A Practical Arabic Grammar

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THE UKCJI:KST OF
JOHN WILSON, A. M
PRACTICAL
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
BY
DUNCAN STEWART, ESQ.
"
JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
M.DCCC.XLI.
HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRAtV
&~e O ' <:- "--^ ^
PRINTED AT THE VNIFERSITY PRESS,

CAMBRIDGE.
TO
THE BARON VON HAMMER AND PURGSTALL,

WHOSE
PROFOUND LEARNING AND VARIED TALENTS
HAVE BEEN
SO LONG AND SO EARNESTLY DEVOTED TO THE SERVICE
OF
ORIENTAL LITERATURE.
THIS ATTEMPT
TO FACILITATE THE iSTUDY OF THE ARABIC LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND,
IS WITH GREAT RESPECT
DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
IN composing the following Grammar, my intention

has been, to supply the English student with a work
calculated for the use of those, who not making the
study of languages the chief pursuit of life, learn Arabic,
less for the purpose of reading the many valuable books
which it contains, than for its importance as the language
of the Religion and Law of the Muhammadan world,
and of absolute necessity to every one, who wishes to
become a complete and accurate master of either Persian
or Turkish.
In seeking to attain this end, I hope however the
work will be found not unworthy the notice of those,
desirous of obtaining a deeper and more minute know
ledge of one of the finest of languages.
No Grammar that has yet appeared, combines, I
think, these advantages; those compiled by the early
Italian orientalists, Martellotto, Guadagnoli, and others,
are abstruse and difficult, and, besides, are of such rare
occurrence as to be almost confined to public libraries.
The Grammar of Erpenius
performance, and comprises the
guage, arranged with great skill;
to be supplied, may be readily
is indeed an excellent
rudiments of the lan
yet how much it leaves
supposed, when it is
PREFACE.
known, that the Syntax occupies but nine small quarto

pages of large print.
Mr Richardson's Grammar, chiefly taken from that
of Erpeuius, is the work of an acute and intelligent
mind ; but it is very brief, and the erroneous system
upon which it is written, and by which the vowel points,
and rules of permutation, are considered to be of little
or no consequence, wholly disqualify it for the use of
those who wish to become accurate Arabic scholars.
The Grammaire Arabe of M. de Sacy, on the con
trary, may be considered as wholly unfit for the use of
the beginner; it fills two volumes of six hundred large
octavo pages each, closely printed; nor does the mark
of the paragraphs, distinguishing those adapted for the
use of the young student, from those which are only fit
for the perusal of the advanced scholar, completely an
swer, it is conceived, the design of the learned author.
The eye becomes confused in looking over the pages,
and the attention is distracted by separating one para
graph from another. It may even be doubted whether
the selection is always judicious : of the merits of this
great work, however, it is wholly unnecessary to speak
here, or to enlarge upon the services rendered to Arabic
literature by that amiable and learned man ; no eulogium of mine can equal the beautiful tribute paid to his
memory, by his friend M. Freytag, a gentleman to whom
oriental learning already owes such immense benefits.
PREFACE.
vii
The mantle of his prophet-master has indeed fallen upon

him*.
The Grammatica Critica of M. Ewald, is unques
tionably a work of great merit and research : but the
plan of the author was to consider the Arabic, as in con
nection with its sister dialects of the Semitic family,
and to investigate the causes of the language ; and thus
its execution qualifies it more for the study of the pro
fessed philologist, than for that of him who is engaged
in active life.
I do not speak of the Arabic Grammar of Mr Lumsden, or of the very ingenious and learned, though some
what whimsical work of Major A. Lockett. They will
be found of great value to those who are already profi
cient in the language; but the first is incomplete, and
the second contains only the translation of a treatise
upon one part of Arabic Grammar ; neither of them were
intended to answer the purpose for which the present
Grammar has been compiled.
* Viri illius de litteris Orientalibus merita plures verbis describere conati sunt; sed ut nemo vicem eius explere potest, sic nemo
satis digno modo laudare eum mihi posse videtur. Quantis ego ei
obstrictus eram beneficiis, tantas ei gratias persolvere nunquam valui.
Eheu! praeceptore privatus sum, cuius sciendi fons nunquam exhauriebatur, fautore et amico in beneficiis apud me collocandis non
fatigando, qui usque ad extremum vitae halitum benevolentiam mihi
suam semper conservavit. Terra ei sit super ossa levis! Ardbum
Praverbia, Praef. iv.
Vlll
PREFACE.
By the exertions of eminent and accomplished scholars,

during the last twenty years, many valuable Arabic works,
which had hitherto been confined to four or five of the
national libraries of Europe, have been printed, and are
accessible to every student. To M. de Sacy we are in
debted for the Kalilah wa Dimnah, and the Makamdt
of Hariri, with an excellent commentary.
M. Freytag has just published a beautiful and cor
rect edition of all the proverbs of Maiddni; the same
gentleman had before edited the Fakihat ul Khulafd,
and that precious collection of ancient Arabian poetry,
the Hamdsa. His Lexicon Arabicum would have quite
superseded that of Golius, had it appeared in one folio
volume; four quartos are less adapted however for fre
quent use, although the inconvenience is in some degree
remedied by the smaller Dictionary which M. Freytag
has published in one volume. In India, Mr W. H.
Macnaghten is publishing a correct edition of the 1001
Nights, in the original Arabic; and the liberal patron
age of the Asiatic Society has enabled M. Fliigel to
give us in Arabic and Latin a fine edition of the great
bibliographical work of Hajji Khalfa.
To our countrymen in India we are indebted for
many works of the Arabian Grammarians, and for an
edition of the Kamus; the orientalists of the continent
have also printed several pieces of Arabic Grammar,
including the Ajrumia, by M. Vaucelle, and the Alfiijya,
PREFACE.
IX
by M. de Sacy, whose Anthologie Grammaticale Arabe

would alone have entitled him to our gratitude.
This very slight view of the progress that has been
lately made in publishing Arabic works, may suffice to
shew that the scholar has now ample materials for
study, and will be no longer deterred from devoting his
time to this noble language, by reflecting, that when he
has made himself a master of its Grammar, there is but
little to reward him for his toil.
How far the present Grammar may assist the be
ginner it becomes not me to say; my endeavour has
been, as I before observed, to avoid the extremes of bre
vity or prolixity. If the Syntax of Erpenius in nine
pages be too short, the beginner will find that of M. de
Sacy, which occupies five hundred pages, as much too
long. Syntax, it seems to me, is that part of Grammar
upon which the greatest labor is bestowed with the
least fruit. I repeat, that to the advanced scholar, M. de
Sacy's Grammar is of incalculable value, and will be
found an excellent introduction to the study of the
Arabian Grammarians and Commentators, but to him
who has no intention of examining those authors, or
who is beginning the study of Arabic, I consider it as
less useful than even the old work of Erpenius; de
fective as that book may be, it has hitherto been the
only one well adapted for the use of a beginner desirous
of acquiring a correct knowledge of the language. Im
PREFACE.
perfect as my own experience may be considered, I may

presume to speak of it, having in early youth been guided
by the advice of Sir W. Jones, who, in his discourse
upon the Arabs, recommends the student, after having
made himself a master of the Grammar of Erpenius, to
proceed with the assistance of the Lexicon of Golius, to
read through that author's edition of the History of
Timur, by Ibnu Arabshah. This course of study I
rigorously followed, substituting only the more portable
Lexicon of Willmet, to the accuracy of which I can
bear full witness; and taking occasionally the assistance
of the edition of Arabshah by Manger. That I often
erred, and that much more grammatical knowledge than
Erpenius affords, is desirable, and even requisite, for him
who wishes to properly understand and appreciate the
life of Timur, is unquestionable : but the advice of
Sir W. Jones is not to be treated lightly, or his autho
rity to be considered of little weight, because in the
course of his vast and varied reading he may sometimes
err.
The student is however now provided, as I have ob
served before, with every assistance he can require ; and
I should recommend him first to read the Fdkihat ul
Khulqfd of Arabshah, published by M. Freytag. I do
not recommend the Koran, the enigmatical and abrupt
style of which renders it unfit for the learner, whom it
will, besides, supply with a very small stock of words.
PREFACE.
xi
I have not thought it necessary to expatiate upon

minute orthographical points, belonging almost wholly to
manuscripts of the Koran, or to enter into long details
upon the divisions and subdivisions ad infinitum, of the
Arabian Grammarians. However ingenious the writings
of those authors, it is much to be regretted that their
attention was so extensively directed to such learned
trifles ; there can, I think, be no doubt that their waste
of time and talent upon the metaphysical subtleties of
Grammar, had a most unhappy effect in diverting them
from the more important and useful pursuits of science,
in the cultivation of which, although they did much,
we should have owed still more to them, had they not
forgotten that Grammar is to be considered as a means,
and not as an end.
It will be observed, that in the Paradigmata of the
verbs, I have given, conformably with the plan of Erpenius, the verbal adjective as a participle, and the noun
of action in the accusative, as an infinitive. There has,
I presume to think, been much needless discussion upon
this subject; Erpenius, though exhibiting them as par
ticiples and infinitives, in consequence of their verbal
origin, confesses they must be regarded, strictly speak
ing, as the verbal adjective and noun of action ; and
M. Ewald, very properly, I think, considers that M. de
Sacy has gone too far in separating them entirely from
the verb, although they do not wholly answer to the
3U1
PREFACE.
ideas attached to the words participle and infinitive in

the Latin Grammar. I have more particularly enlarged
upon their nature and qualities under the heads of verbal
adjective, and noun of action.
I have not, however, employed myself in discussing
subjects of this, as it seems to me, unprofitable nature.
I am wholly of Major Lockett's opinion, " Theoretical
disquisitions are good in their proper place, but they are
not in their proper place in an elementary treatise, which
should aim rather at the illustration of specific rules,
than the discovery or examination of abstract principles."
The Mint Amil, by A. Lockett.
CONTENTS.
ALPHARETICAL TARLE
PAGE
18
ORSERVATIONS ON THE ALPHARET

On the different Classes of Letters
Of Vowels
Of Syllables and Orthographical Signs
Of the Pause
20
27
29
31
37
RULES OF PERMUTATION OF THE LETTERS > j, L
40
Special Rules.
Alif
Waw
Ya
41
45
49
Rules common to j and ij
51
General Observations
55
VERR.
Of the Verb in general
Derivatives
Quadriliterals
56
67
Conjugation of the first form <J*J of regular Triliteral Verbs
63
OF TENSES
Numbers
Genders and Persons
64
65
ON THE TENSES OF THE REGULAR TRILITERAL VERRS.

The Preterite
The Indefinite
PASSIVE VOICE
Paradigm -of the Quadriliteral Verbs
Derivatives of the First Class of regular Triliteral Verbs
Of Quadriliterals, and Derivatives of the First Class
Derivatives of the Second Class of regular Triliteral Verbs
65
71
83
84
85
86
87
XIV
CONTENTS.
Derivatives of the Third Class of regular Triliteral Verbs
Of the other Derivatives
FAOI
88
89
THE SURD VERR
90
OF THE IRREGULAR VERRS.

Of the Surd Verb
Derivative Verbs bearing contraction
Of Verbs having Hamzah for one of their Radicals
Verb Primitive
Derivatives
Of Imperfect Verbs in general
91
92
94
95
_
98
Of Imperfect Verbs, of which the First Radical is_j or i_J
99
Of Imperfect Verbs of which the Second Radical is_j or l^ , called Con

cave Verbs
101
The Concave j
102
The Concave i_
104
Verbs derived from Concave Roots
107
Of Imperfect Verbs, which are at the same time Concave and Hamzated ... 110
Of Imperfect Verbs, whose last Radical is J or i_f i and which are called
Defective Verbs
Ill
The Defective j
112
The Defective u
113
Defective j preceded by KasraJt
117
Defective Derivatives
Of Verbs, being at the same time Defective and Hamzated
Of Verbs doubly Imperfect
Of Verbs doubly Imperfect and Hamzated
Of the Negative Verb
Verbs of Praise and Blame
Of Verbs of Admiration
121
122
124
126
127
128
OF NOUNS
Name of the Agent and Patient
Name of Place and Time
Name of Instrument or Vessel
Noun of Action
Nouns of Action of the Primitive Triliteral Verb
of Derivatives
... formed from Surd Verbs
129
130
131
134
136
138
139
CONTENTS.
Nouns of Action of Hamzated Verbs
of similar Verbs
derived from Concave Verbs
of Defective Verbs
of Verbs doubly Imperfect
XV
PAOE
139
140
141
143
145
146
147
148
150
Noun of Unity
Possessive Nouns
Diminutive Nouns
Of Adjectives
Of Genders
The manner of forming the Feminine Gender
Of Numbers
Table, shewing to what forms of the singular those of the plural usually
belong
166
Of Declension
168
Of Comparison
176
THE ARTICLE
Of Numerals
The Ordinal Number
178
180
184
Or THE PRONOUN
187
Or PARTICLES
Of separate Particles
Adverbs
List of the most common Adverbs and Adverbial Names
Conjunctions
Interjections
SYNTAX
Syntax of the Noun
Ordinal Numbers
Syntax of the Verb
Particles
196
202
205
206
212
213
215
226
229
243
PHOVEBRS
257
EXTBACTS
269
CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA.
PAGE 23, note, line 2, for final read initial, and addM. de Sacy probably spe
cifies only the initial and medial letters, because the final ' and
often written without any point whatever.
Page 31), line
18 for
,LuJ-1
1
-*
s
62
read
.
*\MJ\
'
-
s
9, 11
...
10
...
Ill
...
Hamzah's
...
Hamzahs
133
19
...
graize
...
graze
145
16
...
pj\ Jl
...
~j,1\
78
7
9G
164, last line after "servile letters"add sometimes

175, line
6 for
<L>.eiLc
read
179
188
13
...
...
J\
208
20
...
here
.,.
there
218
...
^>j^
&M"
\,
224
16
...
<UiU
...
aji>, and
226
14
...
Wednesday
...
Tuesday
ij are
A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR
AKABIC LANGUAGE.
THE Arabic Alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, differ

ently shaped, according to their position at the beginning,
middle, or end of words; the names and powers, the order
and figure of which may be seen in the following Table.
ALPHABETICAL
I-m
, . *
a.
Medial. Initial.
onnec.
Uonnec.
Jncon.
Alif
Numerical Hebrew.
value.
Syriac.
S t
1
>o
400
500
/S.
kJM
600
1 a
^ 5^
j.
700
i
i
200
Za
Sin
Ml
60
U-
XD
Sh
Shin
14
jus
Sad
15
jU
Dad
16
17
5lk
i_aJl
?b
Ba
H-
t^
j.
$3
Ta
^ cy
Th
ftf
Tha
Ui
*x>.
Jim
fU.
Hha
7 Kh
fU
Kha
J1J
Dal
J.
^
j
Dz
JU
Dzal
10
R,
"\j
Ra
11
IT-
12
13
18
A
J-u
300
g?
90
V jl
800
v^
Ta
\,
Da
Sa
Ic
Si
900
Ain
70
i^
i
1000
,^
80
12
tJB
So"
.j^
S o~
19 Gh
Jui
Ghain
?U
Fa
20
i
^
TABLE.
Fi ml
-
Counec
21
uJl5
Kaf
<J
22
<_JK
Medial
Uncon Connec
Initial Numerical
value.
Hebrew.
Syriac.
J
^
i
'
-i
100
>c
<
20
f 3
^^
Kef
*$i
Lam
SO
*x
Mini
,*
40
D D
io
Nun
UJ
50
S"
23
24
25
26
27
28
L
M
N
W
H
Y
La
?lfc
Heh
,. J
* *
ft
Ya
^ ^
jl,
Waw
Jij3
01
j,
_,
10
. .
31
X
'
Short Vowels a
i ^r-
Long Vowels a 1
u -^-
i (ee) i_$
u .
1
1234
567890
1 H r F
1840
These figures, which are called t/jJui J, or Indian ciphers,

are used in preference to the inconvenient mode of the letters
of the Alphabet. They are written from left to right, as may
be seen by the date 1840. This is a sufficient indication of
their foreign origin.
22
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ALPHABET.
THE Arabic Alphabet, like those of the other Semitic nations,

AW
y
is composed of consonants alone. The letters \, j, and t_$, often
indeed appear to perform the part of vowels ; but that term
is really correct, only when applied to the three points, which
will be described hereafter.
The character here used, is that which is named Naskhi
s
~~
o "
>M<J , the only one employed in printed Arabic, and of which

all others are but variations, chiefly made for the purpose of
ornament.
Among these the Shulst, ,^J^ , is peculiar to Inscriptions,
the titles of books, &c., and is distinguished by the greater size
and thickness of the letters, and by the elegance of its flourishes.
S
O'
The. Taalik JuLc, is the beautiful flowing character used

in Persian poetry, and the Shakastah <OL^Li or broken, is a
careless scrawl, also used in Persian, and in which the diacritical
points distinguishing the various letters, are almost wholly neg
lected.
These two last are employed in writing Persian only.
The Arabs being great admirers of Calligraphy, have however

other variations, but as these are confined to manuscripts, and
easily to be distinguished, as formed from the Naskhi it is not
deemed necessary to dwell upon them here.
ON THE ALPHABET.
21
The order in which the letters are placed in this Alphabet,

is not that which has always prevailed ; a more ancient one
is known by the technical term Alujad, which is the first of
the following eight unmeaning and imaginary words, jj
<j -
o - ^
&*>
^ -
O-'C*s
-J^x
j.s.3 c^~ij â&*~i lj*\ L5^-
=*
According to this ar
rangement it is that the letters are used as numerals.

The African Arabs have an Abujad somewhat different from
that which belongs to Asia, but it may be here observed that
by the term of Arabs of Africa, not those of Egypt, but of
Western Africa (Maghrib) are always to be understood.
The
Lam-Alif is added to the Alphabet, merely to shew the peculiar

mode in which the AUf is included in, or added to the Lam.
The various columns in which the Alphabet appears, shew,
! st, their order ; 2nd, their names ; 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th the
different forms which each letter assumes, as being 1st, wholly
isolated ; 2nd, joined to the preceding letter ; 3rd, joined to
the preceding and following ; 4th, joined only to the following
one.
Some letters, it will be seen, are never joined to their
succeeding one, though when J J j j and j are followed by x

at the end of a word they may be joined together.
Several letters are distinguished from others of the same
shape by the addition of one or more points; these, which the
S--0-
Arabians denominate dbfa,

tinctive.
noktah, we call diacritical, or dis
As these points are frequently omitted by the care
lessness of transcribers, proper names are often minutely described

by Arabian authors ; every letter being carefully enumerated,
and the vowel points ascertained; in such cases, as an addi
tional precaution, those letters which resemble others in form
22
ON THE ALPHABET.
s <,-
are distinguished by the epithets <L*f, without points, (diacritical,) and Li*~**o pointed*.
To avoid the mistakes which may arise from the similarity
of different letters, other means are also used ;
V
the letters
<jH j J are marked thus (j* j 0 ; and ^ Is ^ - are re

peated in smaller characters underneath.
This sometimes dis
tinguishes (jw also, or three points are written below it (jw -,

these precautions are however only to be found in the most accu
rate manuscripts, but it is not to be supposed that the want of
them, leaves any great difficulty to be surmounted; he who is
well acquainted with but a few of the many books now printed,
will find little difficulty in reading manuscripts, which are, after
all, seldom so badly written as to offer much obstacle to the
Student.
The African character differs little from that of Asia, but
in the former, the letter <_i initial or medial, has the diacritical
point below t A ; jj in the same places has only one point above
j if.
*
^ O~
The Africans sometimes use the three letters -.. j and'
Thus in the History of Timur,

~O
~~
"
'
5* C-'*
"O-
Us!
His name was Timur, with Td having Kasrah, and two points above ;
and Yd quiescent, with two points below ; and Warn quiescent, between
Mim bearing Dammah, and Rd without any points.
t I give this upon the authority of M. de Sacy, not having had
myself the opportunity of examining African manuscripts. Erpenius
ON THE ALPHABET.
23
cJ with three points above, or beneath ; they then have the

pronunciation of our g in get, or guard ; by the addition of these
points below they also give to the letter ,,, the sound of our
ch in chip, charm, &c.
The Arabic, like the Hebrew, and many other Eastern

languages, is written from right to left.
No combination of letters, or directions for using the organs
of speech, can convey all the sounds of the Arabic Alphabet
correctly ; nor, were it possible, would it be easy to decide what
standard of pronunciation was to be preferred to all others.
The Arabic language is that of the religion and law of Muhammadan states, from the Ganges to the Straits of Gibraltar
and the banks of the Danube ; from Cape Comorin to Chinese
Tartary ; it is not only pronounced in various ways by these
various people, but even near its native deserts, great differences
exist in. the sounds given to many of its letters.
In the towns
the pronunciation is far from being as correct as among the

Bedouins.
Baghdad discriminates J,
J, ^ and ]s , while
Aleppo makes , b and j nearly the same, but ^J> like J.

Egypt sounds hard, like g in go, and <_J in some parts of
Syria is pronounced like ,, Markab, or Marshdb.
These variations however are of no great consequence ; he
who uses the mode prevailing at Delhi, will find no difficulty
whatever in conversing with a native of Fez or Morocco*.
makes no such distinction as to this taking place, only in medial,

or final i_J and Jj ; both he and M. Ewald give it as a general rule,
whether those letters be initial, medial, or final.
* Mr Lumsden notices the difficulty which a native of India has
to understand an Arab; it is within my own knowledge, however,
24
ON THE ALPHABET.
The most harmonious pronunciation indeed is that of the learned

of Turkey and Persia, who soften down those hard and gut
tural letters, to which they find it so difficult to give the genuine
Arabic sounds.
Alif, when attended by Hamzah * (see p. 32), is the soft
breathing of the Greeks, or English h not aspirated, and is a
species of consonant always accompanying the vowels which are
preceded by no other consonant.
When unaccompanied by
Hamzah, Alif is employed to lengthen the vowel Fathah, or

A, which goes before it.
<__> and CJ are precisely our b and t.
CJ this letter, though said to have the power of our th
in thing, is, among the Arabs themselves, almost always pro
nounced like cy ; some even consider the first sound as vicious.
The Turks and Persians pronounce it like 8.
answers to our j in jest, &c.
In Egypt, as has been be
fore said, it is pronounced like hard g in get, give, &c.
This
"
prevails also at Maskat, and some other places.

_ is our h strongly aspirated or slightly guttural.
this is the German ch, as in the words Nacht, Buch.
Among the Turks and Persians, it is however much softened
s
and reduced to almost the simple h.
W- is by them pronounced
\>- ; we express it by the letters kh, as in aXds- Khalif.
that the native Professor at Haileybury, some years back, conversed

fluently with a merchant of Algiers, and the latter being asked if
they understood each other easily, replied with great signs of asto
nishment, "Understand each other! pourquoi non?"
ON THE ALPHABET.
25
0 is our d.
j this generally corresponds, like the preceding, with our
d; some, however, as the Arabs of Maskat, give it the sound
of our z, which is also done by the Turks and Persians.
j is exactly our r, and J our z.
(j* is our s and ^ sh.
jjo is the letter s, with a stronger articulation than u* ,
which however it so much resembles, as to be often confounded
with it.
tje answers among the Arabs to our rf, uttered with a kind
of emphasis ; the Turks and Persians use it as another z.
ls is a strong t.
]a differs nothing from <Ji, for which it is often written.
In Egypt, as always among the Turks, it becomes z.
c the articulation of this letter is given up by -all our gram
marians, as impossible to be conveyed to European ears ; it is
a stronger kind of Hamsah or guttural a ; by the operation
of the vowel points it often takes the sound of i, o, or .
i this is best represented by the letters gh, though in some
countries rather taking the sound of rh.
uJ is our f.
j is nearly our #, receiving, however, among many of the
Arabs, a guttural emphasis, which it would be as difficult as
it is useless to attempt to imitate.
Those of Maskat, Morocco,
and other places, confound it with c .

uJ is our k ; many of the Arabs soften it into the French q,
in queue, qui ; and this is the practice among the Turks, who
insert, as it were, a short i after it when it comes before 1 or
26
ON THE ALPHABET.
as iXcl Kiaghit, paper ; <U ljLc Mulukianah, royal ; at Maskat,

it becomes a hard g, so as to be by those Arabs confounded
with and j.
J I;
, m.
^ before * i. c
_ I, sounds like the English , which
is its natural articulation, or what the Arabian grammarians

S -<,
call jl^lj1 or manifestation. When followed by <_> it becomes

*
m, and when it precedes any of the letters forming the technical
<^
o^
word ^.xjl it takes the sound of the following letter, as

mim baitin ; k,jj
-<. mir rabbin ; ^j] . - mil lailin ;
mummahisun ; ,JJLxi ^ ayyatakaddama ; J\jl mauwalun.
Be
fore all the other letters it sounds like ng in the word bring ;
as .js
tinin.
j is among the Arabs pronounced like our w ; with the Turks

and Persians it is v; when quiescent, and following Dammah,
it becomes a long u.
x is h with a very slight aspiration; when at the end of
words and surmounted by two points, it generally marks the
feminine gender, and is pronounced like CJj t; being generally
changed to that letter by the Persians and Turks, when they
borrow such words from the Arabic.
i_ is our y, as in yelp, yonder.
When quiescent and fol
lowing Kasrah it coalesces with that vowel, and is pronounced

like ee.
On the Different Classes of Letters.

The Alphabet may be divided under the heads of pro
nunciation, strength, affinity, office, and society.
1st.
Six letters are called Gutturals x c t r_ r ^ ' four>
Labials j * i > L-J -, four, Palatials ^ iJ J -. ; eight, Dentals

jj J ls 1? j J Cj CU ; and six, Linguals <j* j j <^ u* U"
The Dentals and Linguals are called solar letters, the rest lunar.
2nd.
Strength.
f> -o
The three letters i_ j 1 are called infirm
- -
letters, <&*\] <Jj)>>- being considered as having no sound but

what they receive from the vowel points, either attending them
selves or the preceding letters.
3rd.
Affinity.
All the others are stiled robust.
Some letters are permutable, being such in
general as are formed by the same organs, as i_/= with (JM,

0 with ciJj but particularly ^ \ ', which are often substituted
one for another.
4th.
Office.
Some are denominated Radical, others ser
vile ; the Radicals are sixteen, j i
c ^ ^ u tj0 u*> j j
j j - tj, and are so called, because they are never

found excepting in the roots of Arabic words.
The rest are
called serviles, being employed in forming the derivatives, and

other inflexions from the roots.
The servile letters, however,
are often Radicals, particularly in the imperfect verbs, but the

Radicals are never serviles, excepting \s and J , which are some
times substituted for CJ.
5th.
Society.
Some are compatible, which may follow one
another in the same word ; the others cannot, and are there
fore called incompatible.
These consist of the Gutturals a i c
28
ON THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LETTERS.
(though * is sometimes subjoined to c) together with the

following :
<j with i_J and .
Cj
LU (jw ^0 ^ L and Si .
? Jj an(^ *^
^ tj an(^ *^ -
J.
t>
jjo ^ \> and Is .
J-
ij i^jo and Is .
(JM
..a and , f> .
ô \s and \s .
\> and li .
Is and cJ
i and j .
ij and i_J
U.
os
except ^ 6
and
no means.
^c
manifested.
The servile letters in the above list, are only included as

incompatibles when they constitute part of the root of any word ;
for when acting as serviles, they may be joined with any letter,
'
o--^
as Lai> in silver : <__$yi as you say.

S
ss
These observations may be
of some use in manuscripts, where the diacritical points are

either neglected, or irregularly placed ; as also in fixing ambi
guous meanings and distinguishing the pure from the corrupted
Arabic.
Of Vowels.
The Arabians have only three characters for vowels, which
S o^
S ^ o^
^?o^
Jxo^
they call Fathah î or .Lîj , Kasrah j* or L , and

s or &**o .
The first represented by a small oblique line
over the letter, the second by a similar stroke under the letter,
and the third by a small curve like a comma.
Fathah
" sounding as 2
L->.
Kasrah
t^j .
x
Dammah -
<_j.
These are sometimes doubled in the final letters, which is

S
called jjJ^J- Tamcfn, or nunnation, because pronounced as if

S ^'
- '
terminated by ^; as J^ Rajulun, a man, J*-j Rajulin, of a

man, L>-^ Rajulan, a man; the first marks the nominative case
of substantives, adjectives, or participles ; the second the geni
tive, and the third the accusative, as also infinitives and nouns
placed adverbially.
Although it be impossible to fix precisely the circumstances
in which the Arabian vowels represent a sound more or less
open, it may be observed in general that Fathah is pronounced
somewhat like a in the word all, and Dammah like oo in moon :
when these two vowels are placed over a guttural or hard con
sonant, or immediately precede such an one, the letters which
produce this effect are the following: Lôyai TL?? fÎn other places Fathah frequently takes a sound resembling e
in scene or ai in gain ; and Dammah is pronounced like u in
but, o in above, or ou in rough. These distinctions however
SO
OF VOWELS.
are seldom observed ; Fathah usually receives the sound of our

English short a in rap or bat, and Dammah is pronounced almost
always like u in but.
Kasrah has the short sound of i in thin, but never that of
the English i in thine.
When those vowels are placed over any letter preceding
i_ _j \ quiescent, that is, without vowels, they coalesce with them,
o -'
o -
their respective sounds being lengthened ; as jti Mr ; j Jcoor ;

o
j keer.
x
i_ j \ are said to possess their homogeneous or natural

vowels when Fathah is placed over or precedes \ -, Kasrah i_$ -,
and Dammah j -, if otherwise, they are called heterogeneous or
dissimilar; when the dissimilar vowels precede those letters quiS O-*
escent, they either form diphthongs with them, as JjJ night;

Ss<*s
"
,i>f>- a jewel; or remain silent, as (JL when; but when they

have vowels placed over them, they assume, like other conso
nants, the sound of such superscribed vowels, whether natural
or dissimilar ; as *LjJ^ Ittisamun, the assuming a badge, or
1 x*
o -o2
J-^^^-
marling one's self; j&j\ Unsur, assist thou ; Ajjj Wuzara, Vazirs ;
.>j Wabara, he delayed ; ^-^ Yamin, the right hand ; <-_^4;
Yadrubu, he strikes.
It must be observed that j and i_, preceded by Fathah,
S "
-' ^
often take the place of long Alif, as JjL> prayer ; <u^ he threw
him ; for $La and *U^ .
In such cases these letters do not bear
Jazmah, a mark which will be spoken of in the next article.

The long Alif is sometimes omitted in the middle of words,
OF VOWELS.
31
such omission being indicated by the Fathah being placed per- I
s I -
s --
pendicularly, as \&s>, ^j, for l0U, Ûj. These three letters

of prolongation perform that office, and are then called
jdl <_>jj~ letters of extension, chiefly in the beginning and
middle of words ; when belonging to the last syllable, as in
IE.JJ jju, ^>\j their effect is not very perceptible.
They
however, in all cases, compose long syllables in poetry.
Of Syllables and Orthographical Signs.

Syllables are divided into pure and mixed, the pure con
sisting of only one consonant and one vowel, as <_-> c-> <_> ; the
o -'
mixed of two consonants, joined by one vowel, as J Ian;

^ min ; s> hum ; no syllable in this language either begin
ning with a vowel, or consisting of one simply. Over the second
letter of every mixed syllable is placed the following character
( o ) called
S o -
Jazmah *^- or amputation, so named, because it sepa

rates the artificial syllable at the end of which it is found,
from
rest.
when
by a
the syllable following ; it is also called ^^ sukun or

The second letter of the mixed syllable is not expressed
followed by another of the same kind, but is represented
character named
S
o -
Tashdid JoOufiJ ( - ) signifying corroboration, which doubles

the letter over which it is placed, as Jy, where the two ;
32
OF SYLLABLES
eoalesce, instead of being written J_^j .
This character may be
put over any letter but 1, and is used, first, in the coalition
of two similar letters as above. Secondly, when t^J follows J ;
in order to avoid a harshness of sound, as CJJo-j Wajattu.
Thirdly, when any of the solar letters follow the article JU
as ,.,.- A!' Addmu, the faith ; ^..,'ull Ashshamsu, the sun ; and
fourthly, when ^ Jazmated or the nunnation points, precede
o "
any of the letters in the technical word j*, as ^LJ ^

millisani, &c. In all which cases the preceding letter loses its
own, and takes the sound of that over which Tashdid is placed.
Hamzah xj*$> ( * ) is only another name and form for \ ,
and is made subservient to it in a variety of respects ; it always
accompanies the vowel which attends 1, as
When j and ^ take the place of Alif moveable, Hamzah
o
S
- ~
o
-
is placed above those letters; as, ^y, o-^f--
In such cases
a**~
it is more regular to suppress the points of the i_ thus Jjli and
not
It often occurs that instead of writing either \ or the j
or i^f with Hamzah substituted for it, as has been just said,
the Hamzah only is written, and the letter which should ac
company it is suppressed.
This happens, (l) often in the middle, and always at the
end of words, after a letter of prolongation, or a letter jazmated,
as
AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS.
(2)
33
In the middle of words, after an Atif of prolonga
tion, every time that Hamzah has Fathah for its vowel, as
(3)
In the middle, and at the end of words, when two j
or two t_$ meet, of which the second would be quiescent if

the letter bearing Hamzah were not suppressed
s i^
a 1-
for (jwjjj ,
(4)
}--
ijtxj for Ijjjj ,
-*
jU- for j^-A*-
In the middle of words, when Hamzah has Fathah
for its vowel, and is immediately preceded by a letter bearing

JazmaA, to which the vowel of the Hamzah is carried, the
articulation of Hamzah being quite suppressed
S~f1*~
S~<*~
o~
Si<*'
for ,3L^, &~> for x\4.

The suppression of j and i_j in the cases noticed under (3)
is not constantly observed, and such words are often written
Wasla ( -e ) J*sj , implies conjunction, and is only inscribed

over Alif at the beginning of a word, to mark an union with
the preceding one, Alif being then silent, as JUl1 ci^-
AUf
is superscribed with Wasla, first in the imperative of the first

conjugation.
Secondly, in the preterite active, imperative, and
infinitive, of the derivative conjugations of the second and third

s
classes.
Thirdly, in the following ten nouns : 'Lc1 a man , ifL1

Sb
S~^
-tf'o
-O
a woman ; ^>\ a son , iw^ a daughter ; +jo\ a son , Ûjl two,

"
' '*
&
-*
>
(masc.), ÛJo^ <wo, (fem.) J a wawse , <_^vj1 the buttocks ;
3
34
OF SYLLABLES
o
cm oath ; and lastly m the article Jl ; in all which cases,

unless beginning a sentence, or following the article, the initial \ ,
is not pronounced, the subsequent letter being always jazmated
and united in pronunciation to the vowel with which the pre$"<& -ceding word ends, as jr1^ Jo the hand of a woman, \ being
?
4" -o
- ~\-o ~ *"
sometimes even altogether omitted, as ,Ujz> j cl^y 1 C_>Jo-
#
Harith, the son of Hammam, related.
"
It is also dropped when

..
..f
the subsequent letter has a vowel ; as j.e for Jv1 , extend thou.
If any word, whose final letter is naturally jazmated, precedes
Alif of union, that Alif does not, in pronunciation, take the
vowel which belongs to it, but the jazmated letter preceding
it takes either Fathah, Kasrah, or Dammah ; but the choice is
not arbitrary.
o
o -
o -
Fathah is used, first after ^,, _, _ followed by the article

0*
S - o
J1 or the word ^^jj .

2nd. After the affixes of the first person ^y, or ^ when
o
^ ^.
0-*3
they are followed by the article Jl , as )e\jA\ .JJJk 1 .

O
O "
Of
Kasrah is employed, first after ^ , ^, ^ô followed by any

o
* -of
other Alif of union, than that of the article J1 or the word ^jl .
2nd. After any other monosyllable ending in a jazmated
O
O-'
O"
Cy*
O -
letter, as ^1 , Jj , Ai , Jji> , &c. excepting Jc ; and also after

^
o ^
the word ^S3.

3rd. After the third person singular feminine, of the pre
terite, and in the future or indefinite tense bearing apocope,
after the third person masculine and feminine of the singular ;
35
the second person masculine of the same number ; and the first
o
-J o *x
person common both of singular and plural, <_.^J&,

O
- O
* O,t
o-ox
k_--o&- ,
-JO ~
C.-J&-, t-^J^l, t_ô& and after the second person singular
- . o
masculine of the imperative i_^jl .

4th.
After genitives of duals in construction, as
5th.
After the second person feminine of the indefinite teijse
bearing apocope, and of the imperative of defective verbs whose

o -o-
~~o-o-
final i_ is preceded by Fathah, as i_$/!& by apocope for ^.ji--J -,

^' by apocope for ,jJ^/ ; and ,^1 by contraction for ,
o -o.
Dammah is employed, first after the pronoun *Xi1 and the

O -
O J
affixed pronouns and jk.

2nd.
After the second person plural masculine of the pre-
o^ o^^
terite f^fOJ
3rd.
After j^ .
4th.
In those persons of the plural of defective verbs, where,
in consequence of a contraction, the j , characteristic of the plural,

-J
instead of being quiescent after Dammah, as in 1jjo

Ijjul^l is preceded by Fathah, as lô,, \jJLi1, \JJWJO-
In these
cases, if an -4 fey of union follows, Dammah is added, and such

words are written thus, \j*j ,
O '
The affixed pronoun *&, changing its Dammah in certain

cases into Kasrah, the , takes, according to some, for its casual
32
36
OF SVLLABLES
vowel, Kasrah ; and according to others Dammah,

or Jyill *ajic <_>-.
When the word preceding the Alif of union
ends in a nunnation, Kasrah is supplied though not written, as

iyo <u~-
^~^>
asuun--muu Musa.
Sometimes the Alif of union is wholly suppressed ; this takes

-o
~ o 3-0
*<?
place first in the formula *-}\ cX**^^ ^^ (**^ where the

' s
-'
^
^ -'
^7 o
^4^/" of the word +J\ is dropped.
1 *
J O
2nd.
In the word ,j1 when between two correlative proper

^*
o ^
ô
So^
names, as jj/^ ..r; ^J Zaid, son of Amru ; but not when it
is not between two proper names, as ^^c
.>\ joj Zaid, son
of my uncle , or when these two names form two different parts

of yie proposition, as in iX*^ ^1 <x>j Zaid (is) the son of
Muhammad.
3rd.
In the article Jl preceded by the prefix J, or the

'
-J &
- '1K
- * 0
---0-0-
adverb of affirmation J, J^-JJ and J^ for J*-^ and J^5 ^J.

4th.
In verbs and nouns when it is preceded by the inter
-' -o
"<*
s -oôi
^ ' <*~o
rogative adverb 1, as i_ol and ^jila^ for <_Xw \\ and ^âkalV

oi
i
5th. In the article Jl preceded by the interrogative adverb \,
as *UJ1 for JU1 1 1 ; in this case however the Alif of union
A^so^
^J^^c
may also be preserved.

S
Madda (^) &, or extension. When the Alif of pro

longation is immediately followed by 1 moved, either by a simple
vowel or a nunnation, in place of the last of these two Alifs,
37
the Hamzah with its proper vowel is written only, and Madda
is put over the Alif of prolongation, as *U~; heaven.
This sign
is particularly used when the Hamzah, which follows the Alif

of prolongation, terminates a word.
The Madda is also placed over Alif at the commencement

of a word or syllable, when that Alif is radical, moved by
Fathah, and ought to be followed either by Alif-hamzah with
Jazmah, or by an Alif of prolongation, as Uu^ for \j^c\\ , and
j^jjl^l for <^ylSM
In general the Madda points out the absence
of Alif, and when the Madda is used, the Hamzah, if it be an

Alif-Hamzah, is usually suppressed, as well as the vowel, which
is always Fathah.
It is also inscribed over arithmetical signs, and likewise over
abbreviations.
/*
A single word is represented by the first letter,

'
as ^ for (JJ,J< just; if there are two words, the initial letter
of the first, and the final of the second are used, , s. for
- ' & ~o o."JLJ1 <ulc peace be upon him ! if three, the initial of the first,
a medial of the second, and the final of the third, are generally
/*
/V~. A~.
-ô
^QA*- x
taken, as , J \ for Ac1 &\ \j\ I am the most wise God.

But when there are many words, their initials are most com^
monly made use of.
Of the Pause.
S o*
The pause i_Jjj, which takes place after a word, being the
last of a period, of a phrase, or even of a proposition, makes
in the manner of reading or pronouncing that word, some
alterations necessary to be noticed.
38
OF THE PAUSE.
In general, when a pause occurs, the vowel or nunnation of

S<,'
---
the last letter is suppressed ; thus, instead of saying Joj îj^1

-jie
-<-'
*-'
Zald has struck me, and .xu^l <Xxc .y^b- Abd ul Hamid
has come to me, pronouncing in the first example the nunnation
S<,~
x o-D
of Jojj and in the second the final Kasrah of JUk^^M, we say

<"-
'<!-=
only Joj Zaid, and Jo.jM al Hamid.

? $ - J
" O^
If however the nunnation is as in this example \&*s? j J

we Aow not seen Muhammad, the <j of the nunnation is only
dropped, and the Fathah followed by 1 is preserved, thus
Analagous to this, in those forms of the indefinite and

imperative, which, under the influence of certain particles, as will
be shewn hereafter, terminate in ^ jazmated, the u is withdrawn
in pronunciation, and the word is pronounced as if the vowel
immediately preceding the ^ were followed by its homogeneous
xJO^
O~-C/~
- O^
C/
-O~
letter of prolongation, thus boô for (^Jo& , ^5^-' for

for
Jô, ^ for
1, \\ for .1,
x^l for
It is the same with the word ^\ , which in a case of pause

is pronounced \ jl .
*
The general rule applies equally to the inflections of verbs,
when they end in a simple vowel, thus <^ for t-^ , u^~V
JO --
O --
"O --
for c^J^* , c^J-9 ? t^-^.*
The at the end of nouns femi-
OF THE PAUSE.
39
s o-
nine and others, loses, in case of i_jujj its vowel or mmnation,

s- ^
- and changes into * quiescent, as <)JyiXc for ajyjc,
The affixed pronouns i_J i_5 * and a, lose their vowels in

-O
-o
-JO
cases of pause, and become quiescent, t_Jjo1 for i_Joo1 <_u\ .

