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acknowledgment of his hospitality to Christians Paul calls him That Timothy was of Lystra, is no doubt a common opinion. but
‘my host, and of the whole church’ (Rom. 16 23). According to it is not certain that Kai cis A&T~UV
is not an interpretatio; (see
Ori,gen (ad Zoc.) this Gaius afterwards became bishop of Thessa- Blass, and cp TIMOTHY).
lonica’ the grounds of this statement are unknown. The list of 3. Gaius ‘the beloved’ ( b & ~ u T ? T ~ s )to
, whom 3 Jn. is
the se;enty disciples by pseudo-Dorotheus contains a Gaius, who addressed ; cp EPISTOLARY LITERATURE, 8 7. Of his person-
is said to have succeeded Timothy as bishop of Ephesus. It is ality nothing is known. T. K. C.
not worth while to support this by the theory that Rom. 16 GALAAD ( raAa&A [AHV]), I Macc. 5 9 etc., RV
where Gaius is referred to, was addressed to the Ephesiad
Church. G ILEAD [ q . ~ . ,I].
z. A Gentile Christian. who went with Paul to Miletus (Acts
GALAL ($5; ; rahaah [B], r W h H ? [AI).
I. A Levite, apparently in theline ofAsaph, in the list of inhabit-
ants of Jerusalem (see E ZRA ii., 5 5 [b], 5 15 [I] a), I Ch. 9 15
a Macedonian ‘-being very ill-supported). Many scholars (e.g. (ya6ep [L]). The name is, however, corrupt, see HERESHand
Salmond, in Hastiugs’ D B 28oa)suppose two different persons t; cp MATTANIAH, 2.
be referred to ; hut the two passages stand so close together that 2. A Levite in the line of Jeduthun in list of inhabitants of
this is improbable. It is necessary to read either Aepaabc 61 Jerusalem (E ZRA ii., $5 5 [h], $ 15 [ I ] a), I Ch. 916 (yahah [Ll)
T L ~ ~ (Blass,
~ E O after
S Valckenar) or x d AeppS. Tip. (Lachmann). =Neh. 11 17 (yaheh [Nc.a mg. SUP.], yaheK [Ll, BA om.).
GALATIA’
CONTENTS
A . H ISTORY OF G ALATIA
I
11. Casef o r North Galatian Theoty.
Geographical Nomenclature ($ 5). General Case for North Galatian Theory (5 8).
Difficulty of Accepted View ($5 6). Any Churches in North Galatia? ($6 9-19),
South Galatian Theory($ 7). New Testament references suit Nor& Calatia best ($5 20.31).
C. G ALATIANS ELSEWHERE (§ 32).
Literature (5 33).
MAP.
Asia Minor, with the political divisions about 50 A.D. (after col. 1592)
A. H ISTORY OF G ALATIA . Pontus. On the E. the Halys (KiziE ~ V Z Q ~the ) ,
-
T h e mimation which left a settlement of Celts
1, settlement islanded in Asia Minor was the last
greatest river of Asia Minor, on the W . the Sangarius
(SURQY~U), ran through deep gorges to the Black Sea,
phase of a movement of which the in- dividing the land of the Celts into three nearly equal
of Celts. roads into Italv h o B.C. I and Greece portions.
,\-,
The Trocmi settled E. of the Halys, round Tavium (Nefez
(279 B .c.) were episodes ; but its history is known only Keuz) ; the Tectosages between the two rivers, around Ancyra
in outline. ( A ~ g 5 r a )the
; Tolistobogii 1 W. of the Sangarius round Pessinus
In 280 B.C. the Celtic bands overran Macedonia killing the (Bala Hissar). The territory of the three tribes formed a rough
brave Ptolemy Ceraunus who rashly opposed them h t h inferior rectangle, extendingabout 2w m. from E. to W. On the S. lay
force. The main horde under Brennus and Acichorius pene- the Axylon, or treeless steppes of Lycaonia, and the plateau of
trated Greece proper. but being repulsed in IEtolia and before Iconium (Konia), in the E. part of which is the salt lake Tatta.
Delphi retired northGardiagain and uniting with their brethren T h e importance of the Celts was due entirely to their
in the ‘neighbourhood of Byzaitium determined to cross into geographical situation. The three tribes held in their
Asia Minor. In this design they succeeded, being assisted by
Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who concluded a treaty with the hands the old Royal Road from Ephesus, by way of
seventeen Celtic chiefs, securing their aid against his brothers. Pessinus, Ancyra and Pteria (BoghazKeui,near Tavium),
T h e invaders must have seized immediately a t least to the Euphrates (Rams. Hist. Geogr. o f A M 2 7 f . ) .
some part of the country known afterwards a s Galatia. The alternative and more direct route following ‘the one easy
Our authorities represent its seizure a s coming somewhat path that nature has made between the Bgean coast and the
high grounds of the plateau ’ (ib., and 49), through S. Phrygia
later ; but the survival of the Celts as a nation implies and Lycaonia, was only in the infancy of its development ; con-
the possession of some place of deposit for their wives sequently the Greek cities of western Asia Minor, and those of
and children during those early years. Syria and Cilicia, were partially severed from one another, so
With their settlement on the uplands of the interior the Celts that the former escaped the blighting shadow of Seleucid auto.
entered upon the second stage of their history, forming a true cracy (Holm, op. cit. 498J).
robber-state, from which bands of marauders issued systematic- Strabo (567) gives a sketch of the Galatian political
ally to fall upon the rich city-territories of western Asia. organisation.
According to Livy (38 I€.), tl;e three tribes cast lots for the region Each tribe was divided into four clans (cp the Helvetii, C a .
in which each plundered : this may not be true. but certainly all BG1 IZ), ruled by a tetrarch under whom were a judge and a
Asia Minor within the Taurus was at their mkrcy for the next general the latter with two subordinates. The general council
fifty years, and the kings were fain to purchase partial immunity of the iwelve tetrarchies consisted of 300 men, ‘who met at a
from their raids by the hwrardous device of employing them as place called Drynemetum (=Drjwneimheidh, the temple of
mercenaries in their armies (Polyh. 5 5 3 65 ; Justin, 252). the oaks’ according to Perrot, Ea@. arch. de la Galatie, 182,
A change came with the victories of the Pergamene kings who locates it near Assarli-Kaya, 7 hrs. SW. ofAncyra. Holder,
(especially those of Attalus I. gained between 240 and 230 B.C. however [Altkelt. S$mclischatz], regards Dry- as merely an
The inscriptionsreveal several victories : cp Livy, 3817, Aiialzrs intensive prefix, and nemeton as=sanctuary. Cp Rams. in
eos rex s q b e f d i t fugauitque. They are closely connected Bull. de Cow. Hell. 1898, p., 2343). This assembly was
with an important chapter of Greek Art). The main result was principally a high court of justice ; in other respects the clans
toconfine theCelts within definite limits (Paus. i. 8 I ; Strabo567) : were mdependent. By Roman times this old system had quite
henceforth they were restricted to Galatia proper, and their disappeared. (See especially on this subject Ramsay, Hisf.
historical influence was exerted mainly indirectly. Comm. on Gal. 723).
T h e Celts occupied the N W . part of the great plateau T h e commanding position of the Galatians upon the
constituting the interior of Asia Minor (cp Holm, G r . old route, and on the flank of the new
Hist., ET, 4963). T h e range having no distinctive 2, Roman one, explains the necessity for the puni-
intervention,
name, of which the last member to the W . is the tive expedition of the Roman consul
Mysian Olympus, separated them from Bithynia and Cn. Manlius Vulso (189 B.c., Livy, 38123).
1 Fahada [Ti. WH] only in Gal. l a I Cor. 161 I Pet. 1I . 1 The form Tolistobogii is usual in inscriptions and coins of
GALATIANS,I’ah&aL [Ti. WHIin Gal. 3 I ; GALATIAN, I’aharLKd the Roman period and is found in early authorities. In early
[Ti. WH] in Acts 16 8 18 23. inscriptions the form Tolistoagii is given.
1589 1590
GALAT1A GALATIA
This broke their power, and apparently they partially suc- T h e core of the province was constituted by the old
cumbed to Ariarathes of Cappadocia and the rulers of Pontus kingdom of Amyntas,-;.e., the territory of the thrce
(Van Gelder, Galaf. res. 2 5 7 3 , Polyb. 31 13). Their losses on
this side were balanced, however, according to Rams. Stud. Celtic tribes with eastern Phrygia, Pisidia, Issuria, a n d
B i b Z . 4 4 9 x , by the conquest of the Lycaonian tetrarchy, con- Lycaonia,-so that all the towns mentioned in Acts 1 3 5
taining Iconium and thirteen other cities (cp Pliny, H N 5 95 ai id a s visited by Paul (except those of Pamphylia) belonged
Ptol. v. 410 who calls it rrpamrhqppivq, ' the added territory').
This was probably about 160 B.C. a t that time to the Province Galatia.
During the latter part of the second century B.C. the Galatians There is no literary evidence a s to the constitution
seem to have been under the ascendancy of Pontns-that is to imposed upon the Province, and inscriptions other than
say, the Pontic party among the Galatians themselves was epitaphs are rare in Galatia (see Anderson in J HeZL
triumphant. Then came a national reaction. At any rate
the Romans in their struggle with the Pontic sultan found no stud. 19 5.f: ).
allies more faithful than the Galatians, and 'by the side of the The governor was a ZegafvsAugrrsfi YO pretove-i.e., the
command of Mithridates to murder the Italians went the province was imperial, but there were no legions within its
massacre of the whole Galatian nobility '(Momms. Prou. of X. borders. Ancyra, as being the old home of the Galatian
En@. [ET] 1339). Only three tetrarchs escaped. kings, far exceeding then as now (cp Murray, Handb. to A M
In 64 B.C., when the contest with Mithridates was IS), the other towns'of the province in wealth, was the official
capital. It had been an important city even before the Celts
ended, Pompeius established over the Celts three entered the country (3H.S 1948). In S. Galatia
tetrarchs ( a misuse of the title, see above). Of these, Antioch (Colonia Ccesareia Antiocheia) was a sort of secondar;
the most successful and prominent was Deiotarus of the capital, for it was in this region that the work of Romanisation
was specially active from IO B.C. to 50 A . D . , as is clear from the
Tolistobogii, who gradually made himself supreme over number of Roman colonies founded by Augustus about 6 B.C.
the other two tribes, and after temporary eclipse during (besides Antioch Lystra and Parlais in Lycaonia, Cremna in
Caesar's lifetime was finally recognised by the Romans Pisidia, $omam,'and Olbasa further W. Cp CZL 3, Suppl. no.
as king of Galatia (died in 41 B.c.). 6974). These were connected by a system of roads which
radiated from Antioch as the military centre of the whole
I n 39 B.C., Amyntas, formerly a secretary of King of southern Galatia' (Rams. Hist. Geogr. o f A M 398 J).
Deiotarus, was made king of Pisidia (including Antioch) Under succeeding Emperors especially Claudins, this policy
by Antonius, who between 39 and 36 B. c. disposed of was continued, and several ci&es(e.g., Derbe and Iconium) were
remodelled and renamed in Roman fashion.
kingdoms with a high hand in Asia Minor (App. BC
I n a special way the southern part of the province
5 7 5 ) . In 36 B.C. Amyntas was given in addition Galatia
was important in Paul's time.
proper, with Isauria, part of Pamphylia, and W . Cilicia, The two main roads from Ephesus to inner Asia traversed it,
a s well a s the Lycaonian plain intervening between his dividing a t Apameia in Phrygia, the one to go N. of the
Pisidian and his Galatian domains, so that Iconium SuZtan Dagk through Laodiceia Combusta
and Lystra were both under his sway (Dio Cass. 4 9 3 2 ) . 4.Settlement and Czsareiain Cappadociatothe Euphrates,
The manifest ability of Amyntas as an instrument of Roman of Jews. tiochother
the to go S. of the range through An-
policy caused Augustus to confirm the Celtic prince in his and Iconium and the Cilician Gates.
kingdom, notwithstanding that he had fought for Antonius at T o this fact we must mainly attribute the presence of large
Actium. He was also given a free hand on the non-Roman part numbers of Jews in the cities of this region (see DELUGE I 20
of his frontiers. Soon therefore he made himself master of end). The Jewish colonies, indeed, dated from the time'of th;
Derbe, which had been seized by Antipater (once Cicero's friend ; Seleucid kings, who established them with special privileges
Ep. ad Fam. 13 73). and citizen rights in their garrison towns in Asia Minor (Jos.
Ant. xii. 3 I and 34. Cp v6pw TGV ' I o d a i w v in an inscription
I n 25 B.C. the whole question of Roman policy in of Apameia, Rams. Ciiies and Bish. of Phrygza, 538, 668. See
central Asia Minor had to be faced anew, for Amyntas also Schiirer Hist. o f / e w s ET, ii. 2 2 5 2 ~ 3 . Hence Paul's
met his death unexpectedly in a n expedition against the experiences in Acts 1 3 1 4 141'Gal. 1 7 417. Ramsay has pointed
out that the analogy between Jewish ceremonial and the entire
Homonades, an independent tribe in Mt. Taurus. native Phrygian and Lycaonian religious system would tend to
T h e death of Amyntas threw the burden of govern- increase the influence of the Jews (St. Paul, 141).
ing his vast territories upon the Romans themselves
B. G ALATIANS O F TIIE EPISTLE AKD ACTS.
3. Galatia (Dio Cass. 5326). Marcus Lollius was
~ Province. the first governor of the new province ; What remains of this article is devoted to the
but its organisation was not completed 6. Galatians question, Where were the churches to
before 20 B. c. Pamphylia was separated from Galatia which the epistle to the Galatians was
in NT : s e n t ? l T h e accepted opinion has
and put under a governor of its own (Dio Cass. 5326).
Various dynasts were recognised a s rulers of the parts nomenc1ature' been that they were in northern cities
adjacent on the NE. and SE. frontiers : Polemon ruled not mentioned in Acts. This opinion may conveniently
over Pontus, whilst Cilicia Tracheiotis, with eastern be called the ' N o r t h Galatian theory.' T h e argu-
Lycaonia, including Kastabala and Kybistra, the old ments in favour of it are discussed below (§§ 8-31). I n
eleventh Strate,aia,l was attached to the kingdom of recent years (see 9 33) it has been proposed by many
Archelaus of Cappadocia (Strabo, 535 537; App. B. scholars to find the churches in the southern cities
Mithr. 105). In course of time, however, these parts mentioned in Acts- Antioch, Iconium, Derbe, and
were absorbed one after another and attached to Galatia Lystra. This opinion may conveniently be called the
Provincia. ' South Galatian theory.' As Ramsay has said (Ex$os.
