of such variables on a work situation Once variables are defined it is possible to integrate these into a work situation in a way that guarantees maximum co-ordination, in the work place The constant factors comprise established structures Established structures are structures such as the buildings, equipment and machines that stay the same for long periods of time Established systems also fall into the constant category 3.4.2 INTEGRATING The process of integrating depends on the interaction of vertical and horizontal processes and of variables and constant factors bringing the components of work into a circle of synergy Integration implies that all aspects of the work place are in total harmony An integrated work place should function like the smooth flow of mercury (see 332) To reach a required state of integration (see 3 3 2) it is necessary to follow a procedure ‘The procedure comprises analyses, design and structuring of an integration network 3.4.2.1 Integration Network Analyses There are several analyses that show integration requirements The first analysis to show integration needs is functional analysis (see 1 5 3) 343EWS271L E The next analysis is resource needs analysis Making use of methods such as an affinity diagram easily does this The Affinity Diagram probes and analyses a situation until all possibilities are exchausted forming a network of in-depth requirements and a systematic overview of the needs The final analysis activity is to superimpose (putting on top of each other) the results of the two analyses. The results of the two analyses are called portfolios (list of needs) The two lists (functions and resources) are superimposed for the purpose of integrated functions and resource needs 3.4.2.2 Integration Network Design Once integration portfolios are integrated, it is possible to form a concept and extent of an integration network in a work environment The concept becomes the basis from which to design an acceptable, smooth-functioning network Approval_in_principle of the concept network is essential before any pilot programme on the network starts The pilot programme should entail three basic improvement functions The functions are simplification, elimination and enhancement Simplification should seek to simplify all difficult, long-winded, unwieldy or cumbersome activities from the proposed network An activity like having to slice through a sandwich with a knife after making the sandwich, is typical Elimination should seek to remove all unnecessary activities from the integration network An activity like slicing bread before preparing a sandwich is typical Enhancement is essential to quantum progress Enhancement should not only imply aesthetic improvements It should more particularly heighten the functionality of the integration network like always assuring supplies (milk) and/or ingredients (sliced bread, cheese and meat) in sufficient quantity Running the pilot programme is the next essential phase in designing an integration network A pilot programme implies that the situation is incomplete, not finalised and might display unacceptable results eventually proving the situation to be untenable (will not work) All too often companies gloss over the pilot programme and go directly to implementing a work place change This direct approach does not have any significant advantages or savings but rather causes disruption in the work place by the encumbrance of a poorly integrated work situation It is essential to run the pilot programme for several reasons The first reason is to ensure an optimum integration network structure The next is to ensure adequate functioning of the network Finally the pilot programme should indicate required improvements and refinements to the network 3.4.2.3 Integration Network Structuring Once the pilot __ programme indicates an optimum network it is essential to structure the network and implement the structure for permanent functioning Structuring should finalise the optimum position of the pilot programme The vertical requirements regarding activities and resources should be clearly defined and described Flow process charts and diagrams are useful devices for this purpose. Work procedure and work sheets also serve in respect of defining and describing 3-44Ews271L E vertical requirements The added advantage of the standard operating procedure format is the integrated overview it provides when describing a process The horizontal requirements should derive from the results of the pilot programme. It should be clear from running the pilot programme, which interact resources are best Information on what, when, where, how, who and how many slot in, interface and impact in a situation, is essential to suitable structuring Structuring should include all areas of structuring (see 1 2 1) To illustrate the point the example of snack making is used Say the hot drink is considered The vertical process is the preparation of the boiling water, collecting of ingredients and utensils and preparing of ingredients ready for