*
-*
-*
Nouns, which according to the rules of permutation, which
will be hereafter explained, having for third radical j or i_$ , lose
that third radical by contraction, and throw the ^ of the nunnation on the vowel preceding, as ^>\s for ^>\s , and Û ,
O
--
in cases of pause lose the final vowel, as Û ; final ^ may

^
however be used ^\j .
The cutting off of the vowels or nunnation, in cases of
pause, is applicable also to words terminating verses, or the
a o -
periods of rhymed prose, j-s^*
In this case, the nunnation
may be taken away entirely, or only the ^ which it contains

o
be dropped, and the vowel preserved.
Thus L-*JW for
and i_-u~i ; or else LOWS for i_-ow> and i_~ou> for
RULES OF PERMUTATION OF THE LETTERS
1. THE letters 1 j i_$, are often used for each other;

these permutations being considered as an imperfection, the
Arabian Grammarians denominate them infirm letters i_ijji>~
<il*n .
In the beginning of a word, however, they usually re
main, except when, by the influence of some prefixed inseparable

particles, they cease to be initial.
2. When, being themselves without vowels, and following
those which are dissimilar, they become analogous to them.
Alif is considered as analogous to Fathah. Waw to Dammah,
and Ya to Kasrah.
Thus
o
S S- -.
<_fy
o
SI-
.M
^
**j
for
i_$\J
S*
Ja
S -
S<.~
j\j
j]J
S î,
a trench.
a well.
fire.
S ^<,
jlc.ô
the said place or time.
certifying.
j and 4.^ sometimes remain after Fathah; in this case, if

bearing Jazmah, they form a diphthong with the preceding
Fathah ; as in ^ JjJ ; or not having Jazmah, they are pro
nounced as a long Alif, as like U,, CJjL> like
RULES OF PERMUTATION.
S.
41
The letters \ j ^j when quiescent, and followed by
Jazmah are omitted, as <*ju&. for i.jls'., JL for Ayb, _uu for
4.
The Alif of union is not subjected to this rule, as
SPECIAL RULES.
Alif.
1.
Alif-hamzah, in the middle of a word, when moved by
Dammah is changed into j, when by Kasrdh into i_, whether

preceded by a vowel or letter jazmated ;
for
2.
t_il ,
Alif-hamzah, in the middle of a word, when moved by
Fathah, after Dammah is changed into j, after Kasrah into

as
^S^
si^
ft
t_JO for t_>]j
3.
Hamzah or Alif-hamzah, quiescent in the middle of a
word, is changeable into \ j or ^ quiescent ; agreeably to the
42
SPECIAL RULES. ALIF.
vowel preceding; the articulation of the Hamzah being wholly

suppressed, as
S
o
S -^
'
for
4.
Hamzah, preceded by j or i_ quiescent, acting as servile
letters, is changeable after j into j , and into i_; after ^,

uniting with the preceding letter by Tashdid, and losing all
articulation of the Hamzah.
Thus
S& JO^
-O ^
for
5.
In the middle of a word, Hamzah, being preceded by a
quiescent letter, other than j or i_, the Hamzah may be sup

pressed, and the vowel belonging to it transferred to the preceding
letter, as
s- - -
il\u.i.
s-'^-
for
.. -
di-Uu.c
S i<, -
6. Alif-hamzah, at the end of a word, is changed, after

Dammah into _j, after Kasrah into ^;
jJ j^
j
for
ljJ
7.
43
Alif-hamzah, at the end of a word after Fathah, when
moved by Dammah, is changed into , when by Kasrah into

<_$, as
1 ^^
j ô^
for
UAJ
But it is equally correct to write Uoii- or iUUi-, and it is

^ôôO
^ôô.^
thus that grammarians usually write t\ JOA*l 1 or A Joo^l 1 .

8. Alif-hamzah, at the end of a word, and preceded by
Jazmah, is written as Hamzah only, but the vowel may be
transferred to the jazmated letter, and Hamzah then becomes
\ y or i_, according to the vowel preceding.
Thus
for
9. Should two Alif-hamzahs meet together in the same

word, and the first be moved by a vowel, and the second be
jazmated, the latter loses its Hamzah, and becomes merely long,
changed, if need be, into ^ or i_$ ',
*
^\
--^
or
^1
,M
for
^\
j^
Û-ij
sî
for
Îwl
î
and
^^
- s-i.
for
^j^
10. Alif, quiescent, preceded by another Alif moved by

Fathah, is dropped ; this is pointed out by the position of the
Fathah, which is written perpendicularly, or by Maddah ;
44

s,^_
s\i
*\ or
si
*\ for
*\\
S*~^
St^
JU
JU
J1U
'
This suppression takes place in some words of very frequent

recurrence, when quiescent Alif is not preceded by another \,
as in
sio-
for
s-I
11. When two ^/i/5 meet in the middle of a word, the

first being Hamzah moved by Fathah, and the second quiescent,
the first is often changed into . without Hamzah, as
^
12.
ôr
^^
or
The inseparable particles <_> i_J J J and j which
are used at the beginning of words, alter nothing in the nature

of Alif, which is still considered to be the first letter of the
i
-i^
word, though those particles may be prefixed, as <_$ *',

J -*,
'- '
and not -oJ t>Some compound words must be excepted, in which custom
i
<. *-
o ^
has established the change, as LJ for SS, and ^jj for ^j.
45
13. When the interrogative particle \ is followed by Alifhamzah, if the second be moved by Fathah, one of them, with
its vowel, is dropped, or an Hamzah is placed first, and then
an Alif with Maddah. Thus
^ o
' o^
or
-
- oj
for
AJkli J JU 1
14.
L"^J U
*JbJj JJ 1*
*fc!ij JO 11
-^_oi
-/**_o-v_
u ' I'
u3\\ u\
-^_0^ ^
MM
î
--^
--i
jJ1
jJU
oJ11.
u^'1
If the second Hamzah have Dammah for its vowel,
the .4 Uf becomes j, or the second \ is suppressed and its Hamzah

only retained ;
<-:;-'*
,XJkJj^
15.
oî-^
or
JooJil
o-.}-<S.
for
Joooll.
If the second Hamzah have Kasrah, the .4/y is changed
into i_-,
Waw.
1 . Waw in the beginning of a word, when followed by
another moved by a vowel, is changed into Alif-hamzah, to
avoid the meeting of two j;
.,
for
J*]j_,
pi. of
46
SPECIAL RULES. WAW.
2.
If there be two j at the beginning of a word and the
first be moved by Dammah, it may be changed into Hamzah;
3.
When in the middle of a word there are two j, the
first moved by Dammah, and the second quiescent, if the letter

preceding the first is neither jazmated nor quiescent, and the
first is not doubled by Tashdid, the first j is often changed
into Hamzah, preserving the figure of j
s- 1 -,
Thus
s- ^^
for
*In this case one of the two j is sometimes dropped ; this

occurs particularly when the first j is preceded by long Alif;
s-i '
JL*
s i -
for
lj
If they meet only in consequence of a contraction, this rule

is not observed;
^^-O^
'-J'<,-
uw***^. for tyiy^*i4. j in the middle of a word, moved by Fathah, and pre
ceded by Kasrah, is often changed into ^;
i? -
t_jLu
s -
for
<-r>1jJ-
This however does not always take place,
SPECIAL RULES. WAW.
5.
47
Sometimes in the middle of a word, after a letter
bearing Jasmah, j moved by Dammah assumes Hamzah or is

changed into Alif-hamzah, as
6.
sliS
si<.
J\ Jl
or j)&\
s^$
for jj\ .
In words derived from roots having j for second radical,
it often happens when the second radical is doubled, that j is

changed into i_$;
j
*Jkj
,lw
*jjJ
from
li
for
This occurs even when the second radical is jazmated and not
So-
S o -
doubled, as Jjj c^-J>*, &c.

7.
Final j, when immediately preceded by Fathah, admits
of no vowel, but becomes quiescent, and is changed into 1 , if the

word have but three letters, or into i_ if it have more than
three ;
1 lc
for
jji
^ O~
Ô
i_j*.>
jj*j
he assaulted.
he is assaulted.
The same takes place when after } there is if final ;

S -o
-i\i^
S o
for
xiso .
If the final j bear a nunnated vowel, the nunnation is thrown

back on the preceding Fathah ,
48
SPECIAL RULES. WAW.
for
O .
yas. jag. \yns-
a staff.
S -O
8. In defective verbs, final _j when immediately preceded

by Dammah, and subject to be moved by Dammah, loses that
vowel, as
~<
JJO^
for
9.
In nouns derived from defective roots, when the final j
is immediately preceded by Dammah, it changes itself into i_,

and converts into Kasrah the Dammah preceding. Should, in
this case, the i_j have Fathah for its vowel, it remains ; if it be
Kasrah or Dammah it is dropped, and i_ remains quiescent. If
there be a nunnated vowel, the i_ disappears, unless the vowel
be Fathah.
Thus Lic jlj jyf-j of which the plurals would otherwise be
yaf-\ jlJl jj>-\ , make ^02] JJl ^^-1 .
o
Sô
j o
Thus in the Nom. and Gen. it is Jj1 for Jt>1 and

and in the Accus. LiJiM for
o
j-. o
- o
When there is no nunnation, it is Jjl for Jjl and Jjl and

- o
--.o
Jl for
10. When, at the end of a word, two j meet, of which
the first is quiescent after Dammah, they unite by Tashdid.
Thus
S
*s
JkC for
iXc,
l*c for
This is equally the case with * at the end
SPECIAL RULES. WAW.
49
S
11.
In plurals however of the form Jj, and in nouns

S j -
S -.-.
of action of the forms JLo and Jytij the two j are often
changed into i_# , and the Dammah of the second into Kasrah ;
S ~ .
for
,Jj
*,
, âc
for
12. When j quiescent after Dammah is followed by <_y

final, the Dammah becomes Kasrah, and the j is changed into
(_f, which coalesces with the <_? final by Tashdid,
S
^
13.
J? J-
for
i_jij .
In nouns of the form <Jju, the last letter being j,
it is changed into <_?, and the two <_$> unite by Tashdid,

S
-
'
S
.-
ju> for jJJw ,

14.
LS^*
ôr J^L> "
Final j, immediately preceded by Kasrah, is changed
into <j,
for
15. Servile j at the end of a word always has after it an

AUf mute,
1. In the middle of a word ^ moved by Fathah and

immediately preceded by Dammah, is sometimes changed into . ;
s - .,
A.' fci
?a - j
for
This is however of rare occurrence.

4
50
SPECIAL HULKS. VA.
2. When two ^ meet in the middle of a word, the first

moved by Kasrah, and the second quiescent, the second is often
dropped; this is only when the first is in the place of Alifhamzah,
SS--
In every other case, the two <_y coalesce by Tashdid;
3. Final ^ immediately preceded by Fathah, bears no

vowel, but becomes quiescent, throwing the nunnation, if there
be one, on the Fathah preceding ;
j,1
for
Jjl,
j,f and
J,!
This takes place also when * follows <_?,

s -oj
s--<f
i>-U^c for '^v
4. If the final <_j is preceded by another ^, the last is
changed into a short Alif,
for
M*
Except the two proper names, ^jAsl and ^j*

5. Final <_j preceded immediately by Kasrah, bears neither
Dammah nor Kasrah, but losing them becomes quiescent,
-V-o
îlail
for
-j--o
Û1
-f-o
and
^Wll.
If in this case there be a nunnation in the nominative, or

genitive, it is thrown back on the preceding vowel, and ^ is
dropped ;
s
for
' and
SPECIAL RULES. VA.
61
6. Final _j preceded by Dammah changes it to Kasrah,

remaining itself unchanged, but following the preceding Rule,
becoming quiescent when moved by Dammah or Kasrah, and
being dropped when it bears a nunnation in the nominative or
genitive ;
-
for
.uJ
an<i
If in these cases final i_$ has Fathah for its vowel with or
without nunnation, it remains and preserves its vowel, _i
7. <_ in the middle of a word bearing Jazmah, and fol

lowing Dammah, often changes that Dammah into Kasrah,
instead of being itself changed into j, (2nd gen.) becoming
&
S oj
"
"o *r
.x
quiescent, âjo for âJo , ^5^=>- for ^Juo- , and i_^Jw? for
8. When two i_ meet at the end of a word, the first

being quiescent after Kasrah, they unite by Tashdid;
s
- -
for
Rules common to j and <_y1. } and ,_$ preceded by, and also bearing vowels, arc
dropped when immediately followed by j or $ quiescent, their
vowels in this case are also lost, if Fathah goes before ; the
. or i_$ quiescent forming a diphthong with that Fathah.
42
52
RULES COMMON TO j AND
\o
2.
for
If in this case the vowel preceding be Dammah or
Kasrdh, it is suppressed, and replaced by the vowel belonging

to the j or i_$ which has been dropped ;
oj
ôi
for
3.
~ - ~
icl,
lc
~ -
for
When ^ and ^c meet, so that the first bears Jazmah,
is changed into ^j, and the two ^ unite by Tashdid ;

s &
/W
s -o
for
j^jj1
4. At the end of a word, after Alif quiescent, ^ and

are changed into Hamzah ;
*~.~
s
s\J for
5. ^ and i_ bearing vowels, and immediately following

Fathah, are often changed into 1 quiescent ;
*l5
<_JU-
for
*y
RULES COMMON TO j AND t5-
6.
^3
If after this Alif quiescent, a letter bearing Jazmah
follow, the Alif is dropped, and Dammah or Kasrah substi

tuted for the Fathah preceding.
Dammah, when the j whose
place is taken by Alif, would bear Dammah or Faihah, as

O *r
J O s*
O-"
c^,It for c^JU?, of which the regular form would be <^Jjls,

~oJ
o ^
"o ^^
and so v^-jj for c^-~^> , regularly oy>

When the Alif quiescent is in the place of ^ or of j,
- o
moved by Kasrah, Kasrah is used instead of Dammah, cy >

"o-'
'o-'
"o
-o-
ô^
for ti^L>, reg. O^Jwj, c^~ii- for c^j^-> reg. c^j^.

7.
When j and <_j in the middle of a word are moved
by Kasrah, and preceded by ^fo/ quiescent, they are replaced

by i_f with Hamzah ;
f *A^
JjU
8.
for
5*-^--
Jjl5,
JjU
for
JjU.
When j and ^ in the middle of a word bearing
vowels, and being preceded by JazmaJi, are followed by a letter

bearing a vowel also, they often transfer their own vowel to the
letter having Jazmah, and become quiescent.
In this case, if
the vowel is Fathah, the j or i_ changes into \ -, if Kasrah,

the j changes into ^ , according to the second general Rule;
for
54
RULES COMMON TO J AND

S
~ o -
S <*, s <, ^
.fc.AfllUfcC
9-
This change does not however take place in nouns of

S-o
S <,
the forms J*ic and aLuu> , nor in those where the j or the ^
ff -o
s- '^
is followed by Alif quiescent, as in the forms jJUi and

J-Oi
nor finally in adjectives of the form Jj61 .

S-o
Thus
' -
from
J\i
for
J>S
-,-oi
- o
~--
..x
10. If by this change the quiescent letter falls before a

letter bearing Jazmah, the former one is wholly suppressed;
for e^-
11. When j and i_y are moved by Kasrah, and preceded

by Dammah, the Kasrah generally takes the place of the
Dammah, which itself disappears ; j then changes into ^ qui
escent.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
55
General Observations.
1. When the letters 1 j i_ are said to be preceded by
a vowel, it must be understood that they are so preceded im
mediately, and without the interposition of Jazmah, or a quiescent
letter. It must not be forgotten that there is a latent Jazmah
& ^
in Tashdid. Thus, in &* the Fathah which is over the J is
not immediately preceded by the Dammah of the ,, because
^
"0 -
<Ve is the same as if it were written JJc.

2. -4?/" final ceases to be so considered, and is regarded
as being in the middle of a word, when an affixed pronoun is
^-^^
added to the end of that word. Thus, in Û Alif-hamzah is
changed into j, as being in the middle of a word, though this
is not always strictly observed.
3. On the contrary, j and i_ terminating a word, are not
affected by such an affix, and are still looked upon as final
letters, as in *jji and *U> , where the addition of n does not
prevent the j of jji , and the $ of ^5^; j bom becoming qui
escent, as if at the end of a word.
The only change made
by the affixed pronoun is that of i_ into 1 ; the i_ may here

however be preserved, provided that Jazmah is not used, as
VERB.
Of the Verb in General.
1.
THE original or primitive verb, is by the Arabians denoS& - ..

minated Jpsrc (naked), because composed of only those letters
s^t
which constitute the root. The root J*>1, is always the third
person singular masculine of the preterite tense, and active voice.
J o
The letters constituting the root are called <LxLsl, or radicals.
The seven letters of the word 1jjUy^Jo (they fatten) are called
X>1jj augments, or serviles.
-*
*
The primitive verb contains either three letters ^J$> (inliteral) or four ^jz\>j (quadriliteral).
/<.._
S o^
In triliterals, the first letter is. called ?U fa, the second ^j-w
tiain, and the third 1 lam, because the verb JJM (he made)
is usually taken as the paradigm of the regular triliteral verb.
L,"
In the quadriliteral roots, the paradigm being Jl, the first

letter is named fa, the second dain, the third lam the first,
and the fourth lam the second.
From the primitive triliteral verb are derived twelve other
forms, making altogether thirteen conjugations or forms of one
root. Quadriliterals have but .four forms.
Derivative verbs (of triliterals) are divided into three classes.
The first contains those formed by the addition of one letter,
the second those made by adding two letters, and the third
comprehends those receiving an addition of three letters.
OF THE VERB IN GENERAL.
57
Derivatives.
Primitive.
First Class.
Second Class.
5
J*j
, ^^
10
JjOUwl
*
Jclii-
11
Jjtftjl
juii
--,-<,
12
Jftj*i1
>
--o
13
Jj*il
*
53
>
-^^
1
JcU
*
o
-- xoZ.
Third Class.
Jjo1
Jjtxs1
>
-o
J*3l
Quadrilaterals.
Derivatives.
O-'-'
i jui
J1RJ
Jliiil
>
From the root Jj the Arabian grammarians make the tech

nical words, which become the names of all the various gram
matical forms. The fifth form, for instance, of a triliteral verb,
~&
--<,-is called Jjtaj ; the second of a quadriliteral is called JLui- ,
and so with all others.
It is thus with every inflection of a
verb, with the nouns and adjectives derived from it, and even
with the rules of prosody, and the various feet employed in
verse.
Of these thirteen forms of the triliteral verb, the twelfth
and thirteenth are of very rare occurrence.
Some grammarians
^
' OÔ
give a fourteenth and a fifteenth form ; thus, 14 i__<Jile\ he

*
^ o^ o
had clustering hair; 15 ^jJJ^c! he was corpulent and strong,
(a camel), but the few verbs which exist of these forms may
58
OK THE VERB IN GENERAL.
be considered as in the third form of the quadriliteral verb,
JILV
It is to be observed that in the eighth form Jjwil., the
*
place of CJ is sometimes supplied by \> or J.
When the first letter of the root is one of these, ^p, tjs,
o
\s or \st the cy is changed into k, as j-û>l it teas dyed, for

-
"*
~--o
j-joLs1; j-jW it was printed, for j-Jubl -, JIM fo was unjustly

&
&
CiC
treated, for (J-*^, in which instance the t is also changed into

>
Is , and is joined to the first by Tashdid.
When the first letter of the root is J a or j, in the
eighth form, CJ is changed into 0 , thus for |/-^1 he was repetted, is written \jj\ ; for jjj\ it was recorded J3\, where the
*
*
*
radical j is changed into j, or j<i\, where the J becomes j,
~ o
or j$J<M , where both remain.

>
When the first radical is CJ, ^ or l_g, in the eighth con
jugation, it is changed into CJ, and the two cy unite by
Tashdid, as i^^jJ\ for ojoo1, _sf1 for jS?j\ , ,*uJ-l for ^*JuK
In the first form or conjugation, the original and simple
signification is to be found, whether that be a transitive or
intransitive one, as i--J^ he wrote, ^j*. he was sorrowful.
The second and fourth conjugations form transitive verbs
from intransitives, as from Joc he was great, Jac, and Jicl
rendered great, he honored.
From verbs transitive in the
59
first form, the second and fourth make others, which may be
- *^
- ^
called double transitive*, as from <_^l he wrote, i_J and
.- si&
^3^\ he made another person write.
Verbs in the second form are frequently however mere
synonyms of the first, or only distinguished by being understood
-^^
-as a species of intensitives, j* and j& he broke, ^jt and
--
f he separated or dispersed, &c.

The third form has usually the signification of the first,
with this difference, however, that the indirect complement of
the verb, which in the first form demanded the intervention
of a preposition, becomes here a direct complement, and meets
the verb immediately.
Thus e-ô^ and J~^ have in the first
form the preposition J1 before the indirect complement of the

*
preceding verb, <3Lj> i_LJ1 ^\\ côo^ / wrote a letter to
4>~ '
- <,-
- -i
"C/*O
-i. --
the icing; i_jJ1 liU-1 ULy we sent owr brother to you.
If
the third form is used, the person to whom we write or whom

we send, becomes the direct complement, and meets the verb
"
"
~<*^)
o^ "
JO"
without the preposition *

^M. /Thus l_jUi
CÂJ-^
and e^lJ.
J
- 'o-<?
j>j \ I wrote to the king/ sent to the Vazir.
So with intran
sitive verbs also, ^jJc>- he sat doum, in the third form signifies,
---O
"
to sit down with or near one, jjULJ \ jjJl- he sat down near the
Sultan.
In the first form this would be Ûi-J \ Joc
This form indicates also a reciprocal or mutual acting.

jU he sought to kill another, (that other seeking to kill him).
Thus
60
The fifth form almost always has a passive signification,

derived from the second.
Thus from ,ic to know, come the

-
--
second form Ac to teach, and the fifth AXJ to be taught.

The sixth form is derived immediately from the third, and
signifies the co-operation and mutual action of two or more per
sons, as i-jjâi the one beat the other ; ijUlc i_^*L- the boys
played together.
The seventh and eighth forms have usually a passive meaning,
derived mostly from the first, but sometimes from the second,
-o
as from y_ks to cut, comes the seventh j_kaM to be cut, from

_*ai to help, the eighth j~sjj] to be helped.
The ninth and eleventh forms designate colors ; the eleventh,
&' O
# ^ o
with more intensity, ju>\ to be yellow ; j\La\ to be very

These conjugations are also verbs, expressing deformity, as
& - o_
ta " o
and (\\ to have the face or mouth distorted; -.&1 to be

1 ' >
^ *
crooked.
The tenth form expresses the desire of, or petition for, the
o-o
action indicated by the first, as JLc to pardon, yixJL>l to beg

-0*0
pardon, ^JL= to water,
JuJLs1 to beg for water, to put up
prayers for rain.

The twelfth and thirteenth forms are of very rare occur
rence, and generally add intensity or energy to the primitive
-j-
--o-o
signification ; thus from ...As- to he harsh, is derived ây^>\

*
î^ o
to be very harsh or rude, from U*c to adhere, comes kjlc1 to

adhere firmly.
61
Upon the various significations of the different forms or

conjugations of the verb, much more might be said, and some
grammarians enter into long details ; but, although well worth
the notice of the curious investigator, these inquiries are wholly
undeserving the attention of the student. The brief remarks
here made will not be found without use, but it is only by
reading and consulting the dictionary, that a knowledge can
be gained of the significations of the various forms. However
minute might be the observations made upon the different mean
ings of the verb, we should still find many exceptions ; these
can only be learned by use, and the same must be said as to
the forms in which any given verb is to be found. Some roots
are only met with in one conjugation, most are in several, none
in all.
Quadriliteral verbs, it will be seen, have but four forms ;
the first answers to the first of triliterals, the second to the
fifth, the third to the seventh, and the fourth to the ninth.
Every variation of which the verb is susceptible, whether
in forming the derivatives from the primitive, or in the voices,
tenses, persons, numbers and genders, or in verbal nouns, is by
S
o '
the Arabians comprised under the term k_flJ-aJ- exchange, pecu

liarly applied to grammatical inflection, and almost equivalent
to conjugation.
The regular verb is termed JL sound or perfect, and follows
in all its inflections the common rule, or paradigm JJM~
The
JO "
irregular verb, JL j^. msomd or imperfect, has among its

#radicals one or more of the feeble letters \, j, i_, or has
its second and third radicals alike.
62
In the Arabic language there are a few verbs which may

be regarded as primitives of five or six letters, or as derivatives
belonging to forms not included among those we have enumerated.
Such are .jJo^^
rS^, i-JokW, t>ut these examples are rare,
and it is to be observed that ^ , always, or almost always, enters

into the formation of these derivatives of forms not used, and
that by subtracting it, it is easy to reduce them to a quadriliteral root.
There are two voices, the active, denominated Jx.Ull
s
the form of the agent, or simply ^\i agent, and the passive
JjjxiUM &su*e, the form of the thing done, or merely JyuLe,
the object on which the action falls, the patient.
Neuter verbs, of whatever form they may be, by their very

nature, are destitute of a passive voice, whether these verbs
simply express a mode of being, as ^joj^ to be ill, or an energy
not passing out of the energizer, and which we more particu
larly call intransitive verbs, as
Îvc to walk, *li to sleep ; the
Arabian grammarians consider them as active, and their subs t

ject is always called J*U , or agent.
In Arabic verbs there are but three principal modifications,
of which two are of time, WU| , and the third of command, _1 .
CONJUGATION OF THE FIRST FORM J OF

REGULAR TRILITERAL VERBS.
Active Voice.
Preterite.
Fem.
Plu.
Com.
Mas.
I>ual.
Fem.
Com.
Mas.
Infinitive.
Fem.
Sing.
Com.
Mas.
OF TENSES.
OP these there are in the Arabic verb only two ; the first
<jolc or the past, we denominate the preterite ; the second t>Li
or resembling*, being susceptible of both present and future,
may be called the indefinite tense.
The compound tenses are formed by the addition of the
verb substantive ^ . The preterite of this verb being joined
to that of any other, gives to the latter the signification of the
pluperfect, *__-J ^ he had written. Joined to the indefinite
tense of another verb, it gives it the force of the imperfect,
~
-J C^
^ ^
i_ *,(.> ^ he was writing.
The indefinite tense of ^ which is ^L< , joined to another

verb in the preterite, forms the future subjunctive, t-ro ^^j
he will have written.
These compound tenses are not given in the paradigm of
the verb, the Arabian grammarians not considering this union
of two verbs, for the determination of the circumstances of
time, as forming compound tenses of one verb.
Numbers.
In the Arabic language there are three numbers, JAC, pi.
* Ô JO-O
ô-'O-o
The singular JîJ 1 or oyil \ .
^ ô-O
The dual ,Ju*J \ or
* So called, because in many of its accidents it resembles the

noun.
NUMBERS.
AjJuJl \ , and the plural -** 1 or j&A \ .
65
These distinctions
take place in the verb as well as in nouns, adjectives and

pronouns.
Genders and Persons.

In Arabic there are three genders, ^/*A-, pi- (jwlx>4,
the masculine -&A \ , the feminine i_i->5_yJ \ , and the common
\.
These are also used in the verb.
The first person is called *lJuJ \ he who speaks, the second

he who is spoken to, and the third t_^jlil 1 he who
is absent.
The first person plural is named ô JXJUl '
who speaks conjointly with others.
ON THE TENSES OF THE REGULAR

TRILITERAL VERBS.
The Preterite.
THE persons of the preterite are formed by adding one or
more letters after the radicals. According to the system of
the Arabian grammarians, there is no person of the verb without
a pronoun expressed or understood, that pronoun being the agent
or subject ; several of the letters added to the root in order to
form the persons, are, therefore, considered by them as pronouns.
The middle radical of the preterite of some verbs takes
Kasrah in place of Fathah, as transitively A& he knew; but
5
66
ON THE TENSES.
this is more peculiarly the characteristic of intransitive or neuter

x
-'
verbs, as ^3 he wax glad, ^j>. he was sorrowful; sometimes

the middle radical of the preterite takes Dammah , but this only
in a neuter sense, as ,-AW lie was ugly, ...**- he was hand
some.
The vowels of the two first radicals do not vary in the
other persons, but the last is changed to Dammah in the third

person masc. plu., and is jazmated in most of the other persons.
The preterite usually corresponds with the English preterite perfect, as

- '<*-a
^.X4Jl*l 1 (lc Remember the benefits that I have conferred upon you,
and (remember) that I have rendered you superior to other men.
o^
When the preterite is preceded by the particle Jj , it always

signifies a past time, which is also the case when it follows the
adverb Ul, when.
The preterite is often employed to express the present, as
AC
^
'
The violence of affliction makes grey the hairs, and fortune

with mankind changes.
Although she stoops to day to a man, yet on the morrow she
will overwhelm him.
The particle jl if, conveying a supposition, and connecting
two correlative propositions, gives to the preterite the signifi
THE PRETERITE.
67
cation of the pluperfect. Suppositive propositions are distin

guished from conditional, as implying that the case supposed is
never realised, while in the conditional there is a simple enun
ciation of one proposition depending on another.
In the suppositive proposition, the first preterite is to be
rendered by the pluperfect of the indicative, and the second,
to which is prefixed the particle J, by the preterite of the
s
JO
xx'
s'
C*
O^
potential mood, as i^Jlisr^ 1 JJk c^-i* if I had known this,

I would have admonished thee.
If the second member be negao^
tive, the indefinite tense is used with the particle J, which,

as will he hereafter explained, gives to the indefinite the power
of the preterite, as î1 o-*J /J ^^> c^ jl if you had
been here, my brother would not have died.
If after j< the verb of the first proposition is in the inde

finite tense, and the second in the preterite, they take a future
sense, and the first may be translated by an imperfect sub
junctive, and the second by a conditional future, as JJ*AJ jl
^JIjJJ1
J Joo
AwJiJ ojef"
if-f^- fe*\)
JsS*^ ^ *t the miser
touched the palm of Yahya, his soul would become generous in

bestowing gifts.
The negative S gives to the preterite the meaning of the

future ; this is particularly observable in the taking of an oath.
O
x ^
52
68
THE PRETERITE.
/ have sworn (I swear) that wine shall not disturb me, while
my soul is in my body, and my words in my power of speaking.
In the Koran and in the Poets, examples are found of the

- - " < preterite preserving its own meaning after 1. X j jjw> )U
- - ." , I " '
ê Aos wo< believed and he has not
prayed ; but he has denied the truth and has been perverse.
The preterite is used in Arabic to express the optative.

Thus in speaking of God, after his name, is added ,JUi- may
he be exalted !
After the name of Muhammad, <ulc <dl \ ^L>
J^j j may God be propitious to him, and give him peace!

Such are these forms also, <Uc <dl \ ^j may God be pleased
with him !
<sLc \ J may his reign be long !
_xJLj .JLcJ
may you remain in good health ! <dl \ <U*J may God curse him !
After 1jl when, an adverbial particle of time especially
applied to the future, as UJ when is to the past, the preterite
takes a future sense, as <_J>x*s-l i_$J t^-Jo 1jl when thou
*
shalt have written that, I will praise thee.
When this adverb is put at the head of two correlative

propositions, of which the verbs are in the preterite, they both
assume this future meaning, UjJi) ^jj Uou>. L*-il 1 .xc. U- 1j1
wAew <Ae promise of the future life shall have come, we will
bring you together.
But this influence of \j\ ceases when the preterite of iJ

precedes it, and the two verbs may then be rendered the first
THE PRETERITE.
69
by the pluperfect, the second by the imperfect,
\j\ and it was a custom of Timur, and

>
of his forethought, that in the beginning of his command, when
he had alighted at the dwelling of any
hospitality,
one and requested
he enquired into his family and remembered his
name and his pedigree.

To have this effect, it is not even necessary that the pre
terite of the verb ^ should be expressed ; it is sufficient that
before \iS\ there be a verb in the preterite, upon which the
*
conjunctive proposition depends,

U> li>XAC 1jli>
LAJ> to j Ui-te
.l
be not like those who have been incredulous,
and who have said of their brothers,
when travelling in the
country, or on a military expedition, if they had remained with

us, they would not have died, and would not have been killed.
It is the verb \fis which here deprives 1Jl of its usual effect.
*
To occasion the cessation of this influence of 1jl , it suffices
that what precedes it should contain necessarily the idea of
the past.
Whenever the two particles ,ji>- > in order that, until, fyc.,
and 1jl when, are united at the head of two conjunctive pro
positions; the temporal power of the verbs of those two pro
positions depends upon the antecedents, and accordingly as
70
THE PRETERITE.
they express a past, or future sense, the verbs of the conjunctive

propositions, although put in the preterite, must be translated
3>
by the past or future.
# <j'
&l
^^ U-y aL1
--
~ J
C.^
sOs
-"
J ^
^yV. V
-wJ^
JlS
IjU- U1
on the day when we shall assemble from every nation, a crowd

of those who have treated our revelations as falsehoods, they
shall be driven, until when they shall have come, he will say,
have you then treated my revelation as falsehood ?
I*--
--
The preterites \j U- and JlS have a future sense, on account

j -Os
tfs
of the indefinite .As! , by which 1o1 iy*~ i8 preceded.

What has been said of the tenses of verbs coming after
\\ , is equally* applicable to U> lj! .
>
>
o
After the conditional particle ^1 y, the preterite acquires

,.. ^
o-"
"
the force of the subjunctive future : *jo4 â. 1jl

^
0^0^-5
1 CJj/J 1
/< is written to you,
when
death shall come to one of you, if he (should or shall) leave

property (let there be) a will.
x ^
If the verb ^l come between ^ and a verb in the preterite, the latter expresses a past sense, as
-
Os x
ti-jJk- .
//" / Aaw committed a crime or been guilty of a
fault.
<-
When after ^\ , a present is to be expressed, the preterite

of ,.,l, and the indefinite tense of the verb required is employed.
THE PRETERITE.
71
Thus, uJJo*i- x\A lik Jt <dJ 1jjÂl .
Give thanks to God,
if it be him you serve.

b
When the conjunction ^1 comes before two correlative pro

positions, of which the first is conditional and the second de
pendent on the first, the verbs in the preterite may be rendered,
the first by the subjunctive or hypothetical present, and the
^
second by the future,
03 x
-"
o*^
JU> ^^*^ <_$<J i_^l*i ^ , / / fo
fâ<, / shall lose my property.

x x
The preterite of the verb ^ is often employed without

conveying any idea of time, and merely connecting a subject
^ S-*^' G s^jo~~ oi oJ^ ^^ ^ ^*-:
and an attribute, as ..jJûU- ill U_jU-Jj ^ *^ ^^ U uJ^Jjl ^
TAoê (people), it is wo^ /or them to enter, unless with fear.
Examples without number may be met with, where the
preterite of ^ , is thus used without any indication of time
s O'
past, and merely as the opposite of the negative verb j^yujj ,

which has no tense but the preterite, with the power of the
indefinite present.
The Indefinite.
The indefinite, (or future of Erpenius) is formed by prefixing
to the different persons, one of the four letters comprised in the
i
technical word
-ul , and by adding one or two of those con^ -r
tained in the other technical word \jy .
The prefixed serviles
have constantly Fathah, excepting in the second, third and

fourth of the triliterals, and the first of the quadriliterals, where
they take Dammah; they jazmate the first radical.
If the second
72
THE INDEFINITE,
radical of the preterite has Dammah, it remains also Dammah

in the indefinite, but if Kasrah, it is changed in the indefinite
to Fathah, excepting **j it was pleasant ; i_-û.-v- he thought ;
^*Jo he despaired ; jj-Jo it dried up ; âi he excelled ; \2Jj he
despaired; (J^f- he meî which may be pronounced both with
Fathah and Kasrah, and even sometimes with Dammah ; as
**jo ,
.jjo ,
i**-*^ ,
iJ^^V. >
iJ"*^ >
ij35o -, but if the second
radical takes Fathah in the preterite, in the indefinite it is

changed to Dammah ; as C--J& he wrote, i_-Jj ; or to Kasrah,
as <_ij*y he struct., <-rî> ; unless the second or third radical is
a guttural letter, in which case it sometimes remains Fathah, as
Jjdi he laboured, J*io ; ^x fe presented ; *u*j ; and in the
same manner ^j without a guttural, he reclined ^^ , and
.j\ he refused ^>\\
The last radical has Dammah, but when
followed by the serviles \J it is sometimes dropped, sometimes

changed, as is seen in the paradigm.
The indefinite, however, when preceded by certain particles,
admits of several variations in the termination which are classed un
der the grammatical heads of Apocope, Antithesis, and Paragoge.
Apocope not only converts the Dammah of the last radical
into Jazmah, but cuts off the final ^ every where, excepting in
the feminine plural. The particles which occasion the Apocope are
J not ; Ul not yet ; S no, not ; and J when prefixed to the
future in an imperative sense.
answer as a general example.
ydx> J he did not assist, may
THE INDEFINITE.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
x* *r o^
o-^*
-' - o-*
o^"
J;
1ÎX>
y
I
JsaM
' o -J ox
O-'
-J O s
o>*
*" r5
To the above particles may be added the following : ^\ if;

- and ^1 whoever; U whatever, and its compounds
-"3^
s ^ <j s
s<j
_. &
that, and Ul every time that ; UJjs>- , ^ and ^1 every where ;

and iJ^ however ;
, .u> and
- 3
^b1 when, whenever, and in poetry
; provided, how
ever, another verb in the retributive sense (as whatever you

will do, I will do) is subjoined in the same sentence. If both
verbs are in the indefinite, they conform to this rule ; if only
the first, that does the same ; but if the last alone is indefinite,
O-* 0^
o^ o-'
--
it follows either this, or the general rule ; as Jue1 jJuu U

-J ' O -*
O -- O^
-~
whatever you will do, I will do; (^>ua ^ >,^-i Lc whatever you
O ^ O^
Os -*
"
-J ' O^
O ^ ^*
, / <#M$; y .^1 c^-*^* LCJ or jl o*Jua to whatever

you did, I will do.
This rule takes place likewise, when an imperative precedes,

' o -o
<, joi
to which the indefinite is responsive ; as i^SâJ] .jiyoi1 assist

me, I will assist you.
Antithesis, by the influence of another set of particles, cuts
off the final ^ in the same manner, and changes the Dammah
O
of the third radical to Fathah ; these are J by no means,

o
O ~
not at all; J , w^ , ^ , ^ ,
o^
-o^
~o^
, Jj^ , i^l <Ao<, fw order
74
THE INDEFINITE.
4i
î
^z
^ "
to, became ; 1\ , IjJ lest not, so as not ; j\ or ; â~ until.
Also
i_J, prefixed to an indefinite, referring to a preceding word, as

J>~aJ U i<V^J^ assist me and I will assist you ; likewise j when
it implies and at the same time ; as ^jJJ do not eat fish jjrf
and a< the same time drink milk ; and also
" - o '
or
.' do so .> cowe ow / <^c.
o^
L.J Ae will by
>-AJU u
>
*
wo means assist, is here put for a general example.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Paragoge adds to the future ^ or ^ ; but this last only

in the singular, and in the plural masculine and common, when
it denotes commanding, wishing, intreating, or asking about
<& " - O--
O *"
futurity, in the manner following: ^yAJo Jj& will he assist?

Plural.
<
Singular.
s* *j
Uy^lX> Jii
liâJJ Ja
iir"3-*"' iJ-k
Dual.
Jib
^__ j
THE INDEFINITE.
75
would to God he would assist!

Plural.
Com.
|
I
Singular.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
Mas.
Ox J Gx
After this mode may be inflected liiraAjJ and ^J^M] let him
ti< *" J Ox
O^- o -
<"
assist ; ^jaM U and ^y^Jo 1 do not assist ; or when preceded

^ -.<,^
A^,
& _0
by an oath, as ^âJo <dl1 ^ by God he will assist ; or jJJ 1 ji
The indefinite tense may be translated by the future of

x o"
the indicative,
l. When preceded by the particle i_s^->, or

o-
one of its abridged forms ^ i_- ^ .
2. When preceded by
the negative !! , provided, however, that neither of the other

^ <,^
v
negative particles U , J , or Ul have occurred in the phrase
before. 3. When, as is often the case, there is a plain indica
tion of a future sense.
When these rules do not operate, or when the indefinite is
"
^ô~o~o-
preceded by Uo, it becomes a present tense, i <3J

# ~
O.
"O --
<*O
J*w
...^
^~O*
Ijli <<jjâJ tJyuJ Uife j liljiXc Ae who shall do that maliciously

and unjustly, we will punish him by fire.
76
THE INDEFINITE.
--
- ~ O x
O.^
^S *O
<-,t
<u uJL/-io j t-Uil 1 ^ 431 Jji1 U

- Ci-O
gi
^ jUH S1
Sj <Lcluil I
*jj
4J 1 , &m7y they who hide the book which
God has sent down (from heaven), and buy with it a thing of
xmall price, those eat nothing but fire, and God on the day of
judgment will not speak to them nor approve them.
In this passage are seen examples of the indefinite with
a future signification after S , and with that of the present
after U .
O"
O-
"O -
The particle ^1 restricts it to the future, <>j-o> .J he will

not strike.
o
o ^
The particles ^1 and ^ that, in order that, with their comis pounds ; also ^\- until, and J give to the indefinite a future
meaning.
w1 JuLuo- J
do you think you will enter
Paradise?
J
Give me an assistant out of my own family, my brother
Harun, in order that we may praise thee much.
It will be often found, that a verb in the indefinite tense,
depends upon a verb immediately preceding, without the inter
position of any particle ; in this case, the verb in the indefinite
must be translated by the subjunctive, preceded by, in order that ;
THE INDEFINITE.
77
by the infinitive, or by the participle present. L_JJil 1 ÎJ&

4
Ae departed, leading wy heart by the bridle.
*Lfcl iMj teijj IJuoli
jb
we continued to watch Ais
return, lite the watching for the festival new moons.
J
you above all other men, in order that he may
solicit hospitality, and an abode.
When preceded by J not, Ul not yet, the indefinite assumes
a preterite sense ; t^-ô J he has not struck, ^j^ tJ he has
This rule is liable to some exceptions ; and it is remark

able, that in the example given by M. de Sacy, the verb
following J , must really be translated by the present.
^J>j$\ j cy|^**J1 <__L <0 <dll ^\ *L*J-
J\
do you not know
that to God belongs the empire of heaven and earth ?

That the indefinite, preceded by J , may sometimes be trans
lated by the present, was observed by Mr Richardson, who gives
the following instance :
4
ôi o-o
i.>. U Sl bUSJ1 JA (ji ^ J
78
THE INDEFINITE.
if there is nothing in these words, but what makes you doubtful

of your hereditary belief, even that is sufficient for your good ;
for he who doubts not, considers not; and he who considers not,
understands not ; and he who understands not, remains in blind
ness and perplexity.
When J is prefixed, the indefinite tense expresses command,
when I comes before, it has a deprecative or prohibitive signifi. O
cation ;
-J {,x
s O - -^T
- <~r
&*-aA> j^^\
*x
"
Jy^>
<j
,j*
<j*3
and he among you

I
who shall see the month, let him fast (during) it.
o^
xJJi> \sju ]
" O &.~G
ifjsr"J1 approach not you (two) this tree.

