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FIE Book PDF
FIE Book PDF
The author was supported in part by a Grant from the U.S. Department of
Education. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the United States Department of Education.
For my students at the University of New Mexico and Skip Matthes. To my wife Judy,
my son Jules, my daughter Jean, and dedicated to the memory of Martha, my sister.
Contents
Preface
vii
Chapter 1. Introduction
1. Why is math important?
2. The critical role of mathematics in modern society
3. Common misconceptions by pre-service teachers about
mathematics
4. The mathematics K - 8 teachers need to know
5. Mathematical problem solving
6. Chapter 2 - the mathematics students need to know
7. Chapter 3 - the core material central to all school mathematics
8. The detailed course discussions, chapters 4 - 8
9. Chapter 9, experiences teaching pre- and in-service teachers
10. The book The Mathematical Education of Teachers
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CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
5. References
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Chapter 9.
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CONTENTS
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Appendix B.
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Appendix D.
Appendix E.
Preface
It has long been felt that the mathematical preparation of pre-service
teachers throughout the country has been far too variable, and often too
skimpy to support the kind of outcomes that the United States currently
needs. Too few of our K - 12 graduates are able to work in technical areas or
obtain college degrees in technical subjects. This impacts society in many
and increasingly harmful ways, and it is our failure in K - 8 mathematics
instruction that is at the heart of the problem.
This is especially true when we compare outcomes in the United States
with outcomes in countries that do a better job of teaching mathematics,
countries such as Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Singapore, China,
and Japan, to name a few.
It has also been increasingly recognized that if we are to improve our
performance in K - 8 mathematics instruction, pre-service teachers should
take focused, carefully designed courses directly from the mathematics departments, and not, as is often the case, just a single math methods course
taught in the Education School. A focused two year sequence in the basic
mathematics teachers have to know is the minimal mathematics sequence
that pre-service teachers need in order to to successfully teach students in
K - 8.
The United States Department of Education under the guidance of Secretary Paige awarded an FIE (Fund for the Improvement of Education) grant
to Doug Carnine, Tom Loveless and R. James Milgram in 2002 to analyze
the reasons for the success of these foreign programs and produce a book,
designed for the use of mathematics departments in constructing a two year
sequence sequence of courses that will achieve this goal.
A critical part of the project was an advisory committee comprised of
many of the top people in this country concerned with the issues of K - 12
mathematics education and outcomes. Their advice has been critical in the
development of this book.
The members of the advisory committee:
Prof. Richard Askey, Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin
(emeritus)
Prof. Deborah Ball, School of Education, University of Michigan
Prof. Hyman Bass, Department of Mathematics and School of Education,
University of Michigan
Prof. Sybilla Beckmann, Department of Mathematics, University of Georgia
vii
viii
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
It is well known that for many years mathematics outcomes for K - 12
students in this country have lagged far behind what they should be. This is
clearly illustrated by the results of the TIMSS tests, which show our students
about average internationally in grade 4, significantly below average in grade
8, and near the bottom by grade 12. It is also illustrated by the very low
numbers of United States students who graduate from college with degrees
in technical areas.
The level and quality of the highest mathematics courses that students
successfully take in K - 12 is the greatest single predictor of degree completion in college, and the data clearly show that Algebra II is the college
gatekeeper.1
1. INTRODUCTION
and the California Mathematics Framework that guides instruction and curriculum selection. The initial results were very promising bringing California
math outcomes from second from the bottom among all states to something
much more respectable:
but over the next two years the results flattened out. Nobody knows for certain what the cause was, and it is clear that student outcomes in California
were still nowhere near where they should be. But it is highly plausible that
the reason lies in limitations in teacher math content knowledge, especially
in the lower grades.2
It is perhaps surprising to a number of people that teacher content knowledge matters for student outcomes even in the first grade, but recent research
of Deborah Ball, et. al.3 shows exactly this. They point out that
Many kindergarten and first grade teachers explain their choice
of grade level by referencing both their love of young children and
lack of mathematics knowledge. However, our analysis suggests
that mathematical knowledge for teaching is important, even at
this grade level, in our sample schools.
The effect of teacher content knowledge by grade three is very dramatic
according to this study 2Our teachers, as a group, are remarkable people, doing an extremely difficult job with
dedication, intelligence, and care, but the preparation they are given for the task is the issue in
this book. Comments on their limitations, such as the one this footnote refers to, are not directed
at the teachers, but at the job we do in preparing them. In this regard, Chapter 9 consists of
essays by a number of research mathematicians who have worked with pre-service teachers. Their
experiences have generally been very positive.
3Heather C. Hill, Brian Rowan, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Effects of teachers mathematical
knowledge for teaching on student achievement.(2004)
In third grade, its effect size rivals that of SES and students ethnic
and gender affiliation and in the first grade models, the size is not
far off. This suggest that knowledgeable teachers can positively and
substantially affect student learning of mathematics, and the size
of this effect is, at least in this sample, in league with the effects of
student background characteristics.
Among the things that have to be done to help change this mind-set5 are
to clarify for pre-service and in-service teachers the reasons why
mathematics is essential for todays students,
to give pre-service and in-service K - 8 teachers a much better
grounding in the subject.
4The dangerous bend symbol is used throughout this book to indicate a point where special
care is needed.
5It is important to keep in mind that the attitudes that teachers bring to the job are moulded
by a combination of their own K-12 educations, their family backgrounds, and their college preparation for the task. When we talk about changing this mind-set we are strictly discussing their
college preparation, more specifically, their preparation to teach the mathematics component of
the material in K - 8. In particular, it is our perspectives and those of their education school
professors that are at issue.
1. INTRODUCTION
6NCTM is the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the national umbrella organization that plays an analogous role to that of the MAA and AMS for K - 12 mathematics
teachers.
Diane Ravitch, the noted education historian points out At every level
of formal education, from nursery school to graduate school, equal opportunity became the overriding goal of postwar7 educational reformers. Sometimes those who led the battles seemed to forget why it was important to
keep students in school longer; to forget that the fight for higher enrollments was part of a crusade against ignorance, and that institutions would
be judged by what their students had learned as well as by how many were
enrolled.8
Beyond the historical antecedents, there are teacher perceptions and
beliefs that have to be dealt with. A recent poll of high school teachers
asked them how many of their students they thought went on to college
after high school graduation. The average response was 23%. There is also
a very common belief that college preparatory math such as calculus in
high school is only for the top 10% or 12% of students. In actuality, over
75% of current high school graduates attempt college within two years of
graduation. Moreover, among the total population of this country over the
age of 18, over 61% of high school graduates have enrolled in either a two
or a four year college. The following data comes from the U.S. Department
of Education and breaks this 61% down more exactly.
A 2003 update of these data showed that the rate of enrollment in college
had increased to 63.7% for people between 20 and 24 years of age in 2002
and to 61.7% overall, (Digest of Education Statistics 2003, Table 9, page
22, NCES, Dec. 2004). Consequently, it is imperative that, in teaching
these courses, the pre-service teachers be made aware of the critical role of
mathematics in society, and that, far from being of limited use, mathematics
is one of the most critical factors in our lives.
Additionally, there is every reason to believe that far more students than
currently major in high tech areas in our colleges have the ability to do this
level of work. For example, when we compare our outcomes with those of
higher achieving countries we have
7Post 1945
8Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education 1945-1980, Basic Books, 1983,
pp. xi - xii.
1. INTRODUCTION
of the rationals or the reals. Then there are machines from the most primitive steam engines of 150 years back to the extremely sophisticated engines
and mechanisms we routinely use today.
Sophisticated engines could not even happen until Maxwells use of differential equations in order to stop the engines of that time from flying apart,
stopping, or oscillating wildly, so the mathematics here starts with advanced
calculus. Todays engines are far more sophisticated. Their designs require
the solutions of complex non-linear partial differential equations and very
advanced work with linear algebra.
Today a major focus is on autonomous machines, machines that can do
routine and even non-routine tasks without human control. They will do
the most repetitive jobs, for example automating the assembly line and the
most dangerous jobs.
Such jobs would then be gone, to be replaced by jobs requiring much more
sophisticated mathematical training. The mathematics needed for these
machines, as was case with engines, has been the main impediment to actual
wide-scale implementation of such robotic mechanisms. Recently, it has
become clear that the key mathematics is available, (the mathematics of
algebraic and geometric topology, developed over the last 80 - 90 years),
and we have begun to make dramatic progress in creating the programs
needed to make such machines work. Because of this, we have to anticipate
that later generations of students will not have the options of such jobs,
and we will have to prepare them for jobs that require proportionately more
mathematical education.
But this only touches the surface. Computers are a physical implementation
of the rules of (mathematical) computation as described by Alan Turing
and others from the mid 1930s through the early 1940s. Working with a
computer at any level but the most superficial requires that you understand
algorithms, how they work, how to show they are correct, and that you
are able to construct new algorithms. The only way to get to this point
is to study basic algorithms, understand why they work, and even why
these algorithms are better (or worse) than others. The highly sophisticated
standard algorithms of arithmetic are among the best examples to start.
But one needs to know other algorithms, such as Newtons method, as well.
What is essential is real knowledge of and proficiency with algorithms in
general, not just a few specific algorithms.
And weve still only touched the surface. Students have to be prepared to
live effective lives in this world, not the world of 500 years back. That world
is gone, and it is only those who long for what never was who regret its
passing. Without a serious background in mathematics ones options in our
present society are limited and become more so each year. Robert Reich
described the situation very clearly in a recent article.10
10This article is from The American Prospect Online, December, 2003, and the URL is
http://www.prospect.org/webfeatures/2003/reich-r-12-26.html
1. INTRODUCTION
The problem isnt the number of jobs in America; its the quality of
jobs. Look closely at the economy today and you find two growing
categories of work but only the first is commanding better pay and
benefits. This category involves identifying and solving new problems. Here, workers do R&D, design and engineering. Or theyre
responsible for high-level sales, marketing and advertising. Theyre
composers, writers and producers. Theyre lawyers, bankers, financiers, journalists, doctors and management consultants. I call
this symbolic analytic work because most of it has to do with analyzing, manipulating and communicating through numbers, shapes,
words, ideas. This kind of work usually requires a college degree.
...
The second growing category of work in America involves personal
services. Computers and robots cant do these jobs because they
require care or attentiveness. Workers in other nations cant do
them because they must be done in person. Some personal-service
workers need education beyond high school nurses, physical therapists and medical technicians, for example. But most dont, such
as restaurant workers, cabbies, retail workers, security guards and
hospital attendants. In contrast to that of symbolic analysts, the
pay of most personal-service workers in the U.S. is stagnant or declining. Thats because the supply of personal-service workers is
growing quickly, as more and more people whod otherwise have
factory or routine service jobs join their ranks.
Here is how things change. Originally, the public school curriculum was
designed under the assumption that students would, in the main, work on
assembly lines, or do physical labor. But assembly lines today are highly
mechanized, and much of the current assembly line work demands high
level programming and maintenance of robotic mechanisms. Similar changes
have occurred with respect to direct physical labor. For example, even
40 years back, dock-work was brutal - lifting and carrying. Today, the
vast majority of this work is done by huge robotic mechanisms, and the
dock-worker of today spends most of his or her time controlling a very
expensive and complex machine or smaller fork-lifts. The usual requirement
is two years of college to handle the big machines, because running these big
machines entails extensive non-routine problem solving. Thus, pre-service
teachers have to be carefully educated in what we know and what we dont
know about solving problems.
The first is the widely held view that mathematics is, somehow, innate11.
Pre-service teachers will often indicate that they do not see the need to learn
the material being covered because, when the time comes that they actually
need it, they will be able to dredge it up. As a result, it is quite important that, throughout these courses, the instructor should keep reminding
students of the nature of mathematics and the fact that mathematics is,
entirely, a human construction that has developed over thousands of years
and reflects the contributions of many of the most intelligent people from
past civilizations all the way to recent times.
Speaking of the nature of mathematics, this is another point where student misconceptions get in the way. Often they will have been taught that
mathematics is the study of patterns, or as was some peoples view in the
mid-nineteenth century, the science of numbers, and the art of computing
by means of them. If either of these were ever true, they are certainly
not true today, as mathematics has grown in breadth over the centuries. It
is impossible to define mathematics today. About the best we can do is
roughly describe it but when we do two things stand out:
(1) Precision (precise definitions of all terms, operations, and the
properties of these operations)
(2) Stating well-posed problems and solving them. (Well-posed
problems are problems where all the terms are precisely defined and
refer to a single universe where mathematics can be done.)
The students should constantly have this perspective on mathematics in
front of them throughout these courses.
The third misconception is, in many ways the hardest to deal with.
Many subjects in K - 12 appear to students to be little more than learning
lists of facts and repeating them as necessary. Instruction in mathematics
usually tends to have the same character in the United States. Methods of
solving certain classes of problems are carefully categorized and then taught
separately. For example there are one step equations, two step equations,
three step equations and four step equations when looking at linear equations
in one variable. Likewise, multiplying two binomials is usually not taught
as a consequence of the distributive rule, but rather as a rigid process called
foiling (first, outer, inner, last). Consequently, pre-service teachers expect
to learn the content of these courses in exactly the same way. Thus, when
the focus of discussion deals with underlying principles as is usually the case
in the recommended content for these courses, the audience will, at least
initially, be likely to be totally confused. This situation has to be handled
with patience.
11An interesting article on this recently appeared in Science, P. Pica, C. Lemar, V.Izard,
S. Dehaene, Exact and approximate arithmetic in an Amazonian idigene group, Science, 306
(2004), 499-503. They study addition and estimation in a tribe with a language that does not
have expressions for numbers larger than 5. What was found is that these people could estimate
as well as native French speakers using less than, greater than, and equal to, but they had extreme
difficulty with exact addition and subtraction with numbers larger than 5.
10
1. INTRODUCTION
In the mid 1980s Lee Shulman and others began the study of the mathematical knowledge that teachers need to know. This was broken down
into
(1) Content knowledge, which includes both facts and concepts as well
as the reasons why the facts are true
(2) Pedagogical content knowledge, which goes beyond content knowledge to the subject of the content that is needed for teaching which
includes such things as what makes learning specific content easy
or difficult
(3) Curriculum knowledge, which involves knowing how topics are arranged over the course of a academic year or over the years and
ways of using such things as textbooks to organize their teaching.
Since then this area has been developed much further by a number of researchers, among them being Deborah Ball and Liping Ma.
In this work we take the view that the best foreign programs in mathematics are so overwhelmingly successful with such a high percentage of
students that we can learn a great deal about the issues above by studying
how these programs handle the core topics and their development. Foremost among these programs is the Russian mathematics program that was
developed during the 1930s and 1940s. It was used in Israel from the late
1940s to the early 1970s during which time their outcomes were the best
in the world. It was adopted by China during the 1950s, and from China
was modified for use in Singapore. It is also the core program underlying
the current programs in former iron countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, and Romania. Thus, we pay a great deal of attention to the way
in which the Russian program develops the core concepts in mathematics
during the early years, and we also reference the Singapore program extensively to learn about how the three topics above are treated in countries
where instruction in mathematics is successful.
Two things are notable when looking at these programs. The first is
that aside from whole numbers, everything is precisely, though grade appropriately, defined for students. Thus, when it comes time to define even and
odd numbers in the second grade Russian program, we find
From the series of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, first give those which are divisible by 2, and then
those which are not divisible by 2.
Numbers that are divisible by 2 are called even.
Numbers that are not divisible by 2 are called odd.
One could quibble that instead of talking about numbers they should
have said whole numbers, but fractions have not even been defined at this
11
point in the second grade course. Before continuing we should clearly note
the following
Who gets hurt when definitions are not present? The emphasis on precision of language and definitions matters most for
exactly the most vulnerable of our students. It is these students
who must be given the most careful and precise foundations. The
strongest students often seem able to fill in definitions for themselves with minimal guidance. On the other hand, foreign outcomes
clearly show that with proper support along these lines, all students
can get remarkably far in the subject.
The second thing that is notable in the programs of the high achieving
countries is the level of abstraction that is present in the problems students
are expected to do in these early grades. Variables have been introduced
and are routinely used, so students set up and solve simple equations in
second grade and quite sophisticated equations in third grade. There is a
strong belief in the education community in the United States that young
students learn strictly in context, which means that they do not believe
young students can handle abstraction. This belief is not supported by
research, nor is it supported by the outcomes in the high achieving countries.
We will discuss the mathematics programs used in the high achieving
countries in detail in chapters 3 - 8.
Summary. In summary, we need to first describe the core mathematics
that should be covered in, say, grades K - 7. This turns out to be far less
than the content that is typically required by state standards in this country.
It is consistent in all the programs in successful foreign countries that the
number of topics covered in the early grades is far less than is covered here.
But these are the key topics, and since they are covered to far greater depth
than is the case here, those foreign students have a much more solid and
dependable base, which makes it far more likely that they will be able to
succeed in the more advanced topics in mathematics, science and related
areas that are so essential today.
5. Mathematical problem solving
To start, we must deal directly with the widespread belief that we know
how to teach students how to solve problems. Everyone needs to be aware
of this basic truth:
Problem solving is currently an arcane art.
We do not know how to reliably teach problem solving. The most effective
method for communicating this process seems to be to have a mathematician
stand in front of a class and solve problems. Many students seem to be able
to learn something of this multi-faceted area in this way, but, as we will see,
the ground has to be carefully prepared before students can take advantage
of this kind of experience.