soaking/melting The next is soaking/melting the hot drink ingredients ready for garnishing Finally it is garnishing Say there is no milk/sugar/salt/pepper by the time the garnishing stage is reached in the vertical process then the hot drink will become cold and unpalatable This results in a dissatisfied customer, a flustered worker and an embarrassed manager ‘The situation is in disarray If the situation is left and no effort is made to co-ordinate the elements/components, the same results will be experienced at the next ‘drink-making” occasion Itis essential to standardise a situation with a view to form an integrated network An integrated network should assure a balanced integration of work place philosophy, work ethics, comprehensive management, appropriate technology, work place structures, work place facilities, work place processes, procedures and resources (see 25 land subsections and Unit 6) 3.4.3 EVALUATING After formulating (see 3 4 1) and structuring (see 3 4 2) the structures are put into place ready for operating During operations the ‘proof’ of how adequate the synergy is becomes evident The proof must be assessed in an effort to evaluate the level of work place synergy Assessment is based on quantitative and qualitative aspects of an integrated network 3.4.3.1 Quantitative Assessment juantitative assessment —_implies numerical information that is of importance or required to assess a situation Assessment questions should be asked in a way that will result in quantitative information How many slices or sandwiches are required? How long did it take to produce a sandwich? How many times did the worker walk from the workstation to the cupboard? Answers to these questions will derive quantitative information ‘two, 6 minutes eight times Raw (unprocessed) data resulting from the answers are not significant as these do not tell role-players like managers enough about the work situation to confirm the level of synergy Raw data need further processing to become significant and indicate the level of synergy Further processing of data includes establishing totals, averages, ranges, midpoints, percentages, dispersions, probat and comparisons/correlation In the example of snack making it is likely that taking six minutes to make a sandwich is twice (50%) as long as it could take if the worker did not have to walk backwards and forwards eight times 3-15EWs271L E By processing data it becomes clear that the synergy of the sandwich-making process is. disturbed (walking eight time during the process) and unbalanced (the customer had to wait twice as long for the sandwich) The consequence of the disturbed synergy could be a disgruntled customer (waiting twice as long for a product), a tired out worker working 50% more than necessary by doing unnecessary activities It is possible fromm the quantitative assessment to gain a clear picture of the work situation and the impact it has on the synergy of the situation The synergy is disturbed as the component parts did not come together (half-flled sandwich left to dry out while other ingredients are collected) at right time Expectations (waiting too long for desired flood) were not met Elements of the situation become unbalanced (far too much walking and too little necessary activity) The final and most serious disruption of the synergy in the example of snack making is the customer who never retums, the diminishing of business and the eventual closing of the snack making operation Itis all so very sad! To the aware businessperson the quantitative assessment results (see Unit 5) should not spell dome and gloom but should signal appropriate warnings The warnings should alert responsible people to a need for action and improvement 3.4.3.2 Qualitative Assessment Qualitative assessment implies quality. The quality of an entity or situation depends on the relevant expectations and satisfaction experienced Expectations and satisfaction should coincide to ensure a high level of work place synergy Customers ‘expect’ food to be ready when they are so hungry that their body ‘juices’ (aliva and gastric) become active and cause an impatience If the preparation of the food takes too long they ‘feel’ their expectations have not been met The perception (the way a situation is experienced) of not getting what is expected cause people to feel disgruntled and dissatisfied They go away from the source of supply and take a decision never to return Should the opposite be true and customers actually get their food before they expected it, their measure of delight persuades them to come back for more such good service Should the food, in addition to the good service be palatable they are convinced that at the particular supplier they are assured of a ‘good thing’ The assessment of the coincidence of expectations and anticipation of expectations by a supplier, creates a synergy that results in a growing relationship The supplier should proactively look for ways (see Module A) of meeting expectations in the work place Expectations are not confined