PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson: 1902 t0 1994

1. Born in Germany, an illegitimate child of Danish parents
2. This fact bothered him all his life
3. Dropped out of high school and spent time traveling in Europe and studying
art
4. Met Sigmund Freud and studied Psychoanalysis with Freuds daughter, Anna
Freud
5. Studied young people in different cultures
6. Became interested in how young people acquire a personal identity and how
society helps shape it
7. Because his theory integrates personal, emotional and social development, it
is often called psychosocial theory
8. Erikson is an ego-analyst relationship between individual and the world or
the self and the world
9. Completed his training at the time Hitler came to power and to escape the
tension in Europe he went to the United States.
Eriksons work is based on five assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

People, in general have the same basic needs

Personal development occurs in response to these needs
Development proceeds in stages
Movement through the stages reflects changes in an individuals motivation
Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial challenge that presents
opportunities for development

Erikson described the time that an individual experiences a psychological

challenge as a crisis
A positive resolution of a crisis means a favorable ratio of positive to
negative psychosocial traits emerges
A negative resolution results in individuals seeing the world as unpredictable
and threatening
This does not mean that people who successfully resolve the crisis never
have negative thoughts or distrust another person
In general, they see the best in others and have a positive orientation
towards life

Trust vs Mistrust:
Infancy (Birth to approx. 1.5/2 Years)
The first stage of Eriksons theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in
life.2

Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on

the dependability and quality of the childs caregivers.

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt:
Early Childhood (1.5/2 - 3 Years)

Securely attached children next face the challenge of autonomy, or doing

things on their own.
1. Child learns to feed and dress themselves and toilet training begins
2. The key challenges the child faces during this stage relates to exerting
independence
3. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of
Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control ones body functions leads to
a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
4. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
5. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Initiative vs Guilt:
Preschool (3 - 5 Years)
Initiative is characterized by an exploratory and investigative attitude
that results from meeting and accepting challenges
1. Preschool children encounter a widening social world, and a lot more
challenges
2. Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, their behaviour,
their toys and their pets
3. Children make enormous cognitive leaps, and those developing abilities
provide the impetus for exploration in all areas of their lives
4. Children who are given the freedom to explore and experiment with adults
who answer their questions tend to develop initiative

5. Those who are restricted and whose initiative is considered to be a problem

tend to develop a sense of guilt about pursuing their interests
6. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt
and lack of initiative.3
Industry vs Inferiority:
School Age (6 - 11 Years)
Industry is the enjoyment of mastery and competence through success
and recognition of ones accomplishment(s)
1. This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5/6 to 11.
2. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
3. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive
little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
ability to be successful.
Identity vs Confusion:
Adolescence 12 18 Years
In the adolescent years, youths develop a desire for independence from
parents, achieve physical maturity and are concerned with the question of
Who am I?
1. Adolescents experience major physical, intellectual and emotional changes.
Many go through growth spurts and their coordination often doesnt keep up
with their bodies
2. Adolescents experience new sexual feelings and are not quite knowledgeable
how to respond, they are frequently confused
3. They are caught in the awkward position of wanting to assert their
independence, yet longing for the stability of structure and discipline
4. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through
personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self
and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their
beliefs and desires will become insecure and confused about themselves and
the future
Intimacy vs Isolation:
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Years)

A person with a firm sense of identity is prepared for intimacy, or giving

the self over to another
1. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are faced with
the developmental task of forming intimate relationships
2. Giving for the sake of giving, without expecting something in return
characterizes a positive resolution of the crisis at this stage
3. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will
develop relationships that are committed and secure.
4. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing
intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor
sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to
suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Generativity vs Stagnation:
Middle Adulthood (40 65 Years)
The key characteristics of generativity are creativity, productivity and
concern for and commitment to guiding the next generation
1. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family.
2. Generative adults try to contribute to the betterment of society by working
for principles such as a clean physical environment, a safe and drug-free
social world and adherence to the principles of freedom and dignity for
individuals
3. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing
to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to
attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. They are
characterized by apathy, pseudo intimacy, or self absorption.
Integrity vs Despair:
Old Age (65 to death)
People who accept themselves, conclude that they only have one life to
live, live it as well as possible and have few regrets are seen as having
integrity
1. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.

2. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with
feelings of bitterness and despair.
3. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and
a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even
when confronting death. They accept responsibility for the way they have
lived and accept the finality of death

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
ASSUMPTIONS INFLUENCE PRACTICES
Original Sin - children were perceived as being basically bad, born into the
world as evil beings.
Tabula Rasa - children are like a blank tablet, and acquire their
characteristics through experience.

Innate Goodness - children are inherently good.

Where do our assumptions come from?