'956, , p . 34), ' T h e central question as to the two
Additions to Province. Galatian theories ... is so fundamental, that it
5 B.C. Paphlagonia (the district round Mt. Olgassys affects almost every general enquiry whether in regard
[ U&az Da&] with the cities Gangra and Andrapa) to Acts as a history and as a literary composition, or in
after the death of Qeiotarus brother of Castor (cp regard to Paul's policy and character.' T h e question
Rams. in Rm. des Et. Gr., 1894, p. 251 ; Reinach,
Rev. Nunzism. '91, p. 395). should not be taken in too narrow a sense (Ramsay,
z. B.C. Amasia and Gazelonitis, together with the domain of Hist. Comm. 9).
Atepork (cp Rams. Hisf. Comm. IZIJ).
34/35 A . D . Komana Pontica. This region together with that of I. Casef o r South GaZaalian Theory.
Amasia is called as a whole Pontus GaZatzcws
(Ptol: v. 6 3 ) ,as distingnished from Pontus PoZe T h e official title of the vast province we have de-
nzonzacus-z.e. the part of Pontus governed by scribed, extending almost from sea to sea, was ' Galatia.'
King Polemon.'
41 A.D. Derbe and the Lycaonian part of the eleventh This is proved by Rolemy's enumerationof l?ahada side by side
Strafegia of Cappadocia transferred to Galatia 1,y with the other officialtitles of the provinces of Asia Minor, and
Claudius on the restoration of Antiochus IV. (see by Pliny's definition of Galatia as extending S. to Pamphylia
DERBE). ( H N 5 1463, nttingit Galntia Pamphylia Cavbaliam et
63 A . D . Pontus Polemoniums the kingdom of Polemon 11. Mi@as). It is also clear from Tacitus (Hist. 2 9 GaZafia7n ac
which retained its 'title even after incorporatio; Pasz$?yliam $rooincias Call)rcrnio Asjrenati r&endas Galba
(Ptol. v. 04). @rrxiserat [=68/69 A.D.]. Cp Rams. in Stud. Bibl. 427J).
1 The eleventh Strategiu dated probably from 129 R.C. (cp 1 The references in I and z Macc. also are dealt with below,
Justin 37 I ) . it originally included also Derbe and Laranda. 8 32.
See Rkmsay: Hist. Comm. 64f: 106f: 2 For a different view, see below, 8 8.
'59' '592
MAP OF ASIA MINOR
I N D E X T O NAMES
used of the readers of Galatians in Gal. 3 I (see below, ( F u X a r h - ;.e., Galatia proper.
8 29). This contention, however, is not convincing. accepted view' The argument against this is de-
By the Romans the ethnic derived from the name of the pro- cisive : Why, if Paul a n d thg writer o f x c t s both refer t o
vince was regularly used to denote the inhabitants of that pro- Galatia proper, should they differ so remarkably as t o
vince irrespective of internal national distinctions. This is
conc1;sively proved by the exhaustive discussion of Ramsay t h e name, the writer of Acts employing a circun~locution
(Stud. Bi6l. 426,K). On the other hand, the nationnl appella- which stands alone among all the references collected
tions, such as Phryx or Lycaa, were extra-Roman and servile from ancient authors?' O n the other hand, the ad-
(cp Momms. in Hemtes, '54, p. 3 3 ~ 3 and , in their nature nega- jective ' Galatic' ( F a X a w d s ) is used b y Ptolemy a n d
tive of that unity which was the imperial ideal. No general
term for the whole population of the province Galatia other in the inscriptions always in a definite special sense, to
than ' Galatians' was possible for the Roman governor or for indicate the extensions of the original Galatia. Paul,
the Roman liistorian (Tac. Ann. 15 6, Pontica et Gnlatnrunz writing a s a Roman citizen, a n d from the Roman im-
Caj#adocnmque auxilia). The same is true, also, of the
Roman Paul. Indeed no other address was possihle in the case perial standpoint, never uses a n y but Roman provincial
of men belonging to Roman colonies like CoZonia Cesareia titles 3 (coinciding, of course, in some cases with pre-
Antiocheia (hntioch) and Colonia Julia Felix Geinina Lystrn Roman national designations), whilst the Greek writer
(Lystra), and of semi-Roman towns like Claun- Zconiunz of Acts adopts the popular a n d colloquial usage of t h e
(Iconium) and Claudio-Dcr6e (Derbe). So long as we refuse to
think of the four cities under these their Roman names in Panl's more educated classes (Rams. i n Expos., '986, p. 1z5J =
time, we obscure for ourselves their true position within the Hist. Cotnm. 3 23, p. 3148).
province, and fail to grasp Paul's own Roman character and The North Galatian view demands also that ' Phrygia '
attitude towards the imperial system (Rams. St. Paul, 135, id.
Was Christ d a m at BethZehcnz ? 52). ( Q u y i a v ) be a noun in both passages ; but this only
This argument can be met only by adherence to the old form makes more pressing t h e question why the simple tevm
of the North Galatian theory, that the 'Churches of Galatia' ' Galatia ' was not written.
were the northern cities Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium (Lightf. Lightfoot ( G d 22) correctly argued that the phrase
Gal. 20 ; he doubtfully adds Juliopolis, which, however, be-
longed to Bithynia) ; but this view runs counter to the fact that of Acts 1 6 6 (see 8 5. end) must denote a single territory
the development of the northern part of the plateau resulted to which the two epithets Phrygian a n d Galatian are
later, from the transference of the seat of government first to applied-' it was, i n fact, the land originally inhabited
Nicomedeia and afterwards to Constantinople (Rams. Hist.
Geogr. of A M , 7 4 197 242). It further demands an erroneous by Phrygians, but subsequently occupied b y Gauls. '
interpretation of Acts 1 6 6 18 23 (on these verses see however, For the proof of this point as a matter of grammar,
§ 9.f: 12:14), otherwise no record can be found {n A& of the consult Ramsay (Church in K . E?izp. 4S6, St. Paul,
foundation of churches in N. Galatia. 2.0). The historical justification of t h e phrase, how-
It is a significant fact, however, that the history of the North
s a steady tendency to place the scene.of ever, given b y Lightfoot, though true, is inadn-issible
ever farther southwards. Ziickler main- here, being quite out of harmony with the style of Acts,
y of Ancyra or Tavium, and restricts the a n d failing t o explain why the writer should have hecn
churches of Galatia to Pessinus and the villages of the Axylon
(St. Kr. 'gj, pp. 59, 79). Others hold that whilst the S. Galatian a t the pains to use a cumbrous expression that scrves n o
churches mentioned in Acts are addressed in the Ep., it includes purpose.
also foundations otherwiseunknown, in N. Galatia. The South Accepting the unity of the expression i n Acts166,
Galatian theor; is that we have in Acts a complete list and a we may take it to be a ' general a n d comprehensive
complete acconnt of the foundation of the (lalatian chrirclies,
and that Paul never travelled in any part of Galatia proper. 7. South Gala- description rather than as the exclusive
T h e attempt t o restrict the application of thc nnme tian theory. denoniination of any one particular dis-
trict' (so Gifford in Expos. Tulv '94,
' Galatians ' (I'aXdrat) t o those of Celtic blood is futilc,
as the majority of the inhabitants of Galatia proper p. 12). It denotes then the borderlands of Gaia& a n d
Phrygia.4 T h i s certainly gives a perfectly intelligible
'
must have beeu descended from the old conquered races,
-the Phrygians o r the Cappadociairs together with, route t o the apostle, from Antioch northwards as far
i n Paul's time, Greeks, Romans, a n d Jews (cp, however, perhaps as Nakoleia, where, being forbidden to cross
below, 5 29, end). Especially in the towns must this into Bithynia, he turned westwards (Acts 1G7).
have been t h e case (Van Celder. G d 9-e.r). The route from Antioch to Nakoleia, however, lay well within
the borders of Asian Phrygia (since the boundaries of Asia
It is true that even in the first century A . D . the Celtic e!ement fell E. of Troknades, Orkistos, and Amorion, according to
retained its distinctive characteristics (as late as the 4th cent. Ramsay [Hist. Geogr. 1721 and Wadd. [Ehsies,zj]). The only
A . D ., according to Jerome, the Celtic tongue, a dialect resem- road to which the description 'Phrygian and Galatian' is really
bling that of the Gallic Tre7feii,was used side by side with applicable is the direct road from Iconium to Dorylaion (Eski
Greek); yet no sound argument can be based upon the supposed Sheher), the modern nra6a route from /ionin to Constantinople,
correspondence between the characteristics of the Galatian con- lying many miles E. of that sugsested by Gifford (cp Rams.
verts (Gal. 5 19f: 16) and those charged against the Gauls,
though no doubt many passages may be qnoted in support of 1 See Holder. A Zfhelfischer Sbrachschatz.
' S.W. ' Galatia,'
such correspondence (cp Meyer-Sieffert, Bvief an GaLM 5). where most of thim are given.
On this 'pedantic analysis' of Galatian character see Ramsay, 2 'Pontus Galaticus ' C f L 3, Suppl. 6818 ; ' Phrygia Galatica'
Hist. Cornin. 162. in Acta Sand 28th Skpt., p. 563, as emended by Rams. (in ur6e
T h e Roman provincial title 'Galatia' is not used Antiochie Pisirtire ex regione Phry& Galatice, where the
in Acts ; but in 1 6 6 we find the phrase r+jv Q u y i a v K U ~ MS has Galacie. See Stud. Bi61.4 26). In CIG3991, F a h a n x i
i r r a p ~ ~ is
i athe enlarged province (date of this inscr. '54 A.D.).
raXa.rrK$v xhpav ( E V 'region of Galatia'), a n d in 3 So also, and for the same reason, are Roman provincial
titles used in I Pet. 1I , which sums up all Asia Minor within the
1 The untenable position that it was not first assumed by Taurus. See Rams. Church in A'. Em$. 110 ; Zahn, Em/. 1124.
Schiirer in JPT, '92, p. 471, was abandokd in T L Z , 30th 4 Lightfoot seems to approximate to thisview in his CoZoss.(9)
Sept. '93, p. 506. 21.
52 I593 1594
GALATIA GALATIA
03.cif. 198). From the supposition that Paul diverged N. from in Acts’ (Church in R. Emf. 484), we must call atten-
Iconium, the natural inference is that the prohibition to speak tion to the hiatus between Gi$hOov and 8hO6vrEs.
in Asia was given at Iconium, or at Lystra, and that Paul did
not go on to Antioch (though his intention had been to visit All mention of entry upon Asian Phrygia is omitted, together
all the churches, Acts 15 36 : K a r i ~ 6 h wrriuav). with the reasons which led to such entry; for it is only by
In the second place, Lightfoot is certainly right in his anticipation from the subsequent ‘they assayed to go into
Bithynia’ that such reason (i.a. the desire to evangelize
remark (CoZoss. 26 n.)that the boundaries of the pro- Bithynia) can be adduced. Seeink that at the outset no in-
vince Galatia were drawn with precision. tention of opening up new ground was expressed by Paul (Acts
We must not take our own ignorance of the details of the 15 36 ; the implication seen by Ramsay in Acts lG 3 [Chsrch in
frontier line as indicating any uncertainty as to the actual limits R. Em#. 751 is unjustifiable in the face of the words TOGS S w a s
of jurisdiction of the various governors. Even though such un- 6v Tois ~ 6 f f o r sdKFivOis), we require Some explanation of his going
certainty might obtain in particular districts the question still N. instead of retracing his ste s, or descending to Attalia, as
remains unanswered, why here alone the &iter of Acts has on the first journey (Acts14 25)j (Cp, however, below, 5 IO n.)
been careful to insist upon the ambiguity, if such there was. Further, we must not demand a too rigid parallelism
Ramsay follows Lightfoot in the translation of Acts in meaning between the phrases of Acts 166 and 1823.
166, rendering’ ‘ the Phrygo-Galatic territory’ (so RV T h e North Galatian view makes them mean precisely the
‘ t h e region of Phrygia and Galatia,’ as against AV same thing, accounting for the difference in form by
‘ Phrygia and the region of Galatia ’). H e differs from saying that the route was reversed on the third journey ;
him, however, in the explanation, holding that the and Ramsay, but for different reasons, regards ’ Phrygia’
various parts of the province were t o some unknown (Qpuyiav) of Acts 18 23 as equivalent to the whole ex-
extent distinct, and were termed XGpai, Re,m’ones. pression ‘ the Phrygia[n] and Galatic region ’ (r. Qpuyiav
T w o of these IZegiones were krvcrsccl by Paul in Acts ~ a raXarrKilv
l X h p a u ) of Acts166. Actsl823, how-
16 1-6 18 23-viz., Galatic Phrygia ani: Galatic Lycaonia. ever, should rather be brought into closer connection
The ‘Phrygia[nI region’ ( B p u y i a p ;more fd:y ‘the Phrygia[n] than is usually the case with the resumption of the nar-
and Galatic region ’ 3 Bpuyla K a L I ’ a A a n t + X h p a as in Acts rative in Acts191 after the digression about Apollos.
1 6 6=Phvy& Gadtica) was that part of Phryg:a which be-
longed to the province Galatia, containing the cities Antioch The word ‘ Phrygia‘ (Qpuylav) must be taken in Acts
and Iconium (cp Acts146, where the E. houndary of the 1823 in the sense natural and obvious in this passage, a s
Phrygian part of the province is put between Iconium and a noun (cp Acts 2 IO). I t here indicates the non-Galatian
Lystra). part of Phrygia, the special region thereof being particu-
Just as SE. Phrygia lay in Galatia Provincia, whilst NW.
Phrygia lay in the province of Asia (hence called ’Auravil B p v y i a larised a s ’ the upper country’ ( ~ ~hU W T E ~ LpCp7 K ~ of
by Galen, 4 312)~so E. Lycaonia formed part of the kingdom of Acts19 T) which, following Ramsay (Church i n R.Emf.