to paying customers but come from workers and other resources in the work place A machine has expectations It should be prepared and set for the next run and maintained on a regular basis to maintain an acceptable level of synergy 3.4.4 MAINTAINING Maintaining synergy in a work place is an ongoing task It is also vital to the ergonomic component of the work place Maintenance should continue on a short and long term bases (see textbook pages!59 to 161) 3-16EWws271L & —— 3.4.5 SECTION ACTIVITY Select ten key words that represent the idea of synergy Write full sentences on each word resulting in a good description of synergy Key words are words that are in bold or underlined like formulating, integrating, evaluating and maintaining 3.5 DESIGNING A WORKSTATION The best way of helping you to design a workstation effectively is to analyse a workstation with which you are already familiar Look at Annexes C, E, F and L of Engineering Work Study I (EWS121Q) WORK STUDY REPORT (please note this section refers to the report at the end of the study manual) In ction the workstation is engineered by applying the design procedure to effect improvements to the workstation 3.5.1 VISUALISING A WORKSTATION CONCEPT Forming a workstation concept depends on two processes those of design analysis and selecting a design model The process of design analysis comprises defining a required layout, confirming a realistic objective, establishing layout boundaries, identifying users, determining effectiveness measures, conducting a functional analysis, identifying workstation constraints, highlighting and evaluating alternatives The process of selecting a design approach comprises matching the required workstation concept with an appropriate design approach The design approaches are physical, mathematical, descriptive, heuristic and pictorial/graphical 3.5.1.4 Design Analysis The workstation concept/idea comes from an exhaustive analysis of relevant requirements The analysis process is as follows (refer to annexes as indicated throughout the design process) ‘* Confirm the purpose of the workstation ensuring that the objective (‘To make palatable, conforming snacks for morning tea each day’) is realistic An analysis of the 347EWs271L E criteria comprising the objective will confirm the plausibility of the objective These criteria are effective arrangements (a place to make snacks), the measure of interaction (of work place components such as resources - ingredients and utensils, processes - spreading, soaking or garnishing, management - planning of a snack, organising ingredients, working conditions - degree of worker movements) and continued support of the workstation (see 3 2 to 3 4) Establishing is the phase that aligns the boundaries of a required workstation with the generic system boundaries The system boundaries confine the system to certain inputs (all relevant resources - ingredients and utensils), attribute processes (preparation, composing, soaking, toasting and gamishing) and realistic workstation outcomes (palatable, conforming snacks, information - 6 minutes 10% non- conforming and menus) Identify workstation users and their needs Workstation users include such as the worker, toaster hot drink machine (see Annex L), cutter (see annex G), work processes (preparation, composing, soaking, toasting and garnishing), production materials (bread, dry and wet ingredients). Typical user needs include space (work and storage) requirements and constraints (no walking or excessive body movements), ergonomic (adequate lighting, ventilation - see 1 2) relations Technological expectations such as a toaster/ cutter jig that functions at different levels The toaster opens, closes and extends The toaster also has different phases (warming, very hot and cooling) Organisational (how many workers at the workstation) and procedural needs (slicing bread - the length of the loaf and space for the slices to fall) should be clearly defined Determine relevant effectiveness measures to evaluate a workstation There are three effectiveness measures Meeting a workstation objective (morning tea each day) is first Satisfying the needs (regular supply of ingredients, equipment maintenance) of the workstation users is next Confirming (monitor the snack-making process once a week) that the workstation functions as it should, is the third effectiveness measure Meeting Criteria ‘A. workstation should adequately meet __criteri prescribed by the workstation objective Effective arrangement is the first criterion (compare Annex C and E/L) to consider Annex C shows how the workstation is spread out and the arrangement is therefore 3-18EWs271L E ergonomically unacceptable Annexes E and L show an improved and ergonomically more acceptable arrangement The measure of required interaction and syneray is alrmost non-existent in Annex C A great deal of useless activity in the walking backwards and forwards is seen There is very little interaction between the workers physical effort and the delivery of the product Only at the