The preterite of the substantive verb ^ , as has been before
said, when put before the indefinite tense, gives it the sense
of the imperfect indicative. Should the proposition be negative
-*
tus
and the adverb J be employed, the indefinite ^.^j put before,
gives to the following indefinite the same meaning.
When
however one or more verbs in the preterite have gone before,

they communicate that sense to the following indefinite, without
x'
the intervention of
>^j Jafar rode to <Ae cAse , ^ sometimes drank

#
amused himself at others ; and presents and gifts came
to him from Rashid ; and Bakhtishua the physician was with him,
and Abu Zakkar the blind sang to him.
THE INDEFINITE.
79
It often, however, will be found, that the indefinite carries

this meaning without being preceded by the preterite i^l, or
any other verb in that tense ; the attending circumstances
fixing the sense in which it must be taken.
^ <di1 i Uxi1 u
(to them) why did you kill the prophets of God, before
(now).
Beside the pluperfect and imperfect, which the Arabians
express by adding the preterite of the verb ^l to the preterite
and indefinite of another verb, they form a past or retrospective
future by prefixing the indefinite of ^ to a preterite, some
times inserting the particle jJi between the two verbs.
o -o -
x<*O
U i_î*j *Cl <_JO_j they say, when will this menace

(take effect) if you be trustworthy ?
Say peradventure somewhat
of that which you wish to hasten, will have (already) mounted

behind you.
their camels, take them, and then we shall have taken

reparation for what has been done to us.
The use -which is thus made of the verb ^ to modify
the preterite and indefinite tenses, must not be considered as
constituting it an auxiliary verb, in the sense in which that term
is u-sed by European grammarians.
The use of the preterite
or indefinite of the verb ^l has for its object only the expression
80
THE INDEFINITE.
of that double relation of time belonging to the preterite anterior

or pluperfect, the limited preterite or imperfect, and the retro
spective future ; effecting this by the union of two verbs, either
in the same tense, as t_^J
he had written ; or in different
tenses, as i-ô ul he did write, or was writing , and t_

he will have written.
The imperative, as well as' the future, sometimes takes the
- -oi
o - - <A
paragogical ^, as ^j**>\ or ^,j^j\ assist thou.
This mood
is formed by prefixing 1 , which, when beginning a sentence,

O~O
always has Kasrah ; as Jail know thou ; <~Jje\ strike thou ;

I *
- *
unless the vowel of the penult, radical, which is always the
same with that of the future, be Dammah ; when 1 also takes
O
-.0}
Dammah ; as u_~J1 write thou, the first and last radicals take
Jazmah.
In the formation of the genders and numbers, the

x -
final serviles li.J are employed, as in the future.

rative is only used in the second person ;
The impe
the others being
supplied by the future ; J with Kasrah being then prefixed,

o - o -
ojo"
as -dJoJ let him assist ; .*aJul let us assist ; which is also someO *r O *
times the case with the second, as jîJul assist thou ; but J
drops Kasrah, and takes Jazmah, when i_J or j are prefixed,
O JO ~O~
as .aaJoJj then let him assist.

The office of the imperative of triliteral verbs is sometimes
performed by an indeclineable word, of the form JUi or JUi .
Thus, from Jjj to alight, is formed Jljj or Jljj alight thou.
THE INDEFINITE.
81
The participle of the primitive triliteral verb in the active

s
voice is of the form JÛ ; and in the passive of the form

Jf
..O -
Jj***o .
There are however many other forms ; and particu-
s -
larly Jj*i and Jj* , which are both active and passive.
It
verbal
ferred
rather
has been objected that these participles are merely

adjectives, conveying no idea of time ; but I have pre
the authority of Erpenius. It would seem they are
of all times, and as in the following instance, often ap~ j
pear to be
- o -
true participles, ^^Lwu Uj ^Jwii
-3-o-
<OJ \ j God is
seeing (sees) what they do.
The Infinitive differs greatly from those of other languages,

being merely a verbal noun substantive in the accusative case;
corresponding, in some measure, to the Latin gerund in do. It
is often used adverbially, and by a peculiar idiom is joined
sometimes to its own verb, to give a greater energy to the
meaning.
Although it is not considered that the nature of the par
ticiple, partaking both of verb and adjective, should exclude
it from a place in the paradigm ; or that the infinitive should
be rejected, because, in truth, it is a verbal noun ; which all
infinitives really are ; a more minute account of each will be
given hereafter under the heads of " Name of Agent and
Patient," and " Noun of Action."
The account here given of the use of the tenses, may seem
to be somewhat difficult and complicated, yet it will be found
that the times of Arabic verbs are subject of very little doubt,
unless it be in the Koran, the elliptical, figurative, and somewhat
incoherent style of which, leads to different interpretations.
6
82
THE INDEFINITE.
The following principles may be regarded as general. 1. That

the two tenses of Arabic verbs, have each its determined value,
the one of the past, the other of the present and future. 2. It
is often unimportant whether this second tense be translated by
the present or future, and when that distinction is really neces
sary, the sense is never dubious. 3. In an infinite number of
cases, the time of a proposition is fixed, not by the forms of the
verbs, but by the conjunctions, or adverbial conjunctions of time,
by the negative adverbs, or other particles to the influence of
which the propositions are subjected ; or finally, by the relation
which the propositions bear to each other.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Preterite.
Fem.
Plural.
Com.
Dual.
Fem.
Com.
Fem.
Singular.
Com.
Mas.
Indefinite.
Participle.
The passive preterite only differs from the active by the first
radical always having Dammdh for its vowel, and the second
Kasrah.
i
In the indefinite tense, the incremental letters ^\, always

have Dawmah for their vowel, and that of the second radical
is always Fathdk.
The want of the imperative is supplied by the indefinite
O- OJ
tense with J prefixed, as foM&
let hini be assisted.

62
PARADIGM OF THE QUADRILITERAL VERBS.

Active Voice.
Infin.
Part.
Imper.
Indef.
o-JMJLo
JeuJw
Passiw Foce.
Part.
Indef.
njif+iP,i
Preter.
Preter.
85
DERIVATIVES OF THE FIRST CLASS OF REGULAR

TRILITERAL VERBS.
Active Voice.
Infin.
Part.
Imper.
Indef.
-lC
Passive Voice.
.Part.
Indef.
Preter.
<,*
Preter.
86
Of Quadriliterals, and Derivatives of the

First Class.
Quadriliterals and derivatives of the first class, are conju
gated in nearly the same manner, and only differ from the
preceding in the following particulars.
1. The radical penultima in the preterite active always has
Fathah, and in the indefinite Kasrah, except in the second
quadriliteral, where it retains Fathah.
^jj-l in the indefinite

o -
active as well as passive bears Dammah, as _.^>.J, ...

,
".'
*ne second,
third, and fourth quadriliterals active keep Fathah.

2.
The imperative is formed from the future by dropping

O
o "
Ooi "
-jol and the vowel of the last radical, as .rj>-<*3 j^-
If the
preterite commences with Atif servile, that letter takes the

place of the incremental letters of the indefinite.
--<
3.
In the fourth form Jxi1, Alif is dropped whenever a

v."
O-J
O -
servile precedes the radical letters, thus ,aii and not JA>\Initial Alif, forming the derivative verbs, is dropped with its
vowel whenever the serviles ^jJl come before; whence in the
imperative, where those serviles are lost, Attfasid its vowel return,
<,
oj
as joJ\, where it is not to be regarded as being Alif of union

forming the imperative.
87
DERIVATIVES OF THE SECOND CLASS OF

Active Voice.
Infin.
Part.
Imper.
Indef.
_.
U&3
L- ,!( ic
Passive Voice.
Part.
Indef.
.
J-...J&U>
V^. i.f.V\ '
Preter.
Preter.
88
DERIVATIVES OF THE THIRD CLASS OF

Active Voice.
Infin.
Part.
Indef.
Imper.
o
Preter.
o -o
10
11
*
12
13
Passive Voice.
Part.
Indef.
Preter.
UÔMHll
10
13
DERIVATIVES.
89
Of the other Derivatives.

In the remaining derivative conjugations, the penultima of
the preterite active always has Faihah.
The indefinite is formed from the preterite, by prefixing ^jj-l

with Fathah; the initial Alif, if there be one, being dropped,
according to the rule just given, and the last Fathah regularly
changed into Dammah, the penultima receiving Kasrah, except
-
-- o
~0 "
in the fifth and sixth forms, which retain it, as _*!.1 ,

y, i
iXclxi ,
J^^-V. > but those two forms beginning

f
with cy, sometimes drop that letter, when ^ of ^jJl is pre-----& - - ~
-&.
fixed, as ju> for ,*JjG , iXrlxi for JtcUxi , which the vowels
will easily prevent being taken for the future of the second and
j w j
"*
third conjugations, their future actives being (Jjtib and

^^j
j - -^
and the passive J*b and JÛj
The imperative is formed, as in the quadriliterals,
î -'
jM^J , the Alif which had been dropt returning with Kasrah,
in those forms to which it appertains, as J^jtJuvj J^jtJLJ.
"
The ninth and eleventh have no passives, the others form

the passive preterite from the active, the first two vowels being
changed into Dammah, and the penultima into Kasrah, as
-& -_j-.
J*aj- JjtsJ- ; the indefinite is also formed from the indefinite active,
the Fathah of the letters l-^j\ being converted into Dammah,

-J
O'O"
and the penultimate Kasrah into Fathah, as J*LJuuJ
.J-O'O-'
J*iJLuj.
THE SURD VERB.

Active Voice.
Fem.
Plural.
Com.
Singular.
Dual.
Mas.
Kem.
Com.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
Mas.
Indefinite.
Participle.
nfimwee.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
91
OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS.

1.
Of the Surd Verb.
The triliteral verbs, of which the third radical is the same

as the second, are called surd verbs, ^ \ , as <\ for
extended. All the irregularity of surd verbs is reduced to the
following rule. In all the inflections where, according to the
conjugation of the regular verb, the last radical bears a vowel,
the penultimate radical is inserted in the last by Tashdid, the
vowel of the penultimate radical is then suppressed, unless the
letter preceding it has Jazmah, for then the vowel of the penul
timate radical is given to the latter, which would otherwise have
Jazmah. In all the inflections where, on the contrary, the
last radical has Jazmah, these verbs are conjugated regularly.
Thus in the third person of the preterite singular and masculine,
- -& i_~\^ becomes i-^ The second person of the singular of
- o- "
the same tense is regularly c^ju>-

In the third person of the singular masculine of the inde
finite tense, k_^jus! is contracted into 4_^ss!, the Dammah of
the second radical passing to the first, in place of its Jazmah.
If the indefinite follows a particle producing Jazmah, or an
o - o -
apocope, it becomes regularly i_.^si, because the last radical

having Jazmah, no contraction takes place. Under the influence
of these particles, Fathah or Kasrah may be given to the last
radical in lieu of Jazmah ; in this case the contraction return
92
IRREGULAR VERBf.
ing jk> , yb for jjia .
In verbs of which the second radical in
the indefinite tense bears Dammah, the same vowel may also
o - o '
be given to the last.
Thus, instead of JJ^ we may write with
the contraction iXj , Jk*j , or even Jk*j .

The imperative preserves its regular form.
According to
the rule of the surd verb we should write ^ji\ , \jt\ and \jjh,
but the reason why the rule is not here followed, is, that the
Alif of union is always followed by a letter bearing Jazmah.
But beside the regular form, the imperative has another,
in which the insertion of the second radical in the third does
take place, except in the plural feminine. Alif of the im
perative is omitted here, according to the rule, by which it
is never prefixed to a letter bearing a vowel.
Fem.
S.j3
Or
Masc.
D. ly
Fem.
P. Jj,!
Surd verbs follow in the passive voice the same rules as

-
-- in the active, thus j is for j^s , Kasrah being dropt, because
the preceding letter already bears a vowel ; in the indefinite
tense it is Jb for ^yb , Fathah being given to the preceding
letter which before had Jazmah ; but in the third person plural
^ Oxo,.
feminine without contraction ^yyj The derivative verbs follow

the same rule of contraction in those forms which admit it.
The contraction in these derivative verbs takes place or not,
following the same rules as the primitive.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
93
Derivative Verbs bearing contraction.

Preter.
jl
for
Indef.
jjU
Imp.
j\aj_
-*
10
12
j^\
In these derivative forms, as in the primitive, the contraction

may be preserved in the indefinite tense, and in the imperative,
whenever the third radical ought (in the indefinite tense by
the influence of a particle preceding,) to bear Jazmah, by giving
-J&
-o
o.t
-< .t
JO o.t
to that third radical a vowel &A\ for t&6\, and &s\ for
The derivative forms to which Tashdid naturally belongs
are not susceptible of contraction.
94
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Forms.
Pret.
Jt
11
Indet-.
Imp.
jVi
IS
Verbs ending in CJ or ^ double these letters by Tashdid

in those persons, whose final characteristic serviles are CJ or
ij , as l!y ; we adorned, for Utwj ; and <^~> Âoa wr< silent,
for c^J&-> ; but neither these, nor the verbs beginning with
i^j or (j, when they coalesce with the initial characteristics of
the fifth, seventh, and other conjugations, are considered as irre
gulars, <_~*Ju1 it was dug through, for L_-NiuJl and jsl\ it was
negotiated, for Js^'\ being in every respect perfect verbs.
2.
Of Verbs having Hamzah for one of their Radicals.

Verbs which have Hamzdh or Alif moveable for one of their
S J O^
radicals, are called jy*^f<> or hamzated.

The conjugation of hamzated verbs is almost the same as
that of regular verbs ; it is only necessary to observe the rules
of permutation, in virtue of which j or i_ are substituted for
the radical Hamzah.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
95
As Hamzah may be either the first, second or third radical,

there are three sorts of hamzated verbs.
Verb Primitive.
Active Voice.
^
S-
*.-
o-
Sit.
S S-
Pret. J\ Indef. Jib Imper. yjl Part. j>\ for j>\\

,oi
'"
"*
Infin. yi.
If the imperative has Dammah for its vowel, the radical
AUf is changed intoj, as J^jl from the root J^cl.
--
- -
The three
<, J
oj
verbs jî , ^>\ and J^l , make in the imperative Jui- , ô and
o
O -
O-tj
OJ*i
(3^; sometimes however <jjl and ^j^ are written regularly.

--:
When the imperative of the verb j*\ is preceded by the con
junctions j or <_i, it is also written j^> ,*>\iPassive Voice.
CO
Pret. ^S1
Indef. )%
-3i
2nd form Act. Pret.
J\
-
Pass.
3rd
Act.
Pass.
}\
\ or
for yb
j-Jj
Indef. yjj
Part. ^y
o-
Imp. y^
P. J>
96
IRREGULAR VERBS.
4th form Act.
Pass.
/_
_.,*.,
jl*
J*)
iSl*
- f,
-.
S1
Inf. 2nd
3rd j
* i
4th
It is only necessary to apply the same rules to all the

other forms of derivative verbs, in order to find their root,
s.
when Hamzah is changed into j or i_$.
- i-,01
Thus J^jJU is the
passive voice of J*>UJ . In the sixth form it must be observed

*
that the Hamzah, preceded by Fathah, followed by Alif quiescent,
f
may be changed into _j ; thus from the primitive verb, j1 may
be written in the sixth form
^l
or
U.
In order to conjugate the verbs where Hamzah is the

second or last radical, it is only necessary to equally apply
the rules of permutation common to the three letters l , j , i_ ,
or those which are peculiar to Alif-Hamzah.
For example, if Hamzah be the second radical, it is pre
S.
served or changed into j or i_$, according to the vowel belonging

to it, or immediately preceding it ; thus, in the preterite is written
-$-
- i-
- i-
- s- -
-i-
jo-
for (jwb , <_^Xtf for <__?Lj, in the indefinite

3J in the passive voice it is Jjwj , and in the
--
forms derived from the primitive Jt.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
- -
3rd form Prefc.
*îl
97
.,-..
Indef.
,*-
*>!>
-o
Imp.
+1$
~~
P.
wfc
-.*t~
4th
,8th
i - >
10th
>
^ -
A^j
Â~O
# it
Inf. 3rd ,u*lc
4th U 5M
8th LUSH
10th L K-.1
- *
- >
*
If the Hamzah is the last radical, care must equally be
taken to preserve or change it into ^ or ^, according to the

rules of permutation ;
3rd Pers. Mas.
Fem.
3rd Pers. Mas.
i"
Indef.
Jj7jo
o
^^
o
JJAJ
o
tî.->.
or
Impera. .j1
.Juki
JJl
Li-1 .
- >
*
The case is the same in the passive voice, and derivative
forms.
Pret.
* -
2nd form
5th
10th
Indef.
1 - --
98
IRREGULAR VERBS.
- G
J-*-
^ o
i-r--
The quadriliteral verbs, such as ^l>- Wii, present no new

-Jo-
difficulty ; the rules are always the same : thus from Ûi? comes
3i--o
LJ
in the fourth form, the preterite Ûkl , in the indefinite ..j

in the impera. îULl, and by contraction .. .
- *
*?- *
Verbs having Hamzah for their second radical are some
times conjugated like concave verbs, of which we shall soon
speak : and in which Alif is quiescent, coming from j or i_y
'$.*
radical, this is particularly observable in the verb JL> to ask.
-
--
o -'
o^
which is often written JL>, Indef. JLo or J*uJ, Imp. J->

L,S- O
for J\J\ ; where both the Alifs drop, radical Hamzah by the
*
third general rule, and the servile Alif by the following letter
having a vowel. Verbs, of which the last radical is Hamzah,
are often confounded also with verbs properly called defective,
that is, having their last radical j or i_$ .
Of Imperfect Verbs in General.

These have among their radicals one or more of the letters j
and i_, and are divided into different classes; the first compre
hends those which have ^ or ^ for their first radical, the second
class those in which either of the same letters is the second radical,
and the third those having j or i_$ as last radical, whether the
root be triliteral or quadriliteral. The fourth class, and the
following two, are verbs in which two of the letters j and i_$
are contained. The fourth class contains verbs in which these
letters are the second and third radicals. In the fifth class
they are the first and third radical. The sixth class is of verbs
IRREGULAR VERBS.
99
where the three radicals are all j or ^; but not more than
one or two examples of these can be found.
Of Imperfect Verbs, of which the first Radical ii

3 or ^.
;
s -
These verbs are called by the Arabians JtLc or similar

verbs, because their conjugation in the preterite is conformable
to the regular verb : amongst these verbs, those having j for
their first radical are subject to more irregularity, than those
whose first radical is ij .
The principal irregularity of the verbs having j for their
first radical, consists in their sometimes losing that letter in
the indefinite and imperative ; this most frequently occurs in
those verbs, of which the second radical in the indefinite bears
Kasrah ; it is to be observed, however, that several verbs of
this class, of which the second radical bears Kasrah in the
preterite, and should consequently take Fathah in the inde
finite, nevertheless preserve Kasrah, and therefore lose j .
for
It is the same with the imperative.

for JkCj1
- *
<_ for Jôji

- *
72
100
IRREGULAR VKRBS.
When the second radical in the indefinite does not bear

j - O-
"
Kasrah, that tense is regularly formed, as J*-jJ from J-j , and

-..-
t>-
Jjj from Jj .
When the indefinite is regular, the imperative

o-o
o " o
o"o
is so likewise, as <U-.1 , J*r^ , JJo1 . In the two last examples,

*
">
the i_ is substituted for j radical, according to the rules of
O "O
tf "
O ~O
permutation ; thus JJtij imperative of tS , is for JJj1 .

>
">
Several verbs lose j in the indefinite though their second
f radical in that tense bears Fathah ; these verbs are, ^j to
$ - - tread under foot, which is for lS^ ; _^j to be large ; j-ij to fall;
c Jj to leave ; <*-^&j to give ; J--PJ to place ; which make in the
-- .,-- .. ^ -^ ..-indefinite Ikj , ?-**' > j-J > ? J>J > *~r^ > -~ii
The verb jJj is only used in the indefinite and imperative,
-
o~
j<Xi and jj .
The irregularity of all these verbs exists only in the active
voice of the first form. In the passive voice of that form, and
in all the derivative forms, they present no irregularity except
indeed in the eighth form, as will be observed immediately.
Verbs having ^ for first radical, are not, properly speaking,
--
-~o~
irregular ; thus (j**x, ? \j*&. .
-- ~
o~
- & ~
jw-j
j***. > j"**?. > j**?. , j**-^.
It
must only be observed that the radical i_$ is changed into j when
it is quiescent after Dammah ; thus j*uj makes in the indefinite
-
Oj
-J
o -J
of the third form j* , instead of^*jo ; the rule of permutation

is merely to be observed.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
101
It has been already said that verbs having for their first
radical j or ^ usually change it in the eighth conjugation
into d>, which unites by Tashdid with the CD characteristic
--
- -4
of that conjugation ; Jmj-l and -uJl are written therefore for

>
*
A*j.l and .uo1 . Sometimes however the regular form is pre*
>
served, the ^, when quiescent after Kasrah, being changed into
'^^0
- -* -<.
t^, and the i_, when quiescent after Dammah, being similarly
changed into jj and both changing into AKf, when quiescent
after Fathah.
There are some similar verbs which at the same time have
-5- z i ..- * - j-ffamzah j\j, \jj, l>j - Indef. -w^ ij&, ^> but this presents
no new difficulty.
Of Imperfect Verbs, of which the Second Radical is

j or <_f , called Concave Verbs.
Verbs having their second radical j or i_, are called by
- ~o >
tf o
j^
the Arabians i_J^-l , that is to say, concave, and <UUJiJ 1 jj or

verbs of three letters, because one of their characteristics is,
to have only three letters in the first person singular of the
preterite, where the regular and defective verbs have four, as
-
,-,
<, x^
may be seen by comparing c^Jjj concave verb, with

JO"
- O-* ^
Aare loritten ; i_l^xi / Aaee passed by ; LLJ>I^c /

war. These verbs, and those of the next class, are they which
depart most widely from the regular forms ; their number is
very great, and it is therefore essential to be well acquainted
with their conjugation.
102
IRREGULAR VERBS.
THE CONCAVE
Active Voice.
Fem.
Plural.
Com.
Dual.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
Mas.
Fem.
Singular.
Com.
Mas.
Ji
UJJ
Infinitive.
*<,^
103
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Passive Voice of the Concave

Preterite.
Fn.
Plural.
Com.
Mas.
Fem.
Dual.
Com.
Mas.
Fem.
Singular.
Com.
o -
&
<jOj
*-"
&;
Mas.
-'
i
o
" <*
UJU
- o
Indefinite.
o^-
JUu
JUi-
^
jw
104
IRREGULAR VERBS.
THE CONCAVE
Active Voice.
Preterite.
Plural.
Fem.
Com.
Mai.
Dual.
Com.
/nrfe/wtte.
w-
Fem.
Singular.
Com.
Ma
IRREGULAR VERBS.
105
Verbs having j or $ for their second radical are irregular

only in the first, fourth, seventh, eighth, and tenth forms.
In these verbs, the second radical letter always loses its
vowel, and sometimes disappears altogether. When it is qui
escent it undergoes various changes. All the rules indicating
the anomalies of these verbs will be found among the rules of
permutation common to j and i_ .
It is in conformity with those rules, that in the third perx *"
son singular masculine of the preterite, JU is written instead

of Jy y and u-iU- for cJ>j , that in the second and first per
O^
~x
<
<,
son of the same tense, c^J^j c^JJi and c^~^ ar written for
* o
- o"""
- o - -"
-
oJy, c^-l^s and c^s^. and that in the indefinite Jlyu, iilss>.
- Ô-
J - O -
are written for Jjib, uJ^s>., or under the influence of a particle

<, -"
producing apocope, Jjb <ô^- ; it is so with all the other irre

gularities. Thus, in the feminine plural, j and i_ drop, on ac
count of the subsequent Jazmah. These radicals are also dropped
in the singular masculine, and plural feminine of the imperative,
but they return when the paragogical ^ is added, as ^

thou ; ^.iiJw> go thou ; ..jU- fear thou.
Verbs having j for their second radical, take Damrnah in

the indefinite, when the preterite is either of the form Jj or
as Jyj the indefinite of JU, which is for Jy ; and
-
- ^ -
j indefinite of JIL>, which is for Jjl; but if the second

radical have Kasrah for its vowel in the preterite, the inde-
106
IRREGULAR VERBS.
- - 1, -
finite takes Fathah, as i__>li.->. for iî^s}. , indefinite of i_Jl

which is for <_jy>-
Verbs having ^ for their second radical, generally take
Kasrah in the indefinite, because they are of the form J*j,
-J
O"
---
indefinite JJMJ, as^-UwJ indefinite of jL>, which is for^ju>.

-
There
-'O"
are some however of the form J*i, indefinite J*i>, these take
Fathah in the indefinite, as <_>lg for *_ô^>, indefinite of <_>U,
which is for k_OL&.
The imperative has no -4&y of union, because the first radical
OJ
bears a vowel, as in Ji and ^->, and -4fo/ of union can only

come before a letter bearing Jazmah.
The radical Alif in the participle, following the characteristical quiescent Alif, ought to have a vowel, as two quiescent
letters cannot meet, but Hamzah or moveable Alif is substij.
tuted for it ; which by the first canon, Alif is changed to .
SS-s
5^
J?^St-
S-
Jjlji being for Jlli, and that for JjU, yL> for j1L, and that
again for ^jL.
There is no difference in the preterite and indefinite of the
passive voice, between verbs whose second radical is j , or those
having i_$
In the participle of the passive voice however, the Dammah
of the second radical being removed to the first, the letter j
is thrown out, to prevent the concurrence of two quiescent
5
. ^
S -o^
letters after one vowel, Jyu being for J^jJu; but in concave,
S
t_S Dammah is also changed to Kasrah, as ^Juw for
S j <, -
IRREGULAR VERBS.
107
In approved authors however, particularly among the Poets,

S
-. o -
many of these participles are regularly formed, as u_y<K> guarded ;
but especially those of concave i_ , as k^xs: sewed together ;

S
..<--
measured.
It is well to observe that in concave verbs whose last radical

is ci> , this CJ is incorporated by TasMid, with the cy forming
the second person of the preterite, and first person singular of
the same tense ; thus from cyte comes in the first person singular
kju-v , and in the second persons c^~ , yji 5
In concave verbs whose last radical is ,j, the same occurs
whenever this ^, being jazmated, is followed by ^ forming the
person. Thus from ^b is made in the third person plural
feminine of the preterite, and in the second person plural femi^j ^
nine of the imperative ê ; in the first person plural of the

-.
preterite \j*> ; and in the third person plural feminine of the
i. - indefinite âj
These observations equally apply to the derivative verbs, and
are of importance in finding the root when reading Arabic
written, without vowels, or orthographical signs.
Verbs derived from Concave Roots.

As has been before observed, in forms derived from concave
verbs, the fourth, seventh, eighth, and tenth only are irregular,
in these derivative forms, no difference exists between those whose
second radical is j and those where it is i_ . It will be sufficient
to give a paradigm of these forms, presenting the first word of
each tense.
108
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Active Voice.
Infinitive.
Participle.
UIU1
J-wu
Imperative.
Indefinite.
Preterite.
Jlirr
ja
o! 1
JJol
- *
- *
,-
JUS1
"*
JUiu
JUi-l
JUJul
- *
; 10
Passive Voice.
Participle.
Indefinite.
Preterite.
Participle.
Indefinite.
Preterite.
Jliu
jlill
oj
jiiH
^
<UuJUucc
10
IRREGULAR VERBS.
109
In forming the different persons of each tense of these de

rivative forms, it is only necessary to apply the same rules as
in the primitive verb. Thus, in the third person singular femio - -J
o <S
nine, of the preterite of the fourth form, c^~li1 for i^~\ , and
-
<,-*
in the second person singular masculine of the same tense,

-
0-o.i
for e^
The other derivatives are regular; it is to be observed how
ever, that in the passive voices of the third form J*U , and the
sixth form JoiUj of concave verbs, whose second radical is j,
that the AUf characteristic of these forms, and which is changed
into } on account of the Dammah preceding, does not unite by
Tashdid with the radical j that follows it, thus *jji and not
"* -
,j3 .
If the second radical is <_y, the j and the i_$ must be
kept distinct ; thus j_>b makes in the passive voice j_>jj .

There are a few concave verbs conjugated regularly, as
to be one-eyed, and iXxo to hunt. Some other concave verbs,
though irregular in the first form, may be conjugated either
regularly or irregularly in the fourth, such are ^j to do any
thing at night ; *\c to be cloudy ; which in the fourth form
are -jj\ or \j\ , *c\ or *\z\ .
It is the same with the tenth
form of verbs, whose second radical is j, as c_>lsrM and <-Jjjs

he answered; and <_>Li}Ljl or c-syaJU
he approved.
'
*
*
gular conjugation is however most in use.
The irre-
110
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Of Imperfect Verbs, which are at the same time

Concave and Hamzated.
Of these there are two sorts, the first class comprehends
s.
those which have \ for first, and j for second radical, such are
<_.>U and JU for t_>^ and Jjl ; they are conjugated like j>\
and Jli ; thus in the preterite <>1*, côli ? O-ol, i^-^, lil*
Jli, JjS,
iIn the indefinite >jj.1 like Jyb, observing the change of

*
o J
tj
<,..
Alif-hamzah into j in the imperative c_>1 and .j^l , like Jj and

^y .
Part, t-ôl .
Inf. \jj\ .
The second class comprehends those which have j or ^ for

second radical, and 1 for the third, as f L> for *j->, iU- for U-,
and *li> for Ixi.
The first' is conjugated like JU and Uuk,
the second like jL> and Ua , and the third like <_>U and Uu .
/^--
o
o'"*--
o
**
^-
Thus, Pret. jL, CJiL, c^.~j, CL>.^, &c.

Impera. y>.
r
Pret. U-, CJiU-, c>^&-, VÔL>-, Sec.

S-
^..
Impera. (_5^.
fi_cU.
-s
-v_^
Impera. Li,.
#>0^
Indef.
Pret. l( , i^jt\, côui, e-Jti>, &c.

o
^ -
A^^^
Indef. iliu.
Indef. 1.
Part, f^L .
-^
Inf. *.j^ and ?U^.
Inf. jlj-.-.
t^
Part. ^lA .
#>0
Inf.
Part.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Ill
In the passive voice the same rules are to be observed ; thus

"> for s->, and f,>- for *,
When several HamzaKs come in succession, it is usual to
suppress one in order to soften the pronunciation ; this is called
S
<,-
<, -
j- or softening, the contrary being called ^jJLsr' or verifying.
Of Imperfect Verbs, whose last Radical is } or $, and

which are called Defective Verbs.
Verbs whose last radical is j or i_$, are called by the
s
oioo
-<
Arabian grammarians {j^\J defective, and also fcuJS \ y^ ? or

verbs of four letters, because they have four letters in the first
-
O ss
person singular of the preterite, as dJiic.

The last radical undergoes changes resembling those to
which the second radical is subject in concave verbs, some
times it is changed into another letter, sometimes it disap
pears, sometimes its vowel passes to the preceding letter, and
at other times it is totally suppressed. The chief anomalies
of these verbs are founded on the rules of permutation.
112
IRREGULAR VERBS.
THE DEFECTIVE 3.
Active Voice.
Preterite.
Plural.
Fem.
Com.
Dual.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
Singular.
Fan.
Com.
.of
Mat.
113
IRREGULAR VERBS.
THE DEFECTIVE
Active Voice.
Preterite.
Plural.
Fem.
Com.
Dual.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
- *
Ma
Fem.
Singular.
Com.
Mat
114
IRREGULAR VERBS.
In the third person masculine singular of the preterite,

\jc is for .^c , and ^j for ^j . In the third person singular
feminine, and in the dual of the same gender, the last radical
o
^-'
<*
and its vowel are dropped altogether, and *Df- is for CJjjc,
and tiji for lij^c .
In the third person plural masculine, the last radical with
O *"'
O xx
- "
its vowel disappear, and Ij^c and \y>j are contractions for Ij^jc
j
x x
and \*>j , according to the rule of permutation. If after this

third person, or those of the indefinite which terminate in the
same way, Wmlah or Alif of union occur, Dammah is given
-~-$j~O
-'"
to the j , in order that the union may take place, <dl 1 \f& .
The Fathah which the second radical bore in the preterite,
in the indefinite changes into Dammah if the last radical be
j , or into Kasrah if it be i_f . Sometimes, however, in verbs
whose last radical is i_, the Fathah remains in the indefinite
ô ^
^^
on account of meeting a guttural letter, ^-c^ from .^j .
This
last radical, in the indefinite, loses its vowel and becomes qui
escent, according to the rules of permutation. After the j
thus quiescent, Atif mute is not put however in the singular,
-<o^
Ô^
jjiu not Ijyy (see j, 15, rule of permutation) this is not always
strictly observed, the Alif being sometimes added. When pre
ceded by particles changing, by antithesis, the Dammah of the
third radical into Fathah, the last radical retakes its vowel,
xÔx
O^
as ûa, i_r<#, because that vowel being Fathah there is no

reason for its suppression.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
115
When subject to apocope, the third radical wholly disap-JOs
Os
pears, as jiv and *j> .

When subjected to paragoge, the third radical is preserved,
In the second person singular feminine of the indefinite, as

well as in the second and third person plural masculine of the
O -s
Os
* Os
JO "
same tense, a contraction occurs, ^-ju ,

*
-Os
-O s
,s
j <X
Os
and uj, for

S
It may be observed that in 1jc , and verbs similarly
conjugated, the second and third persons masculine plural are

like the feminine, and that in ^j , and verbs of the same form,
the second person singular feminine is the same as the second
person plural of the same gender.
When the second person singular feminine of the indefinite,
and second and third person plural masculine of the same tense
are subject to paragoge however, the j and the i_$, which
remain after the contraction, are wholly dropped, on account of
the ^ quiescent, which then follows them agreeably to the rule
3 o"
& o-
3-o^
3 jo^
(gen. 3) this is written with Tashdid ^îi- , ^j , jîj , ^ju ,

ii!/V., ^c-
Among the verbs, whose last radical
is j, it is only those having Fathah for vowel of the second

radical in the preterite which wholly follow the paradigm hc ;
those whose second radical bear Dammah, form the preterite
regularly, except in the third person plural masculine ; thus
82
116
"- '
IRREGULAR VERBS.
O x -J s
}J~> , in the third person singular feminine, is Cô , and in that

of the dual feminine li.pi ; but in the third person plural mas^^jx
culine, it is by contraction ]^> for \jj.*> agreeably to the rules.
xx
In other respects these verbs are conjugated like \jc.

As to those having Kasrah for vowel of the second radical
in the preterite, they are conjugated in a peculiar manner, which
it ifl necessary to explain by giving an example, observing that
in this case j radical is changed into i_ ; thus ôj is written
for *ji .
117
IRREGULAR VERBS.
DEFECTIVE 3 PRECEDED BY KASRAH,

a
FOR
y.
Active Voice.
Preterite.
Plural.
Fem.
Com.
Singular.
Dual.
Mas.
Fem.
Com.
Indefinite.
Imperative.
nmitive.
Fem.
Com.
Mai.
118
IRREGULAR VERBS.
The preterite is conjugated regularly, excepting the third

person plural masculine, where the third radical is dropt, and
its vowel given to the second radical which loses its Kasrah,
- *
\yej for 1jJwij"O"
J-'O^
In the indefinite, ,<ej>. is for foj> ; the suppression of the

last vowel, and change of ^ into i_j, are in conformity to the
rule (j 7,) but it must be observed that this change of ^ into
i_ which, conformably to the rule quoted, takes place in the
third person because the j is final, continues in those persons
of the indefinite where the
ceases to be final.
Thus in the
plural feminine, ^j^>^ and {yj^jf for ^^î an(^

the same reason in the second person singular feminine ought
~O~
to be written
"
- "O*
-jjujy-j and in the plural masculine ujJ^ and
- ; as in the dual ^^J*^. > but instead of these regular

forms a contraction takes place in these different persons, and
^ o ^ o-
" o -o-
-o-o-
.jwy, UJ"iri an^ WJ^r> are writt611 agreeably to the rule of

"
-O'
permutation. When the indefinite bears antithesis, .j^. can

not be written in conformity to the conjugation of regular verbs,
in consequence of the rule of permutation (^ 3,) it is there~O'
fore written ^^j in the common form.

When paragoge occurs, i_$ resumes its vowel, because it is
3 o-
-53 " -o^
no longer at the end of a word, ^jJ^J and u^/
When
j<*~
apocope takes place the third radical is dropt, as in ji1 and
o-
-o^
*j>, and we write ÂWhen receiving antithesis, or apocope, the second person
IRREGULAR VERBS.
119
<, o~
singular feminine of the indefinite is written LJ*y and not

^j ; but the i_ then bears Jazmah, and if it be followed
by TFasW, or 4^/ of union, it receives Kasrah. This occurs
also in the second person feminine singular of the imperative
-o
-o -
ej\ ,
*
In this case, therefore, they are written âj. and
j\
In the second and third persons plural masculine of the
indefinite, when receiving either antithesis or apocope, a similar

O "O"
O ~O~
*J - O"
contraction occurs, and l^j and \yi>ji are written for 1jJ^ ,
- "o-
1jju^j .
Jazmah is then put over the j , and if it be followed

j -o"
"O"
by an ^4^/ of union, it receives Dammah ; \yaj>, , \yeji The

same takes place in the second person plural masculine of the
imperative.
The Kasrah and the Dammah used in the cases just men
tioned, are equally used in the persons enumerated when paragoge
&
-O"
& J ~O~
& - -O-
&
occurs, thus ..jJ-yj ujH^. an(^ ciH/ -
-'o
Impera. j.^xJ;l
and
In the singular masculine of the participle, ^ final after

Kasrah is changed to i_ (by 14 canon j) ^jU being put for
a -
tic ; and as ^ final after Kasrah cannot take Dammah, it

rejects it, and throwing the nunnation on the preceding letter,
s
drops, as ;U for ^jj\- ', but if the nunnation is removed by the

^
article, i_ then returns, as Ûl \ for cjUl 1 The same pre-o^
~<*~O
vails in the defective i_, as *\j for ^^ ; and as i_$ final after
120
IRRKGULAR VERBS.
Kasrah refuses another Kasrah, jU and \j are used also in the

<
t
genitive for ^lc and ^c\j .
#> ^
* as bjU and lx^.
The accusative is however regular,
#^ *s In <t>j1jj and x^, the rejected i_j returns,
as not being final, and ^^yli makes a contraction, as in the

future.
In the passive voice, the defective verbs of the four forms
oj are all conjugated in the same way,
, ur> > \j*j ' ^>j
All the inflections of the preterite,
and the indefinite of these passive voices, resemble those of

the active voice (<j-
It is only necessary to give Dammah
to the first radical in the preterite, and also to the formative

letters of the different persons of the indefinite. Thus in the
-
o~-
preterite is written u^c , i-^-yjc , u^Si , c^J^ , &c.
In the
indefinite i_fjiu , dual ^j*?. , plural U5/V. ,

In the derivative forms there is no difference between the
verbs whose last radical is j and those having i_j , both take
^ for their final letter through all these forms.
.In the active voice i_ is quiescent after FathaA, as i_^c
and ^c^ . In the passive voice it bears Fathah after Kasrah,
All the derivative forms follow, in the active voice, the con
jugation of ,j*j, and in the passive voice that of
IRREGULAR VERBS.
121
DEFECTIVE DERIVATIVES.
Passive Voice.
Indefinite.
Active Voice.
Preterite.
oj
Indefinite.
Preterite.
-bf
10
122
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Of Verbs, being at the same time Defective and

Hamzated.
These verbs are divided into two classes; the first con
taining those which have 1 for the first radical, and for last
2 or i_.
Such are ^J\ to come, ^j1 to refuse, ^6\ to pay.
They are conjugated like J> 1 and 1ji , or ^ , ^j or

-i
o -J
- <,-J
-l-
Pret. ^J>\ , ^J\ , c^J.J-1 , &c.

l
*
Irregularly cy or iJ .
Indef. ^-b .
Part. <jyl .
*
Impera.
Inf. bJ1
" *.
The
-i
verb jJl in the third form, sometimes changes the radical

K/" into *, it is then written .J-lfc, instead of
finite .i-l-
Impera. cjlfc.
*
J1.
Inde-
The second class contains those

f-
whose second radical is 1 , and the third j or i_y , as ^\j to

be distant.
or
These verbs are conjugated like JL and hc,

- s
$-<-$-- auor e . Pret. ^\j , C1>li , <^~i\J > &c. Indef.
Impera. \J\ . Part. ^\> . In verbs of this class, the second

*
radical preserves in the indefinite tense the Fathah which it
bore in the preterite; this is caused by the Alif-hamzah being
a guttural letter.
i'
The verb i_$\j to see, being in very common use, almost
always loses its Alif-hamzah in the indefinite and imperative.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
123
Indefinite.
Dual.
Plural.
, &c.
With Antithesis,
Apocope,
Singular.
j, &c.
, &C.
by, &c.
}., &C.
>
Paragoge, ^j, &c

-o ^
o-
Impera.
or
Paragoge,
S- *The passive voice of ^j\j is ,yjj which is conjugated like
,.
In the indefinite, Alif-Hamzah may be dropped, as in
the active voice, ^jj for ^\În the fourth form, the verb ^\j always loses its second
radical; thus, Pret. ^j\, CJ^l, ei^jl , &c. Indef. i_fy,.
j^ .
Imp.
The imperative of the verbs ^1 , i_$\j , and others being,,
on account of their double irregularity, reduced to a single

letter, as CJ, j, a quiescent * is added whenever they are
L.
O.x
followed by a pause ti , ^ .
124
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Of Verbs Doubly Imperfect.

Verbs having two of the letters j and i_$ among their radicals
are divided into two classes. In the first these two letters make
the first and third radicals. Those which have Fathah for the
vowel of the second radical, are conjugated like ACJ and
those having Jfasra/t, like J*.j and
1.
^J>j, i^-Jj, c^-xij, &c. Indef. ^Ju.
Part.
Imp. j or <6.
l.
Imp. ^!l
ô
for ^1. Part. ^.1j.