12
1. INTRODUCTION
What will be discussed now is what virtually all serious research mathematicians believe, and most likely most research scientists as well. This is
not what will be found in a typical math methods textbook. Other theories
about mathematical problem solving are current there. It could be that
the focus of the views on problem solving in these texts is concerned with
routine problems where the biggest effort might be in understanding what
the problem is asking. This can be a difficult step, but here we are talking
about solving a problem where the answer is not immediate and requires a
novel idea from the student. It is exactly this level of problem solving that
should be the objective for every student, because, at a minimum, this is
what virtually all non-routine jobs require today.
The hidden part of problem solving. There is a hidden aspect to
problem solving: something that happens behind the scenes, something that
we currently do not know how to measure or explain. It is remarkable, when
you read the biographies of great mathematicians and scientists that they
keep saying of their greatest achievements, I was doing something else and
the answer to my problem just came to me.12 This is not only true for the
greatest, it seems to be true for every serious research mathematician or
scientist.
Answers and ideas just seem to come out of the blue. But they dont!
There are verbal and non-verbal aspects to problem solving. Successful
researchers seem to have learned how to involve non-verbal mechanisms in
their brains in analyzing and resolving their problems, and it is very clear
that these non-verbal regions are much more effective at problem solving
than the verbal regions.
In order to engage the non-verbal areas of the brain in problem solving,
extensive training seems to be needed. This is probably not unlike the
processes that one uses to learn to play a musical instrument.13 Students
must practice! One of the effects, and a clear demonstration that the process
is working, is when students become fluent with the basic operations and
dont have to think about each separate step.
For school mathematics, students must practice with numbers. They
must add them until basic addition is automatic. The same for subtraction
and multiplication. They must practice until these operations are automatic.
This is not so that they can amaze parents and friends with mathematical
parlor tricks, but to facilitate the non-verbal processes of problem solving.
At this time we know of no other way to do this, and it is a grim thing to
watch otherwise very bright students struggle with more advanced courses
because they have to figure everything out at a basic verbal level. What
happens with such students, since they do not have total fluency with basic
12H.-H. Wu points out that the first example of this that he is aware of in print is due to H.
Poincar
e.
13It is probably not a coincidence that an inordinate number of professional mathematicians
are also skilled musicians.
13
concepts, is that - though they can often do the work - they simply take far
too long working through the most basic material, and soon find themselves
too far behind to catch up.
Skill and automaticity with numbers is only part of the story. Students
must also bring abstraction into play. This is also very commonly an unconscious process. There are huge numbers of choices for what to emphasize
and what to exclude in real problems so as to focus on the core of what
matters. Indeed, it is often far from clear what the core actually is. As was
the case before, one has to practice to facilitate abstraction. How?
One explores the situation, focusing on one area, then another, and accumulates sufficient data so that non-verbal tools in the brain can sort things
out and focus on what matters. But in order to do this, the groundwork has
to be laid. That is what algebra does (or is supposed to do). That is why
students should practice with abstract problems and symbolic manipulation.
Moreover, as we have seen in section 1, Algebra I and more particularly Algebra II are the gate keepers for college. When we think of problem solving
in this way, that is not so surprising.
The need for further study. Our knowledge here is fragmentary and
anecdotal. What has been stated above is highly plausible, and most research mathematicians tend to agree that it fits their experiences. However,
it is not yet possible to assert this knowledge as fact. Basic research needs
to be done, much as was done for reading. The medical and psychological
sciences almost certainly have the tools to begin such research now. Indeed,
the NIH has recently begun to support work in this direction.
6. Chapter 2 - the mathematics students need to know
In the first seven sections of chapter 2 we discuss the core mathematics
that students should learn in grades K - 7. By the end of grade 8 they should
have also been exposed to a considerable amount of algebra. However, the
discussion here is restricted to the core pre-algebra material that students
must know. This core material breaks up into six main topics:
(1) Basic number skills and place value
(2) Fractions
(3) Ratios, rates and percents
(4) Symbols, equations, symbolic manipulation, solving linear equations in one variable
(5) Functions and equations
(6) Measurement: the exact measurements of geometry and the measurements with errors that occur in real situations
The final two sections of chapter 2 give outlines for the first two courses or
the first year in the four course sequence that we recommend.
This discussion reflects the mathematics that students need to know,
and consequently the core mathematics that pre-service K - 8 teachers must
know, though it goes without saying that they must know more than just
14
1. INTRODUCTION
16
1. INTRODUCTION
17
realize that the standard algorithms are superb examples and deserve to be
studied for that reason alone. They should also realize that being able to
construct algorithms that are correct is an essential skill students must have
if they are to apply mathematics. Consequently, the general discussion in
section 10, together with the development of the standard algorithms in the
following sections are very important components of this course.
The fourth part, 15 - 17 outlines the introduction of fractions, ratios and
rates in the early grades, and describes the ways in which these topics are
handled in the Russian and Singapore programs. In the next chapter these
topics will be taken up again, but the presentation will be more appropriate
to grades 5 - 7.
Chapter 5 is concerned with fractions, ratios, rates, proportions and
percents. This is a topic that has traditionally been a huge problem in K 8 in this country.
18
1. INTRODUCTION
Fractions are seldom defined, but are developed through first dividing
numbers of objects into equal groups, so eight objects are divided into four
groups of 2, and students are told that each group of two is 14 of the total.
Then they cut up regions - typically circles - into equal subregions, with
only the vaguest idea of what equal means. Then the same is done for line
segments, and it is hoped that through exposure to these different models
for fractions, students will understand what fractions are.
Unfortunately, the visible results of this method of instruction speak for
themselves. As a result, pre-service teachers in these courses will typically
need to have their entire understanding of fractions rebuilt from scratch.
By contrast, in the high achieving foreign countries, the development of
fractions is much more structured, and much more successful. The typical
approach there is reflected in Chapter 4, section 16, for initial instruction in
the earliest grades, and then the entirety of Chapter 5. In all the successful
foreign programs we looked at, fractions were first introduced in terms of
parts of a whole models, for example, 13 is pictured as one among three
identical objects. However, this model only is present for a few lessons,
and then a more consistent and careful development is given in terms of
the area model in second grade. After that, students learn to represent
fractions as points on the number line. This approach is then carefully,
systematically, and above all, precisely developed. Students learn that two
fractions are the same if they represent the same point on the number line
and this gives a solid context for understanding equivalent fractions, the core
property that fractions satisfy (recall the formal mathematical construction
of fractions as equivalence classes of pairs of integers (a, b) with b 6= 0, where
the equivalence relation is (a, b) (c, d) if and only if ad = bc, which is little
more than a slick definition of equivalent fractions).
Then the definitions of the basic operations of addition and multiplication are given, with subtraction and division being defined as inverse operations. This provides a firm foundation on which skills with fractions can be
built.
After this, detailed discussions of methods for handling ratios, rates,
proportions, and percents are given. In the United States it is fair to say
that if a student survives fractions then he or she will not survive ratios
and proportions. Yet it is remarkable that student in the third grade in the
Russian program and fourth grade in the Singapore program are already
solving extremely sophisticated multiple rate problems.
Chapter 6: Introducing calculators to students and pre-service
teachers. Chapter six, written by Frank Demana and Bert Waits, is a
careful discussion focused on introducing calculators for pre-service teachers.
It is based on the TI-83 calculator, but is written in such a way that it should
be appropriate for most graphing calculators that are currently available.
Chapters 7 and 8 describe the material in the proposed second year.
Chapter 7 covers geometry and chapter 8 covers algebra.
19
Chapter 7: the geometry course. The material in chapter 7 is significantly different from the usual coverage of geometry for pre-service teachers.
It is in three parts
(1) Descriptive geometry, the geometry of the earliest grades
(2) Synthetic geometry, needed for rigor, but only a part of the usual
Euclidian geometry, though there is a reasonably detailed description of the dilations and the elements of the Euclidian group
(3) Coordinate geometry to the degree that it is needed
20
1. INTRODUCTION
to scale factors. The generators of the Euclidian group, translations, rotations and reflections are discussed next, as well as dilations. Then these are
applied to give meaning to the notion of geometric patterns and symmetry.
Finally, the chapter concludes with some discussion of basic three dimensional geometry, and a problem solving application, counting the number of
regions the plane is divided into by a finite collection of straight lines. Also,
there are a number of calculator based exercises that may well be of some
interest.
Some of the more unusual aspects of this chapter are a focus on nontrivial applications of geometry. Pre-service teachers need to be aware of
how the mathematics they teach is applied in significant situations. It is
notable that virtually all the K - 8 texts, when discussing applications of
mathematics only cover applications of immediate interest such as recipes
and baseball batting averages. These are usually extremely superficial and
hardly convince students that mathematics is important. On the other hand,
in section 3 of chapter 7 we discuss linkages and various non-trivial applications to such things as designing lamps that hold the light in a fixed
orientation while the position of the light is moved as well as motors and
mechanisms. In section 12 we discuss the applications of geometry to determining the way the moon appears in the night sky as well as other similar
applications.
Chapter 8: the algebra course. Chapter 8 discusses some of the key
topics that should be part of the fourth course, algebra.
21
For the most part, the material is standard, though for pre-service teachers it represents a considerable advance in terms of the level of abstraction.
Also, there is a much sharper focus on symbolic manipulation than is usually the case in courses for this audience. The later sections, sections 9 12 are non-standard, focusing on basic combinatorics and applications. But
this is material that is becoming more and more common in K - 8 mathematics curricula, so teachers need to know it properly. Section 10 gives an
extensive discussion of basic combinatorics - combinations, permutations,
Pascals triangle, and binomial coefficients. The exercises at the end of 10
carry these considerations further, looking at the evaluation of certain basic
sums of binomial coefficients. Then in 11 these results are applied, first
to the probability issues in tossing pennies, then to derive the binomial formula, and finally to show rigorously that the volume of a right circular cone
is 13 r2 h.
9. Chapter 9, experiences teaching pre- and in-service teachers
The final chapter is a number of short contributions describing mathematicians and master teachers experiences in teaching mathematics to both
pre-service and in-service teachers.
(1) Comments on the Need for Mathematician Involvement in Preservice Teacher Training by Sol Friedberg
(2) Some points to consider in teaching pre-service elementary teachers
by H.-H. Wu
(3) A Mathematicians Thoughts on Teacher In-service Learning by
Kristin Umland
(4) Comments on the Issues of Pre-Service Teachers by Kathi King
(5) Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: Explaining Why in Ways
that Travel into the School Classroom Sybilla Beckmann
(6) Teaching Math for elementary Ed majors Paul Wenston
(7) Vermont Mathematics Initiative (VMI) Ken Gross
(8) The Geometry of Surprise Dave Benson
10. The book The Mathematical Education of Teachers
A volume with similar objectives, The Mathematical Education of Teachers edited by Jim Lewis, was published several years back by the MAA and
the CBMS. As is the case here, the MET volume requested that pre-service
K - 8 teachers be required to take considerably more mathematics courses
than is typically the case currently.
Where the two approaches differ is in the suggestions for this mathematics. The MET approach is to describe math courses along the lines of
current curricula based on the 1989 NCTM standards, and the NSF-funded
math programs. Unfortunately, a recent analysis of these programs by the
22
1. INTRODUCTION
14On evaluating curricular effectiveness: judging the quality of K-12 evaluations, National
Academies Press, (2004), Committee for a review of the evaluation data on the effectiveness
of NSF-supported and commercially generated mathematics curriculum materials, Jere Confrey,
(Chair)
CHAPTER 2
24
if one course is all that is going to be required for these teachers, there will
have to be some core material that will not be covered.
A much better approach is to cover the material in the first two courses
over a one year period. If this approach is possible, then the discussions in
the detailed chapters on basics and fractions give a better idea of what should
be covered in each course. Fractions should be initiated by a discussion of
how fractions are introduced in the earliest grades (typically using careful
area models where the decomposition of simple regions into pieces, each
of which has the same area, is used to initially explain fractions. But the
detailed approach to fractions in the discussion of the second course, using
the number line should be developed as soon as possible.
Likewise, the very complex topic of ratios, rates, proportions, and percents is typically begun in high achieving countries in the second and third
grades, and we give some discussion of how these topics are initiated in
successful programs. But teachers should also have worked through a very
careful discussion of these topics, as is given in the detailed chapter for the
second course.
2. Place Value and Basic Number Skills
Many students and consequently, many pre-service teachers misunderstand place value. Without a solid understanding of this topic students
will be unable to handle the basic algorithms and develop basic skills with
numbers, let alone develop them to automaticity, and the same holds for preservice teachers. But even more, if pre-service teachers do not understand
place value solidly, they will not be able to teach mathematics to students,
and their outcomes with students will lag even in the earliest grades as the
recent research1 discussed in Chapter 1, 1 shows. Consequently, we start
with base-10 place-value.
Counting is the beginning of place value. One can start the discussion
of place value by explaining why, with the use of only ten symbols 0, 1, 2,
... , 9, counting can proceed beyond the ones place by creating the tens
place, so that after 9, one starts the counting all over again from 10, 11,
12, etc. Likewise, counting can proceed beyond the tens place (after 99)
only by creating the hundreds place, etc. Observe that each new place has
a value 10 times the preceding one because, for example, in the same way
that one goes from 99 to 100, one goes to 200 upon reaching 199. Then
another 100 later it is 300, and then 400, ... , 900 and therefore (after 999)
it has to be 1000. So we see that 1000 is 10 steps from 0, i.e., 0, 100, 200, ...
, 1000 if we skip count by 100. This knowledge also gives a clearer picture
of addition because the latter is nothing but continued counting, in the
sense that 12 + 5 is the number one arrives at by counting 5 more starting
at 12. (Actually, addition corresponds to counting the number of elements
1Heather C. Hill, Brian Rowan, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Effects of teachers mathematical
knowledge for teaching on student achievement.(2004)
25
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1 10 100
1000
as well as construct similar models for 10, 000 to get a clear idea of the
magnitude of these numbers.
It follows from the method of counting that, for example, 3 100 =
100 + 100 + 100 = 300, that 7 1000 = 1000 + 1000 + 1000 + 1000 + 1000 +
1000 + 1000 = 7000, etc. Similar facts are also true for the multiplication of
the numbers 1, 10, 100, 1, 000, and even 10, 000 by 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9. Students
should construct these numbers, particularly for multiples of 1 and 10, and
place them on the number line.
The number line should be introduced as early as possible (in high
achieving countries, it is done as early as grade 2). For a discussion of
some instructional issues related to the teaching of the number line at early
grades, see 8 in chapter 4.
A number such as 37 is said to be bigger than 23, because 37 comes
after 23 in our way of counting. On the number line, 37 is to the right of
23. Thus 1000 is bigger than 100 in this sense.
With these preliminaries, students should be ready to understand place
value.
A key objective at this point is that students understand that the place
value representation of numbers means addition of successive products of
the form a multiplied by a power of 10, where a is a whole number between
0 and 9. People often talk of the special role of 0 as a place-holder, but this
emphasizes the form of the written number, for example 10, 703, and not
the number itself. Students should clearly understand that 0 a power of
10 is always 0, and that when they write a number like 10, 703, this signifies
the full sum
1 10, 000 + 0 1, 000 + 7 100 + 0 10 + 3 1.
26
Addition and subtraction. Addition and subtraction are initially defined in terms of combining or removing sets of objects and counting the
number of objects that results. This leads to the strategy of counting on,
adding one element at a time till the requisite number of elements are added.
It should be pointed out that the virtue of the addition algorithm applied to,
for instance, 259 + 671 is that it replaces the cumbersome adding on of one
671 times starting with 259. Likewise, the subtraction algorithm makes it
unnecessary to count backward 259 times from 671 before finding out what
671 259 is. Students should be able to add and subtract fluently.
Multiplication. Multiplication is defined in terms of the number of
elements in equal groups. Emphasize that to compute 245 67, for example, one has to add 67 to itself 245 times, according to the definition of
multiplication. The multiplication algorithm renders the tedious addition
completely unnecessary by breaking up 245 67 into a sum of two simpler
multiplications using the distributive law: (245 6) 10 and 245 7. Observe that place value asserts itself in the appearance of 10 in (245 6) 10.
Each of (245 6) 10 and 245 7 is in turn broken up into a sum of single
digit multiplications, e.g., 245 6 is the sum of (2 6) 100, (4 6) 10,
and (5 6). This is why the multiplication table is so important, and why
students need to achieve automaticity with it.
Students should look at the special case of multiplication by 1 and
see that both from the definition of multiplication and the algorithm, multiplication by 1 doesnt change the number being multiplied.
But when multiplication by 0 is discussed, (see, for example, the discussion of the role of 0 in place value notation that we gave above),
it should not be treated as a curiosity, but as a logical consequence
2In Chapter 4 there is a detailed discussion of algorithms. This is necessary, since there is a
great deal of confusion currently in school mathematics about what algorithms are and why they
should be taught even though calculators are readily available to do these operations for us, so
it is advised that before instruction is given to pre-service teachers about teaching the standard
algorithms, they first learn about algorithms themselves.
3. FRACTIONS
27
ba=c
Instructor Note:
When introducing
initial examples of
concepts that contain
nothing but variables,
the expression should
be followed by examples
that substitute simple
numbers for the
variables. This practice
needs to occur for both
pre-service teachers and
their students. This is
an important point to
convey to instructors.