end of a great deal of effort taking twice as long as it should, is a snack produced After proposing improvements to the workstation (see Annex E and L), dramatic improvements in the interaction are observed (walking eliminated, limited normal movements are required to complete tasks and in half the time) Continued support of the workstation (see 3 2 to 3 4) is experienced by the procurement and supply system where sliced bread, cheese, meat and satchels of milk are bought The bread and the milk are frozen and defrosted when required The cheese and meat are kept fresh in the refrigerator Arrangements are set and measured by appropriate techniques such as anthropometrics (see 22) Interaction measurement data come from the ergonomic conditions (quick, effortless hand and forearm movements to spread, fill or load) of the workstation and are compared to the ergonomic criteria (natural movements, sufficient lighting, ventilation, simplified processes - cutter - Annex G and the broad spatula for loading - see 2 2) Structural and functional support come — from appropriate structuring (all storage space at the workstation with dramatic space saving in the rest of the kitchen - compare Annexes C and E, ergonomically shaped equipment like the toaster - see Annex L) Horizontal processes (constant supply of ingredients) indicate how adequate the workstation synergy is. Satisfying Users ‘Assessing the degree to which the workstation satisfies the needs of its users (see Annex L). From ‘Annex L there is no longer a need to walk during the production process Slicing bread, meat or cheese, while producing snacks is eliminated Snacks are made in a third of the initial time with a fraction of the effort This is an indication of the effectiveness at the improved workstation 3-49EWS271L E The first generic (basic) need of workstation users is to satisfy anatomical needs such as body structures These structures should include all anthropometric requirements such as height, space, access and positioning A worker should be able to reach all storage areas with ease, without contorting or stretching too high or bending too low during any of the process activities The physical position of equipment such as the cup-o-minute machine should allow for easy access The positioning of structures in an optimum workstation forms part of the ‘anatomy’ of the work place The physiological need is next The production process flows effectively as one activity assists and supports another The water boils while the sandwich is toasting, the sandwich stays on the broad spatula during the entire composition phase and slides off onto the toaster without any further handling of the materials, Close proximity, within and in relation to the workstation, is vital for economical and productive functioning of workers, equipment and work processes Adequate functioning includes the positioning of manipulating mechanisms such as controls knobs, opening and shutting of panels/doors, processing requirements of workers and equipment such as the position of a scissors platform being too far from a moulding machine Psychological (behaviour) needs comprise the third group of user requirements The worker at the improved workstation produces the snack in less than half the initial time The time saving allows the worker to get through the task quickly The worker no longer needs to walk to collect ingredients and utensils Therefore the worker has more energy to work and feels more willing to make palatable, quality snacks The comfortable functioning of workers include such as sufficient space, acoustic protection and adequate lighting Easy access, close proximity, adequate functioning are factors that encourage workers and equipment to ‘behave’function as required Difficult access at a workstation causes malfunctioning of workers as they become reluctant to persist in trying to find @ way of ‘getting to’ machines, materials, tools or other objects It is equally difficult when moving equipment like a forklift to ‘get’ in and out of tight corners It is as difficult for a vertical spindle to 3-20Ews271L E ‘extend fully without ‘punching’ a hole through the roof (behaviour), by not providing enough space for the vertical function Confirming Confirming that the workstation functions adequately is the third effectiveness measure This effectiveness measure is based on the workstation processes Processes are effective management, appropriate design, comprehensive structuring, producing and interacting The effective management of a workstation continues throughout the life period of the workstation Workstation management commences with layout planning It includes planning the workstation layout project as well as the workstation configuration Other essential management functions are the following # Organising for the designing, constructing and commissioning of a required workstation is all part of workstation management Physical, procedural, organisational arrangements and procurements are part of organising for a required