Antiochus (hence called Lycmnia Antiociriana CZL 10 8660) 94), we explain as the district traversed by the shorter
whilst W. Lycaonia lay in the province Galatia (hnd was prohi
ably called Lycuonia Galaticn: cp Ponfus Galaticus). It is hill-road by way of Seiblia and the Cayster Valley. In
obvious that these two sections of Lycaonia might also he spoken his most recent utterances Ramsay connects the intro-
of respectively as the ‘ region of Antiochiis ’ (‘Avnoxecavil Xrjpa ; duction of Christianity into Eumeneia and this region
so Ptol. V. G 17) and the ‘Galatic region’ (I’ahaTwil x h p a :
Acts 18 23). with this passage (Cities a n d Bish. ofPhrygia, 2502 715;
In Acts166 the Phrygo-Galatic district is given the c p Expos. ‘95a, p. 389).
full name ; but in Acts 1823 it is simply called +puyla 4 That ‘ Phrygia’ in Acts 18 23 is to be taken as including, or
even solely signifying Asian Phrygia is supported by the para-
( ~ 6 p a;) in the latter passage the Lycaono-Galatic phrase given by Astdius, bishop of Amaseia, in Pontus, about
region, cf the cities Derbe and Lystra (Acts1461, is also 400 A . D . - p n j A S e v o h I KKopivtJou r p b s T ~ rLjv Y I l r u ~ S & vXhpav‘
mentioned, under the title raxariK3 X6pa. €?sa 1;)v hJKaoviau .ai rhs 76s Bpuyias lr6hsrs KaTahaphv,
&&3ev T ~ ‘Auiau
V & T L U K ~ + & ~ . B Y O ~ ,&a T)/V M a d o v l a v , K O L V ~ P
Ramsay further holds that Paul was ‘ actually in Asia ’ ? ~ ~ ~ ~ F O ~ K O U ~ B Y I ) F G L G Gr., L ~ Ked.
~ AMigne,
~ S ( ~ xl.,
~ ~ ~Hom.
T . L).
when the prohibition t o preach reached him ( C h u ~ c hi n The traditional confusion of the Syrian with the Pisidian
R. Ern?. (51 75j. Antioch does not justify Zahn (Einl. 1136) in setting this
Ramsay refuses therefore to understand the participle ‘having evidence aside as a mere false inference. ?‘he assage proves
been forbidden ( K ~ u ~ J ~ u asT Cgiving
~ ) the reason for the step that Asterius, interpreted the Galatic region’ &v raAaTiKilv
described in the words ‘they went through the region of Phrygia ?pau)of Acts 18 23 as Lycaonia (against the N. Galatian hypo-
and Galatia (Bb<hSou . .. XLpav), arguing that the order of verbs
is also the order in time(&. 89); in short, that AV ‘and were
t esis) ; but it also proves that he took Cppuyiau to signify the
country between the Galatic region and Asia (using the latter
forbidden’ is correct (as though the Greek ran Sc<ASov
mi iKOh&&Tau). This is not impossible, though harsh. It is
... term in the narrower Byzantine sense). A possible re-
joinder might be based upon the words ‘confirming all the
noteworthy, however, that in his St. PuuZ, Ramsay follows disciples,’ in Acts 18 zg-that, on the hypothesis expiessed
Lightfoot (Bi61. Ess. 237) in retaining the reading (SLCAS~VTEF) above there could not have been any ‘disciples’ in Asian
of the inferior MSS, upon purely subjective grounds3 that can Phrydiaat the time of Paul’s passa e through that region. Yet
have no weight against the authority of the great MSS. The we must grant the probability of t%e expansion of the teaching
aorist they went through’ (&+SOY) must be read and the from the Christian centres in Galatian Phrygia and Lycaonia,
partidple ‘having been prevented ’ (KoAu8duTrs) gives 6 e reason! even as from Ephesus in Asia at a later date. Paul’s work would
not so much for the action ‘they went through
(6~rjhSou. .. ... region
XLpav), as for the suppressed verb implied in the
he wrongly conceived as that of a pioneer simply. w. J. w.
11. Casefor North GaZatian Theory.
emphasis put upon the expression ‘the Phrygia[n] and Galatic
region’ as opposed to ‘in Asia’-‘they made a tour of the T h e following paragraphs are devoted to a statement
Phrygo-Galatic region (only, and confined themselves to that), of the reasons which in the view of the writer compel
having been forbidden,’ etc.4 adoption of the North Galatian theory.
The point a t which the prohibition was received is im- i. Genera2 case for North Galatian theory.-It may
material, and is in no wise indicated, but is most perhaps conduce to a dispassionate consideration of
naturally assumed t o have been Antioch.
I n opposition to Ramsay, who, on grounds never fully *. these if it is pointed out a t once that the
North question is, after all, not one of first-rate
explained, regards Acts 166-10 as the most remarkable, Galatian
theorgr. moment. How comparatively subor-
the most emotional, and the most instructive paragraph dinate in iniportance it is is illustrated
general even in the strange way in which it has
1 An inscription given by Sterrett, Efiig. Journey, n. 02,
mentions an Qxarovr&pxqu +yeoudp~ou, or centurion of the severed allies and united opponent^.^
Re& in which Antioch lay, z.e., Phrygia Galatica. St. wrongly It would be a great mistake to imagine that the
alters his copy t o heycodpprov. In Str. 568 3 ’Iuauprmj, and establishment of the South Galatian theory would mean
Ptol. v. 6 17,$ ’AurLoXaavrj, the word x d p a is t o be supplied.
a So Ramsay, taking Bpvyia as an adjective. It may he a the vindication of the thorough credibility of the whole
noun and yet bear the same significance, for in inscriptions of 1 So also Zahn ( E X 1135) rightly protests against the in-
Antioch the iiouii is often used=Galatic Phrygia, C Z L 3, Suppl.
6818 and 6819.
variable but unjustifiable assumption that Bithynia was VI’S
goal from the moment that Asia was closed against him. Der
3 Ramsay, St. PnuZ, 195, ‘The succession of participles suits Absicht aher, nach B. vorzudringen, wird erst in dem Moment
so perfectly the strange and unique character, the hurry and the gedacht, wo P. nahe an der Grenze B. und zugleich an :inem
deep-lying emotion ofthepassag;e
manded the unusual expression.
. .. the unnsual embtion de- Punkt stand, wo eine andere Strasse nach Mysien abging.
2 Thus we find conservative theologians fike Zahn ,and
4 The explanation given by Askwith (The E$. to Gul. 34) Zdckler ranged on opposite sides, and similarly critical writers
who takes the participle predicatively, ‘they went through .. like Hansrath and Lipsius-Zahn and Hausrath supporting
forbidden,’ seems to amount to the same thing. the South, and ZSckler and Lipsius the North Galatian theory.
= 59.5 IS96
GALATIA GALATIA
of Acts, or 'that to prove the North Galatian theory second pair of these four cities, Iconium and Antioch-
would be to discredit the book entirely. Only a few that is to say, through Galatian Phrygia.
sections of Acts are involved. T h e rest of the book has On the other hand in a n appendix to the same book, p. xiit
to be tried by other tests (A C T S , 33 2 4-7 12-14 ; cp also he finds in 164f oniy the Lycaonian-Galatianchurches Derh;
and Lystra named in 16 I together with the Syrian and dilician
such articles as APOLLOS, B AR J ESUS , C ORNELIUS , mentioned 'in 15 41, and ndlonger says of 16 6 that it recapitulatd
CHRISTIAN, COMMUNITY, COUNCIL, S I M O N M A G U S , the journey but that the journey 'is resumed from Lystra'-
T HEUDAS). Nor can acceptance of the North Galatian as from t h i last point which, according to the narrative, Paul
and Silas had reached. In agreement with this, in St. P a s f ,
theory be said to cast a reflection on the author of chap. 8 I (180J), he expressly controverts the interpretation of
Acts that is excessively grave. H e has not stated 16 z according to which Paul had already reached Iconium by
what is untrue; he has simply omitted to mention a way of Lystra.
subject at its proper place and touched upon it very I n both views of the matter, however, Ramsay takes
slightly when he mentions it later-the subject, namely, ' the Phrygia(n) and Galatic region ' ( ~ f@pupvyiav Kal
of the founding of the Galatian churches. Much more I'aAariKilv x. ) to mean the re@-ie., the portion of t h e
serious (to confine ourselves to Galatia) is a shortcoming province which by its ancient popular name is Phrygian,
of a different kind-his total failure, namely, to mention but by its new official designation is Galatian. Thus h e
another matter of which we learn from the epistle to takes ' a n d ' ( K U ~as=sive,
) and Phrygia' as adjectival,
the Galatians. T h e appearance of the Judaizers, their just as ' Galatic ' is. I n 1823, according to Churc/iiS),
baleful influence, and Paul's polemic against them con- chap. 5 , n. I (p. go), ' the same territory' is inlended
stitute one of the most important chapters in the history as in 1 6 6 ; all that we have is a 'variation in form'
of early Christianity, and yet Acts does not mention (or ' i n order')- ' t h e Galatic region and Phrygia'
them a t all. Still this charge does not depend on the (7. I'aXariK.ilv x. K U @puyiav)--and
~ this is ' correct a n d
acceptance of the North Galatian theory; it is quite excellent, if " Phrygia " here is a noun.'
as serious from the point of view of the other. It is For further elucidation Ramsay refers to p. 93.
unnecessary, however, to anticipnte here what will have There, however, we find him expressing another view,
to be said later (see 19) ; we proceed accordingly to namely, that in 1823 are included not only Iconium
lay down a general basis for the discussion of the and Antioch but also Derbe and Lystra. ' If the writer
question which ought t o be treated as purely historical. wished t o carry out this complicated phraseology h e
It is established beyond dispute that in Paul's time would have had to say : Lycaono-Galatic and Phrygo-
the districts in which are situated Derbe, Lystra, Galatic. H e avoids the difficulty by using the simple
Iconium, and Antiochia Pisidia-;.e., the cities visited phrase : the Galatic country.' ' 'The Galatic region '
by him on what is usually called his first missionary thus, according to Ramsay, here inoludes the Lycaonian
journey (Acts 13 J)-belonged to Galatia Provincia and the Phrygian portion of the province of Galatia.
(see above, 3), and that in official usage the word This is implied, also, in the expression immediately
Galatia also included them1 following the words quoted above : ' after traversing
Derhe and Lystra lay in that part of Lycaonia which had been which, Paul would reach Asian Phrygia.' On this view,
added to the province of Galatia ' Iconium and Antioch in the accordingly, 'Phrygia' in 1823 denotes, not (as in 166)
portion of Phrygia 2 which then &longed. to the same province. the portion of Phrygia belonging t o the province of
Thus it becomes in a general way not impossible that Galatia, but that which belonged to the province of Asia.
the epistle t o the Galatians may have been addressed to I n the appendix (p. xiit) Ramsay expresses a third view
the churches of South or New Galatia. - that in 1823 'Galatic region' is only ' Lycaonia
ii. Any- churches i ?Norfh
~ GaZautia ?-The possibility Galatica, whilst " Phrygia " is Phrygia Galatica.'
would be changed i?to certitude if Paul had founded Further, as regards the prohibition to preach in Asia
no churches at all i n N o r t h Galatia. I n that case Acts -Le., according to Ramsay, in the province of Asa-
1 6 6 1823, the only places in Acts where mention is Ramsay's former view (ChurchP),75 ; also app. p. xiif)
made of Galatia, would have to be understood of South was that Paul had already received it in Antiochia
Galatia, for churches in Galatia are presupposed in 1823 Pisidia. I n the Expos., 'gsa, p. 392, and in Churchi4),
a t least. 75, however, he maintains that it came to hini only
Ramsay, the most recent and most cautious advocate after he had already entered the province of Asia. I n
of this theory in Great Britain, a t the outset, and even either view, however, this ' being prevented ' (KWhUOdYTEE)
9. Acts 166 down t o p. 77 f. of the 3rd ed. of his comes in point of time after ' they went through ' (&?A-
Church, identified the 'cities ' traversed Oov)-what Ramsay holds to be linguistically possible
by Paul and Silas according to Acts 1 6 4 f . (&ijheov KWhUOhEE= 6lijAeov K C d tKWh687)CTaW = a i d -
"6",1",?~ with the four we have mentioned- Derbe
and Lystra (already visited in 16 I ) ,
ebvrcs dKwAdO?pmv ; Chuuch, chap. 4 ad en., p. 89 in
3rd and 4th editions, in 4th ed. also 485 f.; Sf.
Iconium (incidentally mentioned in l 6 2 ) , and Antioch PauZ, chap. 94, n. 2). At the same time, he declares
(last named in 1421). On this view he explained the (Exyos. '95a, p. 393, n. I ; Church(4)),486) his South
' And they went through ' (6rijAOov 66) of 166 as ' geo- Galatian theory t o be perfectly consistent with taking
graphical recapitulatioii of the journey ' through the KWXUOQYTEE ["being prevented "1 as giving the reason
for GrijhOov [" went through "I. ' It is hard to perceive
1 See especially Pliny, HNv. 42 146x; Ptol. v. 4 1 1 3 ; also how this can be ; but, in any case, as has been noted
Pliny HNv. 2795. Tac. Ann. 1335 156, cp Hist. 29; cp above (7), I Ramsay has changed his position, inas-
Ramlay in St. b i d et eccZcs. 421-39, and E&., '986, p. 1 2 9 5
=Historical Cornmentavy on GaZatians, 318-320 (chap. 24). much as now (St. P a d , ch. 9 1 [p. 1gsf.1). along with
2 At that time Iconium belonged, more strictly, to Lycaonia. Lightfoot (BiBL Ess. 237 f.), he follows the ' inferior
Acts 146, however, seems to represent Lycaonia as being first manuscripts' (reading ' A n d having traversed , ..
entered on the way from Iconium to Lystra. Ramsay there-
fore(Church, chap. 2 s), assumes that theauthor is here foilowing having been forbidden ... having come over against
the ancient popular usage in accordance with which Iconium Mysia, they attempted, etc.' ; similarly AV ; GreXB6vres
belonged to Phrygia ; so in Xenophon (Anab. i. 2 19) and even
down to the second century A . D . According to Ramsay (chap.