Instructor Note
Pre-service teachers
must understand that
the advantage of always
linking division to
multiplication is that
this link is the key to
understanding division
in general (fractions,
decimals, etc.)
28
Addition of fractions is
a very delicate
instructional issue.
3. FRACTIONS
29
1
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to emphasize this
point in instruction
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
....
....
....
....
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.
.
.
.
.
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to emphasize this
point in instruction
Instructor Note
Instructors need to be
told that this will
require varied examples
coupled with extensive
practice and review for
both pre-service
teachers and students.
30
Instructor Note As
before this is a point
where both pre-service
teachers and students
will require varied
examples coupled with
extensive practice and
review.
The same reasoning shows that a fraction ab is also the length of a part when
a segment of length a is divided into b parts of equal length. Usually one
paraphrases this fact as ab is one part when a wholes are divided into b equal
parts. If a = mb for some whole number m, then we get back the fact that
a
mb
b = b = m, which then coincides with (mb) b = m. This explains the
phrase division interpretation. For the same reason, the division symbol
is retired at this point and a b will henceforth be denoted by a .
Students are now ready to review and further study the addition of
fractions with the same denominator. They should add such fractions on
the number line, and be able to understand why, according to the preceding
precise meaning of fraction addition, the following formula that expresses
this addition
a c
a+c
+ =
b b
b
for any whole numbers a, b, and c is correct.
Further fraction topics. Once students understand fractions on the
number line including
how to place them on the number line
how to add fractions with the same denominator on the number
line
the fundamental fact of equivalent fractions
how to interpret a fraction as a division
the formula for the addition of two fractions with the same denominator
they are ready to understand and use further formulas. The first key formula
that they need to learn is the fundamental fact of equivalent fractions:
a
ca
=
for c any whole number,
b
cb
where, by convention, we write ca for c a, cb for c b. The reasoning for
4
this formula is the same as that given above for 52 = 10
. Next, they should
be given the formula for the addition of two fractions ab and dc :
a c
ad + bc
+ =
.
b d
bd
This is true because by equivalent fractions, we can write the given fractions
c
bc
as two fractions with equal denominator: ab = ad
bd and d = bd . Therefore
a
c
the addition b + d now becomes the addition of two fractions with equal
bc
denominator, ad
bd + bd , which we already know how to do and the preceding
formula is the result.4
4Though instruction is best presented to pre-service teachers using formulas with variables
as is done here, pre-service teachers are not going to enter classrooms that use textbooks with
extensive examples presented with variables. Consequently, discussion should be given of how to
present these formulas to students so that they understand the basic concepts but that minimize
the use of variables.
3. FRACTIONS
31
Some comments on ordering fractions and mixed numbers are appropriate at this point. First, given two fractions ab and dc , because ab = ad
bd and
bc
a
c
c
d = bd , it follows that b is to the left of d on the number line exactly when
ad < bc. By the definition of larger than, dc is larger than ab exactly when
bc > ad. This is sometimes called the cross-multiplication algorithm.
Next, it is important to demystify the concept of a mixed number, normally introduced in grade 4. A mixed number such as 3 25 is nothing more
than a shorthand notation for 3+ 25 . Since we now know how to add fractions,
we have
2
3 2
35+2
17
2
=
3 =3+ = + =
5
5
1 5
5
5
Notice that while we end up with the usual formula for converting a mixed
number to a fraction, the difference (and it is an important one) is that
here 3 25 is clearly defined to be 3+ 52 , and since we know how to add fractions
at this point, the formula is a logical consequence of the definition rather
than an unsubstantiated formula.
Multiplication and Division. By grade five students should be able
to multiply and divide with sufficiently simple fractions. It is essential that
the procedures for multiplication and division be carefully justified and explained.
We first deal with multiplication. There are many ways to do this, but
the simplest is to just define the product as ab dc as ac
bc and then show, with
the area model, that the definition is consistent with our intuition of the
multiplication of two numbers as the area of a rectangle.
Another way is to directly define ab dc to be the area of the rectangle
with sides ab and dc , and then prove that ab dc = ac
bd .
Next, the division of fractions can be explained in terms of the division
concept between whole numbers. Recall that for whole numbers a, b, c, with
a 6= 0,
b a = c is the same as b = c a
For fractions we follow this lead and define: for fractions A, B, C, with
A 6= 0,
B A = C is the same as B = C A.
If B = ab and A = dc , then it is immediately verified that the fraction C = ad
bc
satisfies B = C A. Rewriting this multiplication statement as a division
statement according to the preceding definition, we get
ad
a/b
=
c/d
bc
It is important that every student knows why the formula above is true.
Besides the general discussion of fractions, there is the specific case of
decimal fractions, more commonly known as (finite or terminating) decimals.
They should serve as key examples. A fraction whose denominator is a power
of 10, e.g., 427
is traditionally written as 0.00427, where the decimal point is
105
32
placed 5 places (corresponding to the 5 in 105 ) to the left of the last (right)
digit of the numerator. Thus, by the same token,
1200
= 0.001200,
106
and 0.001200 is traditionally further simplified to 0.0012 in the same way
that 0026 is simplified to 26.
Mathematical integrity requires giving students a solid grounding in fractions before giving any extended discussion of the arithmetic of decimals decimals. When this is done, then it is straightforward to transfer the knowledge of fractions in general to the more specialized knowledge about decimal
fractions.
We can define a decimal by way of place value considerations, e.g., 3.14
1
would be, by definition, the sum 3 (100 ) + 10
+ 1042 . Adding these fractions
gives back 3.14 = 314
. In either case, a knowledge of fractions is absolutely
102
essential for a mathematical discussion of decimals.
Rational numbers. The next fractions topic is negative fractions. Negative integers, in this country, are typically introduced in fifth or sixth grade,
and often negative fractions are not introduced at all. But in order to prepare for algebra and more advanced mathematics, students need to become
facile with rational numbers.
When students have a firm grasp of fractions, the discussion of negative
fractions can begin. Of course, before one talks about negative fractions
students need to understand negative integers. The need for negative numbers can be introduced by discussing owing, degrees below 0, driving a
certain number of miles and then driving back a different number of miles,
but, as before, this is simply not enough. Negative numbers have to be
defined.
For the purpose of doing arithmetic, the number 2, for example, should
be clearly defined as the number so that 2 + (2) = 0. We have already
alluded to the need to place the integers on the number line. Briefly, if we
reflect the whole numbers on the number line with respect to 0, we obtain a
new collection of numbers to the left of 0. The mirror image of 1 is 1, of 2
is 2, etc. This gives the placement of the negative numbers on the number
line. An integer x to the left of another integer y is said to be smaller than
y. Thus 5 < 3. At the same time, this gives the negative fractions. The
fraction 52 , for example, is by definition the number satisfying 52 +( 25 ) = 0.
On the number line, 52 is the mirror images of 52 with respect to 0 and the
mirror image of 83 is 38 , etc. Size comparison among rational numbers is
defined exactly as in the case of integers: x < y if x is to the left of y.
3
10
7
10
3
10
is less than
7
10
33
34
Before students can discuss these topics they need to become comfortable with fractions expressed in the form of a fraction divided by a second
fraction:
a
b
c
d
35
Students should reason as follows: Since the plane travels the same distance
each minute, the distance it travels in a minute (no matter what it is) when
repeated ten times will fill up 150 km. Therefore the distance it travels in
one minute is 150 10, because this is precisely the meaning of dividing
by 10. So the answer is 15 km.
Percents first appear around grade 5. Students should recognize that
percents are special ratios, where the denominator (or b in the ratio of a to
a
b) is 100. When they see a ratio in the form 100
even if a is a fraction and not
a whole number they should understand that, according to the definition,
the ratio a to 100 is the same as a percent, written as a%.
7
a
We follow the definition, and so must put the ratio 20
into the form 100
.
7
57
35
Since 100 = 5 20, equivalent fractions gives 20 = 520 = 100 = 35%. At
the fifth grade level, they can also do something slightly more complicated:
Problems involving ratios and rates are known to cause difficulties with U.S. students. Students should be steered clear
of any pre-occupation with the semantics and focus on the
mathematics instead.
Sections 5, The Core Processes of Mathematics, and 6, Functions and Equations, will deal with topics that rely more heavily on symbolic computations,
36
including topics involving ratios, rates, and percents. However, even without such computations, a proper discussion of rates involves substantive
mathematics that should be brought out.
First there is the general concept of motion with constant velocity or constant speed. For this kind of motion, the basic fact is that distance traveled
is equal to velocity multiplied by the time-duration (usually abbreviated to
distance is velocity multiplied by time), or in the self-explanatory formula:
d=vt
Instructor Note
Instructors need to
emphasize to pre-service
teachers that while the
meanings of formulas
may be self-explanatory
to them, this is often
not true for elementary
and middle school
students. It is
important for teachers
to spend time helping
students substitute and
understand words
associated with
variables in a formula,
i.e. v=velocity and
t=time.
Instructor Note It is
important to point out
that students require
direct instruction and
carefully designed
practice in reading and
understanding word
problems. For some
students, their
difficulties with word
problems have more to
do with reading
deficitsnot the
mathematics.
Additionally,
instructors should point
out that students must
be taught how to assign
correct unit labels in
problems, and teachers
must be consistent
about requiring
students to label units
in a problem.
In case the time t is a whole number (5 hours, 12 minutes, etc.), this formula
is easy to verify. If the velocity v is 55 miles an hour, then the distance
traveled after 2 hours is 55+55 = 255 miles, after 3 hours is 55+55+55 =
3 55, after 4 hours is 55 + 55 + 55 + 55 = 4 55 miles, etc.
After n hours (with n an integer), the distance traveled s is then
55 + 55 + + 55 (n times) = n 55 = 55n. Since v = 55 and t = n, the
formula is correct in this case. Clearly the velocity can be any v instead of
55 and the reasoning remains unchanged. So the formula s correct in general
when t is a whole number.
If t is not a whole number, say t = 6 25 hours and v is 55 miles an
hour, then the meaning of constant velocity is that the distance traveled in
fractional hours such as 25 is exactly 52 55 miles. It is important to
explain this meaning of constant velocity to students and to
verify the formula in the case where t is not a whole number. As
a simple illustration consider the problem
A passenger traveled 120 km by bus. The speed of the bus was 45
km per hour. How long did the passenger travel by bus?
Thus s = 120 km and v = 45 km per hour. According to the formula,
120 = 45 t, where t is the total time duration of the passenger in the bus.
1
30
2
Multiply both sides by 45
and we get 120
45 = t and so t = 2 45 = 2 3 hours, or
2 hours and 40 minutes.
Many ratio problems are accessible without extensive symbolic computations or setting up proportions. Consider the problem:
A train travels at constant velocity and gets from Town A to Town
B in 4 23 hours. These two towns are 224 miles apart. At the same
velocity, how long would it take the train to cover 300 miles?
From the data, the velocity is 224
miles per hour, or 48 miles per hour.
42
3
1
Therefore to travel 300 miles, it would take 300
48 = 6 4 hours, or 6 hours and
15 minutes. Another example of this kind is:
I spent $36 to purchase 9 cans of Peefle. How much do I have to
spend to purchase 16 cans?
The price per can is 36
9 = 4 dollars, so to buy 16 cans, I would have to
pay 16 4 = 64 dollars. We emphasize once again that no setting up a
proportion is necessary.
37
Among the important related topics are conversion of one unit of measurement to another (rates), probabilities as ratios or rates, and percentage
increases and decreases as well as computing discounts, commissions, simple
and compound interest.
Compound interest is likely to be too involved at this stage for most
students, but pre-service teachers should become familiar with it. This is
a very important and practical topic that high school graduates should understand. Moreover, the percentage increase, percentage decrease problems
and related problems are quite tricky and somewhat non-intuitive. Students
should convince themselves, via direct calculation, that a 20% increase, followed by a 20% decrease does not get one back to where one started. For
example, a 20% increase of $100 gives $120, but a 20% decrease of $120
yields 120 (20% 120) = 120 24 = 96 dollars, which is less than $100.
5. The Core Processes of Mathematics
Introduction. It is in the area of symbolic manipulation that the power
of mathematics in general, and algebra in particular, comes to the forefront.
If students cannot handle these processes, they will not be able to use mathematics in effective ways. Yet, in this country extremely few students manage
to become proficient in symbolic manipulation on their own, and the need
for remediation in this area is widespread.
Symbols. It often happens that we want to determine a quantity that
satisfies a number of conditions. A method for doing this is to let a symbol
stand for the unknown quantity, and to express the conditions via equations involving the symbol. In many situation, these equations can then
be manipulated using a small set of principles to find the value(s) of the
quantity.
Symbolic manipulation begins with the use of symbols. Already in the
earliest grades students use symbols to solve equations, such as + 7 = 11,
13 = 7, and they learn to represent verbal descriptions algebraically
when this is possible, as in Tom has 3 dimes. His brother Bob has twice as
many dimes. How many dimes does Bob have? which could be expressed
as the equations T = 3, B = 2T .
For the moment, we shall concentrate on the use of symbols. At the
outset, a symbol or variable (such as x or a) is just a number, in exactly the
same way that the pronoun it in the question Does it have five letters?
is just a word. This x or a may be unknown for the time being, but there is
no doubt about the fact that x or a is a number and therefore can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided. For example, it makes perfect sense to
write 3 + x or 5x as soon as we specify the meaning of x.6
Third graders should be taught to use letters to represent numbers instead of using blanks all the time, i.e., use 3 + x = 5 sometimes instead of
65x means 5 times x, but this symbolism should only be used starting at the fourth grade
level.
Instructor Note
Instructors should be
encouraged to have
pre-service teachers
complete similar
examples when this
topic is discussed.
38
3+
= 5.
Students should be taught the good habit of always specifying what a symbol means instead of just writing something
like 27x = 14 without saying what x is. It could be, for instance, Find the number x so that 27 x = 14. Or, What
number x would satisfy 27 x = 14? But a common mistake one finds in many textbooks is to just thrust something
like 27 x = 14 on students with no explanation.
Third grade is a good starting point for students to learn the use of
symbols, but because the main thrust here is for students to learn to use
symbols fluently, the exact grade level of each standard is not a primary
concern. What is important is that the technical sophistication of the exercises they are asked to do increases gradually. And it must be said that
exercises are the heart of this process; students must achieve fluency in the
use of symbols through practice. Here are some sample suggestions.
Third grade level problems
(1) Write a number sentence for a number y so that 21 minus y is
equal to 7.
(2) Write a number sentence to express: 21 cars are parked and y
cars drive off; only 7 cars remain.
(3) Express in symbolic form: a number x when added to 21 is
larger than 45.
Fourth grade level problems
(1) Paulo reads a number of pages of a 145-page book, then he
read 43 pages more so that only 38 pages remain. If p is the
number of pages Paulo read the first time, write an equation
using p to express the above information.
(2) I have a number x and when I first subtract 18 and then 9 from
it, I get 7. What is x?
(3) 18 meters of wire was cut from a reel, and then another 9 meters
of wire was cut. 7 meters of wire then remained on the reel.
If there were w meters of wire on the reel originally, write an
equation that expresses the preceding information. What is w?
Fifth grade level problems
(1) Starting with a number x, Eva multiplies it by 5 and then
subtracts 9 from it to get a new number. If x is 3, what is the
new number? If x is 10? If x is 14? If x = 19?
(2) y is a number so that when 5 is subtracted from 3 times y, we
get 31. Write down an equation for y. What is y?
(3) Let x be the number of oranges in a basket. Write a story
about the equation x 5 11 = 12 x.
Sixth grade level problems
(1) Johnny has three siblings, two brothers and a sister. His sister
is half the age of his older brother, and three fourths the age of
39
40
41
For example, the validity of the associative law for the addition of four
numbers a, b, c, d, states that all possible ways of adding these four numbers
are equal:
(a + b) + (c + d) = ((a + b) + c) + d
= a + ((b + c) + d)
= (a + (b + c)) + d
= a + (b + (c + d))
The equality
(a + b) + (c + d) = ((a + b) + c) + d,
can be seen to be the application of the original associative law to the three
numbers: (a + b), c, and d. The equality of the others is similar. While
reasoning of this kind is (admittedly) boring, it must be recognized that the
more general form of the associative law is what makes it possible to write
a + b + c + d without the use of parentheses (they dont matter). To push
this line of reasoning one step further, students should at least see why
a(b + c + d + e) = ab + ac + ad + ae.
This is because
a(b+c+d+e) = a{(b+c)+(d+e)} = a(b+c)+a(d+e) = (ab+ae)+(ad+ae),
and the last is equal to ab + ac + ad + ae because of the associative law for
four numbers.
One should not emphasize this kind of generality, but to the extent that
students see expressions such as 12 + 87 2 + 66 + 54 or 44 17 (23)
91 often (polynomials of high degree, for example), these facts should be
explained to them at least once.
Evaluating Expressions. order of operations should be de-emphasized
in instruction but some conventions are so universally used that students
have to be familiar with them. The following should suffice: with symbolic
expressions of the type 5x2 + 7(2x 1)2 2x3 for a number x, the notation itself suggests the correct order of doing the operations: first do the
exponents (i.e., x2 , (2x 1)2 , and x3 ), then do the multiplications (i.e.,
5x2 , 7(2x 1)2 , and 2x3 ), and finally the additions. Because subtraction
is just a different way of writing addition (e.g., 2x3 is just +([2x3 ])),
and because division is expressed in terms of fraction multiplication (e.g.,
2x 5 should be written as 51 (2x)),7 this rule is sufficiently comprehensive.