workstation # Financing a workstation is usually based on a budgeted An allocated amount could be set aside to run the workstation This amount could be supplemented but management would be reluctant to make such a concession and would rather see the workstation function within a prescribed budget This approach does not encourage empowerment but continues a parental approach A workstation can become a ‘cost centre’. This implies that the costs (fixed, indirect and direct) for each workstation are assessed and allocated to the particular workstation It is better for the workstation to work as a ‘profit centre’ This implies that a workstation ‘sells’ its production to other workstations or centres (like the stores) to recover its costs The workstation should make no financial losses In fact the value it adds to the material during the production process should bring in an income (cover expenses and fund improvements - profit) that will ensure necessary improvements and up grading of the workstation 3-21EWS271L E Financial management in the form of a growth budget (not only covering prescribed expenses but also expecting workstation growth - from workstation to work centre or from manual to automated) should be used as a means of workstation management by the operator rather than only management The budget should become an effectiveness measure (performance index) for the workstation Monitoring should be a non-debatable element of effectiveness measurement Monitoring performance indices like procurement accuracy (right amount of milk, loaves and type of bread), process (Cpx 1,33) and operator capability are strong indicators (zero defect) of the effective management at a workstation The secondary management functions are crucial to gauging effective management These functions are co-ordinating, communicating and decision making Keeping the workstation together (co- ordinated/integrated) is much like a game of juggling Once one focuses correctly it is easy to juggle several items at the same time Focusing on a multi-faceted entity like a workstation is like juggling Keeping all the components together requires the responsible people to ‘juggle’ the situation at a workstation Ensuring that workstation components are on time, not too fast, nor too slow, the same product every time and just enough, are some of the juggling activities to maintain the balance within a workstation Communicating is probably the most challenging of all workstation processes Communication requires specific integration activities such as critical time slots with specific activities, specific instructions, and delegation of specific responsibilities Communication aspects include such as information, transporting, communication equipment, communicators The smooth integration of communication is an indicator of how well the workstation is working Workstation decision making should be dynamic but not blind Informed decision making such as changes in workstation layout 3-22EWs271L E and adjustments in schedules, is essential Appropriate workstation design functions include design analysis The design analysis procedure is forming a workstation concept, concept approval, establishing the feasibility of the workstation concept, actualising the concept, testing and installed the workstation Comprehensive structuring is the ultimate effectiveness test_of a workstation Because of the comprehensive (holistic) structuring approach when designing a workstation it is possible to assure integration at a workstation All structuring is considered From the very first discussions and idea of the required workstation a ‘template’ or model should ensure that subsequent structuring phases are thorough and complete. Every design phase at a workstation, from forming a concept to establishing a feasible arrangement to transforming the model into actual structures and finally testing the structures, must be thorough and comprehensive No detail should be insignificant or too small In fact a strong advantage of using the ‘template’’model is that missing elements or inaccuracies show up * Conduct a functional analysis to determine the functions at a workstation (see 1 5 3) * Identify the constraints for a particular workstation Typical constraints are financial, space, processes and construction These should be clearly stated and recorded before proposing a workstation * List alternative workstation arrangements as alternatives are essential for making an optimum decision during the design stage * Evaluate listed alternatives with a view to adopting an optimum workstation Decision making techniques such as the Decision Tree or Weighted Factor Matrix techniques are useful instruments to help with decision making in selecting an optimum workstation From the concept analysis above it is possible to form a concept/idea of the required workstation This idea is the start or foundation of the expected workstation arrangement This foundation ensures rapid progress in establishing and finalising the eventual layout 3.5.1.2 Design