6k ... KWXUe&TES ... ChObvrcs Karb S ~ VM U U ~ L ~
23), Antioch in Paul's time belonged to Phrygia, and ought to !mfplpa~ov,etc.). This reading of T R 'suits the South
have been called 'on the side of Pisidia' (;Iwpbs IIrudia) to 3alatian theory admirably' ; but the reason h e gives
distinguish it from a city of the same name on the Mzandiri on ?or preferring it is purely subjective (see above, col.
the border of Phrygia and Caria. From this, he considers, came
the abbreviation (Acts 13 14) ' Pisidian Antioch ' ('AuTr6Xaa 7 1 Similarly St. Paul chap. 5 4 6 (pp. 104, IIIJ); Siud. 631. e t
I I v d i a ) , whilst at a later date the conception Pisidia was so xcles. 4 56 ; Church(4),'48~
f: a n d go*, whilst p. 93 word for
far extended that it ,included Antioch, and the reading of D, Nord agreeing with ChurchA, follows the second Giew. And
'Antioch of Pisidia ( ' A v d x o i a nic IIcvrGas) came to he n St. Paul, chap: 9 4 n I (p. 210A); Stud. biU. ct eccZes. Z.C. ;
appropriate. The non-Galatian portion of Lycaorka constituted ?hu~chW,90~483;G h introd 5 19,p. 209, he holds'Phvygia'
the kinEdom of king Antiochus; the non-Galatian portion of fpuyiau) in 1823 to be an aijective. See below, 8 13. He
Phrygia belonged to the province of Asia. 2as not changed his view of 16 6.
I597 1598
GALATIA GALATIA
1595, n. 3). Considerations of this kind d o not admit :lse than Galatian Phrygia (or otherwise Galatian
of argument ; but it may be said that the MSS H L P ,ycaonia). I n that case, however, the only remaining
which support the reading have n o weight. ilternative is to take ‘ Galatic region’ as meaning Old
W i t h regard to the correct reading ‘ theywent through, ;alatia. ‘ Phrygia ’ can then be that portion of Galatian
... being- prevented’
- (br%hOov , .. K W h u O & m s ) , it ’hrygia which-if we assume the prohibition to preach
n Asia to have been received in Galatian Phrygia-
has to b e maintained that the participle
,NorthNGalatia.
o to must contain, if not something ante- ’aul and Silas had not yet traversed, but had to tra-
cedent to ‘ thev w e n t ’ (6rijhOov). a t Terse in order to reach North Galatia : or it can be
least something synchronous with it, in n o case a fhing lsian Phrygia, if they thought they could reach North
subsequent to it, if all the rules of grammar and all k l a t i a b y this route more easily, or if they had already
s u r e understanding of language are not to be given up. mtered Asian Phrygia before the prohibition came.
Synchronism is what is denoted by the aorist participle (for r h a t this last is what had actually occurred is nuw
example) in 1 2 4 , where it precedes the verb and in l?26 where issumed, a s already mentioned, by Ramsay himself;
it follows it 2335 and even 25 13 must ;e similarly &ken if
the text is i o be accept6d (WH conjecture some primitive ind that it was only the preaching in Asia that was
,error, and prefer with cursives, Vg., etc., the fut. bwmvm5prEvoL). nterdicted, not the travelling through it, is excellently
In 16 6 , however ‘being prevented ’ ( K O A V B ~ ~ W E Fcould
) be con; irgued by himself from the fact that in167, a t Bithynia,
ceived to refer’to something synchronous with ‘they went nention of the prohibition to travel through it is cx-
&ijhOov) only if Asia (‘Ada) could be taken to denote the same
country as ‘the Phrygia(n) and Galatic region’ (6 apv la x a l xessly added.
I’aAaTrci xdpa). In point of fact, however, only Jhrygia It is objected that North Galatia is very difficult of
can be ,taken to mean ,a portion of Asia, and that only in one iccess to travellers. Broadlv.
case-viz. when ‘Asia is understood as meaning the entire ,, however. this cannot b e
province bf that name; yet Galatia, whether taken as desig- L1. Paul,sroute granted if we look a t the roads
nating a district of country or as the name of a province, IS which a r e shown in Ranisay’s own
in any case distinct from Asia. to North
c)alatia. map.’ T h a t Judaizers in particular
T h u s being prevented ’ (KwXuOdvms) must b e held were able to find their way thither
to have been antecedent to ‘they went’ (8rqhOov). :asily enough is shown by the fact that Jewish
Again, as Ramsay himself assumes, the prohibition lames occur in as many as five inscriptions of
to preach in Asia cannot naturally be supposed to 31d [North] Galatia (CZG 3 4045 4074 4083 4092 ; a d d
have been made until Paul had entered Asia, or ( a t $087 with Ramsay, Gal., introd., 5 15, p. 169. and
least) was o n the point of doing so. From Lystra, RE/ 1 0 7 7 r851). T h e only point for consideration
where we left him (162[-5]), it is impossible to pass IS as to whether Paul and Silas could have found a
directly into Asia (the nearest portion of which would tolerable route into North Galatia from their last halt-
b e Asian Phrygia) ; Asia could be entered only after ing-place before 166. If, as Ramsay will have it, this
traversing Galatian Phrygia (Iconium a n d Autioch). -
halting place was Antiochia Pisidia, the direct route
This region, accordingly, must have been passed northwards lay over the SultSn Dagh. If this range
through before the occurrence of the ‘ preventing ’ could not b e crossed, it was possible to .go round it,
(KwhdeuOar). Now, if a journey through this same Either eastward through Galatian Phrygia or westward
Galatian Phrygia (as Ramsay understands the geo- through Asian Phrygia. T h e only remaining geographi-
Eraphical name) is indicated in the text as having cal difficulty is as to how they could subsequently get
followed the ‘ preventing,’ the journey in question can out of North Galatia KUT& T T ) Muulav ~ (I6 7). Whether
only have consisted in a renewed visit to the churches we take this to mean ‘ over against Mysia ’ ( c p 27 7 ) , or
which h a d just been left. If this were what the author ‘ i n the neighbourhood of Mysia,’ is immaterial ; in
really meant, he would expose himself to a charge of either case, a point is intended from which it would be
very great carelessness for not having been more ex- possible to go to Bithynia also. Such a point is best
plicit ; but if he did not know that a return was involved, found in Asian Phrygia.
an accusation of geographical confusion would become Although North Galatia is the last region mentioned as tra-
inevitable. Moreover, it would b e contrary to the versed before 1 6 7, we are not precluded from supposing that, after
passing through some part of Phrygia into North Galatia, Paul
whole practice of Paul (see e.g., 1 6 7 J ) , because h e and Silas actually made their way from North Galatia into the
had been prohibited from preaching in a given district, northern part of Asian Phrygia. Ramsay assumes that the
t o give up all search for a new field for his activities, journey from 166 to 167 must have been due N. through Asian
a n d consent to have his mission brought to a stand in Phrygia. Thus, North Galatia would be excluded because
not named. This assumption, however, is not compelled by the
a country which he had just left as being already suffi- text. Even on Ramsay’s interpretation of 166 as referring to
ciently provided for.2 Galatian Phrygia, the journey through one district is omitted in
Thus, we must take ‘the Phrygia(n) a n d Galatic region’ Acts-that, namely, through Asian Phrygia-unless ‘being pre;
vented ’ (,wAvBhwcs) is to be taken as subsequent to they went
( ~ f i +pupvyiav
v KUL l?UhUTrKfiP xdpav) to mean something (6tljAOov). A t this point, in fact, the narrative is curt ; and
assuredly it admits of being filled up in the sense indicated above
1 So also in Gal. 319, where Ramsay (Erp., ’986, p; 3 3 3 J f = quite as readily as in that advocated by Ramsay.
Gal. 381 [ch. 351) wrongly takes6caTayeis 6‘’ byyydhov ordained I n 1 8 2 3 the text is explicit in favour of the assumption
through angels,’ as something following b ~YL+.LOS & u c T ~ B ~ - that Paul’s route was directed to North Galatia a n d lay
‘the law was added’-in point of time. through Cappadocia, in other words, somewhat as
2 This improbable supposition seems to be the inevitable
result even of the attempt made above in 5 7. If the pro- follows :--via Arabissos, Kokussos, Arasaxa, Matiane,
hibition to preach in Asia (Acts 166) constitutes the reason Archelais, Parnassos, and then Ancyra, Germa,
not for the journey of Paul and Silas through the Galatia; Pessinus.
portion of Phrygia (and thus through Iconium and Antiochia Had Paul gone through Cilicia to South Galatia he would
Pisidia), but for a fact which the reader is left to infer from certainly have strengthened the Ciliciau churches alsb ; and this
the explanation given, viz., that ‘they confined themselves to would have been mentioned, as in 1541, all the more because in
this region,’ then they must either have remained in Antioch, 1823 stress is laid upon ‘in order’ (wa8&+). That is further a
which according to $ 7 they had already reached, or they reason why we should not think of this third journey (if North
must have retraced their step. Moreover we fail to find
that any such additional fact is suggested by the simple
statement ‘And they went through,’ etc. (6tijhBov SA, K.T.A.), 1 The only route by which Ephesus, it may be remarked, can
or that when supplied it harmonises with the subsequent be reached from Ancvra. the caDital of Old rNorthl Galatia. is a
context. According to v. 7 Pan1 and Silas did not confine circuitous route, leasing first {o the north-westward almost as
themselves to the Phrygo- Galatian territory, but advanced far as to the Black Sea (crossing the river Sangarius, N E of
farther to the N. Thus in very deed we have a ‘hiatus’;- Nicza in Bithynia) and then turning southward to Kotiaion ;
not, however, between ‘ they went through ’ (S~ijMov,ZI.6) and and yet(Ramsay, Exp., ’ 9 8 4 p. 413=GnZ. 254 [chap. 61) between
‘ [Then] they went’ (dABdv~es, v. 7), two expressions which, on the two cities there was such ‘.abundant (or ‘easy’) com-
the view we are about to develop, hang excellently well to- munication’ as ‘ leaves it ’ in Ramsay’s opinion ‘ unexplained
gether, but between the (supplied) notion that Paul and Silas why Paul’s news [of the balatians’ change of attitude referred
r e r e restricted to Phrygo-Galatia, and the actual continued to in Gal. 161 was so sudden and so completely disastrous,’ even
journey to the N. ( ; h 8 6 v ~ e retc.).
, The ‘hiatus’ is obviated a: if one ‘places Galatians as early as possible in the Ephesian
soou as the supplement is taken away. residence ’ of Paul.
1599 1600
GALATIA GALATIA
Galatia is regarded as its goal) as having, nevertheless, been expression correctly? According to Ramsay-Si. Parl repre-
taken (as the second had been) through Cilicia and South sents his third view-only Galatian Phrygia is intended ' but
Galatia (cp $17). In t h a t case, moreover, the idea conveyed the author says ' Phrygia without qualification. More'over
by ' Galatic region ' (raharrri) xhpa) would become unclear. wbo could he expected to understand the first expression? I:
According to what has just been said, the Phrygia of Phrygia also one could equally well use the phrase 'Ga!atic
region ' (rahane Xdpa), without qualification, to distinguish
1823 will be not the Galatian but the Asian Phrygia, Galatian Phrygia from Asian Phrygia. In fact Ramsay himself
as the route from N. Galatia to Ephesus (191) lay (Cha+4), 482f;) adds : 'When persons at) a distance dis-
through the latter, not through the former (see above, tingnished the two parts [viz of Lycaonia], they of course sub.
5 11, note, and 5 7, end). I n 166 also we must under- stituted [' Lycaonia'] hvKao& for ['region '1 Xdpa, designating
them as Lycaonia Antiochiana and Lycaonia Galatica.' This is
stand the Asian Phrygia, not the Galatian, a question exactly what the author of Acts does not do.
which up to this point of the enquiry has been left open
(cp, further, 5 15, end). The successive journeys, I n a word, we have here three pieces of carelessness
then, are to be figured thus : according to 166, Paul which Ramsay ought not to have attributed to an
had already come from South Galatia westwards author whom he ranks as a historian with Thucydides
as far as to Asia (for what we are to understand, (St. PauZ, p. 3 f: ). On the North Galatian theory the
more exactly, by this, see below, $5 1 4 5 ) . or at meaning of ' Galatic region ' (raharrh-i) xdpa) is clear
least to the neighbourhood of Asia; then, in con- without any knowledge of local phraseology.
sequence of the prohibition to preach there, he directed Ramsay (Church,79-81, go?, E x p . , '986, pp. 126-128
his steps in a north-easterly direction, and reached =Gal. 314-316 [chap. 231) maintains that for North
North [Old] Galatia through Asian Phrygia. 13. In spite Galatia the form ' Galatia ' (l7aharia)is
If it be felt, with Ramsay, that North Galatia had too unim- of 8raXaTbK, always used, and urges the adjectival
portant a place in the movement of the world to deserve to he form ' Galatic ' as proving that a region
chosen by Paul as a mission field it always remains open to us Xh;pa., added to Galatia only a t a later date is
to suppose his objective to have'been East Bithynia that he intended. As an analogy he cites Pontus Galaticus.
tarried in North Galatia on the way only on account 'of illness
and that as soon as he had recovered sufficiently he made foi I n this case, however, the indication that the district
West Bithynia. did not originally belong to Galatia lies not in the
According to 1823, on the other hand, if we do not adjective but in the substantive (Pontus); and the
neglect the changed order of the words, he travelled case will not be changed even if, for the sake of
from the E. through Cappadocia into North Galatia in brevity, the substantive is dropped, for the reader
the first instance, and afterwards into Asian Phrygia would still have supplied the word Pontus. The
a n d thence to Ephesus. substantive ' region ' (xdpa), also, Ramsay considers
Linguistically also the North Galatian theory thus to be against the interpretation 'Old Galatian,' and
offers three great advantages. First. it enables us to
L Y
to point to a new district recently added; and the
12. Linguistic interpret ' Galatic region ' ( r d U T L K i ) position is supported (Church(4),483) by the newly-
advantages of xdpa) in both passages consistently ; adopted rendering of ' Phrygia' (@puyla) in 1823 as
North Galatian so also ' Phrygia' (:pu$a) ; whilst, a n adjective, inasmuch as hereby, besides the Ly-
according to Ramsays second view caonian, the Phrygian district which had been newly
(referred to above ; see § g), both added to Galatia is designated as 'region' (xdpa).
expressions and, according to his third view, ' Galatic But in Mk. 1 5 ' the J u d z a region ' (+ ' I o u M a Xhpa) is
region,' have to be taken in 1523 in a sense different quite the same as ' J u d z a ' (4 'Iou&da) in the parallel
from that which they bear in 166. Secondly, it does Mt. 35. In truth, it is quite arbitrary to assume, as
justice to the changed order in which the words occur, Ramsay does, that region (xhpa) must necessarily be
which Ramsay certainly does not. Lastly, on this the Greek equivalent for regio in the sense of an officially
view the association of the two geographical names delimited division of a province. If ' region ' (&pa) in a
becomes correct, whilst in 1S23 alike according to the non-official sense means simply ' district,' then ' Galatic
second and according to the third view of Ramsay, we region' (FahaTtKi) ~ 3 p awill ) naturally mean the district
have the anomaly that the first member of the pair is inhabited by Galatians properly so-called-Le., ' Old '
designated by the name of the province of which it [North] Galatia. Nor would this meaning be exrluded
forms a part, whilst the second is designated by its evenif 'region'(x3pa)were to be takenintheofficial sense.
own special name without any indication of the province There is, however, absolutely nothing remarkable in
to which it belongs. the author's employment of the non-official language.