^
<*
The Imperative J in the other persons resumes ^, con"
-
"
tracted however in the plural masc. as ^jji, 1y, U5, ^j, j.
The second class contains the verbs in which the letters
j and i_ occupy the second and third places ; thus, î> to
roast ; ^js to be strong ; LSJ(>- to live.
These verbs are concave
and defective, but the second radical is subject to no irregularity;

thus i_yii is conjugated like ^_j , and i_$ like ^-j*>. , follows
-
-'x
Some follow \c.

Pret. jÂ , c^-ii , c^V.j^ , &c. Indef.
for
IRREGULAR VERBS.
t,
125
Pret. i**-, ^~-M*~, t^x*-- Indef. U*i, &c. Dual ^,UxssU

Plural ^jjXffi.
Impera. ^-\ ,<J^
>
>
Dual \-&>-\
>
Part, jli,
Plural
jl5,
Inf. Ix2 ,
iv ,
The final j of the indefinite jJ^s*. ought to be changed into

i_ according to the rule of permutation (j, 7,) but here Alif
is substituted for i_ following another rule d_, 4,) on account
of the i_s which precedes it, and to distinguish it from the
-" O -'
proper name
The infinitive \*> is put for lj^J> (j and i_ , 3,) and

#xo^
<
for ifyS .
Instead of the participle i_sW- , the adjective

?
is most generally used.
The verb ô~ is often contracted in the manner of surd
verbs, in the third persons of the preterite ; excepting that
of the plural feminine, ^. , 1^-^- , ^- , ^*- and
Verbs of this kind preserve in their derivatives the analogy
of those whose last radical is j or i_j , but it must be observed,
that the verb u*-, in its tenth form, often has a particular
irregularity, losing its second radical, the vowel of which passes
to the first. Thus,
126
IRREGULAR VERBS.
" .
"* o
Pret. ^xs-M or
aeM . Indef.
J^r^. or
00
Imp.
-srM or
O/* Verbs Doubly Imperfect and Hamwted.

Of these, there are two classes, the one has for its first
*
-1
radical \ , and for second and third j or ^ ; such is <_$j\ ,
'xf
"
-$ i. -$ - -f
which is conjugated like Ji\ and ^jy* . Pret. i_$j] , tl^l ,
o
t--
&c.
s-
Indef. ^ , &c.
*-
Imp. y\ , &c.
_$
Par. j\ .
Inf. U .
In the second class of these verbs the second radical is

*
?'
1 , and the letters j and ^ are the first and third ; as ^
"
z*
to promise , which is conjugated like ^j and JL> , being at
the same time similar, defective, and hamzated.
$-
o -
- <-.-
Pret. ^ , trjlj , u>i|j , &c.

, s.-
*--
S-s
i^
^ ^
^.>li- , (_*1 , &c.

cope, I>,
t^
Indef. ^b , ^li , i_l; ,
r-s
Is
Indef. with antithesis, ^b , Sic.

r. s
\j , Ij , i_lj , *1 , &c.
-
With apo-
Imp. \ or 1 ^1 , &c.
*
*
*
Part. *1,, &c. Inf. t^.

O/" Me Negative Verb.
The Arabians have a negative verb, possessing only the
preterite tense but unlimited in time, and the conjugation of
which much resembles that of the concave verb. It is the
~~ o^
verb ^/*jJ w not, was not, will not be, &c.
IRREGULAR VERlkS.
127
Dual.
Plural.
Com.
Fan.
Singular.
Mas.
Com.
Com.
Fem.
11
UwJJ
UJLJ
,4-XuJ
-XuuJ
y^* ~-"-M
V "i
UJ
In some cases cyS !B used instead of |_^<jJ .
This admits
of no inflection, and the Arabian grammarians are not agreed

upon its nature.
Pe/'fo of Praise and Blame.

o ^ O-^J
Those verbs which the Arabians denominate A.X*l 1
J ' <&
JU^
- ^ -ex
*jJlj or verbs of praise and blame, do not admit of conjugation.
s^
'
s<tx
They are **j , which is also pronounced *j , **j and .*j , to be
and jj-jj <o 5e 6orf.
They may be regarded as a species
of interjectional verbs ; they receive a feminine termination also,

o
'o
o
~ *
as ojc,, c^-^w
- O
They are sometimes, but very rarely,

JO
written U*i in the dual ; and \j**j in the plural.
The word
"îos>- may be looked upon as a verb of this kind; it is com* "

pounded of i-^>- and \j, and signifies, to be excellent, or worthy
of love.
To these three verbs may be also added ?L> to be bad;
and ^*u.->- for ,.^*=>-, to 6e beautiful; but these under other

acceptations are regularly conjugated.
128
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Of Verbs of Admiration.
Verbs called k_^sr**l JUsl , verbs of admiration, are rather
a kind of admirative formula than a particular species of verb.
^St. There are two. In the first Jjul U, the form of the third
person singular masculine of the preterite of the fourth con-x-
jugation J*ii is used, preceded by the monosyllable U>, and

followed by an -accusative. In the second, the second person
singular masculine of the imperative of the fourth conjugation
^ ^s<
sl is employed, followed by the preposition t->, as J*ai1 U
,-
i. -
j or Jojj J*&\ Zaid is very
OF NOUNS.
NOUNS +J( are divided into proper names, Ac, as '..

Muhammad , rtLc Mecca ; ^s^ the Jaihwn (river) ; or appels
latives, ..uj^. \ ^\ (name of kind or genus), as |jj a prophet ,

'*
ajU<Xc a city ; ^j a river , and into adjectives, <uL , (quality
or qualificative) ; as jou little ; (^^fljo1 white.
They are either primitive, deriving their origin from no
other words ; or derivative, from either a verbal or substantive
origin.
The servile letters employed in the derivation of nouns are
comprised in the word LuykuJy
<_j is added at the end, as
-y a Persian ; it is placed
after the vowel of the second syllable, so forming diminutives,

*
as fc_^ll> a little dog ; and sometimes, though rarely, before
S
-.<^
the radicals, as f^y. fountain.

S
0--
CLJ is employed at the beginning, as iJjjLj prolongation ,

&i pride ; in the middle, as in nouns, from the eighth cons - <,
jugation uJlyLcl confession ; or at the end, where it is represented by x , as &AO-J mercy.

9
130
OF NOUNS.
^ never serves alone, but with two others, as in nouns

S so
o ^ O -
from the tenth conjugation, as jUixJ deprecation;

a leader.
* is servile at the beginning, as <KL. a kingdom; and,
S'<,
though very rarely, at the end, as ,*jo1 a son.

.^ serves in the beginning with 1 , as in nouns from the
S .- i.
seventh conjugation, as clkiijl abstinence; or at the end, then

*^ - *
forming nouns of action from the primitive triliteral verb, as
S
~o .
'^'
Ô "
'
^1/i pardon, from yic ; or adjectives, as u^~> from ^L> .

i
J -<,
..-<,
1 is used at the beginning, as JjJ iac ; (^j>~\ handsomer ;

S 'I,
*' O
iU-il a horseman ; or after the radicals, as * 1>J^ haughtiness ;

in this case it is represented by Hamzah only, and has quiescent
1 before it.
Under the head of verbal derivatives, are comprehended
almost all adjectives, and participles used adjectively, together
with those substantives which signify the Agent or Patient,
the Time or Place of Action, the Instrument, and the Action
itself.
Name of the Agent and Patient.

Adjectives derived from verbs, or as they are considered
by Erpenius, active participles, received in a substantive sense,
s
' -
denote the agent, as jAj assisting, an assistant ; i_j3l ruling,

a king or ruler.
These verbal adjectives, when derived from the triliteral primi>
'
'
tive verb, are for the active voice of the form JÛ , and for the
OF NOUNS.
181
s -<*-*
passive voice of the form Jj*iu.

judge ;
Thus *A. from *. to
k_^s.\j from <-î to desire ;
i^=>-j- from iX>-. to be
found, to exist ; t-jjc^* from i_--^ to ft<? desired.

From the verbal adjective of the form Jj:U is derived an
other of the form JUi , which adds to the primitive idea, that
of intensity, or constant habitude ; thus ^W-^ signifies very
handsome ; Jl1 a great eater ; <_1j< one habituated to lying ;
JLc very learned.
This form of verbal adjectives supplies the names of trades,
&c., as jUo- a baker'; jls! a carpenter; fla~> a water-carrier.
Name of Place and Time.

The place and time of action are denoted by the same
noun, as i_~-JlCc place amd time of writing ; u*bs? place and
time of sitting ; it is formed from the indefinite tense of triliteral verbs, by substituting * for the incremental letters ^jo-l .
When the second radical of the indefinite tense has for its
vowel Fathah or Kasrah, this vowel is preserved in the noun
of time and place; but if that letter have Dammah for its
vowel, it usually becomes Fathah ; thus from <-^Jiij is formed
S
ô -
iw*& a school, a place where writing is taught.
There are,
however, twelve nouns of this kind, which change Dammah into

Kasrah, as
.92
132
OF NOUNS.
s o -*
the place of rising, the east.

the place of setting, the west.
a place on which the elbow rests.
the place where a plant grow*.
the place where a thing falls.
the place where a camel is slaughtered or flayed.
the place of breathing, the nostrils.
the place where the victim is sacrificed.
the place of rising of the stars.
Lc the place on the head where the hair divides.
o --
C.-.-.-c Âe p/ace q/" residence, a house.

S
<, x
the place of worship, a mosque.

Of these nouns, the last five, and according to some gram
marians, the first six, may take indifferently Fathah, or Kasrah
for vowel of the second radical ; the seventh may also have
s
1*
Kasrah for the vowel of , , as ,s^
In nouns derived from
a similar verb, whose first radical is j , the second radical always

has Kasrah for its vowel, and the j is preserved, even when
S
<, ^
dropped in the indefinite, thus Jtfj^> time and place of promise,

from JkCj to promise, of which the indefinite is &AJ , from
OF NOUNS.
133
to place, the indefinite of which is j-4>, is formed j-jj*> place

or time of position, or place in general, from <l>-j to go towards
- -O^
O s
a place, the indefinite of which is &>. , is formed <sj*o the

place towards which we direct our way.
In concave roots, if the first radical have for its vowel, in
the indefinite tense, Fathah or Dammah, the noun of time and
place is made by substituting an Alif quiescent for the second
radical, and carrying to the first radical the Fathah which
belonged to the second; thus from \ to stand erect, indefi
nite *yb is formed, ^\Lo , for *yLe place where we stand up
right, or place where we stand in general.
If the first radical
have Kasrah for its vowel in the indefinite, the second radical
undergoes no change; thus from Jê, indefinite j*aj to arrive
S
somewhere, is formed jj*a*> the place of arrival, from tU- , inde

finite bj^sd. to crawl, is formed ^^s=* the place in which a ser
pent crawls.
In defective roots whose third letter is j or i_$ ,
the noun of time and place is regularly formed by observing

the rules of permutation ;
thus from Is? to save himself, is
formed L5*x the place of refuge, for j^c ; from ^.j to graize,
o
comes \_fj*> the place of pasture ; Û the place where we live,

o
is, however, sometimes written jtc .
It often happens that these

S-.- o -
nouns of place take the final x, as ^JAc place of burial, a

S' o ^
J?x ^ s
cemetery ; tejui^c the place of sun-rising ; Xj\** a deep place, a

cavern ; xj^c, a place proper for a light-house, a tower ; jilcê
134
OF NOUNS.
place of pasture.
When the noun of place takes this final 3 ,

-tf-ô -'
the second radical sometimes bears Dammah ; thus ij^wu a cemeS
-'O
tery ; there are some nouns of time and place of the form JULc ',
S'
these nouns belong to roots whose first radical is j , thus jLu>

the time of birth ; cyl&x the time fixed for a thing.
The noun of time or place coming from quadriliteral roots,
or derivative verbs, is formed from the indefinite tense of the
passive voice, by substituting * for the incremental letters of
that tense, so that they differ nothing from the name of the
xx<sJ
patient (the participle passive of Erpenius) ; thus from .Jiib

passive indefinite of .Jill1 to meet, is formed ^JuLc the place
-
of meeting, the confluence of two rivers; from i_j-ti1 to return,

ix<: place or time of return, from (-L to pray, ,J-a <*
place of prayer.
Nouns indicating the place in which any thing abounds,
are nearly allied to nouns of time and place ; they are of the
form ajjiiu or Jjou, , such are ifJuA and <UJuu^ a place in which
s-
s-,--
there are many lions, derived from *xJ and J-A--* which signify
"h1"
Vl
a lion. ifUir a field of cucumbers, derived from ? Ui a cucumber ;
a melonry, derived from isyLj a melon.
Name of Instrument or Vessel.

These nouns are usually of one of these three forms,
S -
S o
l , Jl*iu , <3iAiU .
They are distinguished from nouns of
OF NOUNS.
185
S - o
time and place by their first letter bearing Kasrah, as i_.

a milk-pail, from <_-.L>- milk ; ^LxLo a key, from *& to open ;
S -
S"^
' "
iJj.x a balance, from ^jj to weigh , <tsr^ a broom, from

to sweep ; ^ks? an instrument employed m cleaning cotton.
There are a few nouns of this class of the two forms
S
and <djcLe ; as iJsr*- a sieve, from J^r* to sift ; jjJcc an

strument icith which flax or cotton is beaten, from jj to
o
<jJkJcc a vessel for holding perfumes ; .tLsr*c a vessel containing

S o j
collyrium, from J^sr
The form of this word distinguishes it
from Js, which signifies the instrument with which that colly
rium is applied ; these two last forms, however, are rather
names of vessels than instruments of action. Besides the species
of derivative nouns here mentioned, whose forms constantly indi
cate the ideas, added to those of the primitive, there are other
forms not classified by the grammarians, but which may be reduced
to a system, almost as regular as that of the forms we have
just described.
Such is the form il which usually indicates, as well as
the form J* a passive sense ; and particularly the quantity
contained in a place or vessel, resembling somewhat our words
a handful, a mouthful, a pinch, &c.
<ui] a mouthful ; aLaxi
a handful ; <ul> what suffices to prevent starvation ; i^J> a sip.

In the following forms it merely shews a passive attribute,
136
OF NOUNS.
s- o ..
s-<, -.
- a crowd or assembly collected together , <tLj>- ê tote/,

S- o J
a&feaJ > , ii^J a present, that which is given ; the

s-<*
form & which is much like the preceding, designates a fragS-t,
S-L,
ment, or piece broken off, as itkJJ a portion ; <!u,x- a splinter ;

S-o
toj>- a rag.
s -
s ^j
The form JUi indicates diseases, as jlj the liver complaint ;

and the form <3Ui a ^>iece remaining, or thrown away, as AiUi*
S' ' ^
the surplus of any thing sold by measure ; aJls? a bite.
Noun of Action.
This is an abstract noun, signifying the action or manner
of being, expressed by the verb, without the least regard to
s - o --
subject, object, or time ; it is named JLVT-P the source ; not as

being the root of the verb, from which on the contrary it is
often evidently derived, but as being the origin of the signifi
cation of the verb, and containing the primitive idea, to which
the different forms of the verb only add accessory ideas.
It is
thus that the primitive idea contained in the word love, pro
duces first the word, loving, which connects the idea of love
with that of some being, and then all the forms of the verb
to love.
Most of the Arabian grammarians consider the third person
singular masculine of the preterite, as the root from which
not
only the whole verb, but also nouns of action, verbal
adjectives, nouns of time and place,
&c. are derived.
The
learned of the School of Kufah were of this opinion, while

the School of Basrah held that the noun of action is the root,
OF NOUNS.
137
from which comes the verb itself, and all nouns and verbal
adjectives.
Every noun indicating abstractedly the attribute contained
in the signification of the verb, is not to be regarded however
as a noun of action; thus Jx learning; f.^ thirst; are not
- "
"
the nouns of action of the verbs ,lc to learn; â to be thirsty;

s
their nouns of action are .ic and Ul? .
The Arabian gram-
so
marians call these simply nouns *J , in contradistinction to the

s - <, -
noun of action
,JWK> ;
the difference between these is often
almost imperceptible, and they are frequently used for each

other.
The noun of action is chiefly distinguished by being put
in the accusative case, or as it were adverbially, and joined to
the verb itself ; adding to
#0^
--4.0
U-di ^y, aJJ \
it
a species of energy,
thus,
J^
" God spoke to Moses, speaking?
In treating of the verb, it has been observed, that the

noun of action, when put in the accusative case, supplies the
place of the
infinitive, which in all languages is really the
verb's noun.
These forms for the first conjugation, that being
most hi use, are very numerous, and are in all 35.
The
second, third, and fourth conjugations have a few variations ;

the remaining nine have each but one form, which will be
found in the tables of the verbs, where they appear in the
accusative case as infinitives.
138
OF NOUNS.
Nouns of Action of the Primitive Triliteral Verb.

S-o-
s^ -
~ O-
1.
J*i
10.
<J1
19.
Jjb
28.
2.
jio
11.
&J
20.
.Jri
29.
3.
so
J
12.
dbu
21.
^M
30.
4.
J*i
13.
s--<il*5
22.
uiUi
5.
(r-.J
14.
23.
uibw
6.
J.*J
7.
JUi
8.
JUi
9.
JUi
S-o
s-
S -o-
r-- -
S -OJ
32.
5 - o
s---
s--
31.
15.
i'!l
24.
ulo
33.
16.
s - -..
!l
25.
yJUi
34.
s --
i? -.,
--
17.
<3Ui
18.
Ji
s -
5" o "
26.
J^
27.
Jj*i
- o-
35.
Nouns of Action of Derivatives.

2nd Conj. JJAAJ, ZMJ , JUij-3 JUi;, Jl, Jl-
3rd
5 j
s s AclLc, JUi, JUw.
4th
juii, jus, Sui.
This multitude of forms of nouns of action belonging to

the primitive triliteral verb, need not however alarm the student,
OF NOUNS.
139
for very few verbs have more than one or two, and those are
indicated in the dictionaries. In the nouns of action derived
~3 -
from J*j, the form Jjotaj- is most used; in those derived from
U , the most common form is alcU^ .
o
In the nouns of action
S -o
derived from J*i1, the form JUil is almost always observed.

*
Nouns of Action formed from Surd Verbs.

In forming nouns of action from surd verbs, the same rules
take place as in fixing the contraction of the second and third
radical ; thus from Jcc , the noun of action is Jc for JJwo ; from
-tf -
S& -
s s <*-
ji. , the noun of action is xju for iijjXJ

Several nouns of action, where the two first radicals bear
5-
y *p -Fathah, suffer no contraction, as aA-i, i-oO, Jic, &c.
In the noun of action of the third form of these verbs,
5Q ' -
S-- --.
the contraction may or may not take place, ifjU*c or
Nouns of Action of Hamzated Verbs.

The rules of permutation of Alif must be observed here,
as in the verbs themselves ; thus the third form of the verb
--^t
.Sî-
S^
^j
j\ has for noun of action lj\y<, or */lj*>, the Alif-Hamzah

being changed into j or ^; the eighth form has jUJol, and
so on.
*
Verbs having \ for second or third radical follow the same
s i^
-i-
j-jo-
-i-
rules, as J^j~> noun of action of JU; L>^L from *S; and
140
OF NOUNS.
a-
from .iS, the third form of the same verb; ,boil
'
"*
'*:<from *1 U3 1* , eighth form of the same root.

Nouns of Action of Similar Verbs.
Similar verbs, whose first radical is j , lose this letter in the
indefinite tense, and imperative in certain cases ; this irregularity
takes place also in their nouns of action, which then have
Kasrah or Fathah for vowel of the second radical, as in the
indefinite.
S-
ifAc
"'
from
AC
Indef.
In this form the final * is regarded as a compensation for

the first radical suppressed, and the noun of action is considered
So^
to be of the form J ; many similar verbs, though irregular

in the indefinite, have their nouns of action regularly of the
S<*'
-50 '
' ' '
form J*> ; as j-j, noun of action of j>.^ ; Indef. ys! ; several

have at the same time the regular and irregular form.
soAll the forms except iJ of nouns of action derived from
similar verbs are regular;
5 O-
-.j
^ ss
from
Indef.
OF NOUNS.
from
i_jjj
141
Indef.
<_ij.>
Nouns of Action derived from Concave Verbs.

The rules of permutation observed in the conjugation of
these verbs must be followed here.
There is however a particular form occurring, of nouns of
&~ -O '
action of concave verbs ; it is this, <3_jLo ; here the place of

the second radical is always filled by i_ ; thus from *lJ , ^\> ,
and t_Ac, for ..jj, ^, an^ *-.^xc, are formed y^jj,
S~ ^<*^
S' ô ^
<JJyjJ , and &^xxc

Nouns of action, of the fourth and tenth forms, have a peculiar
S -<,
S -o
irregularity ; instead of writing regularly Jy] and ,lyiJLj1 , as

S -<,
J-oo
s- -
JUil , JUiU ; we write Lo\i\ for the noun of action of the

- *
*
*
S - -
fourth form ; and <ulixJ for that of the tenth.

- *
Nouns of Action of Defective Verbs.

Nouns of action coming from defective verbs, having j or
<_j for their last radical, have no irregularity when they are
of one of the forms where the second radical bears Jazmah ;
S^-
tfas
S o '
So-
S--o
,
s --
Those of the forms Jjo , Jj , ^^ti , change the third

radical, if it be } , into i_$ -, and this third radical is always
quiescent ; as ^j and ^Jl ; it is the same where the third
142
OF NOUNS.
s - -
s "
s --
radical is followed by *, as >lCi for xjLi> -, ifi-? or Sjl^ for

*.Ls ; ifUs>~ or x)j&- for iyo- .
And in the form JxiU , as
,_^jwc for i_jx , from i_$y .

In those of the forms J^ and a]j an irregularity occurs ;
if their last radical be j , the } quiescent of this form unites
s
by Tashdid with the _j radical, as ^c for jjlc ; if it be i_ , the

j changes into i_ , the Daminah into Kasrah, and the two i_
unite by Tashdid, as
îj for i_jij ! thus from Lii for

s
is formed the noun of action *ai , and from l-Â for

comes the noun of action
Nouns of action of the form J-xw unite the last radical

by Tashdid with the quiescent i_, changing it into ^j if it be
-
-'
ss
. ; as i& for , j .A from
The forms Jl , JUi, JUi, change the last radical into

/_- I
s --
Hamzah, as * 1^j , and ~i l!o for ^^ , ^Kj .

In nouns of action of derivative verbs from defective roots,
there is no difference between those whose third radical is j
or those in which it is <_$.
S'
o-
In the second form, the noun of action is of the form aLuu ,

as <iu**ui- , from ,-~j .
In the third form the noun of action
is either ilclfcc or Jl , as x\jlx for <LJ\Jc , and ? 1jj for
OF NOUNS.
143
In the fourth, seventh, and all the following forms, the

last radical is changed into Hamzah, according to the rule of
^-^ O
' O.t
permutation ; (4. ^ and i_$), thus f lkcl is derived from ,<lac1 ,

?\js>j\ from ^j\.
Nouns of Action of Verbs doubly imperfect.

It is here only necessary to observe, that triliteral verbs,
having the second and third radical infirm letters, in nouns of
action when the first bears Jazmah, unite them both by Tashdid,
J?<5-
S- x.
"
as Sji for tt , noun of action of ij;ji ; and if one of these

letters be j and the other i_$, the j is changed into ^ ; as
S
s,
~ -
S <,'
x'
-i
*0*
'i
for iji> from ^j2> , and i_s\ for ^ from ^\ .
This is
in conformity with one of the rules of permutation (3. j and

s
In the same way (-s^ is written for .^Fc of the form

-
SV
S- o -
^~~
i ; or IXKc of the form SjiLc , coming from the verb 5 U- ,

* ^
Indef. ijJpi
This verb has a noun of action belonging to no
acknowledged form, fWl.

- -*
Noun of Unity.
The Arabians have a particular form for an action occur3ô-^> - O
ring but once ; this verbal noun is called iLJ1 ^~>\ , or noun
of unity, and is regarded as a noun of action. It is derived
from the noun of action of the simple triliteral verb, by sub
stituting Fathah for the nunnated vowel of the third radical,
144
OK NOl'NS.
S-b ^
^^^
S ' o-
^^
and adding , as iLoJ from -A) , .Lop from \a , which signify

the action of assisting and of standing up, once only.
The noun of unity, of imperfect verbs, follows the same rule ;
x ^^
S " <*'
x ^
thus from jij similar verb, is formed ifj^cj ; from *\i a concave
?ô-
- -
--
J-G -
verb, comes <uy ; from \<*c- and ^cj defective verbs, ifJAc and
J^<,-
ixc,.
This noun is formed in the same way, from the quaS - <,
driliteral and derivative verbs ; thus from .^j^^ the action of

S -o
5 ^ ^ o
rolling ; -^jf^ the action of sending out , are formed i-^ J

and i>-Uo-1 , which signify the action of rolling, and of sending
out, once only.
If the noun of action should itself end in Z,

s^ this kind of noun cannot be formed ; the word ifdo- is then
added after the noun of action, as Jjo-lj iclil the action of
establishing once. Here may be classed another species of nouns,

of unity, or rather of individuality ; formed from primitive nouns
indicating a whole species, or a collection of homogeneous parts.
_j
By adding is at the end, nouns are formed which signify a

S o
portion, or an individual ; thus from ^xi straw, is formed

Sô
s ^
S" s
AJuJ a single straw, from t^sfcj gold, comes ajiJ a grain of

S - -
S- ^ --
gold, from *Lo- the genus pigeon ; .Lei*- a single pigeon only.
Another kind of verbal noun, regarded also by the Arabians

as a noun of action, and the form of which differs little from
O3>-^
- '..
that of the noun of unity, is by them named cyj1 *j1 noun

of species, or specificative noun ; because it serves to restrain
OF NOUNS.
145
a general expression to a particular idea, as when we say, this

man excels in writing, the general idea to excel, is -determined
and restrained by the word of action, writing. This noun, derived
from the primitive triliteral verb, regular or irregular, is always
of the form s\*j, and differs only from the noun of unity by
the first vowel being Kasrah ; thus AX& signifies the action of
writing once, and ajo the action of writing considered abstract
edly, and rather as a faculty than as an immediate action ; thus
<# -o
S - -
^^
<ul ûx.-v. jj* he excels in writing.
When this noun is formed
from quadriliteral or derivative verbs, it is of the same form

as the noun of unity, and the context can alone distinguish them.
The poets sometimes confound the two forms.
Possessive Nouns.
The possessive is the noun adjective, signifying possession,
or relation of origin, quality, &c.
grammarians <_,j.n,'>l 1
It is named by the Arabian
*J J 1 noun relative, or Jijuuj relation.

S
It is derived from the substantive by adding ^- , as i_jU~>

<f
from i U-j heaven , ,M*> solar from l^MtJ^ the sun ;

s
-J O
Egyptian from JA Egypt ;
x* O i
j UJLc a man of the
family of Othman ; ^yJu> o /?w# wzaw o/" /S'aarf.
When the
noun from which this relative adjective is formed ends in

s
s-
-& -
I- or i , this termination is dropt; thus from iL Mecca, comes

10
146
OK NOUNS.
a native of Mecca ; from Z*jjb nature, is formed

natural.
When the third radical is suppressed in the primitive, but
replaced by if, it is restored in the possessive noun, or relative
s-
Ss-J
*-
adjective ; as from 4J language or dialect, comes ^îl .
Diminutive Nouns.
s* - -
so
The diminutive noun is named by the Arabians JUK> ^

S
<, -
diminished noun, or Jâj diminution.
In triliterals it is of the
form Jjsxi ; if the primitive is quadriliteral, the diminutive is

S o --
^ ^
S *'
of the form <Jbs , as Jj^ a little man, from J^, a man ;

S
<*s^
S -o ^
a Kfe scorpion, from <__^ftc a scorpion.
Of Adjectives.
The Arabians do not consider the adjective as forming a
different part of speech from the noun, and under the names
of agent and patient, that class which Erpenius denominates
participles has been already noticed ; another has just appeared
under the name of possessive nouns, or relative adjectives derived
from nouns.
There are other verbal adjectives derived from the primitive
tfo-
s --
s -
sL.
so-.
triliteral verb of the forms Jjo , Jjj ,

S
J-
--.
, JUi , Jl , Jl , ^plw and ^X .
This sort of verbal

s
adjectives belongs in general to neuter verbs, as joî witness-
OF NOUNS.
-xx
ing, a witness, or martyr, from ^* to witness; ^ta~j merciful,

-
s - -
-,.-
from *s.j to have mercy ; ^M.-*- handsome, from tjua>~ to be hands <,-
- .-
s }-
some ; <_-*.-^ difficult, from i_ -_-p to be difficult; i*)JJ compassionate, from i_^ fo 5 compassionate ; j^s. forgiving, from
x x
,j
-o -
- O "
-"Oi
îc to pardon ; ^J~> intoxicated ; ^buif. aw^/y ; ^b/6 ^^^ ;

- "<*
-J- o ^
- -
j^l smooth or beardless ; j*o-\ red ; t-jUf wonderful.
Most
of these forms are only used to express an habitual and con

stant quality ; others convey the idea of intensity and energy.
Of Genders.
Genders are of two kinds, masculine and feminine. Femi
nine nouns are known by their signification or termination.
Those of which the gender is determined by the significa
tion, are :
-x Ox
S <,
1 . The names of women, as *jê Mary , JJLS> Hinda ; and
those whose signification carries with it the idea of a woman,
tf
1*1 a
2.
The names of provinces or towns, as -A Egypt;
Mecca; *luJl Syria.

3.
Jx
The names of parts of the body which are twofold ;

Jo
'
as i\> the hand ; ,U- . the foot ; i_aJ the shoulder.
Nouns or
adjectives feminine, the gender of which is fixed by their ter

mination, are
S"
l.
SH-
Those terminated by , as 3 \>- friendship ; i>- a
garden ; XjJf*<e little (fem.).

102
148
OF NOUNS.
.* - o-
2.
Those ending in \ not radical, as *b/?^ pride;
a field.
3.
Those having for final letter <_$> servile, or ^l^/ short,

"o.
" *
quiescent after Fathah ; as gfl<) remembrance ; ^Jj\ the first

Ô J
Ô .
(fem.) ; UiJ for .jJoo <Ae world.

s <*$.
*o -
s*
To these are to be added ij>j\ the earth; j**- wine; -y

a -
So-
a o s
a well; j\J fire; ^j the wind; ^Jij the soul; j^^^-i the sun;
and others, which must be learned by use ; on the contrary, a
few words having the feminine termination * , are of the masS'
culine gender, as <Ujd^- a Khalif; it is the same with those

verbal adjectives, which ending in if , become a species of intens- -
?-- -
sitives, as <uic very learned; <&sf habituated to laugh; ij^

relating from memory.
Substantives and adjectives not com

sprised under these heads are masculine ; as .AS the moon ;
The names of the letters of the alphabet are of both

genders ; but more usually made feminine.
The manner offorming the Feminine Gender.

Adjectives, and some substantives applicable to both sexes,
pass from the masculine to the feminine.
This they generally
do by dropping the nunnated vowel and adopting at the end

,
'
S -
"
9
- ,
of the masculine, as *jdac great ; <ujdir great, (fem.) ; .X>. a

S& -
*'
S ^^
grandfather; jfji- a grandmother; lJLi a yormg man; ifUi a

s^ ^^
young woman (for <Uw).
OF NOUNS.
14.9
-,-o
Verbal adjectives of the form Jjo 1 , when not of the com* o-
parative or superlative degree, take in the feminine form iiUi ;

*ô
/^^xo^
as jLa\ yellow; fem. -MyLc.

Verbal adjectives of the same form, but of the comparative
"<**
or superlative degree, take in the feminine the form .ji !
--o
-o-.
svi
as j&\ greater ; t_J/* greater, (fem.) ; Jj \ first, which is for

^ L.
-.,--
.. - *
Jjl, or J^j , and j*-\ another, which is for j*~\\ -, make in
-*
'O*
the feminine agreeably to this rule J^ and i^f-\

s -i
- <,!
The word Jo-1 one, makes in the feminine ^Jo-1 . Verbal

> -O~
J*O'
adjectives of the form 1 become in the feminine .A, as
-
~ O '
Ô"
^-O^
"O"
Îjwic , feminine yj^ ; ^yi-j , feminine i^Lo These very ad

jectives sometimes take their feminine in the common form, as
Those of the form .jl having Dammah for vowel of the

first radical, make their feminine by adding if-, as uVj* naêî
S -- GJ
fem. <&bj*S
j-
Verbal adjectives of the forms Jyo and J.k , which are

. ,
often of both genders, sometimes however take final x - to make

S
the feminine.
- ~
The form Jj when of the passive signification,

S
- "
always admits the variation of gender; as J^ a messenger, or

s- -
owe se<, fem. 5^-^ .

j j-
s -,-
When neuter or active, as <_.>.j^ a few ;

5 - -
-2> a grateful person ; ,y^ one of violent temper ; they are
of both genders if the substantive to which they relate is ex
150
OF NOUNS.
pressed; if it be not, they then admit the difference of genders.

s
The form Jjjw when of active or neuter signification, as j**aj

s
assisting ; L""'"- abstinent, is subject to the variation of gender ;

s
when of passive signification, as i_-oo- beloved; Jjou a person

slain, the gender is distinguished only when the noun to which
they relate is not expressed.
s- '-
s- -
s- j-
sj
Verbal adjectives of the forms <3Ui , ilUi , 2^ , & ,

a~~<*
S "o
C/
<j
aluLc, JULc, Jjouui , are of both genders; ^jb*^ makes

S-
.0
however fem. AJuL*^ .

The Arabians have no neuter gender, whence adjectives used
as neuter substantives, are expressed by the feminine gender,
- j
j-
S '
as <_*>)fu x&>-\) one thing is wanting to you.
Of Numbers.
There are three numbers in the nouns, as in the verbs,
the singular, the dual, and the plural.
The dual is formed from the singular, by adding ^ , and
s -
substituting CJ for the if final; thus <_>U a book; ,.\>\& two

S-
-s
books ; ix> Jui a city ; ÛJo Ju> two cities.
When the last letter is j or i_$, and in the singular, a

short Alif represented either by 1 or ^y has been substituted
for them ; in order to make the dual the original form is re*-
*--
---
-o '
stored ; as î a young man, for ^yj , dual uUw ; ^$4 for
OF NOUNS
s
remembrance ; dual
151
?
S --
^ for
**- a te^f , dual
In words of three letters, the radical, whether j or ^ , re

turns in the dual ; but if the word have more than three letters,
s
o -
the j is changed into i_j ; thus ^j passive verbal adjective

-
-- o-
--O-
of the root yoj , makes in the dual ^j^-* , and not <^y^-
When the singular ends in Hamzah, preceded by servile
Alif, forming the feminine, the Hamzah becomes j in the dual;
"o '
- ô
--o-
as * \jLe feminine of jLa\ yellow , dual ^j]^ .

If the ffamzah, preceded by Alif, is in the place of j or
t_$ radical, in forming the dual it may be preserved or changed
<.
s -
into j ; thus ?\A for ^j\& a mantle; dual
f\iit or
- -
^-t
if the Hameah be radical, it must be preserved, \ji a reader,
*'
*";
from ^S to read ; dual ^ \Ji .
There are two sorts of plurals, the one uniform and regular,
S
S o "
called by the Arabians JL> j-*=>- or perfect plural, because it

preserves all the letters and vowels of the singular. The other,
which adopts a great number of different forms, is called
^ 3>~ -
S o x
jiJLf %-*- broken plural.

The regular plural is formed for the masculine by adding
^j-, and for the feminine by changing ' into Lul".
When
the feminine does not in the singular end in J-, the final vowel
of the singular is dropt for the termination, thus Jjjl~j robber,
plu. ^jij^ robbers, &}J(~i a female thief, plu. ey
152
OF NOUNS.
If the singular masculine end in i_j quiescent after Kasrah,

or Fathah; in the plural a contraction occurs, according to
the rules of permutation, thus ^j>\ for ^ja\ a judge, plu.
for U_jj-9l3 ;
\j*y> Moses,
plu. ^j-^c for
Mustafa, plu. âl-i.a for ^ÂfiU^m .

s0x
if-ox
Feminine nouns of the forms J*i or &., coming from a

regular root, experience a change in the plural, the Jazmah of
the second radical in the singular, being in the plural changed
., o x
into Fathah.
& name of a woman, plu. tuliXcj ;
S~ ox
ajuaii a
saucer, plu. cuUî .

ao
5"*"O-
If the singular be of the form Jjo or <il*3 , the second

radical takes, in the plural, Dammah or Fathah, or may pre
serve the Jazmah ; <ui!i darkness, plu. <_uUili , cuUlt or tu
S<,
S'o
If the singular be of the form Jjo or alw , the second

radical in the plural takes Kasrah or Fathah, or preserves its
Sxo
Jazmah.
fix
Sxx
*?xo
X&~> the lotus ; CJJw> , cyjuj or
The broken plural is that which is formed irregularly, and

not by the addition of ^j and -ZJ\" .
be reckoned twenty-eight forms.
Of these there may
It must be observed, how
ever, that the application of these singular and plural forms to

each other, has many exceptions, and is not to be taken
strictly.
OF NOUNS.
153
s -
First form,
J-C/J
-O^
JÔJ
Is formed from- the singulars al and lJjo fem. ; as Aisi ,

-j
~o-
S'j
-is! presents, i_f^ plu. ^ wry ^raz< ; and very rarely from
4?-o -
Sô
S'~o,-
#=
5'
o.
the forms A , A ; as iijji , plu. ^^5 villages ; <SLxs , plu.

s-^
mustaches, for
and
Second form,
This form belongs, first to nouns of the form JUi and
s -i, whose root is neither surd nor defective; and to those
of the forms JAW, i*^, cl)**, no^ commg from a defective
S
'
-J
'
S- J
S - ^
root; as C-A&, plu. v_^J^ books; jj^ plu. j^~j thrones;

i? jj
j?^ '
<? ^j
.&., ^
i? ^.j
plu. JL*C columns; &.M~I plu. ~> ships; *sj^f plu.
o/" a JooA.
* j
Second to a few nouns of the forms (Jw, J>,
Jo
S-.-
S-f
J?-J
J?sOJ
; as j-fci plu. j*J leopards; (A~>1 plu. Jwi1 Ziowa, ifô plu.
.MI glass leads.
ff
Third to verbal adjectives of the forms <Jjk,
S ^
S^
/) , not having a passive signification ; as _>JJ plu. j&>

preachers.
Third form, J.
This belongs to masculine adjectives of the form JJM1 and
to their feminines *l; as j*&-\ red, and *1ô- rec?, (fem.)
recf (mas. and fem.)
154
OF NOUNS.
s
Fourth form,
S-<,
(,
C*
'
This comes from the singular, &* as <&-> plu. <-> coins,
s-
s -
JJ plu. Lj-< churches.

\~
s -
Fifth form, JUi.

The fifth form appertains first to singulars of the forms
a Point ' Pm- c?1^ '
- a spear, plu. ^ty,

V Jy , Pî J^JSo^
2.
*-.'
<-'
To the forms J and Hw 5 as i_-*S Ae Aee7, plu.

*'<"
*.'.*"
being changed into ^ after âsraA) i_iw a rfaert, plu.
s- -
--'
3. To the forms J , *U , not having a surd or defective

root, (that is, the third radical like the second, or the third
s __
s '
s ---
radical j or J), as Jjc^ a mountain, plu. JU^, , Ae MC,

5 ^
plu. <>^
.;
4.
S-
'
S-
To the adjectives Jj and &w , as tJ.>^ and ajuî ,
wo6?e, plu. i_JLi ; but not when these are taken in a passive
S
'
sense, as in JjJi a person kitted.

S'C-
S--^-
5. To adjectives of the forms Jb*i and il ; as

--,and AiUjJ penitent, plu. jw
OF NOUNS.
155
^-o-
6.
To adjectives of the forms
s- - <. J
S o.
- o -
l*i and Sj'iiu , as u\*i*i>
s '
and djLu>- famishing, plu. <jol*>- .
Sixth form,
This belongs to substantives of the forms J ,
s <,
s -
o and Jjw ; and sometimes to adjectives of the form

S
"
, as ^s? the sea, plu. j^sr? , Jo- aw army, plu. JÂ- ,

s *i
s^j
a i?iw, plu. jy>1 , Ablii a witness,
Seventh and eighth forms, ^Jw and JUj .

s
These belong to adjectives of the forms J^lj and

s .,
Avith this only difference, that the form JUi is exclusively apS
5Q^
propriated to the masculine, thus i^>^ a writer, plu. <_>U ;

s -
sv ^
s 4j
"
\- a judge, plu. a~ and ,l- ; jlc a combatant, for ic;U ^

A^^^
S tf*
tf
& ^
S-
plu. * 1 Ic for jUc ; t-oU one who is absent, plu. <L_^>J: ,

sa female camel, J# .
Ninth form,
s
This appertains to verbal adjectives of the form <JcU, when

applied to rational beings, and not coming from a defective
S
S'--
S- ^
root, as J*cl perfect, plu. i; wU standing erect, plu.

- s
j\> innocent, plu. ^.
s --
156
OF NOUNS.
S^j
Tenth form,
This belongs almost exclusively to verbal adjectives of the
s
form Jf.\j coming from a defective root, and applied to rational

'
^j
^?^ ^-
beings ; as Jj an archer, plu. *U, for <x<^ , jU a combatant,

**
'*
*xj
S^-.,
-*
^-
S^-..
plu. *lj* for ifjji , iÛ a Kadhi, plu. ifLS for
Eleventh form, <3jo .

S oj
This belongs to substantives of the form JJM , and to a

s
S o-
So
^?-'^
few of the forms J*s and Jje , as <_>J a bear, plu. LoJ ;
S ^
?^^
? o -
jjS' a pitcher, plu. ir)j ;
i? x ^
Jo
-.. y a spouse, plu. i>-jj , J^S aw ape,
Sss
plu. ifJ^ .
Twelfth form,
&* .
So'
io-
This belongs to substantives of the forms JJM , Jjii , J*i ,

s --
tf -^
so-
s-
s-f
JUi, JUi and J-uo, as jp a 6^^, plu. ^jo ; il for ^*-l a

S-o
brother, plu. ifyil ;

S-o
o -
-tf'O
"
.îc a branch, plu. aiJuac ; JUc an awfe-
S-j
S-o
lope, plu. a]jc ; *L: a stoe, plu. îc ; ^Jus for jjjus aw infant,
Sô
plu. <ux .
s -.o
Thirteenth form,
This belongs to substantives of the form Jxi , and sorneS"
So
S o j
times Jje, J and J*j , not coming from a concave root,
OF NOUNS.
so'
s ^ o
157
s<*'
s~<*
as A>2 the face, plu. ^>-j\ , ^ a bucket, plu. Jj1 for

*'
*^
<Ji
s -. o
s o
Lac a sta$ plu. y.ic1 for âcl ;
J*~j the foot, plu.
It also appertains to feminine substantives of four letters, not

ending in * , and of which the penultima is a quiescent letter,
* '.
S-'i-f
as c\jj the arm, plu. cjj1 ;
-*
S -o
..jXw aw oorfA, plu. <^\ .
It
also belongs, by custom, to several forms different from those

indicated, and even to singulars coming from concave roots,
s* '
s - <,
s"
s^<Ji
s <* *
as j_n-> a lion, plu. ^j^l ; j\ the day, plu. j>\ ; <^c the eye,
s j o
ss
**
pltt. ^jjtfl -, j\ J 05 ÔMStf, plu. jjjl .
Fourteenth form, JUi1 .