Tradition

Personal experience

Experts

History:
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
Young Men: Young men have strong passions, and tend to gratify them
indiscriminately
Elderly Men: They are cynical small-minded, cowardly, and are always
anticipating danger they love life; and all the more when their last day has
come
Men in their prime: all the valuable qualities that youth and age divide
between them are united in the prime of life .. the body is in its prime from
thirty to five-and-thirty; the mind about forty-nine

Traditional Approach vs.

Life-Span Approach
The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in late old age.
The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change during adulthood
as well as childhood.
Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Development is lifelong
Development is multidimensional
Development is multidirectional
Development is plastic
Development is contextual
Development is studied by a number of disciplines
Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
Development is Lifelong
No age period dominates development.
Development is Multidimensional
There are biological/ physical dimensions.
There are cognitive dimensions.
There are socioemotional dimensions.
There are sexual dimension
Development is Multidirectional
Some dimensions or components of a dimension increase in growth.
Some dimensions or components of a dimension decrease in growth.
Development is PlasticPlasticity involves the degree to which
characteristics change or remain stable.
Development is Contextual

 Normative age-graded influences

Nonnormative life events
Development is Studied by a Number of Disciplines
Psychologists
Sociologists
Anthropologists
Neuroscientists
Medical Researchers
The Three Goals of Human Development
Maintenance
Growth
Regulation
Biological Processes
Involve changes in the individuals physical nature such as:
Height and weight gains
The development of the brain
Changes in motor skills
Cardiovascular decline
Cognitive Processes
Involve changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language such
as:
Object Permanence
Creating a two-word sentence
Memorizing a poem
Imagining being a movie star
Socioemotional Processes

 Involve changes in the individuals relationships with other people, changes in

emotions, and changes in personality such as:

An infant smiling from her mothers touch

A young boy hitting a playmate

A girls joy at her senior prom
The affection of an elderly couple
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Periods of Development
The prenatal period
Infancy
Early childhood
Middle and late childhood
Adolescence
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood
The Prenatal Period
The time from conception to birth
From a single cell to an organism complete with a brain and behavioral
capabilities

Approximately a 9-month period

The Prenatal Period

ZYGOTE- Conception to two weeks

EMBRYO- Two weeks through eight weeks

FETUS- Nine weeks to birth

Infancy

 The developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months

A time of extreme dependency on adults
Many psychological activities are just beginning
Early Childhood
The developmental period extending from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6
years
Often called the preschool years
Children learn to become more self-sufficient
Children now develop school readiness skills
Children spend many hours playing with peers
Middle and Late Childhood
The developmental period extending from about 6 to 11 years of age
Approximately corresponds to the elementary school years
Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered
Child is formally exposed to larger world and its culture
Adolescence
The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood
entered at 10-12 years, ending at 18-22 years
Begins with rapid physical changes.
Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent
Thought is now more logical, abstract, and idealistic
Early Adulthood
The developmental period beginning in the late teens or early twenties and
lasting through the thirties
A time of establishing personal and economic independence
Also a time of career development
Early adults select a mate, start a family, and rear children

Middle Adulthood
The developmental period beginning around 40 years of age and extending
to about 60
A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility
Also a time of assisting the next generation in becoming competent
Middle adults reach and maintain satisfaction in a career
Late Adulthood
The developmental period beginning in the sixties or seventies and lasting
until death
A time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health
Also a time of life review, retirement, and new social roles

Age Groups in Late Adulthood

The Young Old, or Old Age (65-74 years of age)
The Old Old, or Late Old Age (75 years and older)
The Oldest Old (85 years and older)
Age and Happiness
No particular age group says they are happier or more satisfied than any
other age group.
Conceptions of Age
Chronological Age
Biological Age
Psychological Age
Social Age
Chronological Age
The number of years that have elapsed since a persons birth

Biological Age
A persons age in terms of biological health
Psychological Age
An individuals adaptive capacities compared to those of other individuals of
the same chronological
age
Social Age
Refers to social roles and expectations related to a persons age
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Nature vs. Nurture
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Stability vs. Change
Activity vs. passivity
Universal vs. particular
The Nature-Nurture Issue
Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by
nature or nurture
Nature
An organisms biological inheritance
Nurture
An organisms environmental experiences
The Continuity-Discontinuity Issue
This issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change or distinct stages.
Continuity
Development results from a gradual process occurring over several weeks,
months, and possibly years.
Discontinuity

 Development occurs through a sequence of stages in which change is

qualitatively rather than quantitatively different.
The Stability-Change Issue
This issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our
early experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we
were at an earlier point in development.

It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or

later experiences are the key determinants of a persons development

Evaluating the Developmental Issues

Most life-span developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are
unwise.
The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather than
either factor alone.
There still exists strong debate regarding how strongly development is
influenced by each of the factors.