On Ramsay's second interpretation, according to which the H e does it, for example, also in Lk.28 826 1513-15
two districts belong to separate provinces, uniformity would 1912 Acts 1039 2620 (cp Jn. 1154). In so doing he
have demanded that both provinces should be named-the follows the usage of the LXX (4x3pa r D v Xahsalwv,
Galatic and the Asian region (though, indeed, this would not
tell which region of each of the provinces is intended). The Gen. 1128 31 Neh. 97 ; rDv 'Auuupiwv, Is. 2713 : TGY
confusion of the text of Acts l S a 3 would be the more incredible 'Iou~?aiwv, Is. 19 17 ; i v x3pp A i y u d w v , IS. 19 19 ;
because t h e second member would denote the Phrygian region A l y t ~ r o u ,Is. 1920 ; EIS y f v Z v ~ i pCIS Xdpav 'EBdp,
without more precise designation, whilst the first member also
contains, as Ramsay holds, a Phrygian region-namely, that Gen. 32 3 [4] [xdpa thus=y?j : just as in 11 28 31 yf
belonging to the province of Galatia. and x6pa are parallel]). This use of language de-
According to Ramsay's third view both members belong to the prives of all force Ramsay's question ( E z p . , '986, p. 126
same province-Galatia. On that hypothesis it becomes all the =GaZ. 314 [ch. 231) : ' Why should Luke alone employ
more inconceivalAe that the first member (Galatian Lycaonia)
should be called simply 'the Galatian region,' as if the second everywhere a different name for the country, diverging
(Galatian Phrygia) were not equally a Galatian region. As on from the universal usage of Greek and Latin writers,
Ramsay's second view we should have expected to read ':he and also from his master Paul ? ' Lk. 's use of ' region '
Galatian and the Asian region,' so, on his third, uniformity
would demand ' t h e Lycaonian and the Phrygian region' (xdpa) shows that he is employing not (in a strict sense)
(supply, 'of the province of Galatia '). a name but a periphrasis as in Acts1039 2620 (xdpa rfs
Ramsay now says (St. PauZ, chap. 5 4 6) that in 'Iou8alas). Perhaps the purpose of the periphrasis is
Lycaonia ' Galatic region ' (I'aXa~t~i) xhpa) without to suggest the participation of the inhabitants in the
qualification was a current expression used to distin- events recorded (cp col. 1604, n. 3). It may even be
guish the Galatian Lycaonia from that region of conjectured that Lk. uses 'region' (xdpu) in the non-
Lycaonia which belonged to king Antiochus. If this official sense in all the other passages also (Acts 1349
be so, we have in this member of the phrase not an [as in Lk. 15141,Acts 1220 Lk. 31),perhaps also in Acts
official but a quite local expression. How, then, could 81, although the plural (XDpar) can also mean the
any writer have coupled with this as a second member, country districts as contrasted with the town, as in Lk.
by the use of a common article, another expression 2121. As for the divergence from the practice of
which has no local usage to justify i t ? Paul in particular, since that apostle would certainly
Who could be expected to understand even this second have found such a periphrasis inappropriate in passages
1601 IC02
GALATIA GALATIA
so formal as Gal.12 I Cor.161 (z Tim.410), we are Asia), and perhaps also in 69, follows the popular use.
unable to find in these few passages any proof that he Even at this earlier date, however, Ramsay found himself
never expressed himself otherwise. On the other hand, forced to concede that, in the case of Iconiurn, Lk.
we cannot share Ramsay’s presupposition that the follows the popular usage (see above, col. 1597,n. 2).
author of Acts was a companion of Paul and painfully As Ramsay now completely identifies the author of the
followed his manner of expressing himself except in entire book of Acts with the author of the journey-
cases where he could follow a usage that had a Greek narrative (St. Paul, ch. SI), he is all the less justified in
rather than a Roman flavour (see next col., note 2, end). attributing to the latter in 166 a conception of ‘Asia’
Ramsay insists that, on account of the common different from that in 2 g . I Moreover, the critical view
article, the words ‘ the Phrygiajn)
-- and Galatic region ’
I I I
of Acts regards both passages as due to the author of
14. ~~d of the !T?Y @ p y i U V K d rCLhUTlK$V XdpaV) the complete work, the ‘ we ’ source not beginning till
in 1 6 6 must denote a single territory, 1 6 9 . Thus that ‘Asia’ is used in the popular sense in
common which must thus have lain in South 1 6 6 becomes probable, because it is so used undoubtedly
Galatia. This cannot be conceded, if only because in ‘Lg and the remaining passages in Acts admit of
‘ and ’ ( ~ din) the sense of ‘ or ’ (sive) can never be either interpretation.
the rule, but only at most a rare exception.’ Here, then, we can now say still more precisely than
Ramsay himself has withdrawn this contentio,n by his further in 5 11 that Paul, proceeding from South Galatia
elaboration of his argument in the Exjos., 956, pp. 26-40. (Lystra, etc. 161-5) westwards, had already reached
There he says rightly, that the writer of Acts regards two
substantives, when he takes them together under one article Asia (in the narrower sense) or a t least its neighbour-
as a unity only in a certain sense-namely, as a pair. He denie; hood (1666); that, on account of the prohibition to
the applicability of this rule to 166 not because in this passage preach there, he directed his steps ( 1 6 6 ~towards
) the
we are dealing with adjectives,’ not substantives, but only
because the two, if regarded as different countries, would belong NE., and founded, first, in Asian Phrygia, those
to different provinces (‘Phrygia’ [Epyia], he says rightly, on churches which we find him visiting anew in 1823, and
this view-that is, on the North Galatian theory-must be the afterwards those in North As for the word
part pertaining to the province of Asia) and because, accordingly, Phrygia, it must unquestionably be used in the popular
preaching bad been prohibited in PhrGgia hut not in Galaria.
Even if this distinction had to be made, there was sense, for the word has no different official sense what-
nothing in it to prevent the writer, in so summary a ever. The word thus includes in point of language the
narrative, from including both districts under o n e whole of the former territory of Phrygia, and it is only
article.% To do so became still easier as he employed as a matter of fact that the meaning is limited to the
the common substantive ‘region,’ pa (it is best, with Asian portion (see above, 11).
Ramsay, to take ‘ Phrygia ’ [@puyia] in 166, as well as Apart, however, from the question whether Lk. ad-
in 1823, as an a d j e ~ t i v e ) . ~ +d exactly to the usage of Paul,
16. Or in it is quite unpermissible to say of
Apart from this, there is another answer to Ramsay’s
objection. If by Phrygia (following one of the two Paul that he invariably confined himself to the official
possibilities mentioned above, § IO, end) we are to usage.
mderstand the remaining portion of Galatian Phrygia 1 Ramsay believes it possible from his point of view to main-
which Paul and Silas had still to traverse before enter- tain so much a t least-that Luke, as long as he was under the
ing North Galatia, the prohibition to preach applies to influence of Paul, and thus while he was writing out his memoirs
this just as little as to the ‘ Galatic region’ (ruha.rrK$ of the journey, followed the official usage, and only afterwards
adopted the popular. Such a change would in itself be remark-
xdpu). Or, if Asian Phrygia is intended-the con- able enough. Moreover, see $1 16.
clusion come to under § ~I--and by Asia not the entire 2 See the enumeration of them given elsewhere (ASIA, col. 339
province of Asia but only ‘ in the popular sense ’ ‘ the end, col. 340 end). In Stud. 6iU. e t eccZes. (443-46) Ramsay
a g e a n coast lands’ without Phrygia ( 5 15 : cp Ramsay, withdraws his concession of a popular use of the word Asia in a
sense less extended than as denoting the province, because other
Church, chap. 82), the prohibition to preach applies writers of the same period use ‘Asia‘ only of the entire quarter
to Phrygia as little as to the ‘ Galatic region’ and the of the globe if not of the province. But an author who, as in
two quite accurately constitute a pair. Acts 2 gJ, names Phrygia alongside of Asia unquestionably I
charging their office simultaneously it becomes inipossible Gal. 4 13, Paul must have already >vi$ted the readers
to detect his exact legal meaning. Equally impossible twice before the despatch of the epistle. These two
is it to do so if, as is not improbable, he is thinking of visits can perhaps, if one is willing to be satisfied with
the father of the heir as still living. It must be re- the meagrest possible evidence, be held to be proved
membered that in the figure the father is God. In for South Galatia from Acts 1314-1420 and 1421-23;
3 15 17 he is compelled to think of God as dead ; but or, the first visit from Acts 1314-1423 and the second
not in 4 r J from Acts 161-5; as far as North Galatia is concerned
( d ) Evenifwe grant, however, forthesakeofargument, they are not to be found till 166 and 1823. That, how-
the possibility that Paul’s manner of expressing himself ever, the journey of 1 8 a z J may very well have occurred
in Galatians is in agreement with Greek law, what has and yet not be mentioned in Galatians, see C OUNCIL
been proved? Only that Paul himself was acquainted O F J ERUSALEM , 3 IC.
with this law, not by any means that his readers also In Gal. 21-10Paul speaks of the Council of Jerusaleni
were. Or has the apostle in other matters paid such as hitherto unknown to the Galatians. This also has
careful regard to the circumstances of his readers? ‘
25, Council, suggested the inference that Paul’s second
T h e Galatians were all, or nearly all, Gentile Christians unknown to vmt to the readers must have occurred
(see next article, 1 11) and yet he writes in a way that Galatians. ?fore the council-in other words, that
includes them also with reference to the Mosaic law, It IS related in Acts 1421.23, and so must
‘ Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law ’ (31 3 ) ; have been made to South Galatia. On the other hand,
‘ w e were kept in ward under the l a w . ..
law hath been our tutor,’ etc. (323-25), and ‘Christ
so that the even if the Council of Jerusalem had already been held,
Paul surely had every motive for keeping back as long
redeemed them which were under the law, that we might as possible from newly-converted Gentile Christians all
receive the adoption of sons ’( 4 5). The church of Corinth knowledge of the existence of misunderstandings of the
in like manner was, practically, entirely Gentile; yet kind. His principle was to feed such churches with
Paul writes ( I Cor. l o r ) , ‘our fathers were all under milk, and to set forth Christ plainly before their eyes
the cloud, and all passed through the sea,’ etc. In the ( I Cor. 32 Gal. 31). At his second visit he had, it is
case of a writer who is so careless to guard his language true, found the churches already to some extent under
on obvious and important points, it is futile to single the influence of Judaism (19, ‘ said before,’ T ~ O E L ~ + K U ~ W ,
out individual phrases, assume them to have been 53, ‘again,’ aciXw); but the ‘ I marvel’ (Baupci(m) of
carefully chosen with reference to the special environment 1 6 shows that he had left them in the honest belief that
of the readers and on these to base far-reaching con- he had been successful in counteracting this danger.
clusions as to where that environment was (as, e.g., 1 As the Corinthians had only shortly before brought against
Ramsay does in G a l chap. 35, p. 374). Paul the charge that he was applying the collection to his own
The same remark applies to the proof of a South Galatian purposes ( z Cor. 1 2 16-18), it would have been inconceivably im-
address which Ramsay finds in the ‘ tutor ’ (rar8aywy6c) of 3 243 prudent on his part to take upon himself the responsibility for
on the ground that there were no slaves of this kind in North due conveyance of the Corinthian contribution (so Ramsay, .St.
Galatia, or again in 328 because in South Galatia the women P a d , chap. 13z), even had he been asked to do so. In point of
enjoyed greater independence than elsewhere (Ex)., ’986, pp. fact, the apostle had very clearly expressed, in 2 Cor. Szo A,
433-436, 4 3 8 J = G d . chap. 3 9 3 , pp. 381-385 389-391), and other the principle by which he was precluded from this. That
proofs of the same nature. Luke was a Philippian is only a bold conjecture of Ramsay’s
(St. P a d , chap. 9 3 103 11 2 17 4, and frequently), quite apart
It is probable that in A4cts204 we have an enumera- from the consideration that it is by no means certain that it
tion of the representatives of churches who had been is Luke who speaks in ‘ we’ (see ACTS, $9).
22. Acts204. appointed as men of trust, in accord- 2 llpoehO6vrrs: not vppoucA86vrss, must be read in 20 5 ; the
latter is quite irreconcilable with the fact that the persons
ance with z Cor. 818-23, to see to the named have already accompanied Paul from Europe ( o u u i m r o
due conveyance of the proceeds of the great collection 20 4).
1611 1612
GALATIA GALATIA
From the ‘again’ (?rdXw) of 53 it is legitimate to infer the founder of the Galatian churches (Gal. 1 8 f: 3 I f.
that in this connection he had employed substantially 412-20)that it is almost impossible to suppose South
the same arguments as those which he afterwards used Galatia to be meant. According to Acts 14 12, Barnabas
in the epistle (e.g.,52-4 31-5 49) ; and we may regard was even taken for Jupiter in Lystra.
it as a proof of his apostolical wisdom. that he declined The apostrophe ‘ 0 Galatians ’ ( B PaXdTar), in 3 I
to make use of the controversies of the Council of addressed to persons who, by origin, were much rather
Jerusalem in furtherance of his end. Lycaonians or Phrygians, would be in-
29. ,o Gala-
At the Council of Jerusalem Pan1 supported the tians ,; Gal. I. telligible in an official manifesto ; but
interests of the readers of Galatians. according to the in a letter such as this of Paul’s it
which he had already established. Even if the letter be not a single instance :o far a s G i a t i a is’ concerned, and in t1.e
assumed to be addressed to South Galatians, ‘with case of the province’df Asia, which had subsisted more than a
you ’ (?rpbs &piis) constitutes only an individual applica- century longer, only one, in which the inhabitants of districts
first incorporated with the provinces by the Romans designated
tion. That in the Council of Jerusalem Paul should themselves by the official provincial name (CIG3662.5;see St.
have had in his mind only his South Galatian churches, G6Z. et eccles. 411). It is onlv bv a series of exceedindv hold
and not equally those founded by him in Syria, Cilicia,
etc., would be a wholly untenable supposition.