Anything more complicated should use parentheses for the sake of clarity.
For example, monstrosities such as 2 57 13 3 + 15 16 should be
avoided at all costs.
Here are some sample problems for the evaluation of expressions. In each
case, an expression involving a number x and sometimes other numbers y
7By the seventh grade, students should know that parentheses stand for multiplication, i.e.,
means the product of 15 and 2x.
1
(2x)
5
42
and z are given and students are asked to evaluate the expression for the
value of x (and y and z) specified in each case.
Grade 5
(1) 8 (x 7) (x 2). x = 84.
(2) (3x + 5) 4 (7 x). x = 6.
(3) (4 + (2x (9 x))). x = 5.
(4) 34 (x 12 ). x = 32 .
(5) 5 (x2 + 52 ) x. x = 1 12 .
Grade 6
(1) x(3y 2z) + x(2z 3y). x = 213, y = 71, z = 102.
(2) 8xy 5xz + x2 . x = 35, y = 1, z = 7.
(3) 63x 49x + 5x 8x. x = 21.
(4) 24x2 3x 21x3 + 6x2 . x = 12
(5) 37 x2 + 2 13 x 53 x 27 x2 . x = 21.
Grade 7
(1) 14 x2 3 13 x 32 x2 + 13 x. x = 6.
(2) 5x2 + 18 23 x ( 12 5x). x = 14
(3) 2x(1 12 x) + 12 x(2x + 4). x = 85
4 .
1
1
47
(4) x(2 x ) 47 x . x = 2 .
Students need to be reminded of this fact, and in particular, the fact that the distributive property now includes not
just addition but also subtraction, namely, for all rational
numbers x, y, z, the following holds:
x(y z) = xy xz
which can be justified from the usual form of the distributive
rule and the basic properties of multiplication by 1.
Here something new and immensely significant has been added to the
mix - simplifying expressions. This is one of the two basic components of
symbolic manipulation on the introductory level, to which we may regard
the exercises above on evaluation as a prelude.
The topic of simplifying expressions will be taken up at greater length
in Chapter 8 on algebra, but a few pertinent comments at this point would
43
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to be told to
emphasize this point
during instruction
44
is equivalent to
ac=b
and
c
b
are fundamental for the symbolic manipulative aspect of solving equations.
if b 6= 0, then
ab = c
is equivalent to
a=
8In the high achieving countries such skills are part of the curriculum much earlier than
seventh grade.
9Of course this fact can be taught in grade 4 if a, b, c are restricted to be whole numbers so
that a c. A similar statement can be made about grade 5 and grade 6, but we want to state
the most general statement possible up to this point for convenience.
10It would be good practice to suppress the terminology same as and strictly use equivalent to since, in common usage, same has a different meaning than its usage here.
45
Generally, equations have more than one solution, though linear equations usually only have at most one solution. Since
linear equations are so common in school mathematics, one
often finds reference to the solution for general equations.
In the case of equations with more than one number in the
solution set, it is also common to call the entire set of solutions the solution. These differing usages cause difficulties
for students, and care must be taken at this point.
ab = c
is the same as
a=
b
c
a=b+c
is equivalent to
ac=b
46
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to be told to
emphasize this point.
This is also a good
point to emphasize the
importance of carefully
selected or created
examples during
instruction.
47
in grade four. By the end of grade seven they should have also graphed
simple quadratic equations. They should realize that some functions, such
as x1 are not defined for every value of x, but there is no reason to introduce
terminology such as domain and range at this point. It will be introduced
in the algebra course.
Some linear functions occur in daily life, as in converting from miles to
feet or from centimeters to inches. Conversion of these types lead to linear
functions. For example, the conversion of miles to feet is described by the
linear function m 7 5280m, and the conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit in
temperature is described by the linear function C 7 59 C + 32.
Graphing. The graph of a function is defined as the set of all pairs of
numbers (a, b) so that b is the number the function associates with a. (Of
course, for functions where the domain and range are not numbers, one still
has the graph, but it is not something that is studied in school mathematics.
Consequently, when we discuss graphs, we strictly restrict our attention to
functions from numbers to numbers.)
Additionally, before students can handle graphs effectively, they must
understand coordinates in the plane or at least the first quadrant. Finally,
students must understand the concept of the graph of an equation as the
collection of all the ordered pairs of points (x, y) satisfying the equation.
The failure to come grips with the quantifier all may account for students
common error of not recognizing why the graph of y = 5 is a horizontal line
or that the graph of x = 3 is a vertical line.
Combining Graphs and Functions. The fact that the graph of a
linear function is a straight line cannot easily be demonstrated without using
properties of similar triangles. Students will have to initially take it on faith
that the graph is a straight line. This should be carefully explored with
exercises and examples.
Students in sixth through eighth grades should graph functions of the
form ax + by = 0, x2 + a, and x1 . They should also explore the graph of a
function such as x 7 its integer part, i.e., the largest integer x (e.g.,
1.05 7 1, 5 7 5, 2.1 7 3, etc.):
[
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[
3 2 1 0
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)
1
Solving and graphing linear equations. In the discussion of symbolic manipulation, solving linear equations was the key example. When
48
49
Instructor Note It
should be pointed out
that many students will
have difficulty
identifying the essential
information needed to
form a proportion. It
would not be unusual
for students to become
confused about whether
4 p.m. needs to be part
of the proportion.
There will also be
students who dont
know that shadow
length changes
throughout the day.
Teachers need to
carefully discuss such
problems with students
and step them through
initial examples.
50
fixed constant (say v) no matter how the time interval is chosen. Here as
elsewhere, all such discussions always have an implicit understanding that
all the numbers involved in this case s and t are fractions. Thus st is
a complex fraction again. The following examples will serve to clarify the
situation.
Example 1: Suppose a train travels at constant speed. If it takes
2 hours and 40 minutes to go from town A to town B which are
160 miles apart, how long will it take to go from town C to town D
which are 225 miles apart?
Because we know the meaning of constant speed, we know that if x is the
time it takes to go from C to D, then 225/x is the speed of the train, v, just
40
as 160/2 60
is also the speed of the train v. Therefore
225
160
= 40
x
2 60
as both are equal to v. Cross-multiply to get 160x = 225 2 23 , so that
225
3
x = 160
83 = 15
4 = 3 4 hours, i.e., 3 hours and 45 minutes.
Note that we did not set up a correct proportion. We merely observed
what constant speed means and made use of it.
Example 2: Water is coming out of a faucet at a constant rate.
If it takes 3 minutes to fill up a container with a capacity of 15.5
gallons, how long will it take for it to fill a tub of 25 gallons?
As is the case with all problems in mathematics, all the terms must be understood. Here, before students can solve this problem they have to understand
the meaning of constant rate. It means that if we measure the amount of
water, say w gallons, coming out of the faucet during a time interval of t
minutes, then the quotient wt is always a fixed constant, say r, no matter
what time interval is chosen. It takes x minutes to fill the tub, so both 25
x
and 15.5
are
equal
to
r
and
therefore
3
25
15.5
=
x
3
Notice that both are complex fractions because 15.5 is really 155
10 and x is
expected to be a fraction and not a whole number. Cross-multiply to get
75
15.5x = 75 and therefore x = 15.5
= 4 26
31 minutes.
Again, the displayed equation above was not set up as a proportion.
Rather, it is a statement of the constancy of the rate of water flow. In
general, we can say that all the claims about two things being proportional
are always imprecise ways of saying that certain quotients are constants.
The linear function involved in Example 2 is w = rt, i.e., it is the
function t 7 rt. All the traditional problems about proportions are about
linear functions without a constant term.
When preparing and presenting these kinds of problems, an effort must
be made to make explicit what this function is or else make the search for
51
this function part of the problem. Suppressing any reference to this function
and making vague references to proportional reasoning is not conducive to
mathematics learning.
7. Real Measurement and Measurement in Geometry
Before students can work with measurement and the core topics that
develop from it, they must be familiar with the number line and means of
making measurements.
Care has to be taken here, and it is a good practice to introduce the number
line first, then rulers.
Once the use of number lines and rulers for measuring and the number
line are in place, the discussion of measurement can begin. Measurement
involves length, weight, capacity, and time, and standards involving measurements are present from Kindergarten on. The elementary aspects of
measurement involve knowing:
(1) the different systems of units used for measurement,
(2) when it is appropriate to use one or the other of these systems, and
(3) how to translate between these systems.
The next two aspects of measurement are on a higher level, and, though the
fifth starts occurring in the early grades, a careful discussion of it and the
fourth should be deferred till about grade five or six. Students should know
(4) how to use and make measurements in abstract mathematical situations
(5) how to make measurements in real life situations.
A basic measurement issue here is the distinction between the last two aspects. In abstract, mathematical situations, measurements are almost always assumed to be exact. However, actual measurements in the real world
always are inaccurate, and the resulting error can seldom be ignored.
When building a house or a shed, if we are not aware that our measurements have errors, the errors will gradually accumulate, and parts will
simply not fit together. Real world measurements involve making estimates
and keeping track of the resulting errors. If measurements are accurate only
to the nearest millimeter, then adding two such measurements leads to a possible inaccuracy of one millimeter, and multiplying two such measurements
a mm and b mm leads to a possible error of a + b + 1 mm. Estimations are
routinely discussed in school without reference to the attendant errors of
Thus, students have to make the distinction between the measurements
of types (4) and (5) -measurements made in abstract mathematical situations and real life situations. All too often neither distinction is done
accurately - or at all. The discussion below recommends ways to improve
this situation.
The following
information should be
presented during
instruction: (a) practice
using teacher-prepared
number lines should
precede the use of rulers
(b) practice examples
should systematically
proceed from easy to
complex intervals, (c)
students need explicit
instruction/practice
understanding the
difference between tick
marks and intervals, (d)
rulers that combine
different measurement
systems should not be
used during initial
instruction, and (e) an
important student
pre-skill for reading
rulers is the ability to
read and write mixed
fractions. Do not
assume pre-service
students understand
this material.
52
Area. Area and perimeter typically are first considered around the third
grade in successful foreign countries and states like California. At this stage
students are asked to make actual measurements. Such measurements do not
involve the precise, formal measurements of geometry. But none-the-less, it
is very important that students even at this stage understand what area and
perimeter are. Perimeter can be readily understood via direct measurement
of the perimeters of some basic figures, but area is a different matter.
One of the most common errors that students make is to believe that area is defined by formulas, so that if they see a
figure for which they do not know a formulaic method of determining the area, they will have no idea how to proceed.
This type of issue occurs when students first are asked to discuss or determine the area of an irregular figure or a rectangle
with non-integer side lengths.
Students should know some basic properties of area. They should begin by
working with figures made out of non-overlapping squares, all of the same
size; for convenience, we will say that those squares pave the figures. The
area of such a figure should be defined for students as the sum of the areas
of the individual squares.
Continuing the discussion, we must consider the numerical measurement
of area. It should be emphasized that, as in the discussion of fractions, one
must fix a unit of area throughout the discussion. The most common areaunit is a unit square, where unit refers to the length of a side and it could
be 1 cm, 1 mm, or 1 of anything.
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The area of the unit square is traditionally assigned the value 1 area-unit.
If the side of the unit square is 1 cm, then the area-unit is called 1 sq. cm;
if the side of the unit square is 1 ft., then the area-unit is called 1 sq. ft.,
etc. It follows that the area of a rectangle with sides 5 units and 7 units has
value 5 7 because it can be paved by 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 5 7 unit squares.
In general, if a, b are whole numbers, the same reasoning gives that the area
of a rectangle with sides of lengths a, b is ab area-units.
If two figures overlap, then the area of the resulting figure is less than
the sum of the individual areas. Consider the following example where each
big square is a unit square and each is paved by nine equal smaller squares,
53
as shown:11
................................................................................
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.
......... ....... ......... ....... ......... ....... ....
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......... ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ......................................................
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......... ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ....
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................................................................................
The area of the resulting figure can be described as the sum of the areas
of the 17 smaller squares. Since the area of either unit square (which is 1)
is the sum of the areas of 9 congruent smaller squares, each smaller square
has area equal to 19 area-units. Consequently, the total area of the figure is
17 19 = 17
9 area-units. When the overlap of two figures is more complicated
than a square, then the numerical determination of the total area is not
easy.
The preceding reasoning leads to the numerical determination of areas
of rectangles whose sides have fractional lengths. Suppose a, b are whole
numbers and suppose R is a rectangle with sides of lengths a1 and 1b , then
the area of R is a1 1b , according to the definition of the product a1 1b
presented in section 3. Since it takes ab of these Rs to pave the unit square,
the area of the unit square (which is 1) is therefore ab times the area of R.
1
It follows that the area of R is ab
. Therefore, we have proved the general
assertion that
the area of a rectangle with sides of length ` and w is `w
for the special case ` = a1 and w = 1b , where a, b are whole numbers.
From this, it is simple to see why the assertion is true for all fractions.
With the understanding we only deal with rational numbers, we have now
explained why area of a rectangle is length times width. Such a discussion
is necessary to counteract the tendency of students to see area as strictly
defined by formulas.
Practice with measuring the approximate area of more complex regions
can now be given:
The edge of each square in the figure below is 5cm. Count the
number of squares inside the red lines; there are 37. Then count
11We reiterate the basic assumption that in K - 7 mathematics all arithmetic is with rational
numbers, so care should be taken with overlapping squares that the overlap is, as illustrated, an
easy fraction of (the area of) the two squares.
54
the number of squares inside the blue lines; there are 72.
It is intuitively clear that the area of the irregular figure is bigger than the
area of the figure bounded by the red lines, but smaller than the area of the
figure bounded by the blue lines. It follows that the area of the liver-shaped
figure is between 37 52 cm2 and 72 52 cm2 .
If we use smaller squares, that is if the edge of each square is 1 cm or
even 0.01 cm instead of 5 cm, it is also intuitively clear that the area of the
irregular figure will be approximated by two numbers closer together than
37 52 and 72 52 .
By using smaller and smaller squares, it is believable that, at some point,
the bigger and smaller numbers will get closer and closer together until they
coincide. This common number is formally what is called the area of the
liver-shaped figure. The same can be said for any figure.
Exact Measurement in Geometry. We have seen above how to derive the exact formula for the area of a rectangle with rational side lengths.
From this, students can derive exact formulas for the area of a triangle
and of a parallelogram, by cutting and pasting. (This assumes that area is
unchanged by these operations - something that should be mentioned but
clearly cannot be covered too deeply at the K - 8 level.) Likewise students
should study the surfaces of simple figures such as a cube or rectangular
box, and derive formulas for their area.
We now demonstrate the area formula for a triangle. This requires a
significant advance on the previous exact determination of area in the case
of figures constructed out of squares with restricted overlaps.
We will take as a given the intuitive fact that if two figures intersect
only at their boundaries, then the area of the combined figure is the sum of
the respective areas. For right triangles, we can use this fact to determine
their area by observing that if a right triangle is doubled in the usual way
to yield a rectangle, then the area of the right triangle is half the area of the
rectangle. Since the height and base of a right triangle are the lengths
of the legs, and hence the lengths of the sides of the rectangle so produced,
55
the area of the right triangle is half the product of height and base (because
the latter is the area of the rectangle). This justifies the special case of
the area of a triangle is
1
2
(base height)
when the triangle is a right triangle. For the general case, let triangle ABC
be arbitrary and let AD be the perpendicular from the vertex A to the
line containing BC. Then there are two cases to consider: D is inside the
segment BC, and D is outside the segment BC. See the figures:
A
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CD
In either case, AD is called the height with respect to the base BC. By
the usual abuse of language, height and base are also used to signify the
lengths of AD and BC, respectively. With this understood, we shall prove
the area formula of a triangle in general. For the case on the left, the area
of triangle ABC is clearly the sum of the areas of triangle ABD and ADC.
Since the latter two triangles are right triangles (whose areas we already
know how to compute), the general formula is easy. For the case on the
right, then we must observe that the area of triangle ABC is now the area
of triangle ABD minus the area of triangle ACD. A similar calculation
again yields the general formula.
It is important not to leave out the case on the right, i.e, the case where
the perpendicular from the top vertex meets the line containing the base at
a point outside the base.
Once we get the area formula of a triangle, one can get all area formulas
for polygons in the plane, including those of parallelograms and trapezoids.
Also, students are expected to be familiar with volume, which can be
developed in a manner similar to that of area. However, it should be made
clear that determining volume is usually much more involved than determining area. A good example of this is the formula for the area of a right
cone 13 Ah with the mysterious coefficient 13 .
More advanced topics. Around fifth grade, angles are also brought
in. At this stage, students need only do experimental geometry in the sense
of verifying geometric assertions by direct measurements (and it is important
that they do). So measuring angles of many triangles should convince them
of the likely truth of the fact that the sum of the angles of any triangle
is 180 degrees. However, too often, these approximate measurements are
presented as an actual proof of this fact. Strenuous effort should be made
to avoid this.
56
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The area of the big square minus the areas of the four congruent right
triangles is then the area of the inner square, which is c2 . Now rearrange
the four triangles so that we have the following decomposition of the original
square.
b
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Observe that the area of the big square minus the areas of the same four
congruent right triangles is now the sum of two smaller squares, one in the
upper right and the other in the lower left, and is therfore a2 + b2 . So
c2 = a2 + b2 .