This belongs to substantives of three letters, and of all
S-^
S<,-
5- -*
forms, though but rarely to the forms Jjo and JJM ; as ^k

S - I,-!.
S "
-o
rain, plu. jlkol ; (j>j* a disease, plu. <Ji>\jc\ ; <_jil the shoulder,
plu. i_3U1 ; Jj1 a camel, plu. JM ; <^s- the eye, plu. ^
*
*_jj Me day, plu. ALl ; i_--^ a date, plu. c_
Fifteenth form,
This belongs to nouns of four letters, the penultima of
S-
S- L.
s-
which is ^ , j or 1 quiescent, as jli a necklace, plu. ifjjjil ; <sl1

(?orf (which is an abbreviation of <$1) plu. ty \ ; jj^c a
column, plu. ifj^cl .
This plural form belongs particularly to
158
Of NOUNS.
s --
s -
the singular forms JUi and JUi ,

;
coming from a surd or
--
S4i
S -
defective root ; as eylw an article of furniture, plu. ilol ; W

si
s- i
*~"
s- <
an Imam, plu. j 1 for <u^l \ -, f Iw a ftM&ic or *Airt, plu. <ujJl .

Sixteenth form, J*1y
The sixteenth form belongs to substantives of the forms
S
S '*
JcU and JUi , and to substantives and adjectives feminine of

the forms *LcU and ^ IcU , and, though rarely, to verbal ads
s - -
jectives masculine of the form J*U , thus J^lls a frying pan,

j
_ _
plu. J^ljt ;
s-
j--
AacLi death, plu. <j\ye -,
i^,U a cavalier, plu.
Seventeenth form, Jj U .
This belongs to substantives singular feminine, of four let
ters, of which the third is j , i_ , or \ servile or quiescent,
after a vowel of the same kind; and to feminine substantives
of the same forms, but adding i at the end ; as Julsr4 a cloud,
i*^j\s? ; Jjjs? an old woman, plu. j>\^ ',
^^ a wonder,
->~~"
plu. L-ÛF.
S -<,
Eighteenth form, JUi

s -..
This belongs to substantives singular of the forms JUi,
JUi , J*i , and to some nouns of the forms J*i , J*i Mid
S
S'^
JcU, coming from concave roots, as -Ac a young man, a slave.
OF NOUNS.
159
s -o
plu. Ûic ; Jlji an antelope, plu.

S ^
S s
Jljc ; CJy .a /sA, plu.

sf
S 'C,
; -Aj a erowro, plu. Îs^ ; 1 a brother, plu. ^^

Some nouns, whose singulars belong to other forms, admit this
plural also.
S -O-.
Nineteenth form,
lj .
s
so-
This belongs to substantives of the forms i_) , J* ,

not being of concave roots ; as i_"--, a roof, plu. ÛiL> ; Jib
<? ÔJ
5~
S s<*-
a region, a province, plu. ^jJj ; <~J^j a> cake, îj

Twentieth form, * JL .
This form is applied to adjectives masculine, of the form
S
Jj> , not having a passive sense ; and to some of the form

-U not coming from a concave, or defective root, but applied
s -* --., s $
to a rational being, ^jJu a poor man, plu. i \jK -, j^t\ a prince,
*~-~i
at"
s *-
"^-s---
plu. * \j*\ ; (_/"Joj for (jj); cAe/", plu. * LJJ ; ^cLi a poet,
*-- ^
plu. i \jiJS> .
The word &bi.4. Khalif, also makes the plural
Twenty-first form, ? !
S
This belongs also to singulars of the form Jjj, but is

almost peculiar to those whose root is concave or defective, as
<f
t_^jtjto~ a friend, one beloved, plu. * U>.1 ; ^Joi a rich man,

plu. * \J*-\ > c&J"" feracious, plu. * IS dw1 .
160
OF NOUNS.
Twenty-second form,
This is made from adjectives of the form Jjjti , and someS
'
times also J*U and J*j, signifying pain, or destruction; as

^
- I* '
^(j.- wounded, plu. i^-j>- !

-<^
perishing, plu.
^<,^
^?
<J^** *teiw, plu.
Twenty-third fonn,
This belongs to substantives singular, of the forms * )Ui ,
- o-
-o
-<, -
l , .Jjo ; and feminine adjectives of the forms * iUi and

" c -
^fc_ <^
^fc_ o
^^
sijx'
^Jja ; as i \jS? , plu. cÛf ; i 1jj* a wiytn, ^1j^c ; i_jij

-'s
"O -
the decree of a judge, plu. Ûi (j1*- a pregnant woman,
Twenty-fourth form,
This belongs, first to the same substantives and adjectives
as the preceding ; as * 1jiXc a virgin, plu. i_Âc .
. - o -
2nd.
-'o -
To adjectives of the form (i^*i > as ^^~> intoxicated,
plu. ÎC>
3rd.
*- ^
To feminines of the form aljmi coming from a deS&
'
x '^
fective root, as iijuk a gift, plu. \>\&its .
Of NOUNS.
161
Twenty-fifth form,
,
This, which is very rare, belongs to singulars of the forms

^ os
a s
--
s^'
a -
J , JUs and JiU , as MA a slave, plu. <\xxc ; jU- aw ass,

J
s-
plu. j^-- !
os
'
"-r^ a <%> Pm. *-r"^ ' J^ a conqueror, plu.
a courier, plu.
Twenty-sixth form,
This, which is also of rare occurrence, belongs to singulars
S O--
$ O ^
^?"
^ ^
. ^
of the form J, as LJO- a thread, plu. &>**- ; *c a paternal

e, plu. ic^x. ; jjjz a wild ass, plu.
Twenty-seventh form,
*l Us.
S --
'
This belongs to singulars of the forms Jjo and Jj^ls , as

s5*- a stone, plu. i^ls.; i---^>-L a companion, plu. <Ll
Twenty-eighth form, Jj .
S ---
S-os
tf
A few singulars of the forms il*j , <d*i , JÛ , have their

s--
s--
s -o -
plurals of the form J*s , as xj*> a pulley, plu. ^$o ; &!- a Hw<^,
plu. (jb- ; i_^lIl? a person who seeks, plu. i_--41s .
It may have been observed, that the same singular assumes
various forms of plurals ; some have at the same time a plural
S O'
regular, and one or several irregular plurals ; thus from

11
162
OF NOUNS.
S
jj
S jo
S-^
the soul, are formed the plurals (j*yo and yJ>J\ ', from Ac a
S- o
J'O
^? o --
Joy, plu. ilc and Ûlc ; from
s '&
? j .
..xc the eye, Îxcl ,
from j^> a wall, j\j~>\ ^y~> -< from Axc a slave, jlxc ,
^yljac ; and also from .5^ the sea, j\&! , ^s1. , jss!\ ; from
a witness, >xfc1j^> , ^jiaLi , o^-i
It must not be supposed,
however, that a singular admits indifferently all the plurals of

which its form is susceptible ; thus IJ*A> does not admit <j*Uj ,
S^^
.!?x* O
S ^ o-
j"
S - Lij<
S fj ^
Jj ; nor does doc adopt the plurals

.
c , ifdoc , -8zc.
Sometimes one only is formed, as from

s ^
s>
a man, the only plural is JU^, and j*\ an affair, a command,
makes only jy>\ .
tionary.
This must be learnt by the use of the dic
When a singular, having several meanings, admits several

plurals, it will be often found that certain plurals are pecu
liarly, or exclusively attached to certain significations ; for exJo --
ample, (^f- signifies the eye, a fountain, the substance, or essence

S
of a thing, and a person of rank.

s*<
s s<
(i}Mt\ and <jUcl.
- J
In the plural it has ujJ> ,
The two first of these answer to the two first meanings,

and the third only to the two last.
The regular plurals, and those of the twelfth, thirteenth,
S)
*r
*r
fourteenth, and fifteenth forms, are called 3Js f^*f- plurals

of small number, in contradistinction to the other forms, which
OF NOUNS.
Ô .-
163
-J J
are called iy ?^>- plurals of great number. This obser^

vation applies, however, only to nouns having several forms of
plural : when the plural of one of these four forms is its only
one, it is employed indiscriminately like those of the other forms.
All simple quadriliteral nouns, and most of those aug
mented, together with their feminines, take a broken, or irre
gular plural; assuming Alif quiescent after the second letter,
which, as well as the first, bears Fathah, as the third letter
-
has Kasrah.
s^ ^ '
Thus they are of the form jo\*s , as CJ>A^ a frog,
plu. cjUj, Ji-Jcc a vestibule, J^ljc; final * is dropt, as <JLj^>

a dunghill, plu. Jjljô .
If the last radical be preceded by either

S
of the letters <_$, . , \ quiescent, it remains, as JjiXJu a lamp,

s
--^
plu. Jj jlJtf ; if it be 1 or ^ , the preceding Kasrah changes it

S
" o -
*r
into ^j ; as ÎLLi a sultan, plu. liJjW>~'
Sometimes, however,
it is omitted, H being put at the end as a compensation, thus

s
<*
js.
s -~ '
J?ô
the devil, ..jgjJb1

v "_ - and LJW
-- ; i_JlJ* a shoemaker,
s^ si
and &s\~!\ . Final * is sometimes found in the plural
of quadriliteral nouns not having quiescent letters before the
last radical in the singular; this is particularly applicable to
foreign words, and possessive nouns, or relative adjectives of
s
four letters, as <5.M a bishop, plu. uJil-l or <juL1 ;

5'
"
tfxo^
a natwe of Baghdad, plu. ifJjljo ; j>aJ^ an emperor, (Cassar)

s
S-
-<* ^
S-
"
plu. -ij*>\M\ ,j*^/f- Circassian, plu. AW\J&~.

112
164
OF NOL'NS.
Adjectives of the form iJjjl being comparatives, or super

latives, take in the plural the form of quadriliterals ; but this is
only when they are employed as substantives, as Jj-i1 black, plu.
JjU serpents having a black skin ; j&\ most great, plu. j&\ the
great men of a kingdom.
The forms of quadriliteral plurals serve also to make those

plurals which are called *-**K \ %-*- , or plurals of plurals, and
which are derived from other plurals ; thus from a a finger nail,
S x ^
is formed the plural jUW , and from that, the plural of plural
J
-f
Sx
,x
<*
S jCJ
jâ\ -, from jo for ^-Jo the hand, comes Jo1 for i_Jol ; and
afterward i_jW ; from^^ a bracelet, xjj~>\, and from that jjl~>l
Words of five or more letters, not including if , or i_$ , j , 1 ,
quiescent, take the same form ; these words then lose one of
their letters of the singular number. This is sometimes the
penultima, but usually the last, as J^>-JLi a pomgranate, plu.
xx
jxox
..
xx
S x<x-x
,jU-> ; C^JJ&LC a spider, plu. c^-U* , or JIJjj*- a spider,

plu. uj]/^ t and iJjj/>-
If, however, the penultima is j or
i_$ , forming a diphthong after Fathah, both remain ; but j is

changed into i_ by the influence of the preceding Kasrah; as
S o -<,
x^
^cJ a crocodile, plu. c^t^-
Augmented words drop the ser
J? xo *" x
_ x x
vile letters; j-&*, the place in which a thing rolls, plu. ,_,U-J.
If, beside the servile , , there is also a ^ , or the letters i^^^> ,

ihe , is preserved in the plural, while the other servile letters
OF NOUNS.
S
' 0 ^
^ ^
165
^?Oô-
disappear; 343 Ûx plu. J^lkc loosed; _^s^"~c a leader, plu.

.jlsE .
There are some nouns whose plurals are very irrej ^

gular, or even borrowed from another root, thus J^k a road,
*.
plu. <J\iji3 ; ^1 a mother, plu. cylfl ; *i a mouth, plu. *^ ;

-*^-'
s -oi
S ^
?U water, plu. ^ or *lx ; in these two last words, it is

the singular which is irregular, for j is for xji , and i l for
*-
*U.
s-i^^
The singular *1^1 a woman, has no plural, the place of
which is supplied by 1LJ ,
if^MJ or u^3 ! the word ^Lu
a man, has in the plural (j*\J\ , and by contraction
166
OF NOUNS.
Table shewing to what forms of the singular those of

the plural usually belong.
Form of Plural.
Singular.
ij*i
<ulc
(Jji
lJ*j
s .,.,
Plural.
^ ' -
a ww-tt />a7,
a book,
l__-^-U
<^J\j&
^-\ g
jj
S OJ
0 J
4
5
**>-]
red
JW
xj*u
a fragment,
.5 -
s -.^
JUi
Jj^
S -*r
<,-
Jy
^j
jli
j ^
J**-~
>
J -^
a man,
J1^
S J-
seeaf,
Jjj?
!Ll
Û-
a judge,
s arl^
JUi
J^,l^
perfect,
*U^4S
10
lUi
^li
a Kadhi,
^ l**i?
11
Srf
A.}
iô
an ape,
^
S' o
12
dlw
.âf-
a branch,
(XJU3
sô
S Os
13
J*i!

<ts^
<Ae _/ace,
s-oj:
**-j'
i O s
14
JUl
.Lc
raiw,
15
ai
*U1
1 *
a Imam,
S ' oi
Îkc1
for
167
OF NOUNS.
Form of Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
S^
s^ <,5
t$&
5
a necklace,
'
ifjjj-1
*,
^^
16
J4
^Jjllj
a frying pan,
JJ^jk
17
5w
* ^
JU^>
<Ae ê/if Aawrf,
j* ^ ^
JjUî
a Joy,
iv)^*l^
a '<,
18
*lc
5 o ^
19
3-
{vjijsvj
jjj
20
iler
-
/^^^ ^
(^ pOet,
^ 1 ^ru*
a friend,
* U-1 for
21
J?
. <VftJLhC
>:
f*}.f>-
wounded,
LSt/?~
23
il^f
a teer<,
<^J^
24
Jtf
U^L>
intoxicated,
i^lSLj
22
The twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth, twenty-seventh and twentyeighth forms are of rare occurrence.
168
OF NOUNS.
The details into which I have here entered, and the accom
panying table, may be of some use, but no rules or tables can
greatly assist the memory ; those forms, however, which most
often occur, will soon become familiar, and a dictionary will
afford every necessary assistance with regard to the more un
common.
Of Declension.
The Arabic nouns are classed under two heads with respect
to declension : Triptots, which have three variations of case in
the singular, or plural ; and Diptots, which have only two, the
dual being uniformly of this last class.
The first class of Diptots are the duals forming the nomi
native in ljl^, and the oblique case in .jJ'The second regular masculine plurals, whose nominative is
in ^ - , genitive, &c. in ^j .
The third regular feminine plurals, having the nominative
s
in t^jV, genitive in cyl-.

The fourth invariable nouns, whose last radical never admits
the nunnation, having the nominative in - , and other cases
in ^ .
These invariable nouns are :
1.
Positive and comparative adjectives, of the same form
as r*~\ r#d, i )/*- fem., except a few having their feminine

s
s -î
s <,
in i, as J^l widowed, mas. JELe^l fem.
OF NOUNS.
169
2.
Adjectives ending in ^Jc servile, whose first radical has

s
Fathah, and which do not form their feminines by adding if ,

.. --^ '
- ,
as Û.oc enraged , fem.
yjA .
3.
Substantives and adjectives singular, ending in Alif short,

^ O J
Ô-
or i_$ quiescent after Fathah, as c^** wry ?We ; u/^ good

tidings; or in Hamzah, preceded by Alif bearing Maddah, as
^ " O x
^ x
Ox'
* 1Âc a wym , j Law wAife. If the *_ or the Hamzah are

^
* *
radical, as in i_JJ& direction, \j a cloak, these words are
Triptots.
4.
All irregular plurals containing four syllables, of which
the two first have Fathah for their vowels, and the third has
Kasrah ; as t_^j Is? êonders ; (jw^Jc colleges ; ûi-^ keys ;
mills ; iJj\j \ relations.
1 5.
Some names of countries, cities, villages, castles, moun
tains, rivers, and other places.

6.
Most proper names, and among others all those end^
ing in ^ ' , together with foreign names consisting of more than

three letters ; also all feminine names terminating in if , and
such as consist of four letters.
The three letter female names,
a few excepted, are occasionally either Triptots, or Diptots,

which is sometimes the case, among the poets, with regard to
other invariable nouns, whilst the variable or Triptots, are like
wise sometimes converted into Diptots.
The declension is exceedingly simple, there being in writing,
where vowel points are not used, no real difference of case,
excepting in the addition of \ servile to the accusative.
Where
170
OF NOUNS.
vowel points are used, the nominative singular and plural are
distinguished by ; the genitive dative and ablative by T ; and
the accusative by ^_ ; the dual always ending in Kasrah. The
x, terminating a word, changes into CLS , when being preserved,
it ceases to be the last letter, as x> JM> a town, dual ÛooJw .
S'
It disappears in the regular plural, as xj-e\J a woman who assists,

S
--
plu. Cj
1.
Declension being Triptots singular and plural.

Dual.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
Gen.
Accus.
2.
Being Triptots in the singular, and Diptots in the plural.

Singular.
An assistant,
Dual.
Plural.
Dual.
Plural.
Nom.
Gen.
j>a
Accus.
Singular.
An assistant,
(fem.) Nom.
Gen.
i
Accus.
171
OF NOUNS.
3.
Being Triplets in the singular, and invariable Diptots

in the plural.
Dual.
Singular.
s
A mosque,
Plural.
o -
Nom.
Gen.
Accus.
4.
Being invariable Diptots in the singular, and Triptots

in the plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Plural.
s<,
Bed,
Nom.
--o
Gen. and Accus.
5.
Being invariable Diptots singular and plural.

Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
j
Smalkr,
xf
Nom.
Gen. and Accus.
When the last letter of a noun is j preceded by Fathah,

or else 1., or i_$, also preceded by Fathah, and called short AKf,
?- -J ox
xjyaLt uJl1, the three cases are alike; if it be <_$ preceded

by Kasrah, the nominative and the genitive alone are alike ;
in this case the i_ not bearing either Dammah or Kasrah.
172
OF NOUNS.
f- -
S- '
Thus in the three cases ^^ a gtaffi -ie written for yas. ,
#
# - -
*-
< ~-
\yac- and ,j=>-j a mill, for ,^-j > ^^_J > W~J which are of the
^
first class, or Triptots.
ôtii a Kadhi, in the nominative and
o -.
genitive for .j^li and ,j-lj> , of the same class, cf/k? ôorf
*= J'C^J
--O-
wews, for (jf/*> "i tne nominative, and u/^ m the genitive
and accusative of the second class, or Diptots.
Îs"" deserts,
for ^(s?* in the nominative, and ^j\s* in the genitive and

accusative, irregular quadriliteral plural of the second class.
Six words have a variation of case peculiar to themselves
when in construction either with a noun, or an affixed possi
s-i
s^
sessive pronoun ; viz. <_>1 a father ; L\ a brother ; **- a father

S
in law ;
.* a thing ; >j for *^j the mouth, when governing a
genitive, and jJ having, possessed of, endowed with ; which are

declined as follows :
Nora.
,- -i
'AJJ jjl
#
Gen.
Joj ^\
<^s
the father of Zeid.
of the father of Zeid.
&
- -i
Joj [>\
Aecus.
the father of Zeid.
-&
Nom.
-- ~
J*A j or 'J
*
s ^
Gen.
jA*. ^ or *i
^ ^
Accus.
the mouth of Omar.
of the mouth of Omar.
s x
.AS- U or Uj
the mouth of Omar.
OF NOUNS.
- <, -
173
Nom.
<Uo-j j
^
Gen.
<Uo>^ ^J
endowed with compassion.

q/" cow-passionate.
s>
I,
Accus.
-~
<Uj>- , \ j
Nom.
compassionate.
*ji-l Ais brother.

Z.
<u*-l o/ Ais brother.
Gen.
- -i
*U-1
Accus.
Nom.
i_Jj*>-
Gen.
i_Xx*r>-
-'
As brother.
<% father in law.
Accus.
_JU-
Nom.
<__^Xfc
Gen.
k_JvÂa
o/" fAy father in law.

<Ay father in law.
j ^
Accus.
<_JUu
Ây thing.
(Res aliqua, pec. non magna.)
o/" <Ay thing.

thy thing.
When these words are prefixed to the pronoun of the first

5
person, there is no change of case, as ^j\ my father, of my
S'
father, &c.
When *i is followed by an affixed pronoun, it
varies only in the vowel points, as <_j your mouth, <_5^J of
your mouth, i_j your mouth.

The accusative is substituted for the nominative, when cer
tain particles go before, as ^ indeed, certainly ; ^1 because,
>
174
OF NOUNS.
therefore; ^ as if;
& but; cu-jJ would to God! Jc and
J*l perhaps ; as <*yb

^\> indeed1 the man stands ; ^
J " "L>.j
'
jjdJ <_j3-*l 1 but the King is powerful.
No other word must
intervene, however, except a preposition with its case, as

J ..,1 certainly the man is in the house.
y is not, when immediately preceding any appellative, and
denying its very existence, gives it also the accusative ter
mination, as <ui ^T^J y there is no doubt in it.
In this case
the accusative loses the nunnation, but the noun must not be
definite, either as a noun proper, or as an appellative limited
<*
by the article Jl , or by a word which it governs.
The vocative is expressed by the accusative with b pre-oi fixed, as lii1 l> Oh sister!
^ V.
is against you, 0 ye unjust! prepare ye, therefore,
weeds for wretchedness, and be ye the companions of sorrow !
Except however a proper name, an appellative with an
article, or when the object addressed is in sight ; where the
nominative without the nunnation, when that would otherwise
-, ^ >,
occur, is employed, as ÛIc b 0 Othman ! ,xJ b 0 Prince !

The nominative thus employed, is naturally pronounced with rapi
dity. Hence it is, that the nunnation is always dropped, and that
O"
the affixed pronoun ^^ is sometimes cut off, as *ji L> 0 my

people ! i^fi, 0 my Lord !
Some words, chiefly proper names
OF NOUNS.
175
^
in frequent use, throw off a whole syllable at the end, as _.L b

~ *
-<*-'
'<*- ^
for ,gs-\*> \j 0 my friend1. uaj^c b 0 Mansur ! ^ \j O
*
O -
Marvdn ! for jjâxc , &c.

On the other hand, when placed at the end of a sentence,
and pronounced more strongly, the vowel is prolonged, and
O
" -J
' -
receives a kind of aspirate, as <xeiLc b for ,iLc 0 my boy!

" " .
" " -J
Sometimes this appears as final ah, as *Ulc b or Ulc for
When the name invoked, however, bears the article J 1 ,

j
- ^
^
the pronoun 1.XJ) , or one of these words, 1J^j 1 , l^j 1 , l^Jo \ ,
' ^
--J
-~J
' -F^
--$ "
always comes between the name and the particle b , as l^j\\ b
ô
(jwUi i o wei /
In calling for help, J is often prefixed in the genitive,
-o
as
dJ \
---
U I; &?^, 0 Salah-addm !
The dual and the perfect masculine plurals in ^ drop that

letter, when followed by a noun in the genitive case, or by
the affixed pronouns ; as <i-^. Mji the two fawns of Joseph ;
*UoJ his two feet ; ay.' his sons.
The nunnation is not only affected in the same manner as
^, when under these circumstances, but likewise before and
J
- O 0
- o-c
after the article, as i_LJ 1 the King, i_jXJ 1 ^1 j the King's

house.
176
OF NOUNS.
Of Comparison.
The comparative is formed from the positive, which is
itself formed only from primitive triliteral verbs ; by prefixing
- -Ss.
*<S
-.
Alif, and is of the form Jjol , as jâ little ; ju>1 less ; V_ÂA
beloved; -~s-.\ for <--*>-l most beloved.
O
- 0-O
> after it, as i_j3-*il

The positive with
It in general takes
- - L.
Jac^ greater than the King.

.xi is used sometimes to express the com
parative, as in the following couplet :
As long as morning and evening succeed, the present day i

better than the past.
^ however, and other particles, often follow the comparative instead of ^.o, as i^sM .^ j^H>\ more glorious in war.
In the feminine of the comparative, i_ quiescent after Fathah,
S
'
j iJi
is added in place of \ prefixed, as ^_u great ; j&\ greater, (masc.)

"OJ
ijj& greater, (fem.)
Without ^, but followed by a genitive,
tf ~o -'<*-
it forms the superlative, as (j*UJ \ ,.**-1 <Ae 6s< o/" men.
It has likewise a superlative sense, when placed absolutely,
-. -<Ji j i
as Acl idll (?o^ ts os< wise.

Verbal adjectives of the passive voice, and those which
J ^0
-ô
designate colours, or deformities, as jj\ blue ; ^\ black ;
OF NOUNS.
177
crooked ; ,^\ blind ; j^\ squinting ; and which are them

selves of the form Jjol do not generate comparatives.
These comparatives being formed only from certain adjec
tives ; when it is necessary to give the accessory ideas of com
parison and superiority, one of the following comparatives ;
-
*"
^Jj\ stronger; ô-l handsomer; -oil more ugly; j^~\ better;

-
îl worse, &c. is used; with the infinitive or abstract noun of

the quality in question, as jô- Jull stronger in redness; that
is, redder ; Ujjti _j Â*-> i.r1***'^ fitter to instruct and to teach.
12
THE ARTICLE.
THE Arabians have only one article, which they call i^
notification, because it renders the noun to which it is prefixed
definite, which would otherwise be general, or indetermined ; as
in the following distich :
?ife a water-wheel rolls round, wherein pleasure

with pain revolves.
Now the youth soars above tlw heavens, and now behold him
low under the stones!
s - -.
Here <_.>SjJ a water-wheel, being indefinite, is without an

article.
When a definite substantive agrees with an adjective, the
-
--a
- -o
article is prefixed likewise to the adjective ; as ,jial 1 <_>Ul \

the excellent book.
When the noun is indefinite, the adjective

a
becomes so too, as <jtJoui t_A! an old book.
Proper names do not admit of the article, but it always

^
S- O-O -
accompanies the epithet, if any follows, as ,.j.x*S 1 *JJ&^ Abraham

the faithful. The article is likewise omitted when a possessive
pronoun is affixed to the noun, as will be explained hereafter.
THE ARTICLE.
179
J in the article is sometimes dropt ; its place being sup

plied by Tashdid, when the word to which it is prefixed begins
-J -o
* ô
also with J ; as JjJ \ for Jj$ \ .

ever, and Tashdid also; as
It frequently remains, how
.JIM
He plunges into the sea who seeks for pearls ;

And he who desires greatness, must have watchful nights.
The J is always omitted in the masculine singular of the

&i
relative pronoun, îl \ ; the fem. sing. (J3 \ ; and the plural mas&i
-o
culine ..^.JJ1 J being so written instead of ^jJJl, &c. but never

in the other cases, which seldom occur.
When the particle J is prefixed to a noun beginning with
J , and which being definite, ought to have the article, in
order to avoid the meeting of three lams, the article is disO3
o-io
pensed with, or represented by Tashdid, as JjJJ for J-xJil,

$
-4
or <sU for <slil , but when prefixed to nouns not beginning with
J , Alif alone is dropt ; as
#<,^j
ljo
<* js
Lio
ay <o </w rejoicers in our distress, wait yet a little.

Before yon are misfortunes, and great ones.
122
180
THE ARTICLE.
The article changes the substantives singular, and irregular

plurals, which are diptots, into triptots, as
Nom.
Gen.
A ecus.
III(I<-/,.
_Vuj! I
JuuJ I
. : l-^ ^ \ white,
' ^4^ tf
v LiJoJ 1
JuyJ '
O/" Numerals.
Numbers are either cardinal or ordinal. The cardinal num
bers from 1 to 10 are of the two genders, thus
Fern.
Man.
Fem.
Mas.
Jo4j
or
or
I^^WhJ
10
T v
A*jwj
From three to ten, the termination if , the usual sign of the

feminine gender, here marks the masculine. All these numbers,
except <jUu1 and .ÛJo1 , are Triptots ; these two have only
*
*
one inflexion, (.^>jj\ and ..j-xJool for the genitive and accusative,
*
>
like all the duals.
From three to ten, the cardinal numbers are employed
either as adjectives or substantives ; in the first case, they are
THE ARTICLE.
181
placed after the name of the thing numbered, with which they
agree in gender, and case ; if employed as substantives, they
take for their complement the thing numbered, and then lose
x -
^,
their nunnation, as JU^ <3^ three men. When ÛJ eight,
**
*>
loses its nunnation, it recovers the i_ . which had disappeared
^s
according to the rule (fi, i_), for Ûj is for J\AJ-, we then
?
write .JUj in the nominative and genitive, and .jUo in the
accusative.
From eleven to nineteen, the cardinal numbers are com
posed of units, and of the number ten, which in the masculine
-
o_
-__
is JM. , and in the feminine Ac or iAs .
Feminine.
Masculine.
JoJ
11
usi* 12
13
--- ---o
14
*>* t^
15
J^
16
'
<Ux-
17
18
-*uJ
*u<
19
182
THE /VHTICLE.
All these numbers, from eleven to nineteen, are indecli-o
- - <, -
"<*
nable, except JLc \M\ and if^c UJul , which in the genitive
>
-L.
and accusative make && , Jol and

>
Go
20
70
30
80
lii^J'
!
J
40
- -J-
90
1.<*****-
^0
The numbers from twenty to ninety, are the same for both
genders ; they are always employed as nouns, and are followed
by the name of the thing numbered in the accusative; not
however losing the ^ final, as the regular plurals do when they
govern a word. This rule, however, is not always strictly
observed. These numbers are Diptots ending in the genitive
and accusative in ^
In the numbers composed of tens and of units, from twenty
to ninety-nine, the conjunction j is inserted between the two
numbers ; the smallest number is put first, and both are de^
J0
S sf
<,
si
clined, as ^)}j^- _j &*~\ > genitive (jJ/i<* j x-l -> accusative

"
"
THE ARTICLE.
183
The numbers of the hundreds are for both genders :

600
100
700
200
<LU ÛJ soo

* -
SOO
or
400
900
500
The numbers of thousands are

<$lo
3000
1000
i_J)l 1 iojl
4000
UUl 1 2000
<_fll 1
and so on, up to ten thousand.
Ul1 jAc U51

>
12,000
ill1
jo.1 11,000
and so on, up to ninety-nine thousand.

k_al1 abUhj 300,000
^ ^ i
i_Jl1 iU 100,000
*
&c.
j_al1 ILLc
200,000
In numbers where units and tens are used, the units are
always put first; but if hundreds and thousands are employed,
the thousands may be placed first, then the hundreds, and
then the units and tens ; or first the units, then the tens,
and then the hundreds and thousands.
184
THE ARTICLE.
The Ordinal Number.

Fem.
Fem.
Mas.
Mas.
-oJ
$41
fith
jy
Jjl
1st
7th
Ajoli
^15
2nd
8th
215
fci-iti
3rd
i?^ ^
V_xJU
9th
<*J^
-jlj
>U
10th
^L
A*Jti
S x
>'
tvj---c o-
4th
(>MV>-
otn
The twentieth, and all above, are expressed by the car

dinal numbers; the intermediate ones are formed nearly in the
same manner as the cardinals; as
Fem.
Mas.
nth
jlj
12th
13th
21st
or
And thus with the others ; but when they take the article,
the first number is declined, and the second not ; thus in the
nominative Jus. <-LJUll, genitive ^jirf. i^JUl1 ; and thus with
the others, as well in the masculine as feminine.
THE ARTICLE.
185
The cardinal numbers are often used in the place of the

** '<&
--&-O
ordinals, and it is common to say indifferently Ujjl or ZM\} \

ihe fourth hour, day, week, &c. ; i-îj an hour, &c. being under
stood, according to the sense.
The Arabians denote fractional numbers from one third to
one tenth, by particular numeratives ; they are nouns of the
J?-ji?oj
s o -
first class, Triptots ; as i^-Jj , i^-Jj , i_i-o>Jj one third;

-
*-
and (jguJwj one sixth ; ^j and <^j an eighth.
After one tenth,
periphrasis is employed, as 1j>- .^.j^f- ^
*}/?-\ <&^ three
parts of twenty parts, that is, three twentieths.

Distributive numbers, or those expressing the parts of a
whole, divided into equal portions, are denoted in Arabic by
s
repeating the cardinal number twice successively, as iX>-1. Jo-lj

- ~o
one by one ; Ûo 1

S
-'
' o
ifJo>-lj.
ÛJol
ô
S'
^^ two by two ;
'
in the feminine ifA=>~^
ss<j
ÛJo1 , or by using, from one to ten, parti
cular numeratives of the forms JUs, or JjiJU , and which are

-. - { .. -i
^-^^^-J
employed either alone or double, as oWl jU-1 , or
J-O^
or iX>-_j.o
J-<y-'
*^^~
J>.^ one by one ,
#M?O by two ; cb,
/*^s^
or 2 ljy i U5 ,
cbj or f->j*>
or
^j^6 four ty four ; these
numeratives are Diptots.

Numeratives denoting a periodical return, are of the form
S o
iJjo .
They are put in the accusative with or without an

^
O -W
#<j
article, as c^JoM or UJj eeery three days, months, &c.
186
THE ARTICLE.
From the cardinal numbers are formed relative adjectives

from one to ten ; these present no difficulty. It must be
-*O
remarked, however, that from Îwl two, a dual of which the

a<,
s^^
singular, if it could have one, would be ^\ for yj ; the rela

tive adjective is formed by recurring to the form of the sins
gular (Jol and ^jjJo , like

From eleven to nineteen, the numeratives composed of two
indeclinable words, form their relative adjectives from the first
word only, wholly suppressing the second ; whence it follows,
that these adjectives exactly resemble those derived from nume<
x,
ratives from one to nine ; thus ^jjo is the relative adjective

of ...Ujl two, and of JÂ
- *
û\ twelve, . -uô- is that of

>
Jive, and of Âc L**&- fifteen.

s5
From LL one hun&red, is formed the relative adjective
a _
-
S-
or ^x ; and from <_JM a thousand, ^Jk \ .
Another sort
of relative adjectives, derived from numeratives from one to

ten, answers nearly to our addition of the monosyllable fold;
J?
-^-
S
_^J
X-
these are of the form .Jl, thus ,*z\>j four fold; .j-Ui
five fold, &c.
OF THE PRONOUN.
THE personal, demonstrative, and relative pronoun, have the
same variation of gender and number, as nouns, but have no
difference of case ; the duals of the demonstratives and relatives
excepted, which follow the modes of other duals.
The personal pronouns are as follows :
You
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
They
We These
-J L, x
FOM He
Thou
j&
i^-Jl
Mas.
'
lil Com.
^\
Fem.
two
two
x *r
^, ôi
UA
UJwl
^'
-o*
cr^1
The third persons of this pronoun are frequently used in

place of the substantive verb ^ in every tense.
The demonstrative pronoun, implying an object near at hand,
is expressed by lo this (hie.) and is declined as follows :
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
or
Fem.
The same.
Mas.
D-
jfcj
W 1
Fem.
The remote demonstrative, that (ille) is formed from the

preceding by adding uJ
188
OF THE PRONOUN.
Dual.
Plural.
Singular.
Mas.
Fem.
The same.
<_JjuiH
Fem.
(ft
J is often inserted before i_J, as i_$U,

or i_<lj- , &c.
<_lj,
*J1u>.>
U> is frequently prefixed to 1j and i__SlJ ,
the 1-- being generally dropt, and represented in pointed books

by ^ , or a perpendicular Fathah, which
is also the case
where 1j precedes any word beginning with J or \ quiescent,

in the following manner :
Dual.
Plural.
Singular.
I
Fem.
Masc.
The same.
Fem.
The relative i_jj \ who, which, that, is compounded of !l

and i_jjj ; one J being omitted in the singular, and in the
masculine plural.
It is declined as follows :
Dual.
Plural.
* a*
*:?.* o
Singular.
s.
Mas.
Fem.
This relative does not admit of any of the servile letters
being prefixed, excepting j , J , <_$ , i_i ; the oblique cases
are seldom used, and it is construed with the affixed pronouns
annexed to the subsequent word, as <u (_jjj \ in which, for
OF THE PRONOUN.
tf
189
-<,
Jb .
<UK i_JJ 1 from which, for i_JJ 1 ^

/ saw, for ^^~j\, ^JJ 1 .
<,
-o-
<Uylj
^ he who, those who, whoever,
and L that which, those which, whatever, are also relatives in

cluding the antecedent. The first is only applied to rational
beings, the second to irrational beings, animate or inanimate,
- --
O--
---
-O
'
*O
-'O'OiBO
as in the proverb J]j jJii Joil 1 L_-O JJ 1 ^j-\"> \ &* he who

commits the sheep to the care of the wolf does wrong,
- S-
5<*i-
The word i_1 for the masculine, and L\ for the feminine,
who, which, what, of what kind, is generally used interroga^ -
tively, governing the substantive in the genitive, as <_>U ^\
?
^-U
what book ? It is often joined with ^> and U> , as ^^ \ who^-Z
<S~X
soever ; Ujj whatever, whatsoever, and sometimes plurally ^ 1

j-f
- ^s-
mas., ^>_\ fem. wfeA of them? dual U^jU
jj is sometimes
4>
employed in the same sense as i_^JJ \ ; this word is indeclinable,

J
x'
and used for both genders and all numbers ; (jU is however
sometimes used for the feminine in the singular, and cyljJ
in the plural without any distinction of cases. .
This is a peculiarity of the dialect of the tribe of Tai, as
Verily, the water is the water of my father, and of my

grandfather , and it is my well, which / dug, and which /
walled round.
190
OK THE PRONOUN.
The article J1 is also regarded as a relative by many of

the Arabian grammarians, and is often indeed employed as one ;
this use of the article is particularly observable when it is
placed before a verb, a preposition, or a nominal proposition,
that is to say, commencing by a noun acting as the subject.
art not a judge
whose decision ought to be accepted.
- o-o
~'
"
<,"
<U*J 1 ^\c- l^Li Jljj II ^ the man who does not cease
to testify his gratitude to those who are with him.
<
tive pronoun i_jj \ is never interrogative.
The rela-
"*
?**
^1 fem, aj 1 ; being employed alone and interrogatively,
Vi
'4
receives all the numbers and cases ; dual ^b \ , fem. ^\M \ , plu.
' -
S * i
^ 1 , fem, cyb \ .
The singular, as well as the plural, are
declined as Triptots.
O
^> employed interrogatively, also receives the genders, num

bers, and cases ; but nothing must then be added after this
word.
Masculine.
Dual.
Singular.
Plural.
O
- "
Nom.
Gen.
Accus.
Nom.
Fem.
for all cases.
Gen. & Ace. ...Joo<
for all cases.
OF THE PRONOUN.
191
The use of these words thus declined, is, when any one has
f ,.- said, for example, iLs^ *^-~>\j " / have seen a man" he who is
"
addressed replies b 1 or Uu. who or what is that man ? or when

. - <*~a
'- o ^ ^
it is said x\j*> \> i-2Ji_ I passed by a woman, he is asked
1* is that woman ?

-
From the relative
".
~c is formed ^Ju , answering precisely
to the Latin cujus, cuja, cujum.

The following, which are called the affixed pronouns, are
always annexed to a verb, a noun, or a preposition. When
affixed to verbs or prepositions, they have a personal, and some
times a relative sense ; when joined to nouns, they are pos
sessive, or relative; when added to verbs they are generally
in the accusative, though often in the dative, particularly when
another accusative comes immediately after, they are as follow ;
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Mas.
r*
Com.
Fern.
The words which take affixed pronouns undergo changes

which may be reduced to the following rules.
1st. The nunnation of Triptot nouns disappears, and the
S
-'
.. j
vowel alone remains, as <_>U a look; <uU his book.

2nd.
The affixed pronoun of the first person displaces the
vowel itself, as ^^ m& book> there is then no difference in

the three cases.
192
OF THE PRONOUN.
S-o
3rd.
Nouns ending in if , change it into iZJ , as
a benefit ; AJUJW his benefit.

4th.
The final ^ of the duals, and the final ^ of mas
culine plurals ending in ^ disappear, as nom. ^bU^ , gen.

^joll two books, with the affixed pronouns *ljU and jLuU
your two books ; nom. ^^jo , and gen. and accus. ..Joo sons ;
with the affixed pros. uJyo and <_JvJUJ thy sons.
5th.
Nouns ending in Hamza/i, change it into j if its
vowel be Dammah, and into i_$ if it be Kasrah, as * Lj

^î^women ; xj Lj his women ; they assisted; \_îf^ ^V

o
-.o^'
assisted me ; \j*j they threw ; *aj^j they threw against them.

o -
7th.
After the verbal termination *J- , they add a Dammah
over the /, and a j quiescent, as *J^j you saw; *ayJo1j you

saw them.
8th.
-
In those persons of the indefinite, which end in wj ,
JÔ"
as ^yJ^J. > the final ^ is sometimes dropt before the affixed

o
-*-
-j-_-
pronouns ^ and \j , as .jjj* ^ for .Jojj-c \J- yow orrfer we.