The sickness of Paul, alluded to in Gal. 413, Ramsay Roman province, about 160 B.C. Derbe certainly, was not
(Church, chap. 3,. pp. 62-65) considers to have been added to Galatia until 25 B.c., according tds 3 above not until
41 A.D. Accordingly the aptness of the excla)matioi ‘0Gala-
malaria, which is endemic in Pamphylia, tians’ as addressed to the North Galatians, depends not on
27.
and, as he thinks, was the cause of the their Celtic descent but on the fact that only in North
apostle‘s going for recovery to the more Galatia was to be f&nd the people who had borne that name
highly situated Antiochia Pisidia. from of old, and in common speech, not merely in official docu-
ments.
As Ramsay further (St. P a d ,chap. 5 2 ) identifies this sick-
ness with ‘ the thorn in the flesh ’ it is very improbable that But we will not, however great the improbability,
malaria can be meant. The view’finds no real support in the dispute the abstract possibility that Paul might have
fact that fever occurs in inscriptions as a punishment sent by
the gods of this lower world, to which Ramsay supposes the the made use of the term ‘ Galatians ’ as a
30.
‘messenger of Satan’ (Z yshoc u a m v B ) of zCor. 1276 to refer Churches, comprehensive designation of inhatit-
(Ex$., ’99h, p. zi,f=Gaz chap. 48, p. 423). ants of several recently-added portions
Unless 2 Cor. 127a is to be held to be meaningless, the Gal. 2. of the province of Galatia. Not even
apostle’s malady was associated with ecstatic visions ; and these
are not, so far as we know, symptomatic of malaria, though in such a case could he have made use of the address ‘ to
certainly they are of epilepsy, with which Krenkel (among the churches of Galatia’ (TU&- ~ K K X ~ U L U LT+
S I’aXadas ;
others) has identified Paul’s ‘thorn in the flesh’ (,Beitr. ~ u r Gal. 12) in writing to South Galatia if there Rere
AufheZZung der Gesch. z. a?.B&fe d. A$: PauZws, 90. pp. 47-
125, and, earlier in ZWT,’73, pp. 238-244). Ramsay (Gal. churches already in North Galatia. Even if the letter
chap. 48, p. 427) himself says : ‘ I n fact, it is the visions which were sent by the hands of a trusty messenger:who:quite
give probability to the theory of epilepsy. ... T h e theory
is seductive. But are we prepared to accept the consequences?
understood where to deliver it, the article. (Y+) would
.. . Has the modern world, with all that is best and, truest
in it, been built upon the dreams of epileptic insanity? This
have been inadmissible. Now, the letter contains in-
formation about the Council of Jerusalem and the
is the argument of a theologian, not of a historian. controversy with Peter in Antioch in Syria. If ad-
However this may be, the fact that Pamphylia ex- dressed to South Galatia, the letter must, accordingly,
poses the traveller to risks of malaria is no proof that have been written between the date of the controversy
Paul could not possibly have been seized with illness and that of the founding of the North Galatian
even in North Galatia. Moreover, Paul says that on churches (Acts 166). If so, the first alternative is that
account of his sickness he was received as an ‘ angel of it was written from Antioch, in Syria, before Acts 1540;
god’ (iiyydos Beoil ; Gal. 4 14). About any reception of in which case the two visits of Paul implied in the ‘ the
this kind in Antiochia Pisidia (where, according to former [time] ’ (d r p 6 n p o v ) of Gal. 4 13 would have to
Ramsay, he had this illness), we read nothing in Acts be sought in Actsl314-1420 and 1421-23 (see above,
(on the contrary, we are told of a persecution instigated 5 24). Against this view we must bring an observation
by the Jews [1350], of which Galatians says nothing) ; which also makes against Ramsay’s dating of the epistle
and Ramsay cannot think of him any longer as having from Paul’s next stay in Antioch in Syria (Acts 1823 ;
been ill in Lystra, where, according to Ramsay, the see St. Paul, chap. 84). On both occasions there was
favourable reception occurred. an immediate prospect of a renewed visit to the readers
Thus, whilst on the points formerly discussed, all that by the apostle. Ramsay considers that Paul may have
it was possible to prove was that the individual actual entrusted the bearer of the epistle with an oral announce-
data warranted the North Galatian theory just a s much ment of his proposed visit. In such a case, however
as the Southern, here we have a consideration which (1Cor.418-21 165-8 zCor.1214 131f.), the apostle’s
makes positively for North and against South Galatia. procedure is very different. Moreover, he manifestly
On the four points remaining to be considered we come writes Gal. 420 on the supposition that he is not about
t o this same conclusion. to see them soon.
Barnabas, it is thought, must have been personally A second possibility would be that the epistle was
known to the Galatians. H e ,is introduced without written between Acts165 and 166. In that case Acts
28. Barnabas remark in Gal. 21 g 13 ; and he was the 1314-1423 would have to be reckoned as the first visit,
companion of Paul only on his first and 161-5 as the second. How would this leave a
known to journey, not on his second (Acts
Galatians. sufficient interval during which, after the second visit,
15q5-40). Peter also, however, is the Judaizers could have had time for going to the
mentioned in Gai. 118 without explanation ; and readers and so completely changing their attitude
Barnahas, although he was unknown to the Corinthians, towards the apostle and his message, and for Paul to
is introduced in the same manner in I Cor. 96-it was I iar of all this before his arrival in North Galatia from
enough that they had heard about him. Besides, Paul t:::: South?
expresses himself as having been in so exclusive a sense Most decisive of all is Gal. 121. If the epistle were
1613 1614
GALATIA GALATIA
addressed to South Galatia, Paul would, according to visit is omitted is much more remarkable. The main
Acts 13f., have been with his readers thing, however, is that by the assumption the situation
31. Gal. 12T. in the period indicated in Gal. 1 2 1 is no wise improved : Paul still ignores his dependence
between his first and his second visit to Jerusalem (see on the original apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in
C OUNCIL OF J ERUSALEM, 0 I U ) . It is not for a moment Acts 15. On the contrary, on Ramsay’s interpretation
to be thought that Paul would have left unnoticed so of Gal. 21-10the situation becomes worse. According
very conclusive a proof of his absence from Jerusalem, to Ramsay ( G a l chap. 18 p. 296) on the journey of
and have mentioned precisely two other provinces which Gal. 21-10,which is not mentioned in Acts, Paul ‘ con-
were not those to which his readers belonged. sulted ’ (Gal. 2 2 [ d v e O i p ~ v ] )the original apostles,
On the very hold attempt, which has on this account been ‘ asked their advice,’ because his gospel ‘ was not fully
made to transpose Acts 13f: so as to make it follow Acts 15 34, matured until shortly before the beginning of the first
see ~ O U N C I LO F J ER U S A LEM , 5 Ie. In any case the project journey’ (Acts 131). This means entire dependence ;
will not be favoured by those who have any interes; in maintain- for the contrast is that ‘after it had fixed itself in his
ing the credibility of Acts. Ramsay ( C ~ ~ L Y C ~ ,6 3 ; St.
chap.
P a d , chap. 83) proposes another way of meeting the difficulty. . .
nature as the truth of God , he no longer “con-
H e brings the journey to Jerusalem mentioned in Gal. 118 into ferred with flesh and blood.” ‘ The upshot then is this :
connection with Acts 926-30; and that in Gal.21-IO into con- Paul seeks to make evident his independence of the
nection with Acts 1130 and 12 2 5 ; and concedes that before
Galatians was written Paul had certainly heen a third and a original apostles precisely by recording this act of
fourth time in Jerusalem (Acts 15 and 1s 2 2 ) but maintains that submission to them.
there was no need to mention this in Galatians, as in that Equally impossible as an expedient is it to maintain that in
epistle all he wished to show was his independence of th: Gal. 1 2 1 Paul is naming only two provinces (Syria and Cilicia)
original apostles at the time ‘when he converted the Galatians. for the reason that they were the only provinces. on account
of his successful activity in which the Christians of Judrea
This last contention is not only destitute of any ‘glorified God’ (124) and that he is silent on his sojourn in
warrant from the text, but is also entirely inconsistent South Galatia hecauie his mission in that country had perhaps
with the situation. The Judaizers could have .over- ceased to have their approval. Without the aid of the unten-
able theory (see next article, $ IO) of Clemen (to which Ramsay
thrown Paul’s authority in Galatia just as well if after now [Gal. chap. 18, pp. 291, 2961 seems to lean), it would be
his first missionary activity there he had shown that he impossible to perceive why Paul should have conducted his
was dependent on the original apostles. This was, in mission in South Galatia on any other principles than those
which he followed in Syria and Cilicia.
fact, what, according to Ramsay, actually happened.
In Acts 15 ’ he was commissioned ’ ‘ by the older Above all, no unfavourable judgment on the part of
apostles’ ‘ t o deIiver to them’ ( i e . , to the Galatians) the Jewish Christians regarding his mission to his
‘ the Apostolic decree’ (Ramsay, GaZ. chap. 18, p. 287). readcrs could have determined the apostle to leave
I n these circumstances how can Paul still attach im- unused the clearest proof of all that he had kept away
portance to his being able to prove that he was inde- from Jerusalem.. Gal. 123f: can be dispensed with a s
pendent of the original apostles a t p r s t P Only on one far as the primary object of the argument is concerned,
assumption-that although his dependence became and Paul would willingly have refrained from adding
evident a t the Council of Jerusalem, the Galatians these verses had he been able at this point to say that
are still unaware of it. If he takes for granted that during the interval in question he had beeu,with his
they know it (according to Acts 164, which- Ramsay readers. P. w. s.
holds t u be historical, he himself personally informed c.
G ALATIANS ELSEWHERE.
the South Galatians of the apostolical decree), the proof
of his independence in Gal. l r r - 2 1 0 is meaningless ; if I n z Tim. 4 IO the reading varies between I’ahXlav
on the other hand he hopes by silence-nay, by the [N] and 1’aXadav [WH]; and even if the latter be
express declaration of 26 (8,uol 02 ~OKODVTEE ot&?v rpou- 32. cGalatiar adopted the reference may still be to
av4/3svro: RV, ‘they who were of repute imparted
nothing to me’)- to prevent his readers from learn- Or
and
in Gykecurrent
Greek name for Gaul
ing or remembering the fact of his dependence, he is during the first two centuries A. D. was
deliberately setting himself in his epistle to deceive I’aXada (I’aXdmr) inless the older title KEXTLKT~
them. In this case his moral character must be sacri- (KEXTOI,Kdk~ar)was emp1oyed.l
ficed to save the credibility of Acts. This is what Ramsay T o distinguish the Asiatic Celts the phrases oi i v ‘Auip
F d d r a t (Plut. Mor. 258), $ r a d 7))v ’Auiav raharia (Dios. Mat.
(Gal. ch. 19;p. 302) accuses the advocates of the North med. 3 56), or l’ahhoy atria, Fahhaypatroi(strabo 130,566) might
Galatian theory of doing when they hold that Paul he used ; but generaey the context must decide (cp Plut. Pomj.
leaves unnoticed the journey mentioned in Acts 113 0 3r, 33, 38). Not until late did the Greeks adopt the Roman
1225. That he did so, however, is assumed only by terms FaMia, I%hhor. I t is in Herodian that we first meet
with the distinction, adopted by modern writers, between Fahhia
those of them who, like Ramsay, hold absolutely by the =Gaul, and Fru\aria=Galatia in Asia Minor. There would be
historical character of everything contained in Acts. In a strong tendency to alter l’aharia into Fahhia in NT MSS in
any case, for Paul to omif all mention of this journey this passage, owing to the general belief that western Gaul was
meant, combined with the fact that at the time of their origin
would be a small matter compared with his hiding that the word raharia as applied to Gaul had been abandoned in
dependence on the original apostles which is testified to favour of the Latin Fahhia, airahhiar (cp Theod. 2 227, Galatiam
by the apostolical decree. On the South Galatian dixit quas nunc nonziiraiiius GaZlias).
theory, Paul could be exonerated only by placing On linguistic grounds, then, no general decision is
Galatians earlier than Acts 15, and if Ramsay’s date be possible. The passages in which the name occurs must
adhered to, only by rendering Gal. 111-221 wholly be examined separately.
purposeless. Moreover, it is quite illegitimate to identify I . It has been argued that if Paul had meant Gaul
Gal.21-IO, not with Acts 15 but with Acts 1130 1225 he would, according to his usual practice, have used
(see C OUNCIL O F J ERUSALEM, ra). the Roman provincial name, and that, as Timothy was
In GaZ. chap. 18f:, pp. 286 304 Ramsay inclines not in Asia Minor, possibly even in Galatia, he would have
to identify the journey in Gal. 21-10 with any of those avoided an ambiguous term. Paul was, however, after
recorded in Acts, but to insert it between Acts 9 and all, Greek in language and thought (cp Hicks, St. Paul
Acts 1130. W e do not press, as against this, that and HelZenism, in Stud. BibL 47p ‘ h e thinks in the
on such an assumption Paul has omitted to men- tongue that he speaks and writes’). Further, if
tion not two journeys, but three; for Ranisay may Crescens had actually gone to Timothy’s own sphere
say of the one in Acts 1130 1225 what is said in of labour, more would have been said, and Timothy
C OUNCIL, 1 IC, of that in Acts 1822-that Paul does not certainly could not fail to attach the right significance to
mention it because in chaps. 3-6 he has lost sight of his
1 Cp Paus. i. 41, b@ Sd W O ~ Eahoaq rahs;a0at. r a h d a r
intention to enumerate his visits to Jerusalem. So far as i & v i q u e v . Kehroi y d p card re u@s rb dpxaiov Kai =a,& roin
Acts is concerned, Ranisay’s assumption that such a Bhhot~i v o ~ d < o v ~ o .
1615 1616
GALATIA GALATIANS
the word. Finally, the combination with Dalmatia is For the history of the Celtic tribes, G. Perrot, De Galatia
significant (and is curiously paralleled on Mon. Ancyr. : provincin Romana, 67, and his Bxjloration arch. de Za
Galatie, '72 ; Marquardt, ii'owzische Sfaats-
cp Momms. Res Rest. D. Aug. 95, 'Ia~aviasK U ~ 33. Literature. uerfassunr, 1P). ?58-?65: Chevalier. G a i Z i ~ r
I'aAarias K U ~~ a p h4 a A , u u r ~ r ) . The reference there- iiz KZein&-n. ' 8 3 ." Koepp 'Weber die
fore is probably to Gaul. Although the churches of Galaterkr. d. Attalus,' in Rheirz. h u s . 40 114-132) ('85) ; Niese,
i6id. 38 583-600 ('83) ; Stahelin, Geschickteder Kleinas. GaL, '97.