An example of a problem involving idealized measurements in geometry
is the following:
We are given an isoceles triangle with height 7 and base length 12.
What are the lengths of the remaining two edges?
Here,
one uses
57
58
and they illustrate applications of the associative property of addition. However, there is no substitution for the memorization of the
addition and subtraction facts.
discuss the make-a-ten method for adding single digit numbers. For example, 8+5 maybe computed as: 8+5 = 8+2+3 =
10 + 3 = 13. The subtraction 13 8 may be done similarly,
first subtracting 3 and then 5. These methods are taught in
other nations, and are viewed there as the first step in learning
multi-digit addition and subtraction algorithms;
discuss how knowing the doubles of numbers may be used in
single digit additions. For example, 6 + 7 = 6 + 6 + 1 = 12 + 1 =
13, all done mentally and rapidly.
Explain the associative and commutative properties of addition. Indicate that they can be introduced to students through
working with sets of objects and can be explained in words:
We can push the 4 orange blocks over to the two yellow blocks
or the two yellow blocks to the orange blocks. In either case,
we have six blocks, etc. The associative property can be illustrated starting with three piles of blocks. For young children,
there is no point in naming these rules, but teachers need to
know them by name.
(5) Discuss the connection between addition and subtraction. As is
done in many countries, define a b = c to mean b + c = a. Discuss and solve 2-step problems involving addition and subtraction,
explaining the solutions in detail. For problems involving small
numbers use methods such as the Singapore bar diagrams to help
both with parsing and modeling the solutions. As an example here
is a discussion from the second grade Russian text translated by
UCSMP:
(a) A goose weighs 4 kg, and a piglet weighs 7 kg. How much do
the goose and the piglet weigh together?
(b) A goose and a piglet weigh 11 kg together. The goose weighs
4 kg. How much does the piglet weigh?
(c) How are these problems similar and how are they different?
How is the second problem obtained from the first? The second
problem is the inverse of the first problem. Make up one more
problem inverse to the first problem and solve it.
One and 1/2 weeks: Place value and comparison of whole numbers,
multi-digit addition and subtraction methods
(1) Explain place value and illustrate with examples. E.g., the meaning
of the numeral 743 is 7 hundreds, 4 tens, and 3 ones. Students can
see this more directly by writing 743 in expanded form:
743 = 700 + 40 + 3
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In many cases, elementary school students begin to develop proficiency in multiplication in third grade. Multiplication may be used
to show more directly the meaning of place value. For example,
743 = (7 100) + (4 10) + (3 1)
(2) Review exponential notation together with the basic laws of exponents. Standard form for 743 with exponents becomes
743 = (7 102 ) + (4 101 ) + (3 100 )
Notation involving exponents is also convenient for discussions of
factoring whole numbers into products of primes.
(3) Explain how place value enables rapid comparison of whole numbers: Read each of two numbers from left to right. The first place
holder where the digits are different determines which number is
larger. The reason is that any single (non-zero) digit in a place
holder to the left is worth more than all the digits to its right put
together. The 1 in 1999 represents 1000 and that is greater than the
value of 999 from all of the digits to the right of the 1. To compare
823, 549 to 823, 651, note that the 8 in the hundred-thousands place
is the same for both numbers, as is the 2 in the ten-thousands place
and the 3 in the thousands place. Continuing to read from left to
right, the digits in the next place holder, the hundreds column, are
different; in one case there is a 5 and in the other a 6. Since 5 < 6,
823, 549 < 823, 651
Point out that the digits in the tens column and in the ones column
played no role in deciding which of these two numbers is greater
than the other. As another example, compare 1234 to 987. Explain
that a possible mistake children might make is to compare the first
digits that appear in the two numerals and conclude incorrectly
that 987 is greater than 1234 because 9 > 1. Why is this wrong
and what is the correct way to compare digits? The 1 is in the
thousands place while the 9 is in the hundreds place. The number
987 may be thought of as having a zero in the thousands place,
so that for purposes of this comparison, 987 may be thought of as
0987. Now looking at the corresponding place values of 1234 and
0987 from left to right, we see that 1 > 0 and therefore,
1234 > 987
(4) Discuss historical methods for addition and subtraction, for example, the very visual Hieroglyphic Egyptian method, for writing numbers and combining them. Include a discussion of Roman numerals
and how one might add CIV and CCM V I. Note the inefficiencies
of such methods and their limitations for adding and subtracting
large numbers. This is an intermediate step for an appreciation of
the more efficient standard algorithms in base ten.
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(5) Use fundamental principles of numbers to explain the standard addition and subtraction algorithms. Emphasize the role of place
value in the algorithms.
(6) Discuss and assign word problems that require more than one addition or subtraction.
3 weeks: Multiplication and division of counting numbers
(1) Define multiplication of counting numbers: n m represents the
sum of n addends each of which is m. E.g., 3 2 2 + 2 + 2.
Alternative definitions are also possible. n m can be defined as
the number of objects in a union of n disjoint sets, each of which
contains exactly m elements (informally, the number of objects in
a collection of n groups, each with m objects), or the number of
elements in a rectangular array of n rows and m columns, or as the
area of a rectangle of base m and height n (commutativity is part
of this definition). Starting with one definition, deduce the content
of the other possible definitions, as needed.
An advantage of the area definition is that it carries over to
fractions, but this definition is problematic for the lower grades
because multiplication is usually defined before area is introduced.
Arrays may be used for grade level proofs of the commutative property of multiplication. If the number of dots in
an array of dots is the number of rows times the number of
columns, then a rigid 90 rotation of the array demonstrates
the commutative property.
Extend multiplication to whole numbers; define multiplication
when at least one factor is zero. Note for example that 3
0 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 is a natural extension of the definition for
counting numbers, and then 0 3 = 0 must also be true if the
commutative property is to hold on the set of whole numbers.
(2) Introduce the associative property of multiplication and the distributive property for addition and subtraction (A(B C) = AB
AC if B C). Explain that the two versions of the distributive
property can be combined into one version for integers, and this
will be discussed later in the course.
One way to justify the distributive property with pictures is to
separate an array of dots into two arrays of dots, all with the
same number of columns. Then compute the number of objects
in two different ways.
The associative property for multiplication may be explained
visually in terms of arrays of arrays or by using rectangular
prisms.
(3) Division should be defined as the inverse operation to multiplication. If B is not zero, the quotient A/B is that number C (if it
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
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12There is a tendency to equate each of these situations with a different meaning for the
remainder in some U.S. textbooks. It is worth taking time to explain that the remainder always
has the same meaning, it is just the use to which it is put that might vary with the situation.
62
0 4 8
16
24 28
The remainder is the difference between the last mark and the
dividend, while the number of intervals is the quotient. One
then searches for an efficient way to count the number of intervals. 10 such intervals give 10 the divisor. 100 such intervals
give 100 the divisor.
(9) Explain the standard division algorithm for multidigit whole numbers. Using concrete examples, interpret each number in the division algorithm as the algorithm proceeds.
(10) Present a wide variety of word problems whose solutions may be
found by using long division.
1 week: Prime Numbers and Factorization (Optional)
(1) Define prime and composite numbers. Explain and use the Sieve of
Eratosthenes to find prime numbers.
(2) Introduce divisibility tests for single digit numbers. Explain the
reasons the tests work in terms of place value and basic properties
of numbers.
(3) State and explain the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Use
factor trees to factor whole numbers as products of primes.
(4) Explain the proof that there is no largest prime number.
(5) Define greatest common factor (GCF) and least common multiple
(LCM). Explain their properties, methods for their calculation, and
application to word problems:
Calculate the GCF for numerical examples by listing all factors
of the numbers. Calculate the LCM for numerical examples by
listing some multiples of the numbers.
Use prime factorization to compute the GCF and LCM of whole
numbers, and explain why the method works.
Use numerical examples to illustrate why ab = GCF (a, b)
LCM (a, b) for any counting numbers a and b.
Introduce the Euclidean Algorithm and use it to compute the
GCF of two counting numbers.
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(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
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66
67
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
9 10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Seeing Rows and Columns
see that any 2 rows of such a vertical ratio table give a 4-tuple of
integers that form a proportion (4 cells from the multiplication
table that form a rectangle) and that one can solve proportion
word problems by using this observation - solving it by thinking
of what rows and columns from the multiplication table make
the proportion.
(2) Examine rates as ratios with the units attached: 3 dollars per 5
pounds (of oranges), 60 miles per 1 hour;
most rates given in school problems are unit rates without the
1 stated (60 miles per hour);
examine how to find unit rates and unit ratios and see that
b
they are the quotients of the ratio
rate [a : b has unit ratios 1 : a
and ab : 1] by finding the unit ratios
rates within the ratio table; this
ratio
unit rate is the usual quotient notion connected to ratios
rates
rectangles
(3) Explore briefly similar
made from a ratio table and
right triangles
explore slope:
Make rectangles with dimensions from a ratio table (e.g., 3 : 5)
and put them in the positive quadrant of a coordinate graph
with their bases on the x-axis and their lower left vertices all
at the same point.
Observe that their corners lie on a straight line, and estimate
the slope of the line;
rotate the rectangles 90 degrees about their lower left vertices
to represent the opposite ratio (e.g., 5 : 3) and estimate its
slope
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70
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CHAPTER 3
74
that most people coming through the K-12 system have. The only reliable
way to improve things is to educate teachers and pre-service teachers about
these issues.
As a result, in this chapter, we take special care to indicate the key
aspects of the discussion of problems, mathematical problems, ill-posed and
well-posed problems before presenting Polyas break-down of problem solving.
We start the chapter by discussing the overall desired outcome of instruction in mathematics in K-12, namely that students come to see the subject
as sensible, coherent, and obtain an understanding that, rather than consisting of long lists of disconnected facts, concepts, and techniques (tricks?),
it is actually coherent, consistent, and involves learning well only a small
number of things. Then we discuss the issue of definitions, and after this
turn to problem solving.
2. Precision
There are five main characteristics of mathematics.
(2) What you see is what you get. There are no hidden assumptions in
mathematics.
This can be subtle. We tend to make unarticulated assumptions all the time. For example consider the problem
What is the fifth term in the sequence that starts 1, 2, 4, 8?
Most people in this country would say 16. However, there are
an infinite number of rules that can be given which produce
1, 2, 4, 8 as their outcomes at the first four positions, but produce different results at the fifth position. There are hidden
assumptions being made in problems like this - among them
that the rules for sequences like this are linear or quadratic
polynomials in n or are given by simple exponential functions
3D. Askey, R.J. Milgram, H.-H. Wu, A Panel Discussion of the Mathematics that Should be
Taugth in K-12, (2005)
2. PRECISION
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76
2. PRECISION
77
78
there are conventions for using if-then statements in referring to causal relationships, temporal relationships, counterfactual situations and so forth. Of
particular importance are common language conventions for negating if-then
statements. As an example she mentions If we dispute the statement If
Tom works overtime, then hes paid extra, we might say, No, if Tom works
overtime, hes not paid extra. As another example she points out To
counter the claim that If carbon emissions continue to occur at the present
rate, the earths temperature will increase by 10 degrees, we might say No,
even if carbon emissions continue to occur at the present rate, there does
not necessarily have to be a 10-degree increase in the earths temperature.
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that students read 111,213 correctly using the English conventions - so one
hundred eleven thousand, two hundred and thirteen - rather than that
students understand that this is a shorthand way of writing the expanded
notation 105 +104 +103 +2122 +10+31. Likewise, in such instruction, it
is much more important that students can identify a figure that appears to
be a square in a drawing of a number of geometric figures, rather than that
a student can describe the key items such as line segments that make up
geometric figures, and the particular disposition of such items that makes a
geometric figure a square.
These issues will continue to be at the forefront of our discussion through
this and the next two chapters.
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82
Mathematicians easily distinguish such lists from more routine lists of specialized methods or vocabulary. However, non-mathematicians, including
pre-service teachers, may have difficulty making such distinctions. Thus, a
component of instruction for pre-service teachers could well be distinguishing core mathematical concepts from more routine material, and discussing
how to focus instruction in K - 8 classes on core procedures and ideas.
The Japanese text continues with a detailed discussion of how one uses
the properties of equality to solve equations, illustrated with a large number
of linear equations, including samples of all the forms above, and some that
involve even more steps, though no type is named or singled out. Finally,
the discussion is summarized as follows:
Methods of Solving Linear Equations
(1) When an equation involves fraction or decimal coefficients, convert them into integers. And if there are
parentheses, eliminate them.
(2) Isolate the terms with variables on one side of the
equation and the numerical terms on the other side.
(3) If there are terms that you can combine, combine
them and then simplify them. Then write them in
the form ax = b.
(4) Divide both sides by the coefficient a of x. The answer
will be x = ab .
4. ABSTRACTION
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84
(2) Make up a problem based on the summary below and solve it.
32 cars were
parked
8 and 15 drove off
how many
remained?
96 (46 + 30) 79 25 + 38 7 + 86 52
96 46 + 30 51 17 17 8 + 35 42
(4) Make up a problem which is solved as follows:
(3)
(8 + 2) 2.
What is another way of solving the problem?
Still later in the second grade book one finds the following two problems in
succession:
(1) (a) A dressmaker used 12 meters of material for 3 dresses. How
much material will she need for 2 such dresses?
(b) Make up problems inverse to the one above and solve them.
(2) Find the values of the expressions a b and c k for the values of
the letters given in the table:
a
b
c
k
17
5
8
12
3
26
17
4
30
2
3
32
23
4
11
9
From the third grade Russian text translated by UCSMP we have the
following problem from relatively early in the text:
(1) (a) There were 112 birch trees and x aspens in a forest. Explain
what the following expressions denote: 112+x; 112x; x112.
(b) There are x linden trees and 80 birch trees in a forest. How
many linden trees and birch trees are there in the forest all
together? How many more (or less) birch trees are there than
linden trees in the forest? Make up an expression to answer
each question.
(2) Make up an equation for each problem and solve it.
(a) Some number is 20 greater than 15. Find the number.
(b) 27 is 13 less than some number. What is the number?
And later in the third grade book:
(1) Compare the following expressions:
(a) a 14 and a 10 + a 4
(b) 240 k and 200 k + 40 k
(c) b 42 and (b 40) 2
(d) c 36 and (c 30) 6.
5. DEFINITIONS
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86
Current practice in
teaching school
mathematics in the
United States
discourages definitions,
thus essentially
guaranteeing that
students will not learn
mathematical
reasoning.
5. DEFINITIONS
87
and this is reinforced with exercises like the following (p. 109):
Find the right angles.
Examples of grade
appropriate but precise
definitions from Grades
1 - 3 in the Russian
mathematics program.
88
Then a number of pages later we find the following grade appropriate definition of a rectangle (p. 117):
At this point a notion that has been informally used a few times previously,
squares, is defined (p. 155):
Find the rectangles with equal sides. These are called squares.
5. DEFINITIONS
89
UCSMP:
Here is a problem from the text translated by UCSMP that shows how they
help children understand what the definition means:
Write down the multiplication problems and calculate the results
after you have replaced them with addition problems:
(1) take 4 sets of 9
(2) take 6 sets of 4
(3) take 3 sets of 10
(4) take 2 sets of 15
Then the definition of division is given as a suitable inverse operation to
multiplication:
90
In the third grade text in this series, multiplication is again defined, (p.
89)
To multiply the number 18 by 3 is to take the number 18 as
an addend 3 times:
18 3 = 18 + 18 + 18.
To multiply a number k by 4 is to take it as an addend 4
times.
To multiply a number a by a number b is to take the
number a as an addend b times.
Then division is defined (p. 110):
Division is related to multiplication; to divide 48 by 4 means
to find a number which multiplied by 4 gives 48. This number
is 12. That is, 48 4 = 12. What does it mean to divide 72
by 9? 100 by 25?
With a precise definition of division available, this third grade text introduces long division
If it is difficult to do a division orally, it can be done on paper,
thus:
5. DEFINITIONS
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use such definitions, but even in these grades most students can use and
understand the rigorous definition in terms of line segments connecting any
two points of a figure.
6. Problem Solving: Overview
Nobody knows how to
teach high level
problem solving, though
we can describe many
of the processes that are
necessary to prepare for
the solutions of routine
problems. It is possible
that the current focus
on problem solving in
school mathematics was
introduced as an
alternative to the
mathematics as lists
approach of most
instruction, but current
teaching in this area
has also become part of
mathematics as lists.
Introduction. A key phrase that one has to consider designing mathematics courses for pre-service K - 8 teachers is problem solving. It sounds
strange to mathematicians to separate this out, since whenever we do mathematics we are solving problems and we regard it as so central that it cannot
be separated out. Additionally, when we talk about solving problems, we
tend to mean major problems like the Poincare conjecture or Fermats theorem, and we are aware that we have no idea of how to quantify the process
of solving a major problem. However, we can, to a large degree, quantify the
process of solving more routine problems. This is a big part of what we are
doing when we are teaching basic courses at the university level. Moreover,
Polya made a systematic study of these processes, extending his work even
to the kinds of basic day to day problems that graduate students need
to be able to handle - slightly non-routine issues that arise in the course of
research.
From the perspective of K-8, as indicated earlier, mathematics tends
to be viewed in terms of lists of isolated facts and specialized techniques
(tricks). Such formal lists are antithetical to the processes that we use
when doing serious mathematics, and it is becoming more and more important that students graduate from high school with some ability to deal
with more challenging problems. Perhaps the term problem solving was
introduced as a separate aspect of K-12 mathematics to help break through
this mathematics as lists mind-set.