9th.
The i_ quiescent after Fathah, may in nouns as well
as verbs, be preserved or changed into Alif, as ôj he threw ;
OF THE PRONOUN.
193
or Sjvcj he threw against him ; ^Ji a boy ; Ui and

w his boy.
10th. In particles terminated by i_ quiescent after Fathah,
the t_$ takes Jazmah, on account of the affixed pronouns, as
j^Lc upon ; lulc wpow us ; ^\ towards ; <_j>ll towards thee.
The affixed pronoun of the first person i_j' in place of Kasrah

preceding it, takes Fathah above it, when annexed to any word
ending in i_ , j , \, without vowels ; if the letter preceding is
t_S quiescent, or jazmated, it is joined by Tashdid with that
of the affixed pronoun ; if it is j quiescent after Dammah, the
3 changes into i_ , and also joins the affixed pronoun by Tashdid,
the Dammah being changed into Kasrah, as 1>U=*- sins ; ^blkimy sins ; Ûlc two slaves ; ÛLi my two slaves ; ...xlc of
_. -' ^
&' '
-v<
two slaves , ^li of my two slaves ; ^\z on me ; ^ in me ;

Lac a staff; ^Ltc my staff; yoli Kadhi ; Û my Kadhi ;
-"
-tf>O-
o j
^pX^Lt o/" Muslims ; ^^fLu-c o/ w?y Muslims ; ^ftL*^ in the nom.

makes in the same manner with the affixed pronoun ^*Lu^c .
The i_ affixed, pronoun of the first person, is sometimes sup
pressed ; as ijj for .j>j my master ; ^yD 1 for .jjtu \ fear we ;
*
*
this often happens when the noun is employed in a vocative
sense ; and almost always, when the word to which the affixed
pronoun is joined ends in Hamzah, which by the influence of
the affixed pronoun becomes ^ ; as i_$ \j&-\ my friends ; i_ \j \
my fathers; for ^ U&-1., and ^> \j \ from *U&-1 and ?b I.
13
194
OF THE PRONOUN.
The affixed pronouns of the third person * , Uj , *a> , ^j ,

change their Dammah into Kasrah when they are immedi
ately preceded by Kasrah, or by i_ quiescent after Kasrah, or
by i_ jazmated, after Fathah, as jÛs-. , UfcÛ*. , <Us , <y^> >
o
<uls, (*v^Lc, &cJ in place of ^j, is used when joined to verbs, and also
to particles ending in ^ ; such as ^ , ^ , ^ , <.)\, and also
>
^
to ^J and ^^ . The affixed pronoun here always represents
an accusative case.
The words ^ and ^,1 when taking the

*
affixed pronoun of the first person singular, are written jjl
"*
'
ând icilj or LJ^ an<^ 15^^- ^ IS *ne same with tne first
person plural \J\ and li 1 , or \M\ and Uo U
*
*
with ^ .
It is the same
.l makes ,jA$3 or Ul .
Some other words, regarded as adverbs, also take the affixed

pronoun ; such are J* and J*l may be ; c^-jJ would to God
that !
Two affixes may be annexed to one word, when that of the
first person is always placed before the second, and the second
before the third ; as <uilkc \ he gave it to me ; *jLjJ& it mil
suffice you against them.
The same thing takes place with nouns
of action, as <U*- my love for him.

These examples however are not common, and when a verb
governs two pronouns, the separate pronoun of which we are
about to speak is usually employed.
OF THE PRONOUN.
195
It often occurs, that the pronoun being required in the

accusative, the affixes should be employed ; but in such cases
a separate pronoun is used, either on account of the meeting
of several pronouns in the accusative, or on account of the
ellipsis of the word which should serve as antecedent, and to
which in consequence the affix ought to be annexed.
In this
case a separate pronoun is made of the word bl , which has

"*
no sense in itself, and of the affixed pronoun; as ^jbl me;
\j\>\ us ;
"*
4_5bl thee, (mas.) ; i_Jb1 thee, (fem.) ; Ub1 you two ;

- "*
"*
"*
o - si
35 - tf
- &
' ~&
-' -
\>\
../VJ
" you, (mas.) ; u
" y(mi (fem-) ; *V.^
" îm ; \tt\>\
" her ;
O J ^
tf - *
them (two) ; *&\j\

,<f>\*\
I "* them, (mas.) ; u
"* them, (fem.).
This form of pronoun is also used when the pronoun per
sonal is put before the verb which governs it, with the view
-
" <j ~
"ti<
x'
- -O
&
of giving a greater emphasis ; as u-JssJLurJ <_$b1

i_5b1
, . JLWJ
i
thee we adore, and thee we call to our help.
Reflective pronouns, such as myself, thyself, &c. are expressed
SO-
o-'
- O^
by the words ^-i) or CD\j , as ,jAi my soul ; L_^JL> thy

O K
JÔj
soul ; .jLuAil your souls ; or .ylj my being.

o-
These are some-
-'
times joined, as <Uuii x\jj i. e. by himself.
132
OF PARTICLES.
PARTICLES are divided into inseparable, and separate ; the

first being always prefixed, and the second class, though not
joined, always preceding the word which they govern. They
occur in every line, and are of much consequence in acquiring
a proper knowledge of the language, the inseparable adverbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions especially ; these, together with
the servile letters, perplexing the learner in various ways, but
more particularly by exhausting his patience in turning over,
to no purpose, the leaves of a Dictionary for vocables, which
he can never find till he has learned to analyse and separate
those letters or particles from the words to which they are
prefixed. It will be requisite, therefore, to pay very great atten
tion to the observations upon them, in order that they may
make a due impression on the memory; they consist of the
5
...
following letters : 1 , this is an interrogative particle (an 2 num ?)
"
-'
c_> in ; i^J by ; this is used in oaths,
yu , an adverb, indi
cating the future: < > and; i $ like; J for, in order to; J
certainly ; and to these may be joined ^ and * , which how
ever are very seldom used ; the first nine are contained in the
o -o
technical words jKi , ^Jy 1 .

More than one of these particles may be prefixed to a word ;
--
thus the interrogative 1 may be followed by i_J or ^ .
These
conjunctive particles <_s and j may likewise be followed by (JM ,
OF PARTICLES.
197
indicating the future, or by the prepositions <_->, ti>, J, uJ,

%j and j.
i
\ This, as has been observed, is an interrogative particle,
- -s.
*
as cyU1 Aas he died ? It is often joined to ^ , and is then
&i
,. -.
- o$- - &i$
written ^ \ , as uJ->v. c^-J ^ <_&* ^ r< ^* indeed Joseph ?

When a second proposition follows, preceded by the separate
"*
interrogative particle \ , they both become disjunctives, signio --o-o
o"
^^
-^-
'
*-o
fii
fying whetheror, thus *îj<Xi J 1 .^yjic l^ 1^ ^JJ 1 ul

OJo
O^
O-'
OX
.^JuG J *1 os to <Aose wAo have disbelieved, it is the same with

them, whether you admonish them, or do not admonish them.
j -. ^$
2. It is a particle of invocation, as i_L> \ 0 Joseph ! it
is then sometimes written thus 1 .
This always bears Kasrah, and signifies

o'V~=
1.
In; as JosJ^ b in the mosque.
2.
With ; especially when prefixed to a noun of instru
ment, as Jju i^*jj / wrote with a pen ; or when subjoined

to verbs of coming and going, which then assume the significa- o-=
tion of bringing and giving, or taking away, as <_jUl b (J 1

.
he came with the book, i. e. he brought the book ; j^JJ b L_-J!>j

o<A the light, i. e. ê took away the light,
198
OF PARTICLES.
O-S* -
3.
Because, far, on account of; as J*l 1 j (,/^JJ V
o^
-.
^ "^ -&~
! b ^/e /or &/, awrf eye for an eye ; ^c <^cj.j> i_j3Ju <0!
*u may God destroy thee on account of thy relapse from Islam !
L >
'
& -a
4. It is a particle of swearing, as s]]\j by God !
5.
It is often put before the predicate of a negative, and

-
---O-o
becomes a species of expletive, as Jjljw <dl \ U Go^ rfo^s ?w?^

^
^
-J o neglect ; literally, God is not in neglecting ; Jl kiûJ / do
?~ '
not know.
6.
After \^\ behold, t_> is prefixed to the name indicating

*
the object of attention, as J

7.
\j] behold a man, !
It subserves to the construction of many verbs, as

he perceived the thing ; *j li J.fy? <,ijj* -
near a man who was sleeping.

CJ.
This is a particle of swearing, as <dl li by God ! it is em
ployed in a few other forms of oath, as ^Ji by my Lord!
but is never applied but to God only.
(JU*
This is prefixed to the future tense, fixing it absolutely to

a future signification.
<_jThis is a conjunction of very general use, signifying and,
then, therefore, so that, &c. : and implies something that follows
OF PARTICLES.
199
**
immediately; differing in that respect from J then, afterwards,

as well as from j and ; both which denote a more remote conSo^-
sequence ; as *"J
. -jo
-*
&>*-J\
,^_j z lcame to me Zaid, and then
Amru, (he following Zaid immediately).
It also differs from
_j , inasmuch as in the propositions connected by it, something

s îs inferred from the preceding to the consequent ; as Jl^c
* to liRxc
J1 ^Ji U jjilic
if _e once a stag was thirsty, and
came to a fountain of water.
2. This conjunction is often used to indicate that the sub

ject of the succeeding proposition differs from that of the pre
ceding one. This should be particularly observed, as it may
prevent the mistakes which might otherwise arise from the
want of precision in expressing the subject which is sometimes
found in Arabian authors. It is frequently prefixed to the
imperative, and then in general marks the passage with pecu
liar emphasis. It frequently however appears as a mere copu
lative, like j .
This is an adverb of similitude, signifying like, or, as, and

governs the genitive; as J^/ like a man.
It is prefixed also
to the personal pronoun, as li1 like me; i^J^ like thee; ^

like him.
It is very rarely found with the affixed pronouns,
as ^ like me ; i_< like thee ; t like him.
The word 1j^
composed of <_S and of the demonstrative l j , is considered as

a noun, and if governed by a preceding word, the antecedent
200
OF PARTICLES.
loses the nunnation.

of such a year.
lj iLLa
_ \j ^J* ^ in such a month
Of this particle, and the relative pronoun U,
is formed the word U , signifying, ire the same manner as.

JThis is a preposition employed in various senses, as
1.
To, the sign of the dative case, as t-^l to the master;
<OJ <x*sr 1 praise be to God.
With pronouns it bears Fathah,
as <_j3 to thee ; Ul to us, &c., except the affixed pronoun of the

first person singular, as ^J to me.
2.
For, because, on account of; <oJtUj <JuLa*J ^J> .f^
my grief was increased on account of what had happened to his

two eyes.
3. It expresses swearing with a mixture of surprise, as
<dl by God!
4.
When prefixed to a verb it sometimes means in order
to ; as <dLiJ \jJ^> u*3\ he sought something that he might eat.

5. It is elegantly prefixed, by way of pleonasm, to that
part of the sentence which is called the predicate, or what is
affirmed of any person or thing ; particularly when ^ is put

before the subject, or the person or thing, of which somewhat
s
"
o ' <~,
&
is affirmed ; as ^j jJil jJoJ ^ for Alexander is powerful.

6.
With Kasrah before the future it forms the imperaS
tive passive, and occasions an apocope, as t.-0-lf
O^x x
Ô-'O'
OF PARTICLES.
let a scribe write an agreement between you.

y"
201
It will be observed
that when i_J or j are prefixed, it loses its Kasrah.
With
o^^ "
Fathah it is also used in calling for. help, as Jt>jJ I1 help, 0

Zaid!
It must be observed that when J comes before the article,
- <
--y. -* the latter loses its Alif; <_&j ^ Ji^r <Ul } verily that is
coming from thy Lord.
7.
Here ^si: is for ^
In conditional propositions it answers to the antecedent
^l /; or iljl if not ; as i_JXc^J ,J<Jo^ j5 / y >e to me,

I will certainly honour you.
J.
This is, I. The conjunction and, also.
&-cr
2.
It denotes swearing, as <dl \j by God !
3.
It signifies with, indicating a simultaneous action, and
then governs the accusative, as .L^>Uh j ÛM ^jJL 1 the

>" o "O-o - - S- oO
is even with the bank ; (J^js. \

came with the army,
J*t$ 1 $ U- the Amir
4.
This conjunction is sometimes equivalent to lJ1 when

*
or whilst ; and then affects the indefinite tense with antithesis,
as <_.>jZ> \ \J \ ) 1C&&- u^ iJW / fear that thou wilt kill me
whilst I am drinking.
202
OF PARTICLES.
c and A.
o ^
These are prefixed for ^c and ô, the letter ^ being

dropped ; as Us for U ^ , and U. for U ^ .
O/" Separate Particles.

These are divided into Prepositions, Adverbs, Conjunctions,
and Interjections; it is rather the office of the dictionary than
the grammar, to point these out ; but as they very often occur,
the learner will find great advantage in being well acquainted
with them. I therefore here make a few remarks upon some
of the principal.
The number of separate prepositions is not great, they are
the following :
^\ .
*
This indicates the term of an action, to, until; as
\ ^\ * U- he came to the city , ^^^ ,J ^ until the time.
This is used in four ways :

1.
,
As a preposition, shewing the term or extremity, and is
equivalent to unto, as .sr^ 1 -sslk

rising.
JU- unto the place of sun-
When thus used it governs a noun in the genitive, or
a conjunctive proposition beginning with ^\ .

2.
It is applied to time, then meaning until, as

they travelled until the sun rose.
OF PARTICLES.
203
& ~
3.
---
->
0-.
It is equivalent to our word even, as
/ Aaw eafow J&e /sA, even its head. Had the particle
been used here instead of <J*>. it would have meant, I
have eaten the fish unto, or as far as its head.
4. When preceding the indefinite tense used as a future,
it affects it with antithesis, and answers to the Latin donee folo - ~
lowed by the subjunctive mood,
O -
S ~
(*j^ L5*. tA^ march until
you overtake them.

LiW. , iU- , and 1jc . These are exceptive particles, origi
nally verbs, signifying to be separated from, to be beyond ; thus
JoJ \&c- f^jt^tj>- ljLw literally means the whole of them beyond,
#
I " -'
or separated from Zaid, have been slain.
.
On, above, is a preposition denoting superiority of

o --
- --
place; it may sometimes bo rendered by against, as <ulc

he went forth against him.
2.
3.
4.
Zaid.
According to ; as jlc ^c according to custom.

Office, or duty, or debt, as jUjJ i_M .Jc literally,
^
me a thousand dinars, i. e. I owe a thousand dinars,
<_Jjlc.
Is used to signify JcU tofo, as
An ellipsis for 1joj Jo>-b- ^
Zaid.
204
OF PARTICLES.
o ~
v^c .
This usually signifies separation from, or the capability

s
-
of doing without a thing.
-o_o
"
"tf
-O
&
..^W 1 ^c ^Jui aJJ 1 ^ em7y
God is rich enough without men.
From this is derived another
signification, of leaving behind, as jJj ^c CJto lie died leaving

-?
a son.
^j .
This denotes in, whether of time or place, and is

- , -
used to express multiplication or proportion, as <w*- .J

# ~~<*- *P ~
-- "
JO^D
4- ~
three multiplied by five ; \z\jd jLf- (Jo \ ^ \c-\jj ^y***its length is fifty cubits by twelve cubits broad. It sometimes answers to the preposition with, as he departed with fifty
<?o.c
thousand men.
Ul 1
o -
- 3
-x*,**-
J i.
wÂ, &c.
O -
JO
JO J
1Xe , iLc , or Joui j jJui .
These denote the commencement
of a certain period of time, and are equivalent to since , as

~ o - f
- Cc'
- o j
^ ~-;..,C s
" ^
ax4js 1 *jj1 iXx <sJL> lj to / Aae wo< seew Aim siwce Friday.
O J
-O J
When the period is not yet finished, <x or Jou governs the
genitive, as 1iXfc lj >& Jc aJUi^ Lc / have not spoken to him
during this month.
j, q/; for, than, us j\d\ ^ j.<*t$ \ Qji* Jutc
when the Amir departed from the palace.
x o
2.
It denotes composition, t_jUic \ j
garden of palm-trees and vines.
"
OF PARTICLES.
205
3. In negative propositions, or interrogative propositions

implying negation, it often happens that the subject, or object
of the verb, instead of appearing in its proper case, is expressed
O
by the preposition ô governing the genitive ; as

s
jjO *
O tf-"-
"
J ^ U- U
"
i^-j ô no man came to me ; *^xi <sl1 ^c .l Lo you have no
"
# 4,
- I
God but Aim.
Adverbs.
The Adverbs of the Arabic language are few in number,
but this deficiency is amply supplied by the means of putting
nouns in the accusative case, or adverbially ; and as this is
applied to all nouns of action, and active participles, there is
no noun, adjective, or verb, which cannot form an adverb ; thus
#
'
'
* -
within ; \-j&- without ; \jJ^ much ; iblS little ; Uô toge*
(her with; 1<\c to-morrow; Ujj one day; LJ by night; l^Lj

by day ; Islii-l by
on the right
hand ; Û-i on the
' chance ; IXMO
"
"_"
-$
|_
^
^-O-
Ô^
(#o^
left hand ; l*j>** quickly ; AAC^ eagerly ; Icjl? willingly ; la^ vio.
lently ; \&> \ eternally, &zc. These are all substantives, adjec

tives, or nouns of action, which being put in the accusative
case become adverbs.
Nouns thus put in the accusative case, are often found in
elliptical expressions, where they depend upon a verb under#^ - - *^*
stood; as Ac It j bw- meaning / am ready to obey you; this
is literally, by hearing and obeying.
land; literally by watering.
ljJL> may God water this
<ij\s^ by his praise, i. e. may lie
206
OF PARTICLES.
be praised.
These are elliptical expressions for j
AcHal côi>l / heard by hearing and obeyed with obedience;

bji~> <dll <_5Uu> may God water thee by watering! ajlx-*~> Asr^-'l
/ praise him with his due praise.
These modes of speaking are
very common in Arabic ; as i_l U*i- may you perish ! lx>-,^

\f> j you are welcome, literally, at your ease and convenience;
Lo\ j U- all is at your service, literally, a pitcher and a
pot-lid, or, on the contrary, LA4 S j S which is a double ellipsis
for <ic\jZ 1 j U- S neither pitcher nor pot-lid, i. e. expect nothing
from me.
A List of the most common Adverbs and Adverbial

Names.
yes.
<,-*o
'-;
jl , \j\ , U31 and Ul jl when.

*
*
*
*
^^^
131 , Ll jl are conjunctive

*
*
adverbs usually employed with a future sense. J\ is limited to

*
the present, and signifies also, seeing that.
O
jl and \j\ signify also, then, behold.
or 1J1 oeK done!

*
S1 or Sl unless, otherwise, verily.
OF PARTICLES.
207
<
.1 whether ? this often acts as a conjunction expressing doubt,

and then signifies, or else.
-'
Ul is it not ?
oi
yesterday.
^\ .
,
This when followed by M signifies, not ; as

*
ail S1 $ere is no judgment but with God. Sometimes when the

- - *
a
word 5il does not follow, this adverb still expresses negation ;
*
oJ^ Ss<,
^&
'
as .J3 ilJLs id*j i_ijl ,.,1 j wd / Awow not whether this may
be a trial to you.
-tf
&-o
's
o.t
'*
Ui1 because, since, only; as <dM .J-c t5>^^ ^^ ^ reward

*
1 Aoc ? wherefore ?
^j1 yes ; equivalent also to **i ; it is only used when a

(
*
form of oath follows; as
>j j i_$\ yes, by God.
oi
i_$\ that isas also the exclamation oh !

-*t
*
^l" \ and ^>\ when, whensoever.
-<Ji
-i-o
^ \ where ; ^ \ ^ whence ,
soever.
ô^
.j 1
- iS
\\ whither ; Ul> 1 where-
208
OF PARTICLES.
<fc1 , <ul , <ul bravo ! well done !

-"
"* *">
l^jj stop / <to is enough !
Jow o/ifer, behind; Juc
.^ hereafter.
When this word is
used as a preposition it ceases to be indeclinable, and appears

either in the accusative due , or in the genitive, if preceded by
the preposition
_ , as duo ^c .
The formula Jjo Us 1 , is
commonly employed in letters, or the prefaces of books, in order

to announce the commencement of the real subject, after the
praises of God, or the usual expressions of politeness.
JO"-
do*j the diminutive of the preceding signifies, a little after.

.Jj yes, certainly.
-o^
S<*^
^jo between; this is the noun ^Jo difference, separation;

in the accusative.
Uoo whilst; and sometimes like the preceding, between.
UJoo whilst; in the mean time.
kj^^ below ; to this word what has been said of j>$j , ap
plies also.
i~ksr' a little lower.
~r
J and t^~Aj then, afterwards.

^Jx
J here.
OK PARTICLKS.
/iU- God forbid! When this word appears with

the nunnation, it becomes an adverb, though before described
as a preposition.
' , L, ^ hallo !
.-a*, where ;
ei-o~ '.* whence ;
t-i-Jo-
^J>\ whither ;
- o -
wheresoever ; it is also written *-too- .

except, under, besides
Ujj often, sometimes.
..,.,--.
This is compounded of the preposi
tion <_^, always governing an indefinite noun in the genitive

case, and also signifying sometimes, or often; and of the particle
u.
These indicate the future.
S aftow all, principally.
*r s
J* above.
& '
&
J*. JjJ perhaps, by chance.

affixed pronouns.
- <,^
This adverb receives the
-. o -
yOjc and yoj* . This adverb conveys a negation, is only

employed with a verb in the future, and signifies never.
'0-
-j>i except.
X
^.
SO'
This is the accusative case of the noun y^.xc

-o -
diference , it is also used adverbially, thus j^c 1l , signifying not

-J O"
O~
.otherwise ; and is then indeclinable, like Jou , c^^sr* , &c.

j and ^& iLiJ /ar from, much less, &c.
14
210
OF PARTICLES.
Uii only, solely.

ji above.
before.
It is with this word as with Jou .

This word is in the same case as the preceding.
along with, in the power of.

diminutive of Jos, a little before.
x
oxx
Oxx
I, jJi! , Jkii certainly, sometimes.
Li , lai , las , y , Ia5, fflCTsr.
This adverb is only used
with a verb in the preterite; if a future time is spoken of,

. o^
^>?
or ^Jol must be used.
^ a* if.
i.-i'
^\^ how much ?
\j thus.
S'
K assuredly not.
<z<, as </fe .
? how much ?
as i/j according to.
1,'
Jj wherefore, in the same manner as,
^ô^
UAA any /tow.

-.-
-o^ x
X mo, o^, of at all, is not ; joN necessarily ; +.3 undoubtedly.

Ox
J unless, no, not; applied to the past tense.
OF PARTICLES.
211
Ul not yet, when.

UJ and J why ?
This is compounded of the preposition
J , and of the indeclinable word U

^ no, not.
Ox
--O^
<*z~~A would to God!
This admits the affixed pronouns.
U, negative adverb of the present tense, and conjunctive

noun, meaning that which, and as an interrogative particle what?
or how?
when ; to <-X in whatever way.
with, together with,
as often as.
This word always requires an affixed pronoun, thus.

ss o '
he alone; UiA*-j s/e alone.

<, x
^ <* '
^j and i_^Jj- Adverbs of admiration or reproach.
,
U behold!
This with the affixed pronoun of the second

o -
person, has the signification of jii take! The affixed pronoun

^^ * -*} -- oi ^
changes, however, then into Hamzah, as f U, U, Ujla, *jU,
UJ ^
^jlik ; according to the variation of gender, and number, for

take thou, (mas.) ; i_JU> take thou, (fem.) ; UÛ take you
two, &c.
142
212
OF PARTICLbS.
see here! behold! JOU fem.

"
whether?
An interrogative adverb.
.and iU whether ? is it not ? well done !

-
x
-_-
o^x
and i_$3 Jos ; J3 , &c. come on /

x^
^^
Uut and Ua Aere. From this adverb other demonstrative
adverbs are formed, in the same manner as demonstrative pro
nouns; as i_$Ua, <_$3U& there, in speaking of things at a
distance; UfeU here, in speaking of things at hand.
HF
see there ! behold !
-' o-
La>
, <^~k
, \j , L.
l b , LJo
1 b ; these five adverbs are
"
^f
^f ,,
used in invocation and speaking to.
<
Conjunctions.
It is with conjunctions as with adverbs, they must be learned
by the Dictionary, but a few of the most common may be here
enumerated.
*
.
o*
31 . This is compounded of the conjunction ^ that, and
the negative adverb ] not ; with the prefixed particle J ; it is
**
written thus, 5LJ that it maynot.
4
S1 if not.
*
tcl but, however, nevertheless.
Ul or, or else ; UU if, but.
OF PARTICLES.
s.
i-i
213
ul , y1 that. ^1 is used when this conjunction is imme

diately followed by a noun ; it is often written with the affixed
^
pronoun . The purpose of this addition of the pronoun, is

to remove the influence of the conjunction, which would, but
for such addition, require the accusative case.
,
o
^,1 , and by contraction ^ . This conjunction comes before
the subject of a proposition, when that subject is placed before
the verb, and adds energy to the expression. It is also written
^
-
<Ul , as is done with <U \ , and for the same reason ; from the
*
inseparable particle <_s, joined to this conjunction, are formed
3^
. the words Û and <sjlj, signifying and indeed.
*
ul if; from the affirmative adverb J certainly; and this

Oi-
conj unction if formed ; ^ certainly if.

<
j 1 or, or else, until.
O ^
O '
in order that;
J3 is used in the same sense and with
the negative adverb S, it becomes L> and iLl lest not, so as

not.
i. * ^ and ^5 but.
& s
^ is only used before nouns and pro
nouns.
Interjections.
-'
\j ah ! alas ! This exclamation may be followed by the
nominative case ; or the nunnation being dropped, Alif pre--
S^s
ô^
ceded by Fathah, or *1, may be added Joj U, or 1joj \j,
214
OK PARTICLES.
O xo^
--
or *taj lj, when two nouns in construction follow, the syllable

o
b xfc^
>-^*
jl is added to the last, as 1JL>; Ac 1j o/as the boy of Zaid!

G<,'
Jjj alas! woe!

-J^
"Os
This is sometimes used disjunctively, as

-
-4, ^
-o -
<J Jjj woe to him! or conjoined, v_Lj woe to thee! .J^^ V.

woe to me !
SYNTAX.
THE concordance of the substantive with the adjective, of

the relative with its antecedent, and the nominative with the
verb, has but few peculiarities in the Arabic language. The
substantive however precedes the adjective, the verb the nomi
native, and the nominative the genitive.
Syntax of the Noun.

A proper name being definite by its very nature, takes no
article; but the epithet, if it have one, always requires it, as
^jwJ \ f^3\j>\ Abraham the faithful. This is the case also when
> - '*
a substantive is rendered definite by an affixed pronoun, as
A^L*l 1 le>\ my honored father.
The nominative, in the beginning of a sentence, is often
found to be, what may be called, the nominative absolute, as
<,,C <<o
tf ~o
->*
tf-e
jjtfjS 1 i1ft j Cj|^*J \ (J U <0 431 God, to him is what is

in heaven and on earth.
A noun substantive governs another in the genitive, which,
as above observed, is always placed after the nominative; as
<
jU- a ring of gold.

\X_ a book of Solomon ; <_^&j
^
r.
The governing substantive sometimes has the effect of an
' t\~ " "
adjective ; as <-J;W" \ Jjl length of experience, i. e. long expe&
rience ; this is always the construction of the word J the whole ;
216
SYNTAX.
o x
- .
which is used for o# or every; as i<> J

?*
ÛJ 1 all men. This, and some other substantives, such as
* o-
j^^jjj <Ae sOM, wJf; when they have the possessive pronouns an
nexed, and follow another substantive, with which they agree,
become as it were adjectives, and follow their construction, as
<Uii <-ôo*. a frimd his-self, a real friend.
--
d j*>- the whole
o .#
of the bread, all the bread ; gen. <d Jjo- of all the bread.
It has been observed that the accusative termination con
veys an adverbial meaning, which may often be rendered by
the Latin Gerund in do, as \&\j fU- he came riding (equitando)
ldoe"" <_>Ul 1 lÛ-Jl ewfer <Ae âfe adoring (adorando.)
The sense of the Latin quoad, by reason, or in respect of,
is conveyed by the accusative, as L*.sj i_-^ t-jlt Joseph is
good, in respect of his mind, or disposition, i. e. he is well dis
posed.
The Arabic noun having no vocative case, the nominative
and accusative are both used in its place ; if the person or object
addressed be present, the noun is in the nominative case, with
out nunnation, as * U \> 0 heaven '. ^jJo^ V. ^ Prophets ! but
in this case the noun must not be followed by a word which
it governs, either immediately, or by a preposition ; in these
cases it appears in the accusative, as <dJ \ JOLC U 0 Abd-Allah !
(0 Servant of God) ay>-j LUU.-V L 0 thou whose face is beau
tiful. The accusative is also used when the object addressed is
SYNTAX.
217
indeterminate, that is to say, without an article, and is not

4 -
considered to be present, as boJ b 0 Prophet!

The principal use of the passive voice is to consider an
action, only with relation to the patient, the agent being left
out of sight; if it is only desired to fix the principal, but not
exclusive attention on the object or patient, the name of the
subject or agent may be added ; and it may be said, the Vazir
was killed by the Sultan, but this form of construction is very
rare in Arabic.
The transitive verb, when entering the passive voice, loses
its object ; which then becomes its subject. Verbs doubly tran
sitive, however, preserve both their objects, the second remain
ing in its preceding form, and the first becoming the subject
of the proposition, thus in the active voice xj>\j <jULJ \ ,JLo
U>j.4uL<i * U the Sultan gave his Vazir poisoned water to drink.
In the passive voice this becomes Lj**^ ** Lc Jyl \ ^JL:
The Vazir received poisoned water to drink.
In the same
way it is said \js^* ^ \j*- J^J iJ*^ Zaid gave Amru, a

splendid Vest.
In the passive voice \js^ bjJ jj*c- ,5^ Amru
has been presented with a splendid vest.

As in other languages, so in Arabic, two nouns meaning
the same thing, or as it is termed in Grammar, put in apposition,
must agree in gender, number, and case, nor can the second,
when one word governs another, be the same thing as its ante
cedent. Such grammatical anomalies are however sometimes
met with ; as {jM^s^ \ * the day of tmsday (the fifth) tL,
218
SYNTAX.
1 the prayer of the firti ; that is, the first prayer .uUc
^
a worn-out, of a turban ; that is, a worn-out turban. Many
nouns indicating time, or portions of time, govern complete pro-o-
- -
positions; the governing noun then loses its nunnation, * 1<x&

o*fO
V -O
- ~O-
Ae justice of just men will aid

them ; CDjJj *jj ^jl* *U 1 Peace was M/WW me the day when
/ was born ; jy& \ ^ >f^.. pj}. <_S^J \ <sl To hirn will be the
royalty, on the day when the trumpet is sounded.
The subject and object of a transitive verb represented by
the noun of action, being both expressed, the subject may be
put in construction with the noun of action, that is, may re" 3 -a
? - <* -
- 1?~o ,. o -
- -
ceive the genitive case ; as <UuJ 1 nM& ^ \^J^>- &bls1 \ JJjj ^

In this year it was that the Khalif slew Jafar ; or the object
may be put in the genitive, and the subject in the nominative,
-- 0--
as liS^c
w^
--
s-J -
5 ~
--
-J
li
*>tf-
*c-
-- ^
j- j
He forbade all men in speaking or writing to -call him our Lord

and our Master.
The active participle may, like all verbs, except the sub
stantive or abstract verb, express an attribute of a subject, and
as the subject of a verb is always in the nominative whenever
the active participle has a subject, that subject is placed in the
#
-O"
-~
*O-^ S O '
nominative thus \3yis? ty\ Jj-lj \ )j*. Amru whose father has
"Ox-
? s
jÔ*O
killed Mahmud ; *Jooj 1iXc <lw \ *f&\> JoJ The son of Zaid will
to-morrow marry Zubaidah.
If, however, the active participle expresses a quality inherent
SYNTAX.
219
in the subject, and unconnected with any circumstance of time,

it may govern its subject in the genitive. It is not therefore
io-o -* ô.^ s ^*
incorrect to say t_jS \ >jliil 1 doj Zaid, whose father stands firmly*
This construction, where the noun, which is really the subject,
is put in the genitive case, and governed by the participle,
seldom takes place but when the participle is of a neuter verb ;
it is sometimes found, however, with participles derived from
transitive verbs, when they are used as mere adjectives, as
V. >X -O
--
i> "nL
t_JJil 1 *s>.\Jt \ merciful of heart.

The active participle, accompanied by the article, is equiva* -i . -o-o
lent to the relative pronoun and a verb; thus xj\ Jj-Ul \ \JJt>
is the same as 1.4* xj>\ JJIJS ^jJ 1 1jiJk This is he whose
father killed Amru.
The subject to which the passive participle is attached,
appears also in the nominative case xj>\ SW J^*- <*}j Zaidf
whose father is at this moment kitted. It may, however, be put
in the genitive, being then governed by the participle, or in
O0
,.
-<,^
So-
the accusative case ; thus it may be written <_$ \ J^Xsu Ju\\ ,

or Ct
If the passive participle belongs to a verb doubly transitive,
it preserves in the accusative the second object governed by
the verb; thus U^J *jac .Ja*^ \j The slave of Zaid has
been presented with a piece of silver.
The substantive signifying the object to which the adjective
refers, or by which the quantity or quality of that adjective
is defined, is often joined to it ; as when we say a man learned
220
SYNTAX.
in (quoad) music ; a young man handsome of (quoad) counte

nance ; a man whose father is just ; the Arabians express such
sentences in three ways.
1.
The adjective preserves its nunnation, or article, and
the following substantive is in the nominative case, as (V*^f^ô-o S s s
tfj^
- ^
S - '
<_.# \ <.f*j>- J^> or *y1 ^y*.-w There came to me a man whose

*r O "
~c
'
-*"
wO --
- . o ^
father is handsome ; <t-jl \ ,-AJUJ Ja^j> ^Jjj > or a^f-j ,-AJJJ

/ passed by a man whose face was ugly.
2.
They put the adjective with the following substantive

~U
in
construction,
as
A>-l 1
to me a man handsome of countenance;

O-'
"
cowitenance.
3.
'
'
, or <*^j ^.w.^ / passed by a man handsome of

^s
s
The adjective preserves its nunnation, or its article, the
following substantive appearing in the accusative,

ô^*
S -~ ~
5"^^
x o -0-^
as
Û-
S ' s
\^>-j û- Ja^ , or A-jl 1 ,^M- TAere came to me a wiaw

4 ij x
handsome in countenance ; L^-j

-
-'^
^^
jo^s
-'^
**^ Jf/ L"Lr , or
A>-jl 1 / passed by a man handsome in countenance.

In the three ways here indicated, the adjective which pre
cedes the substantive, shewing the object, may have the article
or not ; the substantive, itself may also be definite or not.
It
is made definite, first by the article, second by a substantive

governed by itself, and which substantive has the article, third
by the affixed pronoun, fourth by a substantive governed by
itself, and which substantive has an affixed pronoun.
From
SYNTAX.
221
this results a great number of different forms, some disapproved,

and others authorized, but more or less elegant.
The adjective, even when taking the article, may receive
G
^
*3~0
-
tf -O
*0 -o-O
J
0O
the affixed pronouns, thus j (jw^ \
is ugly of countenance, who has a strong head,
and a little one.
The adjective, in the form of construction just before indi
cated, must agree with the preceding substantive in regard to
o ô-^ S s ~
S -J -x
the use of the article, as &>-jl \ ,**- J^ a man handsome of

o -<,~a * s ô-o ^?o -'
countenance ; and <t>-jl 1
.^.j. 1 Jjj âicf handsome of countenance.
If such an adjective have a substantive following, which it

governs in the genitive, it must itself agree with its preceding
substantive in gender, number, and case, as (.Ju>o- J*-^ (-JJf
-
#
o "O-O
sO
<j">
<X>-jl 1 / passed by a man handsome of countenance ; x Jt -1 ^.^j 1j

O^0-O
- '
'
'
/ saw a woman handsome of countenance ; ^ Ucae to we ^wo men handsome of cowntena/nce. This agreement of the adjective with the preceding
substantive, is equally observed, though the following substan#0^
- ."
~ ^
-JG "
tive may be in the accusative case; as L-j /"*- iJ?-^ '^Jj-c

/ passed by a man handsome in (quoad) countenance.
If however the substantive following the adjective be put
in the nominative, the adjective then agrees with the preceding
substantive in case, but with the substantive following in gender
SYNTAX.
and number, thus <^^j c^k- J^y ("~ijj* ^ parsed by a man

#
x ~
O -
~<*M0
-J
O --
0Ao*e /bce is handsome; U*P-J j^f- **j*V *-">!/ -^ Passed

+
% a woman whose face is handsome. If the following substantive

be a broken plural, the adjective is usually put in the feminine
singular, as ^jiiy^-j <u.>- Jla-v ^jj* I passed by men whose
'
#
#
o ^ j .-
xo
5o^^
_/aces are handsome ; **J)lj ix-Ull <jjy woe &e to <fem wAo*?
Aeart* are Aarrf/
Before a substantive masculine in the plural number, the
- <,-adjective usually appears in the masculine singular, as <-i-jjj
j j Ô
# ^ "
<UULi ^^ iy / s> a ?aw wAose 6oys are sick.
The ad
jective may however appear in the plural, either broken or

,i-. xO
^ Os
^ - *"
o,t -'
-- xO
-*
regular, as iSjUU .c Û^; oo^, or <tjUlc

If after a substantive definite by its nature, by the use of
the article, or an affixed pronoun, an indefinite adjective follows,
an ellipsis of the abstract verb to be must be understood, as
S--.-o--O
1 the Sultan is sick ; \j&>.j> ^ y father is sick ;
<i<ojj Joseph is s'cA.

If however the adjective be limited by the article, the prox -
noun personal ^& is interposed between it, and the subject, and
supplies the place of the verb to be, as
God is living and self-subsisting.
An adjective constituting the predicate of a proposition,
agrees with the subject in gender and number, unless that sub
ject be a broken plural, in which case the adjective may be in
SYNTAX.
223
the feminine singular x^> joj-k*l 1 j <-?>$& ^ <g*^ ^r hearts

are blind though their eyes see.
If the predicate precede the subject, as takes place in inter
rogative and negative propositions, and the subject be dual, or
s
-*
plural, the predicate is to be placed in the singular, as Ji-b1

- - 4.^
- -_0
ypU-^ 1 do the two mm enter ? JU^J 1 *j\*- to the mm do not

go out.
A substantive preceding an adjective, and forming with it
- o-o
- o -
a proper name, throws away the article, as <xxsi*' \ AAC (Abd

ul-Majid) the servant of the glorified (God).
When two substantives meet in construction, the antecedent
is commonly indefinite, and the following noun definite, and
the effect of their union is to determine the antecedent, thus
o -*--
o1-^^
*iL; the slave of Amru ; ,<*^ 1 the servant of my sister ;

jj_j the Vazir of the Sultan.
When both terms of the
proposition are indefinite, the antecedent so continues to be,

a^j-^-o
.-.,-
as \3: J^-j i$j*\ a barber's wife; JUj jU- a green-seller's

*
*
*
# .
ass ; JU i--<-L5 a possessor of riches.
In this case, though
the antecedent do not become a definite noun, it is no longer

entirely vague, and it will be perceived that a Vazir of a Sultan,
and an ass of a green-seller, are more definite than a Vazir,
s & -*
and an ass. This case the Arabian grammarians term ^ÂOSC ,
or particularized. The antecedent never takes the article, though
some of the principal authors of the last four or five centuries
do not observe this rule, and prefix the article to both the
224
SYNTAX.
antecedent, and the consequent ; i_/.l 1 ^t JfM& \ fjK. \ j_xi

he satisfied a vast multitude with barley bread.
When the meaning of the construction cannot be resolved
into possession, or some synonymous interpretation, the nomina
tive is either with or without the article, according as the signification is definite or indefinite, as Jo*l \ <_^Lal 1 <Ae scourger
-o-o
o/ <fo servant ; or do*l 1 t_>;U a scourger of the servant.
Nouns
of measure and weight govern the accusative singular, as

<*G~
-O-
Uoj ^>j two pounds of oil of olives.

The cardinal numbers, from three to ten, may be considered
either as adjectives, or substantives; as adjectives they agree
in gender and case with the name of the thing numbered, as
S o "
S -s
S"s
--*-'
^ ^
lj~*>- cylw j <3i1j ^yo *l ^ he had three sons and five daugh
ters. As substantives they govern- the following word in the
genitive plural. The numeral must agree in gender with the
S ---
name of the thing numbered, as JU-j 4$j three men; c>~>

*
cylw six girls.
The numerals, from ten to one hundred, govern the accu
sative singular. The tens excepted, they not admitting any
variation of gender, these numerals agree in their gender with
<>-<,^ '^^ -' 'f.
the name of the thing numbered, as \>& y*c Ju*-1 eleven stars ;
^xo^
- - o
S o -
As** u,jv" j ^.u..' ninety-nine sheep.

In the numbers above twenty, the unities are put before
^ -
-JO
S ' O
-~
the tens, thus l^lw J ^^^ j ***- twenty-five pieces of gold.
SYNTAX.
225
After the numerals of hundreds, the name of the thing num

bered is in the genitive singular, the numeral antecedent losing
-' *s
its nunnation, and the dual the termination ^, as
I1
<
a hundred men ; jU- iJoU two hundred asses ; i-0

five hundred dogs.
s *
The numerative i_al \ one thousand, is a masculine noun govern
ing the genitive singular.
If the number to be expressed is composed of numerals of
different classes, it is sufficient to put the name of the thing
numbered after all the numerals, and in the number and case
demanded by the last of them : <Gilj ÛjD \
**---..<,- - s <, - $ J<, -*
iL> ^^w-o j j-jj \ j JuUxJ j uJS 1 between the Hijrah and
^
<i*
#Ae Deluge there are three thousand nine hundred and seventy-four
years.
In the dates of years the cardinal numbers are employed,
S"
governed by the word iJu.
This word is then made definite
by the numerals which it governs, and is consequently without

j?-'^
an article; the numerals agree in gender with the word aLLj,
which is feminine ; the units are put first, then the tens, the hun
dreds, and the thousands, inserting the conjunction j between
o -
each numeral.
then began the year 1396.
15
--
uJl 1 j aJUJU
.
^
XM^>
^--
c^> <Uj
o --- $^
226
SYNTAX.
Ordinal Numbers.
These are true adjectives, and agree with the nouns which
they qualify, in the use of the article, as well as in gender,
number, and case.
The ordinal numbers of tens, hundreds, and thousands, being
the same as the cardinal numbers, are employed for both genders.
When the ordinal numbers are made definite by the article,
they do not appear in construction with the name of the thing
numbered, but are joined with it by means of a preposition,
-
O~o
- O
3i -O
thus ^Lict j^ ^ <jjj^- j U-4UJ \ the twenty-third of the

month of Bamadhan. When the numerals are without an article,
they may govern a noun in the genitive, or an affixed pronoun.
î he was saluted Khalif after the hour of noon of Wed

nesday the twenty-eighth of Mamadhan ; and thus with an affixed
-
-o-o
-..
- "
"
pronoun, JLfeUJ \> i_0jj ajoûi* i_i-Jl; .J <fe twenty-third of it

(the month) a proclamation was made at Kahirah.
The indecli
nable numeratives * , ^> l , or i_l , Aow many, put the noun

which follows them in the accusative, as cyjo-1
Dirhams have you received? \ji iL>^
jl^
been killed ? It is the same with \& .