Vienne and Mayence claimed Crescens as their founder, Van Gelder, Galatarum res in Grrecia 41 Asia gestre usque
their clairn may be based merely upon this very passage. a d medium smculum secundunz a . Chr., 88. Zwintscher, U e
2. In I Macc. 82 the Roman victories 'among the Galatauurn telrarchis e t Amynta rete, '92 : Holder. AZtkel-
Galatians ' (AVmS ' Frenchmen ' ; RV ' Gauls ') are tischerSjvachschatz S.V. 'Galatia.' - '
Walker GEotrtaN SI
For Index t o names see back of m a p . ENCYCLOPAEDIA BlBLlOA 1900.
MAP OF GALILEE AND ESDRAELON
INDEX TO NAMES
The references following some names having no Jiblical equivalent are topassages that mention them. The @ka-
betical arrangement ignores prqixes :'Ain ( spring'), Bir ( ' well'), el ( I the '), 3. (leael, ' mt. '), 3isr ( ' Jn'dge '),
Kefr ( I village '), Kh. (KhirJat, ruin '), L. (lake),Mt., N . (Nahr, ' river'), Nadi ('prophet'), R. (river),
Sahl ('plain '), Sheikh ( ' saint '), Tell ( ' mound'), U m m (' mother '), W. ( Widy, ' valley ').
Abel-betb-maachah, DI Ecdippa, Bz KaigBriyeh, A4 [LEE ii., $ 7 ) Kh. el-'Or&meh,D3 (GALI-
Abil el-Kamh, Dr Edrei?? Cz Kal'at el-Hosn, D3 (GALI- LEE i., 5 7)
W. 'Abillin, B~(JIPHTAH-EL) ' Endor ' ? C4 Kal'at esh Shakif, DI
~
Pella, Dg
tell Abii KudCs, B4 Endiir, C4
Abii ShebL,c3(GALILEEi.,8 7) En-gannim, C5 .KHnH,
am. Piing, Cz [(EPHRAIM?
C4 (CANA)
$4) Ptolemais, B3
Accho, 133 Esdraelon, B4 Kanah?? Cz Ramah, C3
Achshaph ?? C I 'Esfiyeh, B4 (CARMEL) jebel Karmal, AB3, 4 er-RBnieh,C3
Achzib, Bz (E)xaloth, C4 wHdy el-Karn, Bz 15 7) plain of er-RZmeh, C3
Acre, B3 Karn Hatfin,C3(GALILEEi., (GALILEE i., 5 3)
bay of Acre, B3 [HADDAH)umm el-Fahni, B4 el-KHsimiyeh, C I RBs el-'Ah, Bz (H OSAH)
kefr Ad(h)Hn, Bg (E N- wsdy Fajjlas, D4 tell el-Kassis, B4 (CARMEL, RHs en-NBkiira, Bz (RA-
MAH, 6 )
sahl el-AhmB, CD3, 4 Fakii', Cg (GILHOA, g I) Kaukab el-Hawk, D4 I$ 3) RBs Umm esh-Shakf, B4
'AinithH, Cz (BETH-ANATH) jebel Fakii Cg Kedasa, D2 RummBneh, B4 (HADAD-
'AkkH, B3 el-FCdeh, C4 (CYAMON) Kedes, Dz RIMMON )
Alanimelech ?? B3 Kedesb (Kishion ?) B4
'AIiH (ruin), Cz (HALI) Gath-hepher ?? C4 Kefar Hananya, C3 Safed, C3 (GALILEE i., g 7)
umm el-'Amiid, B2 Gerasa, D3 (GERASENE) tell KeisBn, B3 (KISHION) Safiiriyeh, C3, 4 (NAZA-
wHdy 'Amiid, ~ ~ ( T A P P U A el-GhuwCr,
H) D3 (GALILEE ii., RETH )
kefr KennB, C3
Anaharath?? Cg Mt. Gilboa, C5 [$ 2) Kerak, D4 (GALILEE ii., $7) wBdv SakBk. Bz
kefr 'AnBn, C3 Ginaia, C5 KerHzeh, D3
W. 'Ara, Bg (EPHRAIM, $ 4 7 ) Gischala, Cz Kersa, D3 (GERASENES) . .
wHdyel-'Arab,D&ADARA) Gush Halab, Cz wAdy el-Khudera, Ag Scala Tyriorum, Bz (RA-
el-'Araj, D3 (BETH-SAIDA) tell Khureibeh, Dz Scythopolis, Cg
Arbela ?? C3 J. Hadireh, Cz (HAZOR) Kishon, B3 Sefet, C3 (GALILEE i., g 7)
Ard el-Hiileh, Dz Haif%, AB3 (ACHSAPH) kefr Kiid, Bg (BETHULIA) wBdy Selhab, Bg (DOTHAN)
sahl 'ArrBbeh,B~(DOTHAN)Haifs el-'atika, A3 [DALA) Kuffin, Bg L. Semachonitis, Dz
'ArrHneh, Cg wsdyel-HamBm, C3 (MAG- wady Semak, D3 (GERAS-
Asochis, C3 Hammon ? Bz Ladder of Tyre, Bz Semakh, D4 [ENES)
(RAMAH,6 ) Semiiniyeh, B4 (KATTATH)
'Athlit, A4 'ain HHmiil, Bz (H AMMON) nahr el-LeddBn, Dz
wHdyHBmu1, BP(HAMMON)Lejjiin, B4 Sepphoris, C3, 4 (NAZA-
Bahr Tabariyeh, D3, 4 RETH)
B a h r e t el-Hiileh, D z el-HHrithiyeh, B4 (HARO- Leontes, D I (ACHSHAPH) esh-Shari'a, Dz, 3, 4, 5
(MEROM) well of Harod, c 4 [SHETH) N. el-LitHni, D I (ACH- Shari'at el-ManBddireh,D4
nahr BHniHs, D2 (ABANA) Kh. Harreh. Dz (HAZDR) SHAPH) wady SharrHr, C4 (GOLAN)
nahr Bareighit,Dz(ABEL ii.) N. el-HB+bBni, D I , ~ ( A I N
2), Kh. Luweziye, DI Shaffa, C4 (BETH-SHITTAH)
el-Bafeiha, D3 [ARBATTIS) Hazor? Dz Shihor-libnath ?? A4
Hieromax, D4 nahr Mafshiikh, Bz
Baftof, C3 (ALAMMELECH)~ MBr.rBner-RHs,Cz (MEROM) Shunem, C4
BeisHn, C5 ' Hill of Moreh ' ? C4 jebel eS-Sih,C4(NAZARETH)
Mas'adiyeh, D3 (BETH-
Beit IlfS, C4 (BETHULIA) Hippo<, D3 SAIDA ) Simouias,B~(GALILEE~.,$ 7)
Beit-Lahm, B4 Hukkok?? C3 Kh. Ma'siib, B2 (ASHERAH) Solam, C4
bir Bel'ameh, Cg (BEI-MEN) tell ITiim, D3 (CHORAZIN) nahr el-Mef jir,Ag(KANAH) Sur, BI
w ~ d Bel'ameh,
y ~ ~ ( I H L E AHiinin,
M) Dz (MIGDAL-EL) Megiddo, B4 SiisithH,D3 GALILEE^^., $ 7 )
Bel%!, Cz (RAMAH,6 ) Meiren, C3 (MEROM) Spcaminum, A3
Belus, B3 Ibleam? C5 el-Mejdel, D3 (MAGDALA)
jisr BenHt Ya'kiib, Dz khirbet Iksaf C I wady el-Melek, B3 Taanach, B4
Bersabe, C3 GALILEE^., $7) IksAl, C4 'ain el-Meyiteh, HAROD ROD) Ta'annuk, €34 [P 7)
Bethlehem, B4 Irbid, C3 [58 4, 7) Merj 'A@", DI (IJON) TabakBt Fahl, D5 (GILEAD,
Beth-shean, Cg [MEL, 0 I) Sh. Iskander, B&EPHKAIM. Merj el-Hadireh, ~ ~ ( H A z o R Tabariyeh,
) D3
BilBd er-Riihah, B4 (CAR- 'ain Taba'iin, C4 (HAROD)
Merj Ibn 'Amir, BC4 et-TBbigha, D3 (cp CAPER-
wsdy el-Bireh, D4 Jabesh ?? D5
el-Meshhed, C4 Tabor, C4 INAUM,$ 4 3 )
kefr Bir'im, C2 (AHLAB) Jalkamiis, Cg el-Me&, C4 (GILBOA, 5 z)
esh-sheikhBurkBn,C ~ ( G I L - ain JBliid, C4 Tantiirah, A4
el-Mezra'ah, C4 (ESDRAE- Tarichez, D4 (GALILEE ii.,
[§ 7)
N. Jaliid, HAROD ROD)
Cabul, B3 ") Janoah?? C I , z w. el-Milh, B4(ARAD)[LON) wHdy ef-TawShin, C3
Czesarea Palzestin=, A4 khBn Minieh, D3 et-Tell, D3 (BETH-SAIDA)
tell Jefat, C3
Cana?? C3 Jelameh, C4 (IBLEAM) khirbet Mini&, D3 Tiberias, D3
Capernaum ? D3 Jelb6n, C5 (GILBOA,$3 I ) Miryamin, Dg sea of Tiberias, D3, 4
Mt. Carmel, AB3, 4 el-Mohraka,Bq(CARME1.,$3) jebel ef-TCr, C4
Jenin, C5
Chisloth-tabor, C4 Jezreel, C4 jisr el-Muj?imf, D4 Tyre, BI
Chorazin, D 3 Jiphtah-el? C3 el-MujEdil, B4 (IDALAH) Tyrus, BI
Dnbaritta, C4 el-Jish, Cz Mujeidil, C2 (M IGDAL-EL)
nahr el-Mukattd, B3. 4 wAdy YBbis, Dg (JABESH)
Daberath, C4 Jokneam? B4
tell el-Mutasallim, B4 YBfa, C4 (JAPHIA)
nabi Dahi, C4 Jordan, Dz, 3, 4, 5 Yakiik, C3
DBIiet er-Riihah, B4 Jotapata, C3 Nabi Dahi, C4
YBnuh, CI, z
.Dan. Dz ' N a i n ' ? C4
DHniBn, Bz (DAN-JAAN) Kabr HirBm, Cz (H IRAM) nahr Na'mHn, B3 (ADONIS) YarmBk, Ya'tir, Cz
D4 (GOLAN)
Debiiriyeh, C4 Kabiil, B3 en-Nlasira, c 4 [RATH)
YemmH, CD4 (APHEK, 3, c)
DCshiin, CDz (HAZOR, I) Kadesh, Dz en-Na'ba, C4 (ANAHA-
tell Dibbin, D I (IJON) tell el-KHdi, Dz ' Nazareth,' C4 Zer'in, C4
Dor, 4 jebel Kafsy, C4 (NAZARETH) Nein, C4 nahr ez-Zerl+, A4
plain of Dothan, Bg tell Bairntin, B4 Niiris, C4 (GILHOA, $ z) ez-Zib, Ba
GALILEE, SEA O F GALILEE, SEA O F
sea’ (5 O&h.), Jn. 611-25; (5) ‘the lake’ (4 A+.), Lk. 5 ;in the narratives of the first feeding of the people (see
8 zz,f 33. To these must be added (6) ‘sea of Chinnereth especially Mk. 639) is surely the rich but swampy plain
( n ? p ; ) , and (7) ‘sea of Chinneroth’ (niy-o;), see C HIN. of el-Bateiha in the NE., at the N. end of which are
NERETH , CHINNEROTH i also (8) ‘the water of Gennesar ’-i.e.,the ruins of BETHSAIDA( q . ~ . ) . Nor can we doubt
(RV) ‘of Gennesareth, I Macc. 1167. See GENNESAK.For
Talmudic notices the reader will consult Neub. Giogr. 2 5 , and that towards the S. of the lake there were also ‘desert
Kohut, ‘Lakes of the Holy Land,’jQR 4 691 (‘92). (solitary) places,’ even if they were only on high hill
The extreme length of this lake is 13 m. ; its greatest tops.
width is little less than 7 m. It is an irregular oval This consideration is important with reference to the
2. physical in shapk. Its surface is 68; ft. below two narratives of the feeding - of the multitude. That
characteristics. the level of the Mediterranean. Its 4. Feeding of the same tradition may receive different
greatest deDth has been exaggerated
by M’Gregor and tortet. I
-- the multitude. forms, so that two distinct events
appear (but wrongly appear) to be
As Barrois (1894) states, it varies from 130 ft. to 148 ft., reported, is clear frbm the lives of tge.pa&:archs. It is
according to the season, the greatest depth occurring along the the application of the comparative method, not any
course of the Jordan, through the meridional axis of the sheet.
The surface temperature varies considerably. Down to 30 ft. it is wish to rationalise, that prompts many good critics to
on an average about 68“ or 69“, and at 50 ft 62’ or 63‘. Between identify the two narratives referred t0.l If this be
6 j ft. and 130 ft however there is a &form temperature of done, we are placed in a position to rectify some very
59’. This is mu& higher h n in the Swiss lakes at the same natural mistakes in the present form of the traditions.
depth, but the lake of Tiberias lies a t a much lower elevation,
under a much hotter sun, and is fed from the sides and the W e shall see that the scene of the most original narra-
bottom by several hot springs (see PEFQ, ’94, pp. 211-220). tive of the feeding was probably not in the NE., but
The scenery of the lake disappoints some travellers ; more towards the S. Jesus had gone hither to be as far
but arriving from the S. where the landscapes are by no as possible from Antipas,2 and yet, even in this remote
means always pleasing, one feels it a relief to catch a spot, he could not hide himself from eager followers.
first view of its pale blue waters and the steep but bare How did he .deal with them? There was probably a
and by no means bold mountains which so nearly gap in the oral tradition, and the early Christians did
surround it.’ It is unjust to speak of it a s dreary. It not shrink from filling it up by ascribing to him who
is only under certain aspects that it presents a painful was a prophet, and more than a prophet, a deed such
monotony of gray ; the evening hues are delightful, and as Elisha was said to have performed of old. How
round it there is a broad beach of white pebbles with well they expanded the scanty suggestion of 2 K.
small shells. The Jordan enters at the extreme northern 442-44 ! How much more spiritually suggestive are
end and issues ‘ plunging and swirling ’ at the southern. the evangelical narratives !