Approach The process of selecting a design approach entails matching the required workstation concept with an appropriate design approach 3-23EWS271LE (physical, mathermatical, descriptive, heuristic, pictorial/graphical) Workstation processes form a guide in selecting an appropriate design approach From the layout processes it seems that three of the design approaches would be appropriate but strictly only one will do The three likely approaches are those of physical, descriptive and pictorial Closer scrutiny of the workstation processes indicates that the major designing need is for a physical model to replicate the actual workstation Workstation design requirements are predominantly physical in almost all areas This is confirmed by the fact that most of the workstation activities relate to physical matters such as the positioning and arranging of the work space, setting up required equipment (toaster, cup-a-minute machine) and anthropometric (see textbook pages 142, 145 and 146) arrangements of the workstation 3.5.2 GAINING CONCEPT APPROVAL A layout project should first have approval before it is established Approval should come from relevant role-players It is the responsibility of Industrial Engineering to prepare and submit a layout proposal that clearly states the ‘concept’/'foundation’” of the proposed layout 3.5.2.1 Prepare for Approval Prepare a proposal of the workstation concept that includes a précis of all analyses, ground plans, diagrams and charts (flow charts) of the proposed workstation 3.5.2.2 Submit and Present for Approval The proposal for approval should be in a standard work study report format It is advisable to present the proposal to the role-players at a group session If this is not possible, consider interviewing each of or the main role-players Carefully note down all recommended changes, responses to a proposed workstation Make a note of any further requirements as a result of group sessions or individual interviews 3.5.3 ESTABLISHING/PROVING THE CONCEPT After the approval of a proposed workstation it is essential to prove that the workstation concept will work in practice The two major ways/tactics of establishing a workstation are strict mathematical or scientific techniques or a heuristic approach such as line balancing Under 3 5 1 2 it was pointed out that the appropriate design approach or tactic is the physical approach supported by heuristic approaches (sec Unit 2 ) for establishing and implementing the workstation 3.5.3.1 Setting Up the Design Approach = The physical approach in establishing a workstation design requires specific activities These activities fall into two groups of preliminary and_detailed design It is necessary to follow an overall heuristic procedure before assigning preliminary and detailed design requirements. Appropriate heuristic approaches such as simulating, modelling, relationship and work analysis (see Unit 2) help to establish a workstation concept Techniques relevant to layout such as anthropometrics, relationship charts and computer software, group technology, modelling (two and three-dimensional), string and flow diagrams, line balancing are suitable for establishing a required workstation design 3-24EWs271L E By applying heuristic techniques it is possible to optimise a proposed workstation The optimising approach is vital to the economic content of a workstation arrangement as it eliminates costly manoeuvres, unproductive use of resources and unscientific ‘try= c” attempis at a successful workstation 3.5.3.2 Overall Heuristic Process the following phases 3.5.3.3 Prel APPLY A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY REQUIRED OPERATIONAL FUNCTIONS, PROCESSES, OPERATIONS, ACTIVITIES IDENTIFY RELEVANT RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS: SELECT SUITABLE HEURISTIC TECHNIQUES (see Unit 2) CONFIRM THE USE OF RELEVANT AND REQUIRED PHYSICAL STRUCTURES SUCH AS MACHINES OR FIXTURES CONFIRM NEEDED RELATIONSHIPS such as PROXIMITY, PROCESS, ERGONOMIC AND SPACE ANALYSES REVISE THE ACCEPTANCE PROPOSAL OF THE PROPOSED WORKSTATION DISPLAY THE REVISED WORKSTATION PROPOSAL ON A SUITABLE DEVICE such as 2D MODEL, CAD DRAWING FOR THE PURPOSE OF FEASIBILITY DISCUSSIONS AND DECISIONS CONVENE A BRAINSTORMING SESSION OF RELEVANT ROLE- PLAYERS TO DISCUSS AND DETERMINE DETAILED DESIGN DECISIONS CONDUCT THE BRAINSTORMING SESSION BY MEANS OF AN AFFINITY ANALYSIS INCORPORATE THE RESULTS OF THE BRAINSTORMING SESSION AND AFFINITY ANALYSIS IN A PROPOSAL OF THE WORKSTATION TO BRING ABOUT AGREED CHANGES OR ADDITIONS APPLY RELEVANT HEURISTIC TECHNIQUES FOR FINE-TUNING/ OPTIMISING AND FINAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE PROPOSED WORKSTATION following steps Develop the model as presented for the purpose of accepting a workstation design concept Develop the model by assessing the results of a session as required under 35 32 Up dating the model with conclusions from the assessment of the acceptance session Updating the model during the preliminary design phase should include the