THE BUILDING

BLOCKS
(biological
molecules)

Biological molecules have some things in common:

most are Polymers large strings of molecules (macromolecules)
of repeating subunits monomers

monomer

polymer

Simplest carbon molecule

they are based on carbon atoms

Methane
CH4
formaldehyde

ethanol
ethane

heptane

More complex molecules when carbons bind to each other; other molecules can be added

More complex ring structures

Simplified structure carbons implied

Even more complex -branching

Biological molecules are joined by condensation

reactions e.g. dehydration ie. loss of water and formation
of a covalent bond

OH

- H2O

HO

Biological molecules are broken down into monomers

e.g. by hydrolysis ie. cleavage of bonds by the addition of
water
+ H2O

NUCLEIC ACIDS

phosphates

Nucleotide

sugar

Nucleoside
Nucleoside monophosphate
Nucleoside diphosphate
Nucleoside triphosphate

Base

Base name

nucleoside

nucleotide

deoxynucleotide

Adenine
(purine)

Adenonsine

Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)

Deoxyadenonsine
triphosphate (dATP)

Guanine
(purine)

Guanosine

Guanosine
Deoxyguanosine
triphosphate (GTP) triphosphate
(dGTP)

Cytosine
pyrimidine)

Cytidine

Cytosine
Deoxycytosine
triphosphate (CTP) triphosphate (dCTP)

Uracil
(pyrimidine)

Uridine

Uridine
triphosphate (UTP)

Thymine
(pyrimidine)

thymidine

deoxythymidine
triphosphate (dTTP)

Phosphodiester bond formation

Phosphodiester bond

Condensation reaction between 3

hydroxyl group & 5phosphate

Sugar-phosphate
backbone

Phosphodiester
bonds
Glycosidic bonds

Hydrogen bonds

Phosphate groups are negatively charged

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna/b/replication/dna_structure.html

Bases

Proteins

Amino acids subunit of proteins

the central carbon is called the

H
N
H
Amino group

C
R

carbon

O
C
O

Carboxylic Acid Group

Side chain
- each amino acid has a different side chain
- gives different biochemical properties
- it determines if the amino acid will be polar, nonpolar
or electrically charged

Amino acids are joined to each other by formation of a

peptide bond

Proteins (polypeptides) are formed by

addition of more amino acids

Silk protein (fibroin)

Amino or N terminus

Carboxyl or C terminus

5
3

Chains of amino acids fold into patterns i.e.

secondary structure
- coiled structures : - helices
- folded structures: pleated sheets
- formed by H bonds formation between the
amino and carboxyl groups of the
backbone

Protein tertiary structure

GFP

Protein quaternary structure

- Association of multiple polypeptide chains to form a
functional protein

Haemoglobin
Catalase enzyme

Carbohydrates
(=saccharides)

- simple sugars
- building blocks of carbohydrates
- chemical formula (CH2O)n n=3-7

Monosaccharides

e.g. glucose n=6 C6H1206

Carbonyl
group

Hydroxyl
groups

C1
H-C2-OH
HO-C3-H
H- C-OH
4
H- C5-OH
H- C6-OH
H

In nature usually in ring form

H
H- C6-OH
O H
H C5
C4 H
OH H C1
HO
C2 OH
C3
OH
H

H
H- C6-OH
O OH
H C5
C4 H
OH H C1
HO
C2 H
C3
OH
H

- glucose

- glucose
anomers

Monosaccharides are named based on:

1. Length of carbon backbone
triose (3), tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7)
2. Position of carbonyl group
Aldose has carbonyl group
at end of carbon backbone

O
C

H- C-OH

C
H- C -OH

ribose

H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH

H- C -OH
C

Ketose - has one carbonyl

group within carbon backbone

H- C-OH

H- C -OH

C O
H- C-OH

H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H

ribulose

3. Chirality (handedness) i.e. arrangement of the hydroxyl

groups
H

C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H

C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H

glucose
isomers

galactose

C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
H-C -OH
H- C -OH
C -H2OH
D-glucose

C
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
HO- C -H
HO-C -H
C -H2OH
L-glucose

These isomers are mirror images (enantiomers)

D-Allose

D-Gulose

D-Altrose

D-Idose

D-Glucose

D-Galactose

D-Mannose

D-Talose

Different D-glucose isomers vary in position of the hydroxyl group

Monosaccarides are joined together by glycosidic linkage

-this is a dehydration reaction

- D-glucose

- D-glucose
H2O

This bond has formed

between carbon #1 on one
molecule and carbon #4 on
the other

This is a 1,4 glycosidic

linkage

maltose

This is a disaccharide

linkages depend on the carbon molecule and the anomer ( / )

-1,4 linkage

POLYSACCARIDES are made up of different

combinations of monomer and linkages

e.g. Glycogen a carbon storage molecule,

is highly branched

Lipids

Lipids
- diverse range of biomolecules e.g. steroids, phospholipids , fats
- characteristically dont mix well with water they are nonpolar
& hydrophobic
- built from fatty acids

Fatty acids
-Long hydrocarbon chain ending in carboxyl group
- mostly even number of carbons
- mainly differ by length of chain and presence/absence of double
bonds between carbons saturated or unsaturated

Saturated fatty acids all positions on backbone occupied by H atoms

Unsaturated fatty acids one or more double bonds between

carbons in backbone

Acid Name

Structure

Melting
Point

Saturated Fatty Acids

Lauric

CH3(CH2)10COOH

+44

Palmitic

CH3(CH2)14COOH

+63

Stearic

CH3(CH2)16COOH

+70

solid at
room temp
(25oC)

Higher melting
temp

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Oleic

CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

+16

Linoleic

CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)2(CH2)6COOH

-5

Linolenic

CH3CH2(CH=CHCH2)3(CH2)6COOH

-11

Arachidonic

CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)4(CH2)2COOH

-50

liquid at
room temp
(25oC)

lower melting
temp

Why?

Saturated fats are straighter stack together tightly -> stronger

intermolecular forces > higher melting temp
Unsaturated fats have bends > interact more loosely > weaker
intermolecular forces > lower melting temperatures

Fats - Triglycerides
- neutral fat
- most abundant storage form of fat in plants & animals
- most important dietary lipid
- a molecule of glycerol in which each of the three carbons is
linked through an ester bond to a fatty acid

Properties of the triglyceride e.g.

melting temp depend on the type of
fatty acids (saturated/unsaturated) etc

Solid at RT due to % saturated FA

Liquid at RT due to higher %
unsaturated FA

Phospholipids
-have a hydrophilic (likes water) head and a hydrophobic
(doesnt like water) tail
Glycerol & phosphate - hydrophilic
choline
2 fatty acid chains
- hydrophobic
- vary in length

phosphate
glycerol

Fatty acid chains

phosphatidylcholine

- form structures that allow the hydrophobic tails to stay together

and present the polar head to the aqueous environment
e.g. mycelles
bilayers

e.g. lipid vesicles

e.g. lipid membranes

The fluidity of membranes at particular temperatures is

affected by the amount of unsaturated fatty acid
Less fluid

More fluid

Steroids
- class of lipid
- the ring structure: three cyclohexanes; one cyclopentane
- a range of different functional groups can be attached
- examples include cholesterol, sex hormones, cortisone