Here there are wide openings, which permit a view of The view presented here is different doubtless from
the valley, and suggest interesting excursions. that commonly received ; but it seems to remove not a
The favourable physical conditions of Gennesaret (EL few very real difficulties. Nor is it only geography and
GhuweV) have been referred to elsewhere (see GEN- exegesis that owe something to a keener textual criti-
NESAR ). Here it suffices to add that the harvest on the cism. W e are thus helped one stage further towards
shore is nearly a month earlier than on the neighbour- the perception that the central importance of the Gospel
ing highlands of Galilee and Bashan. Frost is entirely narratives does not consist in their freedom from the
unknown. The trees, plants, and vegetables are those inevitable errors of much-edited popular traditions.
usually found in Egypt--e.g., the palm, the Zizyphus Let us now compare the various Gospel statements as
lotus, and the indigo plant. to the scene of the reported event, assuming (as we may
‘Though the whole basin of the lake, and, indeed, and must) that there is a duplication of the original
the Jordan valley, is of volcanic origin, as evidenced by story.
the thermal springs and the frequent earthquakes, yet Mt. 1413 ‘When Jesus heardpf it, he withdrew from thence
in a boat td a desert place apart. No name of a place is given
the main formation of the surrounding wall of moun-
tains is limestone. A large number of black stones and
beforeu. 34, where we read, ‘.
Gennesaret.’ Mt.1529 ‘And Jesus
.. ...
they came to the land, unto
came nigh unto tly
boulders of basaltic tufa are scattered along the slopes Sea of Galilee ; and he Lent up into a mountain, and sat there ;
and upland plains, and dykes of basalt here and there v. 39, ‘And he sent away the multitudes, and entyed into the
boat, and came into the borders of (RV) Magadan.
burst through the limestone strata in the neighbourhood Mlc.611 ‘Come ye yourselves into a desert place’; v. 45,
of Tiberias and along the northern shore.’ ‘ And stdghtway he constrained KL:disciples to enter into the
In the O T the lake is only mentioned in descriptions boat, and to go before him unto the other side to Bethsaida,
while he himself sendeth the multitude away ; v. 53, ‘And .
of boundaries. It receives ample compensation in the they came to the land, unto Gennesaret.’. Mk. 8 4, ‘Whence ..
NT, for its well-peopled, pleasant shores shall we be able to fill these men with bread here in a desert
3. NT attracted the preacher of the kingdom of
references* God. Four of its fisher-folk became his Dalmanutha.’
place?’ v. IO, ‘And straightway he . .. came into the parts of
Lk. 910, ‘And,he took them and withdrew apart to a city
first disciples, with whom he took up his temporary called Bethsaida ; p. 12 ‘for \;e are here in a desert place.’
abode in the ‘ village of consolation ’ (Capemaurn)-he The reading in v. IO IS uncertain (c Blass’s edition of Lk.). RV
who was emphatically mtnd@em (;.e., Comforter, a follows Treg., Ti., WH. Certainry the reading of the received
text (followed by AV) is the work of a corrector. I t does not,
Jewish title of the Messiah). The local colouring of however, follow that that of I3 and D, etc. (D has K J P ~for V
the Gospel narratives which have the lake and its shores ndhiv) is the right one. We must leave the question open.
for their scene, is wonderfully true. The sudden storms There is nothinp else in the text of Lk. to indicate exactly
-the multitude of fish-the ‘ desert place ’ near Beth- where the scene Gf the narrative is to be placed.
: ‘Jesus went away to the other side of the, sea of
J!i. 6
saida where there was ‘ much grass ’-all this is in Galilee v. 3 ’And Jesus went up into the mountain ; v. I O
accordance with facts. The hot, tropical air of the ‘Now tdere ;as much grass in the place’; v. 17, ‘And the;
Gh5r is often filled by the cold winds from Lebanon entere,d into a boat and were going over the sea into Caper-
m u m ; v. 23, ‘Hodbeit there came boats from Tiberias,‘ etc. ;
which rush through the ravines of the Perzan hills
(Thomson). So much for the storms. The fish are
v. 24, ‘. .. and came to Capernaum, seeking Jesus.’
The greatest difficulty here is in Mk. 645 ( ~ p o d y e r v
famous, both for variety and for abundance (see FISH, EL)S r b dpav r p b s P@uaiGav). Are there two Rethsaidas?
8 I ). Josephus (DJiii. lo7) remarks-and Hasselquist 6. Bethsaida or shall we suppose (GAS, H G 458 ; see
corroborates this-that some of them are found also in BETHSAIDA, $jz ) that ‘going across’ does
the Nile.3 T o Beth-saida the fish of the lake perhaps and
Dalmanutha.not mean crossing to the W. shore, but
gave its name, and Taricheze was mainly devoted to only taking the short journey novthwurd to
the curing of fish. The desert but grassy place intended Bethsaida? The present writer thinks both views improb-
1 Cp Harper, In Scripture Lands, 323 ; H. v. Soden, Reise-
bride, ‘98, p. 157. 1 Cp Keim, J e w von Naz.2 528f: 2 Cp Keim, Z.C.
2 Porter, Kitto s BG. CycZ. 3 Cp Neub. GLOP. 25. 3 Note the barley loaves, and cp Jn. 6 9.
1633 1634
GALILEE, SEA O F GALLERY
able, and instead of adopting the reading of old MSS of p. i o 8 ; Furrer, Z D P V 2 5 6 3 12 1 9 4 5 1 3 1 9 4 8 ) , and
the Itala (followed in AVmS 'over against Bethsaida') Socin (Baed. PuZ.(~J 290) cannot be lightly rejected.
would suppose that there is a scribe's error, and that
for ' Bethsaida ' (B$uur8uv) we should read ' Tiberias '
Upon the whole, however, the argument of .Schiirer
(Gesch. 1515) appear to be provisionally decisive in
sr. .
(Ti@epta8a). favour of Kerak ; Conder, Guthe, and Buhl also
A similar change is certainly necessary in the case of incline in this direction. One would like to be able to
Magdala (Rec. Text) or Magadan (Treg., Ti., WH) in speak more positively. Taricheze was famous in the
Mt. 1 5 3 9 , and Dalmanutha in Mt. 610. These names first Roman war ; it was a centre of Galikan patriotism.
have been discussed over and over again (see DAL- Jesus may perhaps have been there ; it is a little strange
MANUTHA), and the latest solntions are hardly more that it should nowhere be mentioned in the Gospels.l
natural than the earliest. The name in the original Turning round the lake from Kerak, we pause first at
tradition must have been one which would account Kal'at el-HoSn, most probably the ancient Hippos (the
equally well for all these forms, and it should be one of Talmudic SiisithZ). The name of Gamala (mentioned
which we are not obliged to say with Bruce (speaking alSove ; famous in the Roman war) seems to be pre-
of Magadan in the Expositor's Bidk) 'place wholly served in that of the village of Jamli : Kersii is probably
unknown.' It seems to have been Migdal-nunial the ancient Gerasa (see GERASENES). But what an
( w u hi?,'the tower of fish'), which was I R. rn. inadequate idea these few names give of the girdle of
from Tiberias, probably to the S. of that city.2 towns which inclosed the Sea of Galilee in ancient
It will be seen that just as Bethsaida and Capernzum times I As Lamartine says, 'the borders of the Lake
go together in one form of the tradition, so somt un- of Gennesaret seem to have borne cities instead of
known place on the E. coast (the neighbourhood of harvests and forests.' The scene is very different now.
Gamala would suit) and Migdal-nunia go together in Without the help of the imagination even the travelled
an~ther.~ We may perhaps find traces .of this latter student will see nothing but a sheet of water unenlivened
view of the localities in Mk. 6 4 5 (reading Ttpepra8u) by vessels and surrounded by treeless hills. T. K . c.
and also in Jn. G 2 3 , where the ships are brought by
the evangelist from Tiberias, because the spot where GALL. (I) d h ,r8'6 or ?bh4r 2 (XohH),5 Dt.
he places the feeding was obliquely opposite Tiberias.* 2 9 1 3 [17] 3232 Ps. 6921 [zz], Jer. 8 1 4 915[!4]2315 Lam.
' T h e land where they were going' (v.21) was not 3 5 1 9 Am. 6 1 2 : the same Hebrew word I S in Dt. 3 0 3 3
Capernanm (a mistake surely of the redactor of the rendered 'venom,' i n Job 2 0 1 6 'poison,' and in Hos.
Fourth Gospel), but Tiberias. 1 0 4 'hemlock.' The word primarily denotes an
Nothing has been said here as yet of the calming of extremely bitter plant (Hos. 1 0 4 ) and its fruit (Dt.
the storm. Here again the spiritual suggestiveness (if 2 9 1 3 [IT] etc.) ; it is constantly coupled with n:yi,
6. calming the narrative makes it an inalienalile Zu'Zmih, 'wormwood,' the two together denoting the
treasure. We cannot, however, pin our extreme of bitterness. Though there is no evidence
faith to the literal accuracy of the beauti- that the plant denoted by drii was poisonous, the word
ful story, any more than to that of Ps. is metaphorically applied to the venom of serpents
77 19 [ z o ] , ' Thy way was in the sea and thy path in the (Dt. 3 2 3 3 etc.), the notions of bitterness and of poison
great waters,' and of Ps. 107 28-30 ; see especially the being closely conjoined in ancient thought (cp Di. on
suggestive words with which the latter passage con- Job 2014).
As the etymology of the Heb. word is unknown and there is
cludes,-' So he bringeth them unto the haven wherethey no kindred form in any other Semitic language, we have no
would be. ' Such symbolic language is characteristic data for discovering the particular plant intended the proposed
of faith in all earnestly-held religions, and the symbol identifications with hemlock, colocynth darnei, and poppy
soon fixes itself in narrative. These are no doubt being alike conjectural. The reference in Hos. 10 4 points to
some weed growing on cultivated land (as I dypoa~rs);whilst
held to be facts ; but the facts are valued chiefly as in Dt. 323zsome berry-bearing plant is indicated. The colocynth,
vehicles of spiritual ideas, and never examined into which is otherwise probable, is a plant that grows, not on
with the strictness of historic investigation. cultivated, but on barren land. Cp FOOD, 8 5, end.
We referred above to a little-known Migdal, as (2) mlp, merZy& JoblBist, and (3) qin, mcrfirih,
almost certainly the Magdala of the received text of ~ o b 2 0 1 425+ (in 6 ~ 0 x 4exc.
, v.2 5 , 8tUlTUtS [BA], 8lUiTg
Mt.
. --
1520. dj.. [KC]),
are analogous derivatives from slightly different
The ordinary view identifying it with Mejdel, that miserable forms of the same root (Lag. Ueders. 40), which denotes
village with which the plain of el-Ghuwer begins, has to bitterness. They mean properly the human gall or
be abandoned. The Talmud mentions several
.
7. Magdala, Migdals in this neighbourhood Mejdel was bile ; and, from the association of the ideas of bitterness
Taricheae. one of these-Dossiblv that fro; which Marv and poison (see above), "in is once applied, like
&.
. Magdalene seems to-have derived her name,
scarcely the MIGDAL-EL ( q . ~ .of
) Joshua. ddy, to the venom of serpents (JobSO14).
N. M.-W. T. T.-D.
Other places on the W. shore are referred to in
special articles (see, e.g., CAPERNAUM, C HORAZIN ). GALLERY. ( I ) 3VlK [Kt.], 'attlik, Ezek. 4115,
Let us now turn to the S. end of the lake, where p'ng, 'aif@,Ezek. 41 15 ($1.) 16 42 5 (& &&horrra, & ~ o + a & ~ e ~ s ,
stands the ruin of Kerak, at the point where the Jordan
rrepimuhav). The sense seems correct. With regard to @'s
issues. Here we should probably place Tarichece, third rendering, observe that in 42 5 3 the 'galleries' have no
which, according to Pliny ( N H 5 1 5 ) , in his day gave pillars. Cp Ass. me%& nzBtc&, 'passage, road,' from I/pnN,
its name to the whole lake.5 Its site indeed is not ' t o pass on' (Del. Ass. I f WB, s.u.). An architectural applica-
undisputed, being sometimes placed at Mejdel, and tion of this word, however, is not mentioned. See TEMPLE.
though the theory of Gratz-Tarichece= Migdal-nunia (2) a??, rdh,t, in plur., Cant. 7 5 [61 The king is held in the
= Mejdel-is the simpler theory which galleries' ; RV carrecfs,, 'in the tresses thereof.' Neither
has commanded the assent of Wilson (PEFQ, '77, ' gallery' nor 'tresses IS philologically defensible (see Bu.
ad 206.). pu;n elsewhere means 'troughs ' ; here it seems to he
1 Dalma=Ma(q)dal' nntha=nunia. I t is implied that the
substratum of t6e narkrive is Hebrew or Aramaic. Renan 1 See GAS FfG.4518
(Vie de]&sz+l~J, 146) thinks that 'Magadan' comes from Dal- 2 See j o s . B3 iv. 1I . The view adopted above is that of
man(outha). This does not help much. Furrer and Buhl ; Baed. PaZ.(4J, however, still adheres to the
a See Nenb. Giogr. 217; Buhl, 226; but cp GrB. MGW3,'80, older view which identifies Gamala with Kal'at el-Hosn.
p. 484' who makes the distance 4 m. (we return to this later). 3 Quoted by GASm.
3 It'would not do, therefore, to suggest that 'Bethsaida' 4 The latter spelling only in Dt. 32 32.
(place of fish?) might be a second name of Migdal-nunia. 5 This. the word used in Mt. 27 ? A Acts822. is the usual 'S
4 Slightly differently Furrer, Bedeufunfder 6ihZ. Geogyajhie, rendering of V$y; but we find Bu&s'in D t 3 i 3 3 Job 20 16 Am.
$4 ('70). 6 12, m k p 6 v in Jer. 23 15, and d p w u r i s in Hos. 10 4, whilst in
5 Gratz however, suspects the text to be inaccurate. Lam. 3 5 r& is rendered .$+ai$ tlrough confusion with the other
6 MG&J,'80, pp. 434.495. ddl.
1635 1636