Unfortunately, problem solving itself has also become subject to list
making. In the section, Polyas Four Step Problem Solving Model near the
end of this chapter, we present Polyas 1944 summary discussion of the most
basic quantifiable steps in solving problems and follow it with a list, typical
of those appearing in current mathematics methods texts for pre-service
teachers, that is taught as problem solving.
Such lists, while stultifying and limiting if taught as the totality of what
one needs in order to solve problems, should not be rejected out of hand.
For pedagogical reasons, it may be advantageous to separate some aspects
of mathematics and call them problem solving (though better terminology
would strongly be wished for). Consequently, we accept this usage with the
caveats listed above.
Focusing on problem solving as a separate and vital part of mathematics
instruction does have a purpose and makes sense when we remember, as
discussed above, the tendency of school instruction in the subject to present
mathematics as lists of memorized facts.
In any case, before we can provide pre-service teachers with indications
of what should be done to help focus students on how to systematically
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initial insights in his discussion. Indeed, he regarded these as the core, but
most mystifying aspect, of problem solving. However, we must focus on the
conscious part of this process for the audience of pre-service teachers that
these courses are designed to serve.
In How to Solve It, Polya tried to explain the quantifiable steps in problem solving in mathematics. The discussion there could be summarized in
his four step model:
(1) Understand the problem
(2) Devise a plan
(3) Carry out the plan
(4) Look back.
The first step, understand the problem, deserves elaboration.
A core skill in problem solving is reading. If a student
cannot understand what a problem is asking, he or she will
have no chance to solve it. But more is involved here than
just reading skills. The student must be able to parse the
problem, extract the relevant parts, evaluate whether they
are giving information that is needed or not, determine
what is being asked, and finally convert everything into a
series of precise mathematical statements. These are core
skills that have to be developed, and discussion of how
to do this should be an important topic in each of these
courses.
Unfortunately, if one stops with these observations, the door is left open
for serious misconceptions. This has actually happened in school mathematics, and is one of the biggest blanks that has to be filled in in these
courses. Before we can talk about the second, third, and fourth steps in
Polyas model, we have to talk further about the first. Mathematicians are
very aware of the biggest difficulty with this first part not all problems
are problems in mathematics, and not all problems admit solutions but it
seems that a large segment of the population does not realize this.
A key aspect of instruction across all four of these courses has to be
guiding pre-service teachers to the point where they can understand the
distinctions between well-posed and ill-posed problems. For the latter case
we should keep in mind that they will also need some ability to create wellposed problems out of ill-posed problems when this is reasonable, and to
discard such problems when it is not. We expand on this topic in the next
section.
At a minimum, we need to focus pre-service teachers on two basic questions that should be asked before attempting to solve a problem. The first
is the query, Is the question a problem in mathematics? and the second is
If the question is not a problem in mathematics, can it be sensibly made
so?
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For the first query, pre-service teachers should understand what a problem in mathematics is.
There are different kinds of problems that we see. Perhaps the most
common types are the set problems that demand little more than plugging
explicit numbers into given equations or procedures. These are typically
meant to illustrate and provide practice with newly presented material, or
to provide review of such material. It often seems that people equate such
problems with mathematics, hence the terms drill and kill, or drill and
skill, that naturally associate to such questions.
What is not as well understood as it should be is that such problems are
more properly regarded as necessary preparation for attacking actual mathematical problems. Actual problems in mathematics typically have the property that the solution or the goal is not immediately achieved and there is
no clear algorithm to use in order to arrive at the solution.
However, there is a distinction that must be made. Many questions
that mathematicians are asked to solve come from other areas ranging from
the hard sciences and engineering through economics and an ever growing
range of social sciences. Most questions of this kind do not come to us
posed as actual questions in mathematics. They tend to be vaguely stated
and overly general. Before we can even begin to help with these kinds of
questions we have to go through a number of steps. We must replace vague
statements by precise statements, overly general goals by focused ones that
have a reasonable chance to be achieved, and yet, in this translation process
we have to arrange things so that the answers will be of use in the original
areas.
Pre-service teachers should understand that questions in mathematics
must be well-posed, but all too often the questions that come from outside
mathematics are not.
Currently, there is virtually no distinction between these levels - questions in mathematics and questions from outside mathematics - in K-8 mathematics instruction or in the problem solving parts of existing mathematics
methods courses. This has the unexpected effect that many problems, even
on current state and national assessments, have hidden assumptions, or are
so poorly stated that multiple interpretations are possible, but only one answer is accepted. Thus students tend to see key aspects of mathematics as
trying to guess what the questioner had in mind what is unstated.
More and more often at the college level the students we see tend to
try to guess what we are hiding when we ask relatively straightforward
questions. They have learned through their past experiences that not only
is mathematics done by learning lists, it is also a guessing game filled with
trick questions and obscure puzzles.
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A critical step in
problem solving is
recognizing whether a
given problem is
well-posed. One of the
most advanced skills in
mathematical problem
solving is creating
sensible well-posed
problems from ill-posed
questions.
Before we can talk about the (mathematical reasoning) procedures involved in problem solving we need to discuss the question of conversion into
a precise mathematical statement.
Often, one is handed a problem that is vaguely stated, e.g. classify all
linear equations in two variables. Before such a problem can be attacked
mathematically, it must be recast so that it is well-posed.
We recognize that a problem is well-posed when we have a precise mathematical definition for each term in the problem, and all the terms refer
to a single universe where mathematics can be done. Thus, in the question above, we need precise definitions for classify, linear equation, and
2 variables. We can reasonably assume that we know the last two, but
the first, classify, is problematic. We understand classify to mean set up a
sequence of types, so that a given equation fits into one or more of these
types. The problem is that linear equations, and two variables, are already
type restrictions in a classification of equations into polynomial and nonpolynomial, and within polynomial into degree, and number of variables.
So what more might be required of classify in this question? Without further information we cannot proceed.
At this point, one attempts to consider the context in which the question
was asked to get an idea of what should be meant by classify for this problem.
But without that context, we are stumped. We cannot make a sensible wellposed problem out of the original question.
Similarly, problems given to mathematicians from outside the subject
are usually ill-posed. Here is an example. In many factories work areas
are islands scattered on the factory floor. Guide wires are embedded in the
floor that go between these various areas and vehicles carry material from
one area to another guided by these wires. How do we program this system
so that material can be moved around most efficiently? Before one can start,
one must clarify and give precise meanings to all the terms. In doing so,
we abstract - guide wires become lines, work areas points, and the system
a graph. Likewise, vehicles likely become points moving along the graph.
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The difficulty here is that no rule is specified for generating the next
term. The question is better than average in that the meaning of n is
specified. In many questions of this type we are even required to speculate
on whether n is the input value or whether it is the position of the element
in the sequence. However, since no rule is given we are required to guess
that the actual rule is contained in the list of possible answers. The question
could be fixed by rephrasing it: The chart above gives the first four input,
output pairs for one of the rules below. If the input is n, which rule is it?
(1) This is another question from the same eighth grade exam.
This has exactly the same kinds of difficulties as the problem above. This
time the variable n, the ordinal number above, has been vaguely indicated
as the input, but no idea of the way in which the pattern is to be generated
99
is given, and the problem is a short response question, which means that
there is no help to be had from a list of possible answer choices.
Once more, whether this is a well-posed or ill-posed question depends
on the context and the background of the audience. However, on a state
assessment, it is unlikely that one can assume a common understanding of
the missing assumptions.
(1) Here is a problem from another state assessment.
100
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11 12 13
20 21 22
29 30 31
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The difficulty is that The points A, B, C, and D on the graph are not
given as explicit coordinates. We are asked to infer that they are at integer
coordinates, a hidden assumption. Usually, one can get away with a problem
like this. Most students will make this assumption, but this is not good
training in mathematics nor in the kind of precise thinking that we would
like students to learn. Consequently, examples like this should be discussed
during the sequence, and pre-service teachers should be led to understand
why they are not desirable.
MARCYS DOTS
A pattern of dots is shown below. At each step more
dots are added to the pattern. The number of dots added
at each step is more than is added in the previous step. The
pattern continues indefinitely.
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103
= L(r1 + r2 )
= (L + 4)r1
= (L + 9)r2 .
Subtracting the second from the first gives 4r1 = Lr2 , subtracting the third
from the first gives 9r2 = Lr1 . Hence L4 = rr21 , while L9 = rr21 . Multiplying
gives
L2
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H.-H. Wu pointed out another example that appears to run along the
same lines the answer is not what one would expect:
Fresh cucumbers contain 99% water by weight. 300 lbs.
of cucumbers are placed in storage, but by the time they are
brought to market, it is found that they contain only 98%
of water by weight. How much do these cucumbers weigh
at the time they are brought to market?
What the first problem really illustrates is the non-intuitive nature of nonlinear problems, especially for students who tend to have only seen linear
problems previously. The second problem could be thought of as linear
but there is an assumption being made that the only part of the weight
that changed is the weight of the water in the cucumbers. This is, strictly
speaking, not quite true, but is close enough to true for us to routinely
assume it. However, we should be aware that we do make such assumptions,
since prospective teachers may not, and some of the students they will teach
may not. Note that without such an assumption, the problem cannot be
solved, so this is an example of a problem that is not well-posed but can be
made into a well-posed problem with reasonable assumptions.
Detecting and
conjecturing about the
structure of
continuations of data
sequences is a very
important part of the
creative process in
doing mathematics. As
we have seen it is very
easy to misunderstand
it. However, in a
balanced curriculum it
should not be ignored
or rejected, but
carefully put into the
correct context.
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to do my best for the reader who is anxious to learn plausible reasoning, but what I can offer are only examples for imitation and
opportunity for practice.
The study of patterns in school mathematics, typically begun in Kindergarten with sequences of shapes, colors, and sounds, is crucial to solid education and good outcomes for students. But there is always the spector of
list making lurking in the background. Even more so than is the case with
other areas of the subject, it threatens this area.
Here are some suggested discussions. First, in the earliest grades, if
teachers are presenting simple repeating patterns like circle, block, circle,
block, ..., they vary it by showing that the pattern can also be continued
by circle, block, reverse, block, circle, and so on. Then with three they can
again do extensions by simple repeats circle, block, triangle, circle, block,
triangle, ..., but should again reverse it, and class discussions of all kinds of
different ways of extending the pattern should be carried out. In first and
second grade the same kinds of discussions should be developed, but now
with even more complicated ways of extending the pattern.
Similarly, with number patterns, students should be exposed, from the very
beginnings to different types of extensions. So if students see 1, 3, 5, 7, they
should be able to extend it as 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . , also as 1, 3, 5, 7, 5, 3, 1, 3, 5, . . .
and 1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . , and indeed, in any way for which they can
devise a rule. The same, of course should hold for more involved patterns.
This being said, the pre-service teachers also need to understand that
when one is asked, for example, to determine a formula for some process, one
should evaluate a number of cases, see if there appears to be structure in the
data, and if structure is identified, be willing to conjecture a formula as an
appropriate continuation of this pattern. But it is crucially important that
they be taught to be flexible on this point, and also that, once an answer is
conjectured, to recognize that it must be verified.
As an example of how one might handle this subject in the first course
where the handshaking problem might well come up is to first encourage the
107
audience to work out a number of cases explicitly: two people, one handshake, three people, three hand-shakes, four people,
n+1six hand-shakes, five
people, 10 hand-shakes. They might then guess 2 , for the answer, but
it would be critical not to stop there. The discussion is not complete until
an actual demonstration of this fact is achieved. If this is too involved for
a single class, then a simpler problem might be attempted. A suggestion
might be to count the number of ways in which a toss of n pennies will have
exactly one of them come up heads, or two, three, and finally m.
108
Meihua
Sulin
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Example: 4 children bought a present for $28.
They shared the cost equally.
How much did each child pay?
$28
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Mrs. Chen bought a fish for $5.25.
She also bought some prawns for $11.80.
She paid with a $50.00 note.
How much change did she receive?
$50
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$5.25
$11.80
One of the best ways for pre-service teachers to learn parsing is to try to
construct word problems that have specified properties. They will initially
find this challenging. However, since problem construction is a critical skill,
essential in effective mathematics instruction, it is strongly advised that
exercises in constructing word problems be interspersed throughout all these
courses.
Here is an example from a class at Michigan State University for preservice teachers who had passed or placed out of a college algebra course.
It illustrates the initial skill levels of many pre-service teachers. But, as
confused as these answers are, with systematic practice, this is a skill that
can be taught and learned.
Problem: Using a measurement model, create a word problem which builds
the expression 12x 3.
Some answers from the class:
109
(1) The weight w of the child at age 12 is the weight times 2 and then
subtracted by 3, so 2w 3.
(2) Susan buys 12 tickets of x dollar, but 3 students cant attend. What
is the algebraic equation? 12x 3
(3) Maria bought 12 pumpkins at x dollars each. She gave 3 away. If
x = $1, how much did she spend on the pumpkins she kept? 12x3
(4) Amy has 12 times more pennies than Sally. Carla has 3 pennies
less than Sally. Express how much Carla has in terms of x?
(5) Rat has 8 coins and Al has 4. Together they have 12 coins of value
x. Al gave way 3 pennies. How many coins do the boys have left?
V. I. Arnold wrote a short booklet in Russian, the title of which translates as
Problems for Children from 5 to 15 Years of Age. The book was translated
into English and edited by Tatiana Shubin, and here are some sample problems. In solving them one must constantly be aware of both the necessity
to parse precisely and the tendency to make unwarranted assumptions.
(1) In order to buy a book Amy needed 7 more cents, and Bob needed
1 more cent. They decided to combine their money, but even then
they did not have enough to buy the book. How much did the book
cost?
(2) A bottle with a cork costs 10 cents, and the bottle costs 8 cents
more than the cork. How much does the bottle cost?
(3) A brick weighs one pound and half the brick. How many pounds
does the brick weigh?
(4) Suppose we have a barrel of wine and a cup of tea. A teaspoon
of wine is taken from the barrel and poured into the cup of tea.
Then the same teaspoon of the mixture is taken from the cup and
poured into the barrel. Now the barrel contains some tea and the
cup contains some wine. Which volume is larger - that of the tea
in the wine barrel or of the wine in the teacup?
(5) The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 inches and the corresponding height of the triangle is 6 inches. Find the area of the triangle?
(This is more advanced, but even advanced students should be careful.)
(6) The number of Basils sisters is two more than the number of his
brothers. How many more daughters than sons do Basils parents
have? (Be very careful parsing this question.)
(7) Once there was a man who had to take a wolf, a goat, and a cabbage
across a river, but his boat was so small that it could only hold him
and one other thing. The man didnt know what to do. How could
he take the wolf, the goat, and the cabbage over one at a time, so
that the wolf wouldnt eat the goat and the goat wouldnt eat the
cabbage?
110
111
112
Second.
DEVISING A PLAN
Did you use all the data? Did you use the
whole condition? Have you taken into
account all essential notions involved in
the problem?
Third.
Carry out your plan.
Fourth.
Examine the solution
obtained.
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114
(b) Check each step of the plan as you proceed. This may be
intuitive checking or a formal proof of each step.
(c) Keep an accurate record of your work.
(4) Looking back
(a) Check the results in the original problem. (In some cases, this
will require a proof.)
(b) Interpret the solution in terms of the original problem. Does
your answer make sense? Is it reasonable? Does it answer the
question that was asked?
(c) Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution.
(d) If possible, determine other related or more general problems
for which the technique will work.
One gets the impression, looking at a number of K-8 texts, that the
various methods listed under (2) are not given equal weight. The greatest
emphasis is given to use guess and check. For example, one typically
finds problems asking for solutions of linear equations with integer coefficients, that have small positive integer solutions. The recommended solution
method is guess some values and check whether they work. Implicit in
these exercises is the understanding that students will try small positive
integers and after one or two guesses, will arrive at a correct guess. The
absence of problems that require more systematic methods tends to give
K-12 students the belief that nothing more than guess and check is really
needed. Since this is very possibly the chief method that the pre-service
teachers will have learned to solve problems, there is a compelling need to
place this method into an appropriate context, and to justify the need for
more sophisticated methods.
It may also be pointed out to pre-service teachers that it is often useful
and appropriate to substitute numerical values in place of the variables in
an equation or a system of equations. This is appropriate if the objective
is to get some idea of the general behavior of the equations, rather than
merely to guess solutions. For example, in the case of linear equations prior
to the introduction of slope, it is instructive for students to ask and answer
the questions, Is y increasing, decreasing, or constant as x changes, and
roughly how much is y increasing or decreasing? The general directives,
make a table and use guess and check should not be isolated techniques.
A more general approach like test the given problem by looking at a small
number of special cases is more powerful in the long run.
14. Working With Problems for Elementary Teachers
Sybilla Beckmann
Prospective elementary teachers must know not only how to carry out
the basic operations of arithmeticadding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing whole numbers, fractions, and decimalsbut they must also know
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116
2
3
2
3
= 46 ?
2
3
1
2
1
4
of the
Exposure to problems that cannot be solved or that have a trivial solution teaches students that they must read problems carefully and that they
must pay careful attention to wording when they pose story problems. For
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118
a definition, we are asking them to engage in a fundamental form of mathematical reasoning. Therefore we encourage the practice of asking students
to use the meaning of an operation to justify why a problem can be solved
by that operation.