results of a functional _analysis (such as sandwich preparation before making the hot drink) Confirming structural aspects such as the surface area of the workstation is essential during the 3-25 The overall heuristic process consists of inary Design Process After the approval of a workstation design it is time to apply the preliminary design process The process comprises theEWs271L E develop phase Changing positions should be an easy matter such as in the case of a left-handed worker + Preparation for design includes all supporting aspects such as management, technical and administrative (see 33) requirements * Establishing performance requirements _ include workstation effectiveness measures such as user requirements, physical requirements positioning equipment to meet ergonomic requirements (anthropometrics) and space parameters natural movement (see textbook page 142) * Prepare design specifications that specify workstation arrangement requirements Specifications should include dimensions for required space (workers need a minimum of ‘one square metre to work in), all structures (stationary and mobile), personnel (anthropometrics) 3.5.3.4 Detailed Design Process After applying the preliminary design process the workstation proposal needs fine-tuning Fine-tuning is accomplished by applying the detailed design process The process comprises the following steps * Set_up an experimental construction The accepted workstation concept model becomes the basis of the experimental mode! This model becomes the control for establishing the final arrangement of the desired workstation Record the conditions and details of the accepted model Record all changes during the optimisation process for assessment and final acceptance Any number of changes are likely (increasing or lowering the height of objects, enlarging storage areas or placing such as the refrigerator under the work surface rather than next to it) during the optimisation phase © Set_up workstation parameters to establish and predict workstation expectations These parameters are STABILITY (level of dependable support to the operational functions - frequency of equipment malfunctioning) COMPATIBILITY (with operation and administrative areas - procurement system) SENSITIVITY (to operational changes - how many more sandwiches will the workstation be able to produce) Statistical and mathematical techniques such as hypothesis testing, linear programming are likely bases for setting up, testing (hypothesis testing to predict on time delivery) and manipulating workstation parameters Select the most suitable test or technique to ensure validity and easy manipulation of the workstation Activity sampling is suitable for stability testing Hypothesis 3-26EWS271L E testing is suitable for compatibility testing Sensitivity testing done on the basis of the linear programming simplex (dual method) is very accurate There is however also a heuristic matrix or grid by which to test sensitivity This text will not go into detail on these techniques Providing experimental requirements for workstation optimising is fairly easy as workstation experimenting! modelling can be conducted on the basis of replication or simulation The integration of the replication, usually a two or three-dimensional mode! and relevant heuristic techniques, provide an extensive experimental basis for optimising (see Unit 6) Most of the experimental features such as documents, processes or fixtures indicated for a workstation during the experimenting phase become permanent features at the actual workstation Optimise the simulated/replicated model by applying suitable heuristic techniques such as line balancing and affinity analysis These techniques are described in Unit 2 The optimising process should be systematic Record all similarities, differences, difficulties, recurring patterns and improvements/changes Continue making and documenting changes until all workstation requirements are optimised Optimality is reached when the workstation proposal complies with workstation parameters of __ stability, ity and sensitivity This implies that significant becomes operational. Testing the design before implementation is a critical aspect of establishing a proposed workstation Testing is the final ‘OK’ of a workstation design before implementing it This is an opportunity to test and meet effectiveness measures. It is an opportunity to test the adequacy of the proposed workstation design against the demands of the work environment It is also possible to test the influences of factors outside (procurement system, water and electricity supply) of the proposed workstation at this stage The process for testing the proposed workstation design is as follows PROVIDE A ‘MULLING OVER’ PERIOD OF SEVERAL DAYS FOR ROLE-PLAYERS OR ANY OTHER INTERESTED PARTY TO VIEW THE DESIGNED WORKSTATION MODEL. CALL ON EACH ROLE-PLAYER TO PLAY A ‘WHAT-IF' GAME WITH YOU. SELECT LIKELY WORKSTATION SITUATIONS/ ‘THEMES/SCENARIOS TO WORK THROUGH. RECORD ANY DIFFICULTIES WHILE WORKING THROUGH 3-27