If, however, before the indeclinable numerative, or before
the thing numbered which follows it, a preposition occurs, the
thing numbered is in the genitive, in the first case, as being
governed by the indeclinable noun, and in the second as being
SYNTAX.
227
ô
<,^
governed by the preposition, as +a>jJ Jj for how many Dir"

-* ~
^
j^
O
<, -Lhams ? iJ-j ^ ^j l Aow many men ? If the indeclinable words
~
~
*
#
here spoken of, are not used as interrogatives, the name of the
thing numbered, may be in the genitive, either singular or plural,
s<,--
o"
oi
as i^-Ui JU^,
5j\ 1 I know not how many men thou
* ' - '
- -
o-
hast killed ; or
The comparative adjective, when governing an indefinite
word, always remains in the singular number and masculine
gender, as if j*\ âi \
j& she is an excellent woman ; Jai \ jS>
(^-i
*' he is an excellent man ; /JW-i
. - r>^*e \ *a
! they are great men.
When the word governed by the comparative adjective is
definite, that is, takes the article, the comparative may remain
of the singular masculine, or agree with the noun it governs
A^- _
^3
-oi
in gender and in number, as * LJJ 1 J*ai \ ^Jt> she is the most

excellent of women ; or thus, * LJJ \ .-Lai .Jk
When the comparative adjective is without the article, and
does not govern another word, it is always of the masculine
o
singular, and ought to be followed by the preposition ^ , as

C,
< .-^C
- " .
*r " O '- -3
JJUl 1 ^ <xi 1 JuJul l sedition is worse than mwrder.

The comparative adjective of the form Jjo 1 , when govern
ing another word, or accompanied by the article, expresses the
superlative, as
j^>.\\\ *B~J\ 4JJ 1 God is the most merciful of
merciful, ; J^J 1 & <OJ 1 (rod is ws< great.

152
228
SYNTAX.
o
When followed by ^*, and a word which that preposition

s o
--o
- ' o
governs, it is merely the comparative, as u_x JJ^1 .x*-l

Ahmad is more faithful than thou.
&-o
The relative pronoun i_jj 1 agrees with its antecedent, if

it be a rational noun, in gender and number, as has been
observed, it knows no variation of case, excepting in the dual.
Where the antecedent, however, is an irrational noun in the
-"
.,*-<, -*3
plural, the relative is put in the feminine singular, as L_ - vî 1

-o
i] \ the books which.
This also takes place with the personal
reciprocal pronouns, as LJ1U* j bo eyjj^ / <oo Soofe

read them. The oblique cases of the relative are likewise supJ^.Oss
UJ~D
-- gj -O
^^^
plied by these affixed pronouns, as AÎJ ^JJ 1

the man whom I assisted beat me.
The relative however is some-j ^
--S^3
times dropped, and the affixed pronoun used alone, as

x^
-x.',x ^
V*3
tence, either expressed or understood, as IJ^Jj yi> UaU- i_jj 1

toAo created us, he directs us ; the antecedent he being understood
before the relative pronoun.
These affixed pronouns are generally thrown to the end of
the sentence, or followed only by the nominative when a proper
Siss
- ^ f -
- -
name, as doj <uii My' ^ ^* servant his Zaid, for ârf

- -
"
& ~o
beat his servant ; Ljo-Lj j\^\ \

master is in his house, but not
~i in house master his, for the
SYNTAX.
229
Syntax of the Verb.

When the noun which is the subject of the verb precedes
it, the verb must agree in gender and number with the noun,
- j
^j
x<j s i -o~
-^J ~-?
fjoxi *j (JfLsr 1 1joj <dl \ God produces creatures, then he gives

them life.
It must be observed, however, that if the subject is an
irregular plural, coming from a noun, whether masculine or
feminine, or a regular plural feminine, the verb may be, and
-*c_c
usually is, in the feminine singular, as \^*>\jl \ d>UU- b S1

on the
branches of the Arakl bear the menage of a lover, who cannot
recover from his intoxication.
If, however, the irregular plural be of rational beings, of
the masculine gender, the verb may be in the masculine plural,
-* fii -O
_s-*-^fc_- -
oîo-o
S-'r--'*--'
o ~
-' ^^ ^ss J?s*-^_-'
iyil b &J lc j JjJJ b aL iU .Jlw ^ÎftW Kjl
43
(rflrf ^05
by turns watch over you; angels in the night, and

s
j - Oj
^xo-
Js ^
...<,)
the day, l
kings enter a town, they lay it waste.
When the verb precedes the subject, if that subject be

singular and masculine, their concordance is always preserved.
If, however, it be a singular feminine, the verb must agree
with its subject in number, but may differ in gender.
If the subject, be a creature, really of the female sex, and
that it immediately follows the verb, the verb must then be in
the feminine; but if the noun does not immediately follow the
verb, the verb may be either masculine or feminine, yet the
230
SYNTAX.
.<-
-J
" <* *O
* s
feminine is to be preferred, as JjJ*l \ xij\ v^J^
^ wife
of Aziz said.
If the subject be merely a grammatical feminine, the verb
may be of either gender, whether it precede its subject imme
diately, or not; in the second case the verb should rather be
S & -
O J Cs"
&
'
-'
&*
in the masculine, is?- Âc. t/uUlJ W/J ^ in order that *"**

may have no pretence against you.
If the verb is separated from the feminine subject by M,
; *~
" it is put in the masculine *Ui 5I1 J!j l there is no one
innocent but the servant maid, the verb may, however, here agree
S "
with the noun in gender, the word *Ui would then be understood directly after the verb L^-SJ
When the subject is a masculine plural, the verb preceding
j
î
it may be in the singular, as J* 1yLJ \ ^ \ U ^y \ do we

believe as fools have believed.
If the subject be an irregular plural, coming from a singular,
whether masculine or feminine, the verb may be put in the
singular, and in either gender.
When the subject is a regular masculine plural, the verb
^
-s
must not be in the feminine, but it may be so with ^y?

S<,
plural of
j\ a son, and with such like words ; which, though

^-*
having the termination of regular masculine plurals, do not
keep the forms of their singulars ; for these plurals are in fact
s
Z-S*~x o
J -'
^ ^
broken ones, as Jjo \ .J\ 1jJo <^Jls the children of Israel said.
"
The verb may also be in the feminine, and even hi the

plural number, when the noun following is a collective one,
SYNTAX.
231
=<-
s,s
as *_j5 a nation; or a name of a species, as Jus<^

jjb> bird.
The subject, if it bo a mere grammatical or conventional
feminine, or a broken feminine plural, may have the verb preS' o
- -
ceding it in the singular feminine, or even masculine, ly^ Jli

s
^<~*o
AAjjd 1 ^ women in the city said.

The dual follows the same rules of concordance as the
"s
J^-'
- o ..^
'' '
plural, Ûii <uî ^^s^ \ J^-J two youths entered the prison
' O - -o
^ ^
with him, ^J^-J^ 1 c^-5^ the two feet said.

Though, as has been said, it is usual when the verb pre
cedes the subject, to put it in the singular, with the subject,
dual or plural, yet the verb may agree in number and in
s
gender with its subject.
- -
& ~c
Oo
sO^ -
^>j\*> $ S~^ ^ ^J\j& ' ^j ^
girls have seen the grey hairs appear upon my face.

In the compound tenses expressed by the union of the
verb ^ and the preterite, or indefinite of another verb, if the
subject is put between the two verbs, the verb ^ follows the
rules of concordance of the verb preceding its subject, and the
second verb follows those of the verb placed after its subject.
When the subject is a collective noun, preceding the verb,
<i ~O
o.S
the verb is commonly placed in the plural (jwlil 1 J&\ &

^
^Jo^
i^^^10 S but the greater part of men are not grateful.

If the same verb have several subjects of different persons,
it agrees with that subject which, in the language of gram
marians, is of the best person; the first person being better
232
SYNTAX.
- -i
than the second, and the second better than the third, j \j\
j
^ C f
*"
&s
O^
^ -* C-c
Jos^0 j J J1 ^.a^j JUl 1 / and the young man will go thi

ther, and we mil worship.
When the same noun is the subject of one verb, and the
object of another, it is necessary to attend to the way in
which the two verbs are placed. If the verb which governs
the noun as its object, is placed first, and then the verb to
which that noun is the subject, the objective case is under.
O ^x
stood, and the noun appears only in the nominative, as <2~~>j**

So-
---
&''-<*'x
j / struck Zaid and Zaid struck me; j* j

j / passed by Amru, and Amru passed by me.
It is
permitted, however, to give an affixed pronoun as its object

<?o""
-*o~ -
to the first verb, Jjj ^.j** 3 *-VsIf the verb to which the noun acts as subject, comes first,
and then that which governs the noun or object, the object
is equally suppressed, and the usual rules are observed in the
j O~ ^
'
---
agreement of the first verb with the subject, côytJ j 15^.1**

-~ o "
^Joj the two Zaids struck me, and I struck them.

The noun may also be expressed in the objective or accu
sative case ; giving to the first verb the termination which
indicates its agreement with the latent, or understood pro
noun, which represents that noun in the nominative case, as
^
03 -a
- <*' '
-^^
o3 -a
- o- ' ^
.^^
^^ o*so
^j' 1 c^y j ^y for ^) \ ^j* _, Jtj* ^jl \

the Zaids struck me and I struck them.
If a verb be used
which requires a subject and a predicate, such as ^l to be ;
SYNTAX.
233
j\*> to become ; and that the predicate be common to two

propositions ; as / was ill, and Zaid was ill ; the predicate
may be given only once, or may be represented by a separate
^
iTo^
f ^
--
Oj
compound pronoun, as Li!r îj u^ 5 c^~*^ I was, and Zaid

was, ill, or Li..j_ Jo..ji ^
,.,K , M.. c^~* / was so, awe? Zaid was
t-&, or M Liô Joj ^l j d--J^ / was and Zaid was ill,
it; that is, Zaid was ill, and
three methods is the one most
the two subjects should be of
otherwise the predicate must be
I was so. The first of these

in use. All this requires that
the same gender and number,
repeated.
The same rule takes place with verbs, such as ^ to believe ;
L- to suppose, when governing a complete proposition, formed

^ o- -
from a subject and predicate both in the accusative, as ^^jj^>

# ^ ?1.'
UlU- 1JJ ; / believed Zaid was learned. The predicate may be
common to two propositions, and, of course, to two different
subjects ; and the noun, which in one of the propositions is the
subject of the verb to believe, may, in the other, be the sub
ject of the proposition which is governed by that verb, thus,
Zaid has believed me learned, and I have believed Zaid learned.
?
ôx
O^^
13 '
Ullc 1JL>J i^Jut> j <j^k he has believed me, and I have be#
#o^
Jo--
--
lieved Zaid learned; or U1U 1doj

i^^xb . M"> . _\Ji?
he has
"J
'
*"
believed me it, and I have believed Zaid learned; or j ip-^
^
'
5?Ox
O --
ifb 1 1*1U liXi: \^Jj& he has believed me and I have believed

Zaid learned it ; that is, / have believed Zaid to be learned,
and he has believed me to be so. The first is the method most
234
SYNTAX.
approved.
If the subjects be of different gender and number,

Ô^
'
Ô^
#5-
Q^'
'
- -J.
the predicate must be repeated; ^ 3 \AJJ U-1 ^yUlaj j ^1

o--*
'
"
^,^9-1 / regard Zaid and Amru as my two brothers, and they

two regard me as a brother.
In treating of the tenses of the verb, an enumeration has

been made of the various particles which affect the indefinite
tense, with apocope, antithesis and paragoge. The indefinite
tense, as has been observed, (page 64,) is by the Arabians
S
" -J
denominated filÛ , or resembling, because, in some of its acci

dents, it resembles the noun. As the noun has various cases,
so the verb, in the indefinite tense, has various terminations;
these, by some European grammarians, are considered as moods
of the verb.
The first, which is the natural and proper state of the in-
*r O^
definite L_~O&J , is by them called the indicative mood ; by the

S<,^
Arabians <f_jj , elevation, i. e. of the final vowel o or u. The

second, which is when the indefinite tense receives antithesis
'
JO-
i_ -,y ; , the same European authors call the subjunctive mood ;

S
o --
by the Arabians -themselves it is denominated k_-âJ , or erection.

These epithets, which belong also to the noun, when applied to
that, designate respectively what we call the nominative and
accusative cases, distinguished by the final vowels o or u, and
a. The third state of the indefinite tense is when it receives
Jazmah i_J^J , or apocope ; this the same authors call the con
ditional mood; while the fourth, which is when the indefinite
SYNTAX.
235
tense receives, what the Arabians call the ^ of confirmation, and

which Erpenius has distinguished by the term paragoge, is deno
minated the indefinite tense energetic.
The more simple distinctions, as they appear to be, of Erpe
nius, have been followed in this grammar.
1. The indefinite, having a future sense, is subjoined to
the preceding verb in the preterite, in order to denote the
immediate and consequential succession of the action which itself
indicates; a meaning conveyed in English by the future of
*j - o "
* -
O^
~S-
the conditional mood, as <_uo *lo (Â ^\
j\ he came to
a fountain of water THAT HE MIGHT DRINK ; ^jd \ .J* i_yL) ] J

ô/o-o -tf-.
jî \ ^Jo then he ascended the throne, that he MIGHT ADMINISTER

^
o.t
.
justice; J^cUu
.jJuj^J 1 <^jJ i_Jl4>l ^ CJjJ^c j1
wentest out in the morning that thou might lead the faithful into
2. The indefinite is subjoined, in the manner of a simple
complement, to some verbs, the sense of which remains imper
fect without the addition of another verb. In such cases the
o*
indefinite usually receives ^\ before it, but the interposition of

this particle is frequently dispensed with :
1. It is seldom used with verbs denoting inclination or
^
tendency to action.
O/^
"
The verbs clkLj \ and jjiJ> to be able, are

*-
-'Z
usually joined immediately to the indefinite $ U> and \j \ to wish

-.-<,
or desire, more rarely so, as Jaj \ Jojl / wish to see (that I

* - -s.
could see) ; ^ iMj \ , is however more correct, and in more
general use. With some verbs the common forms of speech
236
seek brevity more than grammatical purity ; as -AJU*J

he knew how to swim.
f
- -o-
<,
This verb uJ^ to know, should receive

-
^ after it, as J*aj ^J

2.
Verbs indicating an action about to be immediately.
Among these the most frequent is jl to be nearly, or almost.

(Lat. parum abfuit quin,) which is almost always immediately
j -o-
^ O - o
joined to its indefinite ; as (j&jj (^JuJ \ CJjl the spirit was

nearly departing.
ê lightning nearly took away
their sight.
More rare, but of the same tendency, and of the

*-$
,,,
- î
same species of connection, are J 1 , i-jZ , and uJvij \ to be

near to. All these very seldom require the interposition of
oi
-- y\ ; but j^c expressing apprehension of any thing, and which
may be considered as an impersonal verb, requires the con* - -~o- o^*
oio.- S<* "- s *o
" "
junction ^ ; as *J jj^- ji> j \j^> \j&>j*J ^ ^*. it may per
haps be that you may hate a thing, and it may be good for
you.
Even this verb ,<**, however, among the poets is found
without ^,1 preceding the indefinite, as j*j ^ <-J>j\J

perhaps he who is travelling may see your fire. When a nega
tion takes place, it must be put before the first verb, as
-J*~^-i
o,t
ojo ~ ~
w 1 he is hardly able to speak plainly ; ^

sj perhaps you will not do it.
It is to be observed that
.vr- , and c_>^ are only in use in the preterite, where they
SYNTAX.
237
assume the meaning of adverbs, as is probably the case with
JjJ , which, if so, has entirely lost its verbal sense.

3. The indefinite expressing a present sense, is often in
apposition with another verb ; this indefinite holding the place
of a participle, is in very common use, and is subjoined to the
-*
- ,. o J
- -o
first verb to explain the mode of its action, as k_$3Jo <ui(c J-^l
he sent announcing this to Mm, <OJ \ 31 <sll
* *
~"
;?^-
AJK \ J*-J he who dies testifying that there is no God but God
will enter paradise.
There are several classes of verbs taking the indefinite im
mediately after them. As 1, verbs of beginning, which, when
thus joined to another verb, always point out the commence
ment of some situation, or action ; although the spaces of time
occupied by that situation or action, may be very different.
The most frequent of this description is the verb Jx>- as
xL 3i*. they two began to dispute together, ^jj\i Jj-
(^^ V. Jj*d i^y i

began to say, 0 Moses pity me! and Moses to say, 0 earth
i"
"i
"'
^ôj
swallow them up! Such are the verb's

-
--
'o
^"
'"
--
an<l
2.
Fisrfo expressing duration of any state, or conti
nued, and repeated action ; as ^Ju , to continue, to remain,

O J
^ o-o
'
o - O "
0-j
- o-o
~-
S<*~
or to persist, toy ^ \ j <ucjJL.* j foj> ^ \ J~;L> <>\ .Ju

"
*#Ô-'--s-
-'O-'
continued to send to Ibn Buwaih in
238
SYNTAX.
mting him to come, and Ibn Buwaih to excuse himself and not
--o
to appear.
To this class belong

_ _j
fin, it/-, or persist ; *\i\ to remain,
- or unmoved ; jlc to be accustomed ;
also the verbs j^L>\ to conto persevere ; \~ij to be firm,

v
Jii to continue, not to cease ;
(during the day) CJb to continue; (during the night) as well

--
____.-
-3-0-
as these ; Jlj t not to cease ; .1 U , .JLs U ; and i_a3l to

not to fail; i. e. to continue to do until the end of the
period mentioned.
S.
Of the same description are all verbs denoting to be,
to exist. The most frequent of this class is ^ , and those

whose meaning is derived from a particular point of time ; as
<*
- -o
&~a\ to travel in the morning, -AJU^ to be in the morning,

That state of the indefinite which the Arabians call
, or bearing Fathah for its final vowel, and which
Erpenius denominates antithesis, is subjected to some particle
always conveying the sense of that. Its most frequent use is
<*
after the conjunction ^ that; if a verb of will precede, as
~
o-
- C*
<ull ^j-ksf ^1 ^Jj\ I wish, that you would favor him aJtc
sought from him that he would send them.
o
--
<.
In
-
like manner, after ^\ .Ac *^c he labored that; ^ ^ ^c^

t,f - (or ^1 13^)) ^ was plv<*ed that. There are many verbs of
this description, as well as others indicating the reverse, as
x , ^->\ to be unwilling, i_JU- , ^y^- ; and jJW. to fear ;
to hinder, to prevent.
It is the same after all verbs of com-
SYNTAX.
239
-*
-o
--
manding, and forbidding ; as ^ _l , .j^ > //>- ; of pardoning,

swearing, testifying, and vowing , as <_^ , JJiUj- , jJJ .
Verbs
of efficiency, or of power, constitute another class of this description, as *jH to compel.
In the same way ^jSo i^
of
-o-
Ae is deserving that he be, ^ i^-^fi, (<*xio it is necessary that;

^\ jjst, it is permitted that, (licet ut.)
s- -
o-.--of
o -
Hence after the word
-^J^-o ..- -
- -
ifjlc custom, as *a>jSj 1 1j,uasr>. u1 * ULs* 1 ifjlc ^ It was a

custom of the Khalifs that they should confine their sons. Nei
ther is it necessary that a verb, or verbal noun, should always
precede, as ^^j S ^\ U1 j ^jjG ^ U1 whether that it be, or
whether that it be not.
The indefinite, however, does not always bear antithesis after
o
^ , for if it have the meaning of the simple present tense,

<,$
and w1 points out nothing more than a certain event, contem
porary with the preceding verb, it remains in its first state, and
-.
-.^
S.
j-oj
does not take antithesis; ,jJy ^ *Ul / know that he sleeps;

-zf
though in such a case, to avoid all ambiguity, the use of <U \
is to be preferred. After verbs of doubting or thinking, as
^*- , an(i such like, the antithesis is not necessary, but
it is sometimes found.
O -
J.
This is a more emphatic denial of the future, and

t
<-
being composed of ^ and ^ , always requires antithesis, as ^1

b he will not do it (I do not believe that he will do it.)
J . This preposition, placed before the verb, becomes a
conjunction, denoting the end or purpose of the action (Gr. iv
240
SYNTAX.
whence it always requires the antithesis, as indicative of a sub0
junctive sense ; as IjJyioJ i_y b they come to you that they

may testify ; <<8.a.O *jo iX he stretched out his hand that he
might strike him.
Observe particularly this form of speech,
<d*j)l l^^j& Lo / am not he that I can do it, that is, I do not

O j3 ~ O "
wish to do this.
o -"
<j"
^l^JLol ^3 J <Aow wert not he who wished
to lead them astray.
If however a negation occurs, the particle
J does not immediately join, ^1 being always interposed, whence

comes the negative LJ (3^JJ)O '
Of the same meaning is the conjunction
<> that (Gr. o?
and its compounds

The verb bearing antithesis is subjoined to certain other
particles, when, from the whole tendency and connection of the
discourse, the action which that verb expresses, stands as if
depending on the first. The particles are then placed imme
diately preceding, and the meaning of the verb subjected to
them, points out the peculiar idea belonging to the whole
sentence.
,J*>- This conjunction signifying, that, in order to, denotes
the end or continuation of the action, until that which is
wished is obtained, as <sJJ1 ,J 5-**^. ^^^ 8/?-\ protect him
until he hears the word of God, (in order that he may hear).
It may also indicate the deferring of an action, not to be done
until something preceding is accomplished ;
SVNTAX.
241
o
-
o ~
3"
o -
j 1j**jUui*i- i<A>- (*^j^? ^ "^ enter houses,

except your houses, until you ask permission, and salute its ino^
^ o-
habitants ; ^ i_jô
Q ~
0-^3
1 ~^-a
Jk- <jls^ 1 jlj ^\
x\j* \
- -
'
J_j^> ^Ju>
^jb he forbade any woman entering the palace of the Khalif

until he knew who she was.
<_J . This conjunction usually joins two propositions, indi
cating, in the second, an immediate dependance on the first,
of which it is a consequence, and requires to be followed by
"^ ~ o-; ^ ^ <, -
w"
""
O O
antithesis ; as Axff \ ^JioU ^j b (JLic1 pardon me, 0 Lord !

-- >
3 -o
So
/ wwzy ewfer paradise; <ull ,<^^ jljJ 1 .J J^J Jj is

Zaid in his house, that I may go to him? After a negative
imperative, it answers to the Latin ne, and the English lest,
-
of-
* -
as i_jlfc U ^Jo-ly y punish me not, lest I perish.

From a similar connection of ideas, the antithetical form
^
^
of the indefinite follows the particle 1 j] or ^31 , if it describes
*
*
a consequence immediately following the antecedent, as in the
case of any movement or intention of the mind ; as if any one
were to say, / will visit you to-morrow, the answer might be,
then I will honor you, that is, / will receive you with honor.
^
o ^
The difference between i_i and ^jl is, that <_j denotes a closer
o^
connection, and ^\ a connection less immediate.

sx
.^
j . The difference between this conjunction and i_J is, that
the latter, besides the simple connection, expresses also the
order of things which j does not, but merely an intention, sub16
242
SYNTAX.
ordinate to the first, and something to be done at the same

- o* -
*~o
o ~ ~<r
time ; as <OJU i^J J^=- \
"<*x
"
*J3 *i do not condemn a temper
and then shew the same ; <^ \ iÛ j i_-J \ j\j J& do
yew eai fish and at the same time drink milk ?
o
j\ . This conjunction, which properly signifies or, or else,

receives also the meaning of, in order that, until that, unless
'
oo.,
--
that; iîytJ j\ lLc Jjl^ we will regain the empire unless we

die. In such cases it always requires the antithesis of the inde
finite. This conjunction has the same effect on the indefinite,
sso$.
^4'si
-*
when it is repeated, then signifying whether, as o \ ^ \ lj \ i

^ ^<,l. iji
i$s\ j\ I will not speak, whether I conquer, or am killed.

From what has been said, it will appear that, properly
o5
<x -
speaking, it is only the conjunctions ^\ and ^ , either ex

pressed, or understood, which affect the indefinite tense with
"
&"
antithesis ; for the other words, such as (<*- > <J , <_' , 8zc.
more or less, contain the same signification as those two par
ticles, and are equivalent to the word that.
The jazmated form of the indefinite, or apocope, takes place
when two propositions are conditionally connected, whether this
o
connection be pointed out by the conjunction ^ if; or by one
o s
of these words ; ^ whoever ; I that which, and its compounds,

-*.*
~-tfi-
- o *
UK all that ; UJ every time that ; Uy whatever it be that ;

&
-o^
--ut
- ô -
">
it be;
b 1 and
--x'
SYNTAX.
-*
243
-' *
'
oV
s ^ ^x
and UL^XO when,) at whatever time that; <y and Ujb
:i
.,:?
in whatever way that; i_$1 and ^4j 1 whoever.
It is the same if one of the two propositions be in the

imperative, and that the other depend conditionally upon it ;
as, if you do well you will be rewarded.
<^
The particle J also requires apocope, but when there are
several indefinite tenses depending on each other, that which
^
immediately follows the particle J is the only one affected by

-J ' O -
O^
O *r s
O^
it ; as ^vjuuj uJyw ..X> J he did not know how to swim.
It
V"
is the same with the particle Ul not yet.

After the prepositions S or J , giving to the indefinite an
oô^
imperative meaning, apocope also takes place ; as J*iu ^ let him

O -o^
not do it ! J*ijJ let him do it !
The indefinite takes the same shape after the negative ad-o-'o--
verb 3, when it carries deprecative meaning, as jjto JiiiuJ 1

O'^
4 ^
'
'
./l j i^1^* J c*^ kngthen not my

life and my days, but let me have a portion of thy felicity !
The use of the two forms of paragoge is subjected to no
fixed rule ; they are employed to add force to the expression,
whether in interrogating, in affirming with or without an oath,
or when the indefinite carries an imperative or prohibitive sense.
Syntax of Particles.
All those relations of the subjoined noun, which cannot be
expressed by the genitive, governed by the antecedent noun,
162
244
SYNTAX.
nor by the accusative, are pointed out by prepositions. This

is their first, and most frequent use ; there is, however, an
other ; for as the Arabic language has no compound words,
nor verbs compounded with prepositions, many prepositions,
which in European languages coalesce with the verbs, whose
meaning they complete and define, are in Arabic only found
in apposition.
Active verbs for the most part govern the accusative, thus
^
hg threw a atone.
Yet such verbs often take the
genitive with a preposition, as *-, ^j he threw with a stone ;

*
this happens frequently, when the verb, by common use, indi
cates the object upon which it acts ; as tj^ju to send, which
in common use means to send an ambassador, to delegate, this
always takes <_ of the thing with which the legate or messenger
is sent ; another cause of such anomalies may be found in the
- -1
new meaning which a verb may acquire ; thus \J*\ in its first
and original meaning, signifies to construct with clay, as a wall,
a cottage, &c. ; from this is derived the metaphorical meaning,
to build up a name, to raise to renown, which requires the pre-
<,_ - '1
position <_j, as *jo oli.1 he exalted his fame.
So the verb
j_3j , whose original meaning is to put, passes on to the kindred

signification, to put down, and with the use of the preposition
o
_, takes the meaning of to detract, to render contemptible,

ideas synonymous with the diminishing of praise or detracting
from.
The brevity of speech to which the use of prepositions so
much contributes may be particularly observed in verbs, which,
SYNTAX.
245
though intransitive, become transitive verbs by their assistance ;

o-
- -
thus <u!l ,lj , rising, Tie proceeded to him. The poets take great
-" * '
freedoms with such modes of construction.
It happens frequently, however, that after an intransitive
verb, the preposition which should point out the relation be
tween that verb and the word which it governs, is suppressed ;
and the word governed by the verb appears in the accusative,
as if the verb were a transitive one.
When the intransitive verb governs a complete proposition,
Oi
whether verbal or nominal, beginning by the conjunction ^,1,

*
or ^j the preposition which ought to connect the intransitive
o-
verb with the following proposition may be dropped ; thus J

- -
-"^C^
O f O
O-
l<3 J*j ^1 jjJL>
-* '
--o-
--
<^
o-
instead of i_j3j J*w ^1 LJU jAiu J
rfo <Aa<; Jo-U ^jb S1 <ull *ji ^ ordered him

?
permission to no one; instead of ^jb Sb the last ex

ample is particularly remarkable, as it is only by means of the
-ipreposition <_j that *.xaj signifies to order.
In no case, however, must the preposition be omitted, if
^ o --
a doubtful meaning would result; thus it cannot be said c^-Jo^

- -
--O-
" *
"o-
<_J3J Jjutf ^\ instead of i_J3j J*j ^ ^ <^-AC;, / <fos>e

that you would do that; for if the preposition were left out,
o-
it might be supposed that the sense was Jxii- ^

j / OMW era-e /row* ^(wr doing that.
o^
ô^
246
SYNTAX.
On the one hand, however, as there are verbs having an

unrestricted power in this respect, so there are others with
which the suppression of the preposition is a mere poetical
licence to be used only in cases of necessity.
What has been just said of intransitive, applies equally to
transitive verbs, with regard to their government of words
requiring the interposition of a particle; this particle is often
left out, and the noun, or rather the pronoun which represents
it, subjoined immediately to the verb, which then governs it
virtually in the accusative case ; as aJ^Li / thanked him, for
-J-
O~"~
J-o
--
<ll +?JjL2> I gave thanks to him ; tes?aj I gave him good advice,
--
O " x
for <sl ^^.^^ I gave good advice to him.
It sometimes happens, though but rarely, that the pre

position being suppressed, the word which it governs remains
yet in the genitive case. This is a pure ellipsis :
When it is asked which among men is a wicked tribe ?
The
fingers of the hand point to Kulaib.

<j~*r
It will be observed that the word i_--uJ is an ellipsis for
The particle U is sometimes used between a preposition,

and the word which it governs, without changing the influence
of the preposition on that word.
This particle U is then
SYNTAX.
s o -
-"
247
s
& '
'
C""
merely expletive io-j \*> , and JjJj Uc instead of aUo-y ,

f
# # ^
o^
and Jjjjj
# -
,c .
o -
The preposition
O
-c sometimes follows immediately the pre^
<, '
position ^j as j.,.^ ^ ^ /row <

The prepositions <_> and ^> are sometimes employed pleonastically, or seemingly so ;
but they always preserve their
grammatical influence over the word which they govern.

The words employed by the Arabians as exccptives, are
ill (/" not ; composed of the conjunction ^\ t/J and of the nega**
tive adverb S not ; _xc , Jjo , i_j-> , ^j^t and f \ j~> which arc
all properly nouns, signifying difference; LiU- , iU-, and lAc
except ; words, which, though considered as prepositions, were
~& *
originally verbs, and U-x-j 1 an expression signifying above all.
The noun expressing the thing excepted, appears in Arabic,
sometimes in the nominative and sometimes in the accusative,
or genitive.
>
l. SU The general subject from which a thing is ex*
cepted being expressed, if the proposition be negative, the noun
expressing the thing excepted may agree with the noun ex
pressing the general subject ; or may be put in the accusative,
# -
S -
-tf-
So^
as ^Joj 1\ Jo-1 LSxi b; or jjj M wo owe Aas spoken to me

f
except Zaid, >jj3 \ ^\ i%X5 b o-J^ ^ , or ij*3 1 /

^
wo< brought the books except the Pentateuch.
248
SYNTAX.
If the proposition be affirmative, the noun expressing the

^
- -vj -s
~
thing excepted must be in the accusative, as 3l (jwUJ l ^J* U**o^
ljjj <Ae wiew cawe <o me except Zaid.

If the general subject from which the exception is made,
be not expressed, but understood, the noun of the thing ex
cepted must be in the same case as would have been the
subject understood.
s-L,
negative.
~o ~
&
The principal proposition is then always

&
As jau>- *i\ ,ji\~ l no one came to me but Jafar;

>
- O --
<*
O~
r? i11 <^jf ^ I passed by no one but Jafar ;

\Ju<*~ i11 / have struck no one but Jafar.
* - *
In the first of these examples Jafar is in the nominative
s-'s.
in agreement with Ju>-1 one, understood, in the second the word

-;
* -i
understood is Jo-b , and in the third 1j>.1 .
#
4
If the word preceding ill , be the subject, and that which

*
follows it the predicate of a proposition, the two words must
S
_ -
Ss i. -
be in the nominative, as t-jjl ill /**- b Jafar is not but a

>
(Jafar is nothing but a liar)
<fe unbelievers are but cursed.
If the thing expected be not of the nature of that comQ
prised in the general subject, the noun following i11 must be
*?
S -$
in the accusative Ly ill Jo>-l ^jJÛ- U wo owe cawe to me

except a horse.
Among negative propositions, must be comprised those which
SYNTAX.
249
are so in their sense, though not by their form; such are pro
hibitive propositions, or interrogatives expressing negation.
S<.^
Sb--
/'
"
"-
The words ..xc , Joo , f \^> , ijj~> and i_^j , which are
also exceptives, govern the noun of the thing excepted, in the
genitive ; and are themselves always hi the same case in which
the noun of the thing excepted would be, if the particle

-'
were used ; thus jjj jfj. Jo- \ ^J>>*& to , or
no one
J -a
has spoken to me except Zaid ; ibjfA \ ^.xc t_-Ifl b

~O tf -o
O ^
or Hjjjjl \
O'
Ô^
Ju: / have not brought the books except the Pentateuch ;

^
- -<?
-'
Joj ^jo: Ûl 1 ^j U- the men came to me except Zaid ; to

#
Ô s
JO^*
-J O ----
^j j U- no one came to me except Jafar ; tîjr L

Oo.<s^
/ have passed by no one except Jafar ; <~>.>e \

i?^f
J
'
^
/ have struck no one except Jafar; Je^l Lj^V ^

no one came to me except a horse.
*
" j
The two words ^^ and ijrj-j, being among those whose
three cases are alike, they only follow the preceding rule virtually.
After the words liU- , }U- and \&c , the noun of the thing
excepted, may be either in the genitive, accusative, or even
nominative.
When, however, iU- U or 1AC U> is used, the
noun of the thing excepted must be in the accusative, because

iU- and l<Xc then preserve the nature of verbs.
-
Uj~> U . This literally signifies, not equal to, but is used in
the sense, above att, principally.
The noun following may be
250
SYNTAX.
3
.3~
either in the nominative or genitive, as LJUJ S (jwUl1

TO <, - - -a
A>J or Joj U-A~> S the men have enchanted me, above all Zaid.
#
&
The genitive is then viewed as being governed by .,-> , syno" <,
nymous with JJU , and U as a mere expletive without influence.

If on the contrary the nominative is used, U is considered as
the conjunctive noun, signifying that which, and an ellipsis is
supposed of the pronoun y> , between U and the following
noun.
It results from this, that the case of the noun follow" &
*"
ing Ujw S , and which noun expresses the thing excepted,

depends in no manner upon the case of the noun expressing
the general subject, from which the thing excepted is subtracted.
&
"O *
-o -
After 5M , _js , and Joo , a complete proposition may fol^
low; S1 has then no influence over the proposition, and after

*
~<j -
-o -
j*. and Joo , which are adverbially put in the accusative, the
Ai
conjunction ^\ is used.
When }M is repeated, forming fresh exceptions, and not

*
merely used for the purpose of greater energy, the general sub
ject being understood, and not expressed, the noun shewing the
first thing excepted, takes the nominative case, and the others
j*Si-J
&
'
-^^ O --
&
' '
the accusative; 1o^^src S1 1JOA>J S1 juta- S1
"-
>
"
,li l no one
* '
stood up except Jafar, except Said, except Muhammad.

If the general idea be expressed, and the proposition an
JOÔ.^
affirmative, all the exceptions are in the accusative ; *jl \ Jxs
SYNTAX.
**o^
--*
tf
+ ^
251
&
\j*f- S1 j^c S1 1joj S1 a# ê people were killed except Zaid,

except Omar, except Amru. If the general idea is expressed,
and the proposition negative, and that there be an inversion,
S -
-- O
-Z
# -o
fi
- <
it is the same ; Jo-1 J*o-l S 1 1/*>- S*I W U wo one escaped

except Jafar, except Ahmad.
If there be not an inversion, one of the nouns will be in
&
the case in which would be the noun following S1, if there
*
were but one exception, and all the others will be in the acô ~
s<*s
&
tf '
j o^
o^
cusative ; \j4f- S1 JoJ S1 Jo- 1 ^.Jo J no one has escaped except

Zaid, except Amru.
^j^j S , or the negative verb (_/*jJ , is sometimes used to
convey exception, the noun of the thing excepted is then in
the accusative, 1jy ; ^^0 S 1Ûi or lJoj lû^ they hate been
killed except Zaid.
It has been before observed, that the negative adverbs S
and U govern, in certain circumstances, the predicate of a pro
position in the accusative case, and that S , when used to deny
the very existence of a thing, governs the noun in the accu
sative case, but without nunnation.
To give these negative adverbs the power of governing in
the accusative, as when we say 1^Lo 1JJ& U this is not a man,
it is necessary, first, that the attribute, or predicate, should
follow the subject.
2nd. That the particle of exception S1 , do not come be

tween the subject and its attribute.
252
SYNTAX.
3rd.
That if the negation U be used, the negative particle
^1 must not be added to it.

4th. That if the negative 1 is used, the subject must be
an appellative noun indefinite ; in all other cases these negative
adverbs lose their influence on the predicate, which must then
be in the nominative, according to the general rule ; thus to
S <,-
SS-^
'
T*
5^
Jjj *j la Zaid is not standing up ; <_>Jl 1 \ JoJ U Zaid is

si*' s-i -*
nothing but a liar ; j l3 &*s? ^1 to Muhammad does not sleep ;

c jpuv S <Ae secret trusted to them is not befrayed; jje>j*> J^J 51 âirf w wo< //.
With an indefinite noun,
thus, bob ljLj1 il $0r0 * o man immortal.

-
- o-
After U , as well as after LrjJ , and 3 , the predicate of a

nominal proposition often takes the preposition c-j , as U
^
-3 -o
Jjbc <dl 1 God is not negligent.

^- When the negative adverb 51 denies existence, the noun
i -a
-o
ends in Fathah without nunnation, as jljJ 1 .J ^Lul i1 there

is no man in the house.
In order to have this effect the noun must be wholly indefi
nite, and must immediately follow the negation.
If after this particle there are two nouns joined by a con
junction, and to each of which the negation equally belongs,
the second noun may either be in the nominative, or in the
3 -O
same state as the first, as j\d\
^ -o-O
'
~ '
-.--
J *1 _j J^-j i1 or J
SYNTAX.
253
x \- \ j there is not man or woman in the house.
The negation
however is usually repeated.

If the negative adverb be repeated, it may operate upon
the two nouns, or only upon either of them.
3-o 3
-'&-
AlJ b ill i-J
--
M MO strength nor power but
in God.
ail b ill iv i)
*
If the subject of which the existence is denied, be quali
fied by an adjective, the adjective may be pronounced in three
different ways; as
\j
J*y
U> \j
is no man sleeping in the house.
If after the negative adverb il denying existence, there be

a noun definite, it appears in the nominative,
.J JoJ
Zaid is not in the house.

~v*
The negative and conditional particle \^ has no gramma

tical influence on the subject of the proposition which follows
it.
This proposition in general wants its predicate, or attri"
^C*--'
S<j^
~<j^
bute ; thus i_&^ >VJ ^ if it were not Zaid, I would visit

you, that is, if Zaid did not exist, or made no obstacle.
254
SYNTAX.
The subject of the proposition following this particle, may

j
-o< -O
* O^
C/- ~~o"
be represented by an affixed pronoun, as UijJ 1 # r^:' ,J *^

-' -oO
*A*J 1 ^ f^ & Aarf wo< been for Mm the world would not have
come out of nothing.
The detached personal pronoun may also

<,
**
-d-"
^
o -o,t
"o"
be employed, as ,.^-^c Ul Jol 3jJ / tV had not been for

you we should have been believers.
The various emotions of the mind are interjectionally ex-
O"~
S --
pressed, sometimes by nouns in their simple state, as

peace be to thee! or i_J,J <OJ y your abundance be with God!
a form of benediction ; <)y i_Jj^li may yow 60 contented I (may
V suffice you) Ixj LJ i_j>Jklj way //w-s disgrace be sufficient to

you!
If, however, the interjection is expressed by a single word,
abruptly uttered, it appears in the accusative, elliptically, as
^
--
^ o -
Ul-j peace ; <)J Us?1 distance be to him ! that is, let him be
gone ! jj^lô 1 touch not !
The same word is often repeated interjectionally, expressing
----.i O-o ^ s OO
alarm, and to give warning ; Ju*H \ Jw>i) \ the lion ! the lion !
- $ ^c, ^~-~& ^0 -
& ~<*-a 4 "o.^
that is, beware of the lion! f\JF\ i Us~ 1 j &s- \ <*js.\ dili
gence, diligence, safety, safety, (be diligent and you will succeed)
^ ^ Ô--
" & -a
<_^J \ [s^ \ flight ! flic/lit !