Once students are used to explaining why problems can be solved by
whole number multiplication, then they can turn their attention to fraction multiplication problems. For example, which of the following are story
problems for 12 43 and which are not?
(1) A brownie recipe used 34 of a cup of butter for a batch of brownies.
You ate 12 of a batch. How much butter did you consume when you
ate those brownies?
(2) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats 12 of a pan
of brownies. Now what fraction of a pan of brownies is left?
(3) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats 12 of what
is left. How many brownies did Johnny eat?
(4) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats 12 of what
is left. What fraction of a pan of brownies did Johnny eat?
Once again, it should not be a matter of guessing or of vague feelings about
whether or not a problem can be solved by multiplying. Students should
be able to draw on the definition of multiplication or on some fundamental result about fraction multiplication in order to be able to answer with
certainty. The definition of multiplication above applies to (non-negative)
fractions as well as to whole numbers, although we can change the wording
a little in order to clarify the meaning for the case of fraction multiplication:
a
b
a
b
of a group
119
In the case of division, story problems fall into two categories: those in
which a number of objects are to be divided equally among a given number
of groups and one wants to know how many objects are in each (or one)
group?, and those in which a number of objects are to be divided equally
into groups of a given size and one wants to know how many groups? there
will be. Therefore, rather than giving a single definition of division it seems
natural to give two definitions and to prove that they are equivalent. Another approach would be to automatically rephrase any division problem as
a multiplication problem. For example, a story problem for 6 3 =? would
be rephrased either as 3? = 6 or ? 3 = 6, depending on the nature of the
problem. When fractions are involved, attention to the underlying wholes is
essential, just as it is in the cases of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. For example, we must pay attention to the underlying wholes in order
to determine that the following problem cannot be solved:
You have 32 of a container of chocolate syrup and a recipe that
calls for 12 of a cup of chocolate syrup. How many batches of your
recipe can you make (assuming you have enough of the other ingredients)?
On the other hand, consider the problem
You have 23 of a cup of chocolate syrup and a recipe that calls
for 12 of a cup of chocolate syrup. How many batches of your recipe
can you make (assuming you have enough of the other ingredients)?
This problem can be rephrased as asking how many 12 cups of syrup are in
2
3 of a cup of syrup?, which is a how many groups? division problem for
2
1
3 2.
In the case of certain story problems involving fractions, students can
easily become confused between multiplication and division because of linguistic similarities. Dividing in half is often misinterpreted as dividing by
one half. For example, some students may incorrectly write the following
type of problem when asked to produced a story problem for 23 12 :
1
2,
Students must therefore learn to read and interpret problems carefully, and
to think carefully about the exact meanings of multiplication and division.
Mathematics requires a much more careful and precise use of language than
is common in daily life.
Lack of care in the use of language is especially common in discussions of
size. For example, a state first grade standard in geometry and measurement
reads as follows:
Compares or orders shapes by size (same size as, larger than,
smaller than, largest, or smallest).
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CHAPTER 4
122
123
The typical steps for teaching counting in the Singapore Grade 1 textbook is to have students practice counting small numbers of different kinds
of objects, moving from objects in the real world to marks on paper.
Students are then asked to identify less or more and to combine and
subtract small numbers of like objects of the same types, again moving from
concrete to successively more abstract concepts.
Even some adults have trouble with problems like What is the sum of
15 and 37? but when given an explicit problem like A baker has 15 apples
and receives a delivery of 37 more apples. How many apples does the baker
have after the delivery? they can determine the answer. Thus, special care
has to be taken from the beginning in initiating the process of abstraction
leading to the concept of number.
Grade one Singapore Text. Students:
Here are two sample problems from the earliest part of the Singapore
first grade text.
Teaching discussion. The equations for the partner situation represented in Figure 2 are 5 = 2 + 3 and 5 = 4 + 1. It is important that students
recognize the form for these facts as breaking apart the number 5 in two
ways. The objective is to ensure that students do not form a misrule that
124
only one number combination can appear on the right side of an equation.
Pictures that are vague or present images that assume prior life or cultural experience confuse many students when they come from different backgrounds. Examples like the following, again from the Singapore program,
do not have this kind of difficulty.
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ten
ten
one hundred
A square denotes 100
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The structure of numbers and of number words. Students generally learn to say the names of the numbers being studied and to write them
in the base ten notation at the same time that the concept of whole numbers
is being developed.
There is a strong tendency to assume that because students can properly
read the name of a number - for example given the written number 15, they
say fifteen, or given 309 they say three hundred and nine - that the
student then understands the actual number as a representation of sets with
126
Instructor note:
Pre-service teachers
must learn that reading
a number is not
synonymous with
understanding the place
value representation of
the number.
It is strongly suggested
that this be followed up
with exercises for
pre-service teachers
that require them to
describe and support an
initial teaching
sequence for saying
numbers.
that many objects. This is often wrong, especially with all the special rules
for saying numbers in English.
Problems with English way of saying numbers. It has been pointed out
that students in China have an easier time with the base ten number system
than students in this country because there are no exceptions in the counting
sequence: one, two, ..., ten, ten-one, ten-two, ..., two-tens, two-tens-one, . . . ,
5-tens three (for 53), etc. The peculiarities of the structure of number words
in English - eleven, twelve, but especially the teens, thirteen, fourteen etc.
with the reversal of words and numerals - are a big hindrance to student
understanding. Hence, numbers might be initially said in class, not in the
normal English form, but in the regular form - instead of eleven, one ten
and one, instead of twelve one ten and two, instead of twenty, two tens and
one, . . . - and only later introducing the regular pronunciation.
In first grade the students should model the numbers being studied and
be aware of the meaning of the place value notation in terms of sums of blocks
of 10s and 1s.1 They should also combine and decompose numbers, for
example understanding the different ways of combining two whole numbers
to make 5, 1 + 4, 2 + 3, 3 + 2, 4 + 1.
Zero should not be treated as a place-holder. English will again present
students with a tricky problem in second grade. A number like 207 is read
as 2 hundred and 7 in English. A much better way for students to initially
learn numbers like these is to say all the places - 2 one hundreds plus no
(or 0) tens plus 7 ones. (In the usual method zero is a place-holder,
which is somewhat confusing. In the second, 0 is treated as just another
number multiplying a power of 10.) After students have understood the
meaning of such numbers, the usual English method for reading them can
be introduced as shorthand. The English vocabulary for numeration, and
the meaning of whole numbers written in place value notation should be
carefully distinguished. This may be a difficult point for many pre-service
teachers.
Ordering whole numbers. Another thing that is initially difficult is the
concept of order for the whole numbers. Students will understand that a
set with more objects is bigger than one with fewer, but it will be difficult
for them to understand the way in which the place value notation for whole
numbers tells us which is bigger or smaller. One way of handling this is via
the number line, but we defer the discussion of these issues to sections six
and seven in this chapter.
1There is a strong tendency for pre-service teachers to underestimate the subtlety and complexity of place-value and place-value notation. Special attention needs to be given to making
sure they understand it properly. The key issues are covered in sections 5 - 8 of this chapter.
127
Singapore grade level standards: numbers. We conclude this section with the list of Singapore mathematics standards involved with developing number and place value organized by grade. This is to clarify the
sequencing of this critical topic.
Grade 1
(1) read and write numbers up to 100 in numerals and in words
Include completing sequences of consecutive numbers
Include counting in tens and completing sequence
(2) give a number to indicate the number of objects in a given set
Exclude the term cardinal number
(3) represent a given number by a set of objects
Include visualizing small sets up to 5 objects instead of counting
one by one
(4) use ordinal numbers such as first, second, up to tenth
Include symbols, e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
Exclude the term ordinal number
(5) compare two or more sets in terms of the difference in number
Include the concept of one-to-one correspondence
Include use of the phrases more than, less than and fewer
than
Include finding How many more/less?
(6) compare numbers up to 100
Include use of the words: greater, greatest, smaller, smallest
Exclude use of the symbols > and <
(7) arrange numbers in increasing and decreasing order
Grade 2
(1) count to 1000
Include counting in tens and hundreds
(2) read and write numbers up to 1000 in numerals and in words
Include the use of zero as a place holder
Include completing number sequences
(3) compare and order numbers up to 1000
Include finding the difference
(4) read and write money using decimal notation
Grade 3
(1) read and write numbers up to 10,000 in numerals and in words
(2) compare and order number up to 10,000
Grade 4
(1) read and write numbers up to 100,000 in numerals and in words
(2) compare and order number up to 100,000
Grade 5
(1) read and write number up to 10,000,000 in numerals and in words
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129
so the combination rules are treated symmetrically when numbers are broken
apart as in the make a five or make an eight problems of the previous
chapter,
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Students should learn that this denotes the addition statements 5 is the sum
of 2 and 3, the sum of 2 and 3 is 5, the sum of 3 and 2 is 5, 5 is the sum of
3 and 2, as well as the subtraction statements 5 minus 2 is 3, 5 minus 3 is
2, 3 is 5 minus 2 and 2 is 5 minus 3. Already in first grade, students in high
achieving countries learn the mathematical forms of such statements
2+3
3+2
5
5
52
53
3
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
5
5
2+3
3+2
3
2
52
5 3.
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similarly for 23 and 25. When 36 and 23 and separately 36 and 25, modeled
in this way, are combined students will see, for the first, five 10s and 9 ones,
while for the second there will be five 10s and 11 ones. For the second case,
special care should be taken to insure that students understand that the 11
ones is the same as one 10 and a one, so that the total in the second case is
six 10s and one.
The same procedure can be applied to subtraction, making use of the
same pictures. Initially this should be done for problems where borrowing
is not necessary, and then seeing borrowing as the same procedure that was
observed above for addition.
In the teaching
sequence be sure to
label the pictures. For
the picture here, label
each block of 10 with a
ten and the block of 6
with a 6 so that it is
natural to write 10 +
10 + 10 + 6 = 36. This
is to model for
pre-service teachers
what they should do
with students.
130
Here are five problems from the latter part of the first grade Russian
text:
P. 161
(1) A barrel contained 15 buckets of water. 10 buckets were used to
water flowers, and then another 15 buckets of water were added to
the barrel. How much water is there now in the barrel?
(2) 55 kg of sugar were sold from a bag. 5 kg were left. How much
sugar did the bag contain originally?
131
132
(d) What 3 sub-skills are needed for using this method? Which of
these do the use of regular words for numbers (as in Korean or
Chinese) make easier?
It should be emphasized that the last exercise is not for the classroom, but to give the pre-service teachers basic expertise.
133
The teaching sequence then moves through direct application of the definition
and then counting on, that is adding on one at at time until the requisite
number has been added. At the same time the process is abstracted
134
then mirrors the teaching sequence for addition. First direct examples of
the definition are studied, though now students see, for the first time, an
example that involves combinations of objects of different types
135
136
From the beginning, addition and subtraction are presented as inverse operations
137
Also, very early in the instruction sequence the commutative rule for addition is emphasized
138
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
+2 = 7
= 12
Grade 2
(1) add and subtract two numbers up to 3 digits
Include formal algorithm
(2) carry out addition and subtraction mentally involving
3-digit number and ones
3-digit number and tens
3-digit number and hundreds
(3) add and subtract money in compound units
Include making change
Include cases such as $2.50 + 60 and $5.75 - $3
Exclude cases such as $2.50 + $3.20 and $5.75 - $2.55
Grade 3
(1) add and subtract numbers up to 4 digits
139
140
Karen Fuson
Young children will solve word problems and number problems in many
different creative ways. Encourage them to explain their methods as they
work, and lead them in finding and discussing conceptual errors. You can
have interesting conversations about these different approaches. Be sure to
discuss counting on/adding on methods because they are easy and general
for both addition and subtraction. Some students are ready to use the more
advanced and general make a ten method.
Solving addition/subtraction problems with numbers 20 is primarily
about understanding all of the problem language and situations and discussing students different solution methods. The general additive solution
methods that are suggested here (counting on and make a ten) can also be
used later in solving multi-digit addition and subtraction problems within
each place value.
The following solution methods are ones that children almost universally
create or understand. Children all over the world use these methods even
if they are not taught them in the classroom. Teaching these methods can
help less-advanced children.
Seeing Subtraction Problems as Unknown Addition
Thinking of subtraction problems as unknown addition problems helps
students use easier forward solution methods. The key to this is to take
away the first items from a drawing instead of the last items. Taking away
the first items encourages students to see the embedded addition problem.
They can then count on to find the remaining items that make the other
quantity. For example:
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate 9 cookies.
How many cookies does she have left?
13 9 =
Drawing:
...o
.............o
............o
.............o
............o
.........................o
.............o
............o
.............o
....... o
o o o
10 11 12 13
Counting on is much easier than counting down (13, 12, 11, etc.)
Most other countries teach students to solve subtraction problems by
= 13. Even first graders can think of and
counting on or adding on: 9 +
solve subtraction problems this way. This method makes subtraction easier
than addition because you can see the number to which you are counting
141
on.
Levels of Childrens Addition and Subtraction Methods
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8 + 6 = 14
Count all
Count all
Count on
Count On
8
ooooo ooo ooooo o
91011121314
14 - 8 = 6
Take away
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011121314
ooooo ooooo oooo
12345 67812 3456
14 - 8: I count on 8+? = 14
I took away 8
8 to 14 is 6
Recompose
10 + 4
addend
Doubles n
10
8 + 6 = 14
6 + 8 = 14
(6 + 6) + 2
12 + 2 = 14
Note: Many children attempt to count down for subtracton, but counting down is difficult and error-prone. Children are much more successful with counting on which makes
subtraction easier
Counting On
Counting on differs from counting all in that a student abbreviates the counting of the first addend and then counts mentally or on fingers up to the total
or counts on the partner. This allows the student to add numbers whose
totals are greater than ten. Counting on to find the total (adding) and
142
In the Magic
Mountain diagrams it
is important to discuss
with pre-service
teachers the significance
of the direction in
which arrows in the
diagram point and the
placement of box that
represents the unknown
quantity. Neither is
arbitrary.
9 4
.
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.
.....
9 4
13
.
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.
.....
A possible name for such diagrams, appropriate for first grade children might
be Magic Mountains, and we will use that terminology in what follows.
143
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Change
Change Plus
Change Minus
+ 4 = 13
Unknown start
Unknown change
9+
Unknown result
9+4=
= 13
4=9
13
=9
13 4 =
OR
When the Result is the unknown, these problems are simple because the
situation equation is the same as the solution equation. When the Start is
unknown, these problems are complex because the situation equation must
be undone to find the solution. For small numbers, students can solve with
drawings.
Change Plus and Change Minus problems are directly represented by equations, which can show change over time. For example:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought 4 more. How
many cookies does she have now?
9+4=
Unknown Result situations:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought 4 more. How
many cookies does she have now?
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate 4 as a snack.
How many cookies does she have now?
Unknown Change situations:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought some more.
Now she has 13 cookies. How many cookies did she
buy?
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate some as a
snack. Now she has 9 cookies. How many cookies
did she eat?
Unknown Start situations:
Alison had some cookies. Then she bought 4 more.
Now she has 13 cookies. How many cookies did she
start with?
Alison had some cookies. Then she ate 4 as a snack.
Now she has 9 cookies. How many cookies did she
start with?
9+4=
13 4 =
9+
= 13
13
=9
+ 4 = 13
4=9
144
Put Together
Collection
Take Apart
No Action
13
13
13
Unknown
Partner
9+
Unknown
Total
= 13
9 4
9+4=
13 9 =
9+
= 13
13 = 9 +
9+
= 13
9 4
9 4
9=4
9+4=
=9+4
9+4=
Put Together and Take Apart problems: Two groups or amounts are combined to create a new total, or one total is separated into two groups.
First
When using these
examples with students,
the teacher should first
direct students to add
directional arrows and
ask them to explain
why a particular
direction was selected.
Next, students should
convert the Magic
Mountains into
Second
Total
OR
Total
First
Second
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9 4
Comparison Problems
Two groups or amounts are compared to find which has more/less and
how much more/less.
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OR
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Compare problems are most easily represented with mini bar graph drawings, shown above
Ann has 5. Bill has 7.
..........................................
...
How many more does Bill have than Ann?
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5
.
.......................................
How many fewer does Ann have than Bill ?
Ann has 5. Bill has 2 more than Ann.
Ann has 2 fewer than Bill.
How many does Bill have?
Bill has 7.
Ann has 2 fewer than Bill.
Bill has 2 more than Ann.
How many does Ann have?
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146
147
148
(1) For each of the following story problems, write a division problem
that solves the problem, give an appropriate answer to the problem,
and say which version of division is being used.
(a) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads
of laundry, then how much does the detergent for one load of
laundry cost?
(b) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads of
laundry, then how many loads of laundry can you wash for $1.?
(c) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads of
laundry, and if you wash 6 loads of laundry per week, then how
many weeks will a box of laundry detergent last?
(2) What day of the week will it be 100 days from today? Use mathematics (that is to say, do not count day by day), to solve this
problem. Explain your solution.
(3) If January 1, 2003 is on a Wednesday, then what day of the week
will January 1, 2004 fall on? Use mathematics to solve this problem.
Explain your solution.
(4) What is 1 billion seconds in terms of years, days, hours, and minutes? Explain why you can solve this problem the way you do.