In a similar way an urgent address, or warning to another,
is conveyed by the use of the affixed pronoun of the second
SYNTAX.
255
person, and the accusative case of the thing to be avoided ;

^ -- -
a conjunction coming between the two words, as j^c j <_$\j\
<_-vo*J \ thee, and vehemence of anger ! that is, beware thow of
great anger! *Jllc1 \j>* ^ (\A beware that you be not the
\
-'
">
~~
.^ "
o-o.^ ~
~~
&
same ! ^j jj \ j lj\$ \ j <_fty <^VJ beware ! beware ! that you

"^ "j.
"*
injure not the Kuran and the faith.
O
Among the particles of affirmation, and of answering, **>

o ' '
y^s, wc^? done ! be it so ! is of very common use ; <Jjs-? is some

times used among ancient authors in the same sense as the
preceding; it properly means enough.
Jo4 simply affirms, and
is generally used in assenting to a preceding proposition whether affirmative or negative, as \^\i \j> ^ aj1
i- --i
t^>\ I think he tells you that he is innocent, they answered yes.
O -
*>- certainly! this is much like the preceding.

only used before a form of swearing.
i_$\ this is
PROVERBS
SELECTED FROM THE COLLECTION OF
ABU' L FADL AHMAD IBNU MUHAMMAD AL MAIDANI.
1.
_
*
caws< wo< gather grapes from thorns.
2.
.
egiming of determination is deliberation.
"
-o-
-J
<, -
O^
3.
Beware that thy tongue does not cut thy neck.
4.
ily beauty is a misery.
I"
5.
i_i>
o -
-'-
-9
fci- ^ ^*j Ui1
deceivest him whom thou seest, he whom thou dost not

see, will deceive thee.
6.
If thou art a liar be of good memory.
17
258
PROVERBS.
7.
Love is the companion of blindness.
- -
8.
He punished me for the fault of another.
9.
Verily walls have ears
10.
. ifjU;
<Sl
When the madman says I will throw at thee, prepare a plaister.
ii.
.jy
When the Jew grows poor he looks into his old accounts.
o-
-,-o
-SS-O
"ox
12.
misfortunes are lighter than others.
-
-O
^xj
' *..
13.
cMrf s Awrf for the sake of its nurse.
comparest angels with jailers.
is.
. t^
The heart of a wolf under the skin of a sheep.
PROVERBS.
259
Be kindred by love and put no trust in kin.

,
M. I m
.-x C. -^
, i^Jiju_KftAi
-J
(^_-*JU
'.. 'vJ -*C!
-JOtJoO I
management is the half of a livelihood.
18.
The fruit of self-love is hatred.
So ^
S<,
19.
lit of timidity is neither gain nor loss.
20.
.,
Adhere to your friend though he be in the fames.
21.
-yJJ I
Tfe freeman is free though misfortune assail him.
22.
#ji yMjr
--'
^ \ % .jSrr- ^j*u*jHu I
^*
^J-
.-
The heat of the sun makes us sit down in a bad place.
23.
~"
"
Modesty is a part of religion.

ô f-ô -
24.
. ujU/si 1 jj
Avarice is the leader of disappointment.
172
260
PROVERBS.
25.
. uJUii G i>uJjJ 1 CJAI .j^J i
x" -xO.^
o < -^r
* Ox
The wise man contents himself with a sufficiency.

S<,
26.
. _w 1Jl j*. jooJ 1 j j.*!? \j\ Joc

freeman when desirous of any thing is a slave, and the
slave when contented is free.
27.
-JjJ U ^
is <Ae 6es< <to mw eer be said.
28.
.\ju S fb
is a disease that can never be cured.
29.
among you is he who is best to his family.
30.
es< o/" men is he who rejoices in the good of others.
31.
Constrain your inclinations, and you will be conducted well.

J^ -<
32.
. <dl 1
- ' O ^
jJuaJ
U.W
(rooc? s in that which God does.

Sf>
33.
-, -
-.
- I-
ilJj-; <>1 J>Jt

Submission to necessity is the duty of man.
PROVERBS.
34.
. C.JJ3
261
if jiAl iJjU
*U>
Wood o/ kings cures the madness of dogs.
35.
Tiwtf yoes so/% awrf finishes all things.
_,,
36.
Sometimes he is your brother whom your mother did not bear.
--o-
O*7
37.
\l Ml
AJU1
i
counsel of an old man is better than the presence of a

young one.
38.
. \MJ
Speed sometimes makes delay.
39.
. UsM
^ jA
J*i
tj,
-4 slipper is sometimes worse than a naked foot.
40.
.\>\f-. i
Silence is often an answer.
j1
41.
. iu=y- Mj j
_^
êwrf a ciae messenger and give him no orders.

* i
42.
I
M
1 .
.y*c
2 j M!)v>i^,lI
/ see a heavy cloud but there is no rain.
262
PROVERBS.
43.
4 wwgfk wore? sometimes destroys favor,
^
44.
- -o.
o^
3 -
.Û ^ ^voj1 <_j^ <-J>

*
.4 glance of the eye sometimes says more than the tongue.

x^
C,*
x ^
*^
45.
Avarice sometimes leads to disgrace.
-' ^J^x
x-'s
x O^00
46.
rfe fool who wishes to serve you often injures you.
- -
47.
*lj-a
"
<,"
JujU-
<UUJJ
& -
Cjlj
# -
<_J,
ZTe o/?!ei sows ôr himself while another reaps.
48.
goodness of God not your labour.
49.
Knowledge is the head of religion.
- o-
<, tf *
50.
War is often kindled by a single word.
- o
51.
--
. i_~JL>
is sometimes ruin under what we seek.
PROVERBS.
263
/w <&? eye of Ms father the son is always handsome.

&
-
53.
#
J
O -ox
w J
O-
. lx- JiJjJ Uc jj
< seldom, you will increase love.
54.
. SjjJu
]af-.
He is happy who is taught by the example of another.

^xO-
55.
oJ
^ x O-
O^
. OU*j t^*"-' ^^^ t-T>^

Quickly seek you will quickly find.
-JQs*,
56.
& -G
-*tf -'
-i--Arf ^ aiJl J.L

He who asks of God will not be deceived.
0<j ^
57.
^ô-'
"
~-il>
-o<) w
. Ui Olko1 3
^4 woisy cffli catches no mice.
58.
Do?5 is sister of the unlawful.
-&.& -o-o-
59.
sie
.<dn
Consult in your affairs those who fear God.
60.
worst of men is he who does not heed men seeing his
264
PROVERBS.
^~
<,H
- C J.
'.
.-
61.
a madness, old age is its cure.
62.
.<u/
The devil does not destroy his own vineyard.
63.
.
Silence procures love for those who keep it.
64.
Truth is honor and falsehood mleness.
65.
. ~yl \ ^.Ui
Patience is the key of pleasure.

66.
Jr< in the hand is safety from poverty.
67.
"""" "
The length of the tongue shortens life.

68.
. <UuÂ>
Custom is a fifth nature.
69.
of lovers is like a spring rain.
PROVERBS.
o
70.
^ o
- x ' '
265
<*'
'\*^
. <sl ^jj JSW 1 i_>wir j dji ^ JftW 1 i_-3e.

wrath of the fool in words, and the anger of the wise
71.
of labour is better than the saffron of idleness.
72.
ê/-y dog barks at his own door.
< O-
73.
"
.<o L5^.i U <ui *

/w every man there is what may be attached.
74.
.wte ^ U^
uis yow ^)y so you shall be paid.
75.
. Xj\j ^ ^ ^jJo S v_Jj3 l

7%e dog does not bark at one in Ms house.
76.
. j r Jil
^
- *
.EW^ piace Aas i<s speech.

77.
No cloud hides the light of the sun.
78.
?%e barkiny of dogs does not injure the clouds.
266
PROVERBS.
*7O
"Ml

\l
i}j*j
il Uj <*j*J
'
7V.
Praise not that which you know not.
so.
w till a camel goes through the eye of a needle.
81.
. j
j;
J*
\j>
is no rest when the lion roars.

82.
. Jiôi ^J
-
Two swords cannot be in one sheath.
83.
.JU441 JN Jj,x41 J*. X

Iron is only cut by iron.
<,
84.
Z>o not think you are safe from a fool while he has a sword
in his hand.
*-
85.
O J C.-W3
.x
^> --C
J- O-'
. <d U Jai \ j j-jU 1 JLJ il

Do not question one who wants help, but look to his condition.
86.
jiVi ,>r )&>Caution is vain against the decree of God.

+ -+*"--
V-
o--
87.
Neither lie nor be like one who lies.
PROVERBS.
^ <â
88.
& o
Ul 1
o ^
267
j [.. . i., -nT
^ - -'
&\
Benevolence passes not away between God and man.
89.
,"j>^j\ <l&U \j\ ^5T ÂJ j

are sa/e /rowi <Ae prince when the Vazir
hates you.
-so^
90.
' -
. <Uui3
-^ ^
<0-U U
is not afflicted by what he loses keeps his mind tranquil.

---
# --
---
o -
91.
ttgs a p\
92.
. <Ui Iki <LJ Jiu ^

wears a Zowy sir< breads upon it.
93.
.US
fib who fears the wolf procures a dog.

94.
. <U
JJS
^jJOJ 1
l_iA-
<J~J
fie wAo draws the sword of injustice shall be killed by it.
95.
. JJ
fie who admires his own comcil errs.
o
96.
-o'o-
. Jj
fie wô s content with his own knowledge falls.
268
PROVERBS.
-s^x
97.
i"
**
s <a
.x/j U j-4-
/A; ?/// listens hears what displeases him.
98.
.j&> J j cJlfc i_.^M-'r>. J j
ZTe wAo spends and does not reckon, loses and does not knots.
" - .
99.
.K,-o
' '
5e wAo sleeps sees dreams.
100.
sows benevolence reaps thanks.
<,
THE following Extracts have been chosen as Examples of the

plain and simple style, in which the Arabian Chronicles
are usually written, and are printed without the vowelpoints, to supply which will be a useful exercise to the
learner.
Lie
J-xi j
<uiil
< IJU> j.^Wjl j ^ CUto UJ
270
EXTRACTS.
Jl yL j jlyJl i_^J j Ua <
Uij
, J1.XU
Ull ju*ci_5Uj ^K j
< Ull
J/JL!LJ- JLis j i^sb0 ^ ifys?"
AJujl1
EXTRACTS.
271
cr
272
EXTRACTS.
^
JU. _j
l^J
y-1 j i/^Jl ^V-^l
^J J V c
i VJ*
Jll
Lo <.j^J

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W1
i, LU
273
1y
todic
^^J
by
"
^jlll
if^11
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ju i*la5 j
Joc
<uJull
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Jli
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18
id*l j*\
^t UoLoj
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Uj
y n4yLMJ
yo;^
jjj
274'
KXTRACTS.
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Jlo
U Jlw ill1 <U*l Û-/*
_j Ûilb AJuJ1 ^J
O x~
Ji>1 1jlxs J
< l^j ^ J^ IjUi j UljCLc _j WjjUJ
Jli
y,
EXTRACTS.
275
jj- j UU WJyi aj Jlii
*JblJLi
*** t-JJ
J
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ol-;lJ
4 ^
c^
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te?
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182
lu
276
EXTRACTS.
~>j\
jj Û- jLi^ _, ylijG*. jA\i J&LA

< <ult (Liil Û-ji*..Cj C-^Rl j) <sJo1 ,
^-l
<OLJ
UU-
A*
*lu^cjjlyi-
J.JJ
^^
^j
JL
JV
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j_
Jji
^/-^
J^J^-
JJLj Ic
EXTRACTS.
277
<JjLS> *lic jjiio ^J
j jLJl *j'
J lS>
g)1
^1
L-JaS
jrjjj J1
J1
J1
278
EXTRACTS.
Jjl ^ V^/^V-
-J
.-U
Uii
Udi1 L^Jol uÛ1
ji
<
Ju^ UlLLJ1
EXTRACTS.
jbo ^ j
< Uylo j^\J J**.W
i y^Wl
*Lj
(Jl
Ul 1j^js *lic^jjly. ^
Uîp-
J1 J^1
279
J&ji
jJ1
^jJ1 J
Uj
.. ,t -
J jjS'l*l1
i_alj^l
JU
u^1" J^ 3 JV&^jJ**.
J
*uuJ
u U U^jj ^ JU
15
Jl
yull J
^S
l^J
jlsl J yS1
il wljAJjU. Jal jji WK j

^ JUi
< oljjj
i ''^^ L
SjJ^ Jl
280
EXTRACTS
J* jfc j (jA *M
JjJkX*l1 j
xj>\
^juJl
Jl
<Ultl to
fiij U
.Xy LUJLj j *^Lc j-jw> iJu> ^ ^jjjs'b
HM\ cjy j*j ^jJl Ji. jL J
EXTRACTS.
281
* ju. j ^.jji
^.^ JV
JJU ^ J-ii1 ^ Jl ^^.L. _/il1 <UJ ^ j

J Ja.1 ^ j <uoo j ^jJ1 JL- t^ J
Jl
J-, _, ^1 JV ^ /
if J\ ^\ Û ^\
J3U J.JB Ul
<Ux> t_>UJ->1 j Jo^J1 oib ^ a^Lj ^ Lo
282
EXTRACTS.
3 ur^ 3 iU)L. _, ^j^s. j ij^l IL, J> Îc/ Jl
ijJ-to- <-_>
(n*^ J J
C!
J
l ^ M JJu
JJU. *LJL.l ^ <ull ijliUl C^VJ>AJ Ic _/J J

^-iP f"* f
< xj^ 3
Jl
3
J>
EXTRACTS.
~&>
ei~xsr>.
J^J^
i>
oj
283
i (jw_/
Ûj^
^jJ1
<
Jl*.
JlS
_,
K*1
JiU oyjl Ul j ,
O-J
Jl
s-
JUi
Jj
i <sLo 1jJ^l
Jo-li i lLo <_5l*=>-l
j
AxLjU
llaLJl 1)1
<)X _j ^J^ ^âii ^îs? ; uJl^fc <d -U jLz>-il
<0l iî^l1
Jlii i L5>.jj AJtol
AW tjJJ (Jl
_j i <dlA5 Ijyrtj <u^j j i 1 j <u->1
Jls- ^ j <. kAc.
Jw id*l1
J Jl
Extracts from the Chronicle of the Sultan Al Malik

As Sdlih Imdd ud din Abu 7 Fadd Ismail.
AND in this, I mean the year 180, and it is said the year
177, died Sibuyah the grammarian, in a village called Baidha,
one of the villages near Shiraz. And his name was Sibuyah
Amrfi ibn Othman ibn Kunbar; he was more learned in gram
mar than any who have preceded, or followed him, and all the
books of men upon grammar, are nothing to the book of Sibuyah.
He studied in the school of Khalfl ibn Ahmad. And when he
died his age was more than 40 years. It is also said that he
died at Basrah in the year 161. Abul Faraj al Juzi however
relates that Sibuyah died in the year 194, and that he was
32 years old ; and that he died in the city of Sawah. Khalib
Baghdad relates, on the authority of Ibn Duraid, that Sibuyah
died at Shiraz, and that his tomb is there. Sibuyah was his
cognomen; this is a Persian word, and its meaning in Arabic is,
" the odour of apples ;" and it is said, that he was so called,
because he was handsome of countenance, and as if his two cheeks
were two apples. Between him and Kasai was the well-known
dispute on the words, " I thought the sting of a scorpion worse
than the sting of a wasp." Sibuyah maintained that this (the
word sting) was in the nominative (^>), and Kasai maintained
that it was in the accusative (^V3),
an(^ ê Khalif decided in
"
favor of Kasai, and Sibuyah bore great distress from this, and
he left Irak, and travelled to the neighbourhood of Shiraz, and
died there.
286
EXTRACTS.
And in this (year) came ambassadors from the King of Bum

to Baghdad ; and when they were presented, the army was drawn
out, and the palace was decorated with armour, and arms, and
various ornaments ; and the whole army was drawn up in the
order of battle. There were then 160,000 cavalry and infantry;
and the pages of the palace were drawn out, splendidly dressed,
and wearing costly girdles ; and the eunuchs were drawn up in
the same way, and of these there were 7000 ; 4000 white and
3000 black, and the chamberlains in attendance were 700 ; and
there were vessels and boats on the Tigris, splendidly decorated;
and the palace of the Khalif was richly ornamented. There were
38,000 veils (or pieces of tapestry) suspended; 12,500 of these
were interwoven with gold ; and there were 22,000 rich carpets
kid down. And there were there 100 lions, with their 100 keepers.
But among the ornaments there was a tree of gold and silver,
containing 18 branches, and on the branches and twigs, were birds
of various sorts of gold and silver ; the leaves were also of gold
and silver ; and the branches waved by certain springs, and the birds
sang by springs disposed there also ; and the ambassador testified
his astonishment at the magnificence that was displayed ; and he was
presented to the (Khalif) Muktadir, and the vazir interpreted his
words to the Khalif, and returned him the Khalif 's answer.
And in this (year) died Abu'l Ola Ahmad ibn Sulaiman al

Moarri the blind. He was about 86 years old. There is a dif
ference about his blindness; but the truth is, that he became
blind in his childhood from the small pox ; he was then a child
of three years old. The other report is, that he was born blind.
He was most learned in philology and poetry. And he entered
Baghdad in the year 399 ; and resided there one year and seven
EXTRACTS.
287
months ; and he associated with the learned, but Abu! Ola did
not become the disciple of any one in particular. Then he re
turned to Moarra, and resided in his own house, while the world
proclaimed his glory, and his poems and sayings were repeated
everywhere ; by these is known the corruption of his faith ; and
his perversion to the sect of the Hindus is known by his ab
staining for 45 years from the eating of meat or eggs, and the
drinking of milk; he held it unlawful to injure any living thing;
his writings were very numerous, and his infidelity appears in
them ; but he pretended that there was a secret sense in his
writings, and that he was spiritually a Muslim.
And in this (year) died the Shaikh ar Raiis ibn Ali Alhusain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina al Bukhari. His father was a native
of Balkh, who removed from thence to Bukhara in the time of
the Amir Nuh ibn Mansur as-Samam; he then married a woman
of the village of Afsanah, and resided there, and the Shaikh Ar
Raiis was born there, as well as his brother, and the Eaiis read
through the Koran when he was a boy of 10 years old. And
he studied the philosophy of Ali ibn Abdallah an-Natuli, and
he went through Euclid, and the Almagest, and applied himself
to medicine, and completed all these studies when he was a youth
of 18, and was still at Bukhara; then he removed from thence
to Kurkanj, and this in Arabic is Jurjaniyah; then he journeyed
hither and thither, till he came to Jurjan ; then Ibn Abdallah
Al Jurjani attached himself to .him, and was the greatest of the
companions of the said Shaikh ar llaiis. Then he removed to
Eai and entered the service of Majd ad daulah ibn Fahkr ad
daulah ibn 'Ihusain Ali ibn Bukn ad daulah ibn Buyah. Then he
was in the service of Shams al Maali Kabus ibn Washmagir.
288
EXTRACTS.
He then left him, and went to Ala ad daulah ibn Kawfh at

Isfahan, and was much preferred by him.
Then the said Raffs
became ill with the epilepsy and cholic, and he neglected medi
cine, and he went to Hamadan, and became ill and died there.
He was 58 years old ; his writings and great accomplishments
are well known.
Al Ghazali accuses Ibn Sina of infidelity, and
openly charges him with it in his book called The Deliverer

from Error.
In the same way he charges with infidelity Abu
Nasr al Farabi ; some however believe, that Ibn Sina returned

to the true faith.
The Raffs Abu AH aforesaid, in the first part
of the fifth section of his book Of the Nature of Medicines,

writes thus.
Among the events that came to my knowledge, in
the country of Jurjan in our time, was that of a substance weigh

ing perhaps 150 mina, which fell from the air, and struck into
the ground, then rebounded like a ball repelled by a wall ; it
then returned and fixed in the ground.
Some people on the spot
hearing at the same time a loud and terrible sound, and when
they sought to find out its nature they were unable to do so,
and they carried it to the Governor of Jurjan, and the Sultan
of Khurasan Mahmud ibn Sabaktagin wrote to him, that he
should send it to him, or should send a portion of it ; and he
excused himself from sending it on account of its weight ; and
they sought the breaking of a portion from it, and there was no
diminution made in it but with great labor, and all the imple
ments that were used upon it were broken; but they divided, at
last, a piece from it, and sent it to him, and he desired that a
sword should be made of it, which was done with great difficulty ;
and it is related that the whole of this substance was composed
of little round particles like millet, adhering together; and Al
Fakih Abd al Wahid al Jurjani, my companion, was the wit
ness of this.
EXTRACTS.
289
History of the Invasion of the Tatars.

IN this year the Tatar invasion occurred, and their attack of
the Muslims, who never indured greater distress than what they
suffered this year ; for at that time it was that the Franks accom
plished the conquest of Damietta, with the slaughter and captivity
of its inhabitants.
But the greatest affliction was the invasion of the Tatars,
and their conquest in a short space of time, of the greatest por
tion of the territories of the Muslims, the spilling of their blood,
and the taking captive their females and their children. The
Muslims never suffered from the first rise of Islam such dreadful
adversity.
It was in this year that they marched against Ala ad din
Muhammad * Khwarizmshah ibn Takash, and they crossed the
river Sihun, and with them was their king Jangizkhan, May the
most high God curse him ! and they took Bukhara by capitula
tion, on the 4th of Dzu'l hijjah of this year, but the citadel held
out, and they besieged and took it, and they slew every one that
was in it. Then they butchered the people of the surrounding
territories, unto the very last of them.
Extract from the History of the Invasion of the Tatars;

6,
the work of Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Ali al

Munshi, an Nasawi Secretary of Jaldl ad din.
He says thus.
THE kingdom of China is of vast extent ; its circumference a
six month's journey. From ancient times it has been divided into
* Pronounce " Krizm," as in the Persian word " Khwajah,"
commonly written "Coja," a merchant.
19
290
EXTRACTS.
six parts, each part a month's journey in extent, and each is

governed by a Khan (which in their language means a king,) in
turn governed by the great Khan.
And the great Khan, with
whom Khwarizmshah Muhammad ibn Takash was cotemporary,

was called Altun Khan, he had inherited the power of Khan by
hereditary right, great prince after great prince; (verily infidel
after infidel) and the usual abode of the Khan was at Tughaj,
which is in the centre of China. And among them (the Khans)
at the time aforesaid, was a person named Tushi Khan ; and he
was one of the Khans, ruler of one of the six divisions.
he had married the aunt of Jangizkhan the accursed.
And
And the
tribe of Jangizkhan, the accursed, was the well known tribe

Tamargai, inhabiting the deserts, and their winter quarters were
a place called Arghun.
And they were well known among the
Tatars for their wickedness and perfidy. And the kings of China
did not relax the reins of their bridle on account of their perver
sity.
And it happened that Tushi Khan who had married the
aunt of Jangizkhan died, and Jangizkhan went to his aunt visiting,

and consoh-ng.
And there were two Khans residing near the pro
vince of the aforesaid Tushi Khan deceased on either side. And

the widow of Tushi Khan sent an ambassador to Kashlu Khan
and the other Khan, announcing the death of her husband Tushi
Khan, and that he had left no son, reminding them how good a
neighbour he had been to them, and that she wished to put her
brother's son Jangizkhan in his place, that he might occupy the
seat of the deceased by their assistance.
And the two Khans
aforesaid agreed to this; and when this news came to the great
Khan Altun Khan, he disapproved the appointment of Jangizkhan
to the government, and despised him, and disapproved the con
duct of the two Khans ; and when that news came to them, they
threw off obedience to Altun Khan, and every member of their
EXTRACTS.
291
tribes was collected around them, and they fought with Altun
Khan. And he turned his back and fled, and they took pos
session of his territories. Then Altun Khan sent an ambassador
and requested peace, and that they would leave him a portion of
his territories, and they consented to that ; and Jangizkhan, and
the two other Khans, remained associated together in alliance.
And the death of one Khan happened ; and Jangizkhan and
Kashlu Khan remained in greater power. Then Kashlu Khan
died, and his son (and he was also named Kashlu Khan) occu
pied his place, and Jangizkhan conceived that the government
of Kashlu Khan ibn Kashlu Khan was weak on account of his
childhood, and the youth of his age, and he violated the treaties
which had been established between him and the father of Kashlu
Khan. And Kashlu Khan was left alone to oppose Jangizkhan.
And Jangizkhan, with his son Tushi Khan ibn Jangizkhan drew
out his army, and Kashlu Khan fled, and Tushi Khan pursued
him, and slew him, and returned to Jangizkhan with his head.
And Jangizkhan was now alone in power. Then he sent an
ambassador to Khwarizmshah Muhammad ibn Takash, but they
disagreed, and Jangizkhan collected his armies, and marched
against Khwarizmshah Muhammad, and Khwarizmshah was de
feated, and Jangizkhan conquered the countries of Mawara annahr ;
then he pursued Khwarizmshah, who fled from before him, until
he embarked upon the sea of Tabaristan (the Caspian sea,) and
Jangizkhan subdued all those countries. Then happened between
Khwarizmshah and Jangizkhan that which we will relate, if it
please the most high God.
192
292
EXTRACTS.
Account of the slaying of Jaldl ad din.

AND when the Tatars had subdued Azarbijan Jalal ad din
went to Diyar bakr, that he might journey to the Khalif, that
he might take refuge with him, and might implore help against
the Tatars from the kings of those parts, and that he might
alarm them with the probable termination of their command. And
he encamped in the neighbourhood of Amid ; but he made no
alliance*, and the Tatars attacked him by night, and penetrated
his camp, and Jalal ad din fled. And all this is extracted from
the history of the invasion of the Tatars, the work of An Nasawi,
the secretary of Jalal ad din, under the date of the year 616.
Whatever we have selected and have learned of the history of
Khwarizm shah Muhammad, and his son Jalal ad din (is from
that work,) and the said secretary was with him, and on this
account no one was better informed than he, on all concerning
the affairs of Jalal ad din. And the aforesaid Muhammad al
Munshf says, that Khwarizmshah Muhammad ibn Takash, was
of great power, and his kingdom of vast extent ; and he had four
sons, among whom he divided his territories. The eldest of them
was Jalal ad din Mankbarni, and he gave to him the kingdom
* This line <UJ^= IjklU j LJ xy* yuM j j1 jite J j

appears to be corrupted ; I hesitate, however, to change a text which
has passed under the eye of so great a scholar, and acute a critic,
as Reiske ; those who are acquainted with his editions of the " Oratores
Orraeci," and "Dionysius Halicarnassensis," are aware, that he was
by no means timid in his emendations ; his translation here, of what
appears to me to be somewhat obscure, is this. "Interea vero dum
lisec eonsiliis versat et molitur, opprimebant ipsum Tatari de node
derepente in castra penetrantes."
EXTRACTS.
293
of Ghaznah, and Bamian, and Ghur, and Bost, and Takabad,

and Zamirdawir, and the adjoining parts of India; and he gave
Khwarizm, and Khurasan, and Mazandaran, to his son Kutb ad
dm Uzlagh shah, and appointed him the heir of his empire ; then
at a later time he removed him from the succession to the empire,
and gave it to Jalal ad dm Mankbarni; and he gave Karman,
and Kish, and Makran, to his son Ghayat ad din Tatarshah,
whose history has been given before ; and he gave Irak to his
son Eukn ad dm Ghurshah Yahya, and he was the fairest of all
his sons, both in person and disposition ; and the Tatars slew him
after the death of his father. And the *Naubat was beaten for
each of them at the five hours of prayer, according to the custom
of the Saljukian kings ; and their father Khwarizmshah Muhammad
reserved for himself, as his Naubat, the march of Dzfi '1 karnain
(t Alexander the Great) which was played twice, that is, at sun
rise and sun-set, and there were twenty-seven drums of gold set
with jewels. Such was the order of the Naubat. And twenty-seven
kings played in the band, when the Naubat was beaten at the
beginning of the day ; and they were great kings, sons of Sultans,
among them was Tughril ibn Arslan the Saljukain ; and the sons
of Ghayat ad din, the prince of Ghur ; and Al Malik Ala ad din,
the prince of Bamian; and Al Malik Taj ad din, the prince of
Balkh, and his son Al Malik al Aazim, the prince of Tarmad ;
and Al Malik Sanjar, prince of Bukhara, and others like them. And
the mother of Khwarizmshah Muhammad was Turkan Khatun,
' The " Naubat" is the music played at the five hours of prayer,
at the gates of the palaces of Eastern Princes.
+ Dzu '1 Karnain., or " with the two horns", is the title given to
Alexander the Great : no doubt from his effigies upon the Greek
medals appearing with the horns of Jupiter Ammon.
294
EXTRACTS.
of the tribe of Babawut, which is one of the tribes of Yamsak ;

she was the daughter of one of their kings, and Takash ibn Arslan
ibn Atsiz ibn Muhammad ibn Anushtagini Ghurshah married her ;
and when the kingdom came to her son Muhammad ibn Takash,
the tribes of Yamsak among the Turks obeyed Turkan Khatun,
and the state of her son Sultan Muhammad was much increased
in power by them, and her son never conquered any territory without
setting apart a fair portion of it as her private estate ; and she
was much revered and of great wisdom; and she dealt out strict
justice to the injured against the unjust, and was very severe ;
and her power was so great, that wherever two letters came, one
from her, and one from her son the Sultan Muhammad, their date
was examined, and the orders in the last of the two were performed.
And the superscription of her letters was " The refuge of the World
and of the Faith, Olagh TurMn, the Queen of created women,-'-'
and her motto was " My refuge is in God alone.-'-- And the afore
said author says, that then Khwarizmshah Muhammad fled from
the Tatars to Ma wara annahr, and crossed the Jaihun, and went
to Khurasan ; and the Tatars pursued him, and he fled from thence
to Irak al Ajam, and he stopped at Bistam ; he brought with him
ten chests, which he said were filled with jewels, whose value was
unknown ; and he pointed to two of them, which he said contained
what was equal to a year's income of the whole world.
He com
manded that they should be carried to the castle of Azdahan, which

is among the most impregnable castles of the world, and that a
receipt should be taken from the governor of it, for the arrival
of the said chests, with their seals unbroken.
The Tatars how
ever followed the Sultan Muhammad, and he went on board a

boat (on the Caspian sea,) and the Tatars came up, and shot
their arrows after him; and he escaped from them, but sickness
came on him, and he was attacked with the pleurisy.
And he
EXTRACTS.
295
came to an island in that sea, and remained there a solitary

exile destitute of all ; and his illness increased, and some of the
people of Mazandaran brought him provisions, and what he was
in want of. And one day he said, " I wish that I had a horse
which could feed round my tent," for they had pitched a small
tent for him ; and they brought him a bay horse. And this Sultan
Muhammad had once had thirty thousand studs of horses. And
while in this state, for whatever was brought to him of provisions
or such like, he gave something in return, but he had no one
with him who could write for him, and he made the man who
brought him any thing write a deed of gift, and he gave, as if
things of no consequence, his signature to the gift of countries
and great wealth ; and when his son Jalal ad din obtained power,
he confirmed all that his father had given by deeds or by seals.
While in this condition in the island, death seized the Sultan,
and the Chaush Shams ad dm Mahmud ibn Balagh, and Mukarrab
ad din, the chief of the servants of the bedchamber, washed the
corpse ; and they had no winding sheet ; and its place was sup
plied by his shirt ; and he was buried in the island in the year
617. He whose gate had been the refuge of the kings of the
earth, the great ones of which had served in his palace courts,
and had been proud to kiss the ground before him ; and many
who had been his servants or attendants arrived at royal dignity.
THEN Jalal ad din, after the death of his father the Sultan
Muhammad, in the island, went to Khwarizm still fleeing from
the Tatars; he went to Ghaznah, and from thence to India, and
Jangizkhan overtook him at the river Indus; and a battle was
fought on Wednesday morning the 8th of the month of Shawwal
of the year 618: and at first the battle went against Jangizkhan,
296
EXTRACTS.
but then turned against Jalal ad din, and night came over them ;
and Jalal ad din fled, and his son, a child of seven or eight years
old, was taken captive, and he was murdered in cold blood in the
presence of Jangizkhan.
And when Jalal ad din fled to the banks
of the river Indus, he saw his mother but not his son.
And all
the females of his haram cried out, "/ the name of God!
the name of God! kill us, or save us from captivity."
commanded, and they were drowned.
In
And he
This was one of the wonders
of affliction, and one of the most overwhelming of misfortunes and

sorrows !
And Jalal ad dm and his army plunged into this great
river, and about four thousand escaped to the other side, naked
and shoeless.
And the waves threw Jalal ad dm, together with
three of his private attendants, on a distant spot ; and his friends

sought him for three days, and continued wandering in search of
him, and straying in the desert of anxiety, till Jalal ad din joined
them : then he went forth and there were battles between him
and the people of those countries, and Jalal ad dm conquered, and
reached Lahor in India.
And when he proposed to return to Irak,
he appointed Pahlawan Uzbak to govern his territories in India;

and along with him he appointed Hasan Karak, and gave him
the title of Wafa al Mulk.
And in the year 627 Wafa al Mulk
expelled Pahlawan Uzbak, and made himself master of all those

parts of India that Pahlawan governed.
Jalal ad din went to
Karman in the year 621, and he and his army suffered great dis
tress in the deserts lying between Karman and India, and there
were with him four thousand men, some mounted upon oxen, and
some upon asses ; then he marched to Khuzistan, and conquered
it, as well as the neighbouring districts of Iran.
He then removed
the body of his father from the island to the castle of Azdahan,
and buried him there ; and when the Tatars took that castle, they
dug up the body and burnt it ; this was what they did to every
EXTRACTS.
297
hostile prince whose grave they knew ; and in the same way they
dug up the body of Mahmud ibn Sabaktagm at Ghazna, and burnt
his bones.
Then is related what has preceded, and to which I refer for
an account of the conquest by Jalal ad din of Khalat, and other
places, and his encamping near a bridge in the neighbourhood of
Amid ; and of his sending to request assistance from Al Malik
ibn Al Malik al Aadil; but he did not assist him; then Jalal
ad dm meditated a journey to Isfahan, but changed his design,
and he passed a night in a certain place, and he drank the whole
of that night and became intoxicated, and the sickness of drunk
enness is the swimming of the head, and weakening of the mind;
and the Tatars surrounded him and his army in the morning.
'Tis evening, and their bed is of silk, and when morning comes their bed
is the earth,
And he in whose hand is the lance, is like him in whose hand is the paint
for the face.
And they who were in pursuit of him surrounded the tent* of

Jalal ad din, who was sleeping intoxicated ; and one of his army,
whose name was Urkhan, made an attack upon, and repulsed
the Tatars from the tent ; and some of his servants entered and
took Jalal ad din by the hand, and wakened him; and he had
on nothing but a white vest; and they placed him on a horse,
and Urkhan fought with the Tatars who pursued him; and Jalal
ad dm said to Urkhan, separate yourself from me, so that the
Tatars may be occupied in following your troops; but this was
an error of his, for Urkhan who was followed by all the soldiers,
being about four thousand cavalry, reached Isfahan, and remained
* Khargah, Turkish and Persian for a tent, or pavilion.
298
EXTRACTS.
master of it for some time. And when Jalal ad din was alone,
he rode to Amid but could not obtain entrance, and he went to
one of the Villages of Mifarikin seeking Shahab ud dm Ghazi
ibn al Malik al Aadil prince of Mifarikin, and the Tatars over
took him in this village, and he fled to a mountain which was
there, and which was inhabited by Kurds, and they took- and
plundered him, and were about to kill him, and he said to one
of them, " / am the Sultan ; preserve my life and I will make
thee a Icing ;" and the Kurd took him to his wife, and then went
away to the mountain, to his companions who were there. And
there came a certain Kurd holding a short spear, and he said to
the woman, " Why do you not kill this Khwdrizmian?'1'' and she
said, " That would not be right, my husband has taken him wider
protection" And the Kurd replied, " This is the Sultan who
when at Khaldt, killed a brother of mine who was a better man
than he" And he struck the Sultan with the spear, and killed
him. And Jalal ad din was of dark complexion, short of stature,
and Turkish, both in appearance and speech ; though he spoke
Persian also. In the beginning of his reign, when he wrote to
the Khalif, he subscribed himself " his most humble servant Mankbarni;" but after he had taken K.I in Kit, he subscribed himself
only " his servant ;" when writing to the kings of Bum, or to
the kings of Egypt or Syria, he wrote merely his name and the
name of his Father ; and never chose to write to any one of
them with the epithet of servant, or brother, or any thing of that
kind ; and the inscription upon his letters was this, " Help is
from God alone;" and when he wrote to the prince of Mausel,
or such as he, he used this inscription, not condescending to
make use of his name ; and he wrote this with a large reed ;
and he was himself styled Khuddwand i Aalam; that is, Lord
of the World; and the time of his death was the middle of
EXTRACTS.
Shawwal of this year; I mean 628.
299
And this is what I have
extracted from the chronicle of Muhammad al Munshi, who was

in the service of Jalal ad din, until he was killed ; he was his
private secretary, and was much favoured and preferred by him.
It will be observed in these extracts, that the final vowels are

always discarded, thus Jalal ad din for Jalalu '1, or ud dini.
This
is in conformity to constant practice ; those vowels never being

pronounced in conversation.
It has even been questioned whether
they were ever any thing more than a grammatical refinement ;

but there is sufficient evidence, that anciently, they were in common
use, though now only employed in poetry, and books of elevated
style.
300
THE chief attention of the student of Arabic Grammar should

be given to the rules of Permutation, upon which depend all the
irregularities of the Verb : and it will be seen, that they require
only a little application, presenting in themselves no difficulty
whatever. The many forms which the Plural assumes, will prove
but a slight obstacle, as those in most common use are but few,
and practice in reading will soon render them familiar. In the
Syntax, it will also be found that the forms of speech which
are most opposed to what may be considered the natural con
struction of a sentence, are of rare occurrence, so much so, that
although the examples given in the preceding Grammar, of such
inversions, are not numerous ; some of these even, are but seldom
met with. The many quotations of such examples which are to
be found in more voluminous Grammars, are chiefly taken from
Arabian Lexicographers and Grammarians, and it may perhaps
be doubted whether like constructions are always to be consi
dered as authorized by the genius of the language.
I subjoin a list of a few of the most useful books, in the
order in which I think they may be read to most advantage by
the student. If I may be allowed, in such a case, to follow the
example of the late Mr Cobbett in recommending my own writ
ings, I would say that the learner should first make himself a
thorough master of this book, and if disposed to study the Arabian
Commentators and Grammarians, he should preface that study by
the careful and repeated perusal of the Grammar of M. de Sacy.
For him, however, who has no such intention, the perusal of
the " Chrestomathie,-" followed by the " Kalilah wa Dimnah," will
be sufficient, and enable him to read with ease the life of Timur.
301
The Makamat of Hariri, with the Commentary of M. de Sacy,
are adapted only to the use of those who desire to become pro
found Arabic scholars.
I have not taken any notice of the prosody and metre of
the Arabs; M. de Sacy and M. Ewald have each, though upon
different principles, given a short treatise upon these subjects, it
is my own intention, should I meet any encouragement, to pub
lish a Translation of the " Darstellung der Arabischen Verskunst-'-'
of M. Freytag, where they are discussed in the most complete
manner.
THE END.
302
GOLII, Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, folio, Lugd. Bat. 1653.

Freytag, Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, 4 vols. 4to. Halce, 1830.
This, which is the best Arabic Dictionary, will very well admit
of being bound in two vols., which will render it more convenient
for constant use.
De Sacy, Grammaire Arabe, 2nd edit. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1831.
Chrestomathie Arabe, 2nd edit. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1827Anthologie Grammatical Arabe, 8vo.
Calila et Dimna en Arabe, 4to. Paris, 1816.
Of this there is an English translation by the Rev. E. Knatchbull.
Ahmadis Arabsiadis Vita Timuri a Manger, 3 vols. 4to. Leonard,
1767.
Of this work there is an edition by Golius, but it is the Arabic
text only; of which there is an edition also printed at Calcutta.
De Sacy, Les Seances de Hariri en Arabe avec un Commentaire,
folio, Paris, 1821.
The peculiar style of this work, in which all the eloquence of
the Arabic Language is displayed, makes it almost incapable of
being translated ; should the student, however, wish to have the aid
of a translation, he may use a Latin version which was published
by M. Peiper, in 4to. at Hirschberg in 1832.
The following looks mill also he found of great use.

Arabum Proverbia, a G. G. Freytag, 2 vols. 8vo. Bonnce, 1838.
Fakihat al Khulafa, a Freytag, 4to. Eonnte, 1832.
Alf Lailah wa Lailah, or the Thousand and One Nights.
text by W. H. Macnaghten, Esq. 4 vols. 8vo. Calcutta.
Arabic
CAMBRIDGE,
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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

DUNCAN STEWART, ESQ.

HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRAtV

&~e O ' <:- "--^ ^

PRINTED AT THE VNIFERSITY PRESS,

THE BARON VON HAMMER AND PURGSTALL,

PROFOUND LEARNING AND VARIED TALENTS

SO LONG AND SO EARNESTLY DEVOTED TO THE SERVICE

TO FACILITATE THE iSTUDY OF THE ARABIC LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND,

IS WITH GREAT RESPECT

IN composing the following Grammar, my intention

known, that the Syntax occupies but nine small quarto

The mantle of his prophet-master has indeed fallen upon

By the exertions of eminent and accomplished scholars,

by M. de Sacy, whose Anthologie Grammaticale Arabe

perfect as my own experience may be considered, I may

I have not thought it necessary to expatiate upon

ideas attached to the words participle and infinitive in

ORSERVATIONS ON THE ALPHARET

RULES OF PERMUTATION OF THE LETTERS > j, L

Rules common to j and ij

Conjugation of the first form <J*J of regular Triliteral Verbs

ON THE TENSES OF THE REGULAR TRILITERAL VERRS.

THE SURD VERR

OF THE IRREGULAR VERRS.

Of Imperfect Verbs, of which the First Radical is_j or i_J

Of Imperfect Verbs of which the Second Radical is_j or l^ , called Con

Defective j preceded by KasraJt

CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA.

164, last line after "servile letters"add sometimes

THE Arabic Alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, differ

These figures, which are called t/jJui J, or Indian ciphers,

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ALPHABET.

THE Arabic Alphabet, like those of the other Semitic nations,

>M<J , the only one employed in printed Arabic, and of which

The. Taalik JuLc, is the beautiful flowing character used

These two last are employed in writing Persian only.

The Arabs being great admirers of Calligraphy, have however

The order in which the letters are placed in this Alphabet,

j.s.3 c^~ij ^a&*~i lj*\ L5^-

rangement it is that the letters are used as numerals.

Lam-Alif is added to the Alphabet, merely to shew the peculiar

Some letters, it will be seen, are never joined to their

succeeding one, though when J J j j and j are followed by x

Arabians denominate dbfa,

noktah, we call diacritical, or dis

As these points are frequently omitted by the care

lessness of transcribers, proper names are often minutely described

<jH j J are marked thus (j* j 0 ; and ^ Is ^ - are re

This sometimes dis

tinguishes (jw also, or three points are written below it (jw -,

The Africans sometimes use the three letters -.. j and'

Thus in the History of Timur,

cJ with three points above, or beneath ; they then have the

The Arabic, like the Hebrew, and many other Eastern

the pronunciation is far from being as correct as among the

Aleppo makes , b and j nearly the same, but ^J> like J.

makes no such distinction as to this taking place, only in medial,

j.s.3 c^~ij ^a&~i lj\ L5^-