(5) Make up and solve three different story problems for 9 4.
(a) In the first story problem, the answer should best be expressed
as 2, remainder 1.
(b) In the second story problem, the answer should best be expressed as 2 14 .
(c) In the third story problem, the answer should best be expressed
as 2.25.
149
Four pages later, factors are introduced using the example of three groups
of two, noting that 2 3 = 6 and explaining that 2 and 3 are factors and 6
is the product. At the same time it is noted that 6 3 = 2 and 6 3 = 2.
Then the same is noted for 6 3, and 5 4. In each case it is noted that
dividing by one of the factors gives the other, and the following is stated:
If the product of two numbers is divided by one
of the factors, the other factor is obtained
Seven pages further on, the following principle is developed in a similar way
If the dividend is divided by the quotient, the divisor is obtained. If the divisor is multiplied by the
quotient, the dividend is obtained.
The following quarter of the book develops, in tandem, multiplying and
dividing by 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9.
After this, the book develops multiplying and dividing without introducing the algorithms. In succession the following topics are covered:
Multiplying a sum by a number
Multiplying and dividing by 0
Multiplying and dividing numbers that end in 0
Multiplying a one digit number by a two digit number, and a two
digit number by a one digit number
Dividing a sum by a number
Dividing a two-digit number by a one digit number and a two-digit
number by a two-digit number.
Division with remainder
Teaching sequence: grade 1, Singapore. We have noted that multiplication and division first appear in the second grade Russian book translated by UCSMP. However, in the Singapore program multiplication and
division are already introduced in the first grade, keeping their focus on
150
151
Exercises:
(1) Use the definition of multiplication to explain why the following
problem can be solved by multiplying.
How many two-letter acronyms can be made using only the letters A, B, C, and D? (Double letters, such as AA are allowed.
The acronym AB is not considered the same as BA.)
(2) Karen buys 4 skirts, 5 blouses, 6 sweaters, and 7 pairs of shoes, all
of which are coordinated to go together. How many different outfits
consisting of a skirt, a blouse, a sweater, and a pair of shoes can
Karen make? Explain why you can solve the problem the way you
do.
(3) Allie and Betty want to know how many three-letter acronyms, such
as BM W , or DDT are possible (letters are allowed to repeat, as in
DDT or BOB). Allie thinks there can be 26 + 26 + 26 three-letter
acronyms while Betty thinks the number is 262626. Which girl,
152
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9) Write at least two different expressions for the total number of
triangles in the figure below. Each expression is only allowed to use
the numbers 3, 4, and 5, the multiplication symbol, and parentheses.
In each case, use the meaning of multiplication to explain why your
153
(10) Use the meaning of multiplication and some of the pictures in the
figure below to explain clearly why
3 (5 2) = (3 5) 2.
Be specific when you refer to the pictures.
(11) What is the distributive property? Using a specific example, explain why the distributive property makes sense. Draw a picture to
support your explanation.
5. Magnitude and Comparison of numbers
Introduction. The notion of big for numbers is reasonably natural.
But this has to be sharpened for both pre-service teachers and students to
how big to more clearly illustrate relative magnitudes. In 2 it was shown
how very young students could be given a notation for base ten numbers
through hundreds that allows them to easily see magnitude. A circle or
small square represents 1, a column of ten small squares, then just a narrow
154
rectangle represents 10, and a square with ten times the area of the 10rectangle represents 100.
In common United States texts this representation of 1, 10 and 100 is
almost always given. Usually, 1000 is then represented by a solid 101010
cube with each face a 100-square, but this is probably a bad idea for showing
students a consistent picture of the magnitude of base-ten numbers. A better
notation for 1000 would be a rectangle with ten times the area of the square
that represents 100:
Visual Symbols for 10, 100, 1000
.........
... ...
... ...
... ...
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... ...
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10 100
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1000
155
Exercises:
(1) Which of the following inequalities can the figure below be used to
illustrate? Circle all that apply.
120 > 45
156
These examples of repeated multiplication of the same number happen sufficiently often that we introduce special notation for them.
Let A be a whole number or 0, and let n be a whole number, then An is shorthand notation for the repeated product
of A with itself n-times
An = A
{z A} .
| A
ntimes
Exercises
(2) Calculate 23 , 26 , 210 , 215 .
(3) What is 1n for n any whole number n?
(4) If A > 1 show that An+1 > An for any whole number n.
Note that we have not defined A0 . We are free to do this in whatever way
we like, or simply leave it undefined. However, since we know that n + 0 = 0
for any whole number n, and since the property Am An = Am+n is quite
elegant, we choose to define A0 so that this continues to hold: A0 Am =
A0+m = Am . But this implies that A0 = 1, and this is how we define A0 for
any whole number A. It is also how we define 00 :
00 = 1.
Exercises
(5) Show by direct calculation that 23 26 is the same as 29 .
(6) Evaluate 33 , 36 , and show that 33 > 23 and 36 > 26 .
(7) Suppose that n is any whole number. Show that 3n > 2n .
(8) Let n be a whole number show that 10n+1 > 10n .
(9) (a) Show that 9 103 < 104
(b) Show that 9 103 + 9 102 < 104
(c) Show that 9 103 + 9 102 + 9 10 + 9 < 104 .
At this point the most important examples of powers are the numbers
10n : 1, 10 = 101 , 100 = 102 , 1000 = 103 , and so on. It doesnt take too
many powers of 10 to obtain enormous numbers. For example one light year
is a bit less than 1016 meters.
6. PLACE VALUE
157
5976 1021 Kg
2 1030 Kg
5 1011 Mass of Sun
5878 109 Miles
18447 1015
6. Place value
Introductory comments. One of the areas where we do a very poor
job in our classrooms is in helping students to understand the subtleties of
the base ten place value system. This should not be surprising when we
realize the place value system was originally developed by Chinese mathematicians, and then later, in its modern form, by Hindu and Arab mathematicians, and that this later work took over two hundred years before
everything was completely understood. Though this happened over one
thousand years ago, that does not diminish the magnitude of those accomplishments, nor the subtlety of the system that resulted. From the beginning
of the discussion of this subject it is important to emphasize the fact that
what is being done is not elementary at all, but is so basic to our society
that all students must learn it, and learn it very well.
Children spend many years learning the intricacies of our place value
system, typically, in the first years extending their experience one digit at a
time. In Kindergarten they learn numbers through 10, and usually also two
digit numbers through 20 or thirty. Possible exercises here include counting
the total number of days of class during the semester, incrementing the count
by one each day, with the teacher writing down the number each time, and
breaking individual numbers into sums of blocks of tens and blocks of ones.
Then first grade includes the counting numbers to 100, second grade the
counting numbers through 1000, and by fourth or fifth grade numbers with
decimal points are included, usually introduced using money. By the end of
fourth grade students are expected to have a clear idea of the place value
system. However, the outcomes are typically not too good.
We have already indicated the difficulties that the inconsistent vocabulary for naming numbers that English puts in the way. Here are further
problems.
One issue is that, even by fourth or fifth grade, students are not
given a clear definition of the place-value system. While there are,
158
The discussion above has to be presented to pre-service teachers in detail. There is considerable confusion about operations involving 0 in school mathematics. Teachers may often
understand that A 0 is undefined for A a whole number,
but will believe that 0 0 = 1 for example.
Base-10 place-value.
Base-10 place-value form. A whole number or 0 is written in base 10
place-value form if it is given as a finite sum like 7 103 + 3 102 + 0
101 + 5 100 where three special properties hold.
6. PLACE VALUE
159
160
G H H 5
5 H H G
1
(8) Is a googleplex the largest number there is? Explain your answer.
100
(9) Show that 1010
= 101000 .
6. PLACE VALUE
161
Tables like
971 , |{z}
432 , |{z}
275 , |{z}
479 , 857
|{z}
trillions billions millions thousands
should be clearly understood as only giving vocabulary for
communicating with others about common numbers. They
should not be understood, as is very common today, as being
how we represent these numbers. (The problem is that students, not having a name for numbers larger than 1015 1,
will often lack a concept of them.)
Comparison of numbers in the base-10 place-value system. Preservice teachers can now be given clear instruction on why we can order nonnegative integers written in the place value notation by comparing successive
places from left to right as a consequence of the core definition of more and
less for numbers in 5.
It is very common for pre-service teachers to be quite confused about how we use the base-10 place-value notation in
comparing numbers. If two numbers have approximately the
same number of places they will often simply look at the
leading coefficient.
162
6. PLACE VALUE
163
above, and typically they have just been given a sequence of rules
without sufficient justification for comparing numbers.
(2) It is typically in fifth or sixth grade that students in this country
learn about non-negative exponents, so in earlier grades one would
do this by making a point of writing a number like 7, 143 as
7 (10 10 10) + 1 (10 10) + 4 10 + 3
and pointing out that each of the terms 10, 10 10, etc. is exactly
ten times larger than the previous term. At this point, one can look
at revising the expression above to
7 (10 10 10) + 1 (10 10) + 4 10 + 3 1
and explain that this makes the expression more systematic, so now
each term really IS 10 times larger than the previous, (in the sense
that 7 (10 10) is ten times larger than 7 10). Be careful to
explain that, naturally, it is not true that 5 (10 10) is 10 times
larger than 7 10.
(3) It should be explained that in base-10 place-value notation 1
(10 10) is just 100, and 1 10 is another way of writing 10. More
generally, if we have a 0 at the right hand end, for example 740, then
this is 7102 +410, while the number 74 is 710+41, so, since
each term is multiplied by 10 to go from 74 to 740, putting a zero
on the end makes the number 10 times larger. While the example
used is just an example, an in class discussion should result in an
understanding of why this is generally true, and focus pre-service
teachers on the need to carefully cover this core fact in their classes.
First grade teaching sequence: Russian text. Here are some examples from the first grade Russian text translated by UCSMP. Page 86 87:
(1) n + 7 = 17
10 + n = 14
n + 9 = 19
n + 1 = 16
(2) Write down and calculate:
(a) Subtract the sum of the numbers 7 and 3 from 15.
(b) Add the difference of the numbers 16 and 10 to 4.
(3) 8 + (6 + 4)
19 (1 + 8)
7 + (15 5)
16 (6 0)
(4) Write down 6 one-digit numbers. Increase each number by 10.
Write down your answers.
(5)
10 + 7 = 17
10 + 2 =
10 + 9 =
13 + 1 =
17 = 10 + 7
= 10 + 2
= 10 + 9
= 13 + 1
From page 94 of the first grade Russian text:
(1) How many units in the tens column and how many units in the ones
column are there in the following numbers:
80,
18,
19,
90,
69,
70,
53,
35?
(2) The number one hundred is written 100. What does each digit
in the number stand for?
164
(3) (a) Write a number which containes 2 tens and 9 ones and another
which containes 9 tens and 2 ones.
(b) Write a number which is 1 greater than 49, and another number
which is 1 less than 90.
By about the middle of the first grade in the Russian texts base ten numbers
are being decomposed and recombined in very sophisticated ways using the
commutative law and the associative law quite explicitly. From page 111 114:
(1)
80 70 + 9
69 9 + 40
30 + 50 + 6
18 10 + 2
16 6 + 8
19 + 1 + 5
50 + 40 1
90 70 1
10 + 80 + 3
27 20
39 39
69 + 1
65 + 3
65 + 10
16 + 2
(3) Father carried a suitcase which wighed 6 kg. and a bag of groceries
which weighted 2 kg less. How much did the suitcase and the bag
of groceries weigh together?
(4) Calculate, using an appropriate method:
(70 + 8) + 2
(20 + 7) + 3
(40 + 5) + 5
6. PLACE VALUE
165
(6 + 3) = 2
(4 + 5) 3
2 + (1 + 4)
4 + (2 + 4)
166
(9 + 4) 3
7 (3 + 1)
(7 + 3) 1
Second grade teaching sequence: Russian text. Then, in the beginning of the Russian second grade book translated by UCSMP the subject
is taken up again. Pp 25-26:
(1) Explain these different methods of subtracting a sum from a sum:
(1) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = 12 7 = 5
(2) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 3) + (5 4) = 4 + 1 = 5
(3) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 4) + (5 3) = 3 + 2 = 5
Compare the results. How can a sum be subtracted from a sum?
(2) Solve the following problem in several different ways: (10 + 6)
(3 + 2).
(3) Solve the following problems using any convenient method:
(20 + 5) (10 + 2)
(60 + 7) (40 + 5)
(26 + 40 (7 + 3)
(56 + 35) (26 + 15)
6. PLACE VALUE
167
168
and the beginning of the third grade first workbook for book 3A
7. Decimals
The next stage in the development of place-value is to discuss how one
writes decimal numbers in this form. Logically, this should be deferred until
after fractions have been introduced and discussed, but this is impractical,
since decimals, justified by making change and handling money, are typically
introduced as early as first grade. However, simple fractions such as 12 , 51
1
are usually introduced and discussed in second grade.
and 10
Extending base-10 place-value to decimals. When we extend base10 place-value to decimals we find that there is a problem with timing. We
would like to use negative exponents to make the notation consistent, but
negative numbers are introduced no earlier than the fourth grade in the
United States, and they are completely integrated into the number system
only in sixth or seventh grade. On the other hand, two place decimals, as
used in money, are typically introduced in second or third grade. Thus,
initial instruction has to be in terms of extending the powers of 10 so that
each higher power of 10 is 10 the previous one, not in terms of negative
exponents.
Thus one might consider the following pattern of decreasing powers:
23
22
21
20
= 8
= 4
= 2
= 1
= ??
7. DECIMALS
169
and it should be pointed out that each row above is obtained by multiplying
by 2, so a good way of continuing is to replace ?? by 21 and then the next
row would be 14 and so on. Likewise the same argument can be applied to
powers of 10.
102 = 100
101
= 10
100
= 1
1
= 10
1
= 100
=
This gives a reasonable way of extending base-10 place-value forms and
notation.
Definition: A base-10 place-value decimal number is a number of the following kind
1
1
1
1
A + b1
+ b2
+ b3
+ bn n
10
100
1000
10
where A is a whole number or 0 written in base-10 place-value form and each
of the coefficients b1 , b2 , b3 , , bn are one of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
In each base-10 place-value decimal number there is a smallest m so that
bm 6= 0 but bi = 0 for i > m. If this m = 0 so bi = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n,
then the decimal number is just a whole number or 0. Otherwise the number
can be written in the form
b1 10n1 + b2 10n2 + + bn
A+
,
10n
so each base-10 place-value decimal number is a whole number or 0 summed
with a fraction with denominator a power of 10. Thus
1
1
1
+ 7 100
+ 0 1000
3121+ 2 10
210n1
710n2
= 3121 + 10n + 100 +
270
= 3121 + 1000
0100
1000
1
3
170
to the left of the decimal point. Hence, for (1) above we write 3121.270. In
270
27
this example the fractional part 1000
= 100
, hence we see that
3121.270 = 3121.27,
and if a zero appears as the right most term after the decimal point in a number written in base-10 place-value decimal notation, then we can suppress
it.
Exercises:
(1) What does it mean to say that the decimal system uses place value?
(2) How are the values of adjacent places in a decimal related?
(3) Describe a way to represent 12.3 with physical objects so as to show
clearly the meaning of the digits 1, 2, and 3 in 12.3.
(4) Give three different decimals that the bundled toothpicks in Figure
1 could represent. In each case, explain why the bundled toothpicks
can represent that decimal.
B
10m
171
as well for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
If A and B are decimals then exactly one the following three properties is true
(1) A < B
(2) A = B
(3) A > B
If A, B, and C are decimals and A < B, then A + C < B + C. If
also, C 6= 0, then AC < BC.
If A, B and C are decimals with A < B and B < C, then A < C.
continue to hold.
Negative exponents. At this point one can bring in negative exponents as a notational convenience.
Definition: Let n and A be whole numbers, then An is A1n .
Note that 0n is not defined. This definition should be explained by
indicating that it makes the formula Am+n = Am An work even when n is
negative. But it should also be explained that negative exponents are not
generally taught till sixth grade or more likely seventh or even eighth grade,
so the material that will transport to the classroom will be the material
discussed above that does not involve negative exponents.
8. Bringing in the Number Line
At this point it is useful to introduce the number line. This helps students see that all whole numbers can be written in base-10 place-value notation. It also helps students understand decimals.
Preparation for the number line already occurs in first grade in both the
Russian and Singapore texts: In the Russian text this is done through the
introduction of rulers. But when teaching this be aware
The number line and place-value. The number line is very helpful
in supporting place-value. One thing that can be done here is to explain
why the base ten number system lists all counting numbers via the number
line. Clarify this by counting by 10s and lay the numbers out on the number
line:
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
10
20
30
40
50
60
172
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
20
30
Finally, discuss, briefly the same process but starting with intervals of 100.
It is also worth noting that the same process can be continued for unit
intervals:
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
.....
....
.
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
..
..
...
..
..
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
..
..
1
2 10
2
2 10
3
2 10
4
2 10
5
2 10
6
2 10
7
2 10
8
2 10
9
2 10
Thus, students should see that if we have a whole number A and have
identified its place on the number line, we can look for the interval associated
to the largest power of 10, 10n , that is less than or equal to the interval from
0 to A, and lay out, end to end a sufficient number of these intervals, say
an of them, so that the next one would end up on the right of A. Note
that this number will be less than 10 since otherwise we could have used the
interval for a larger power of 10. Next, from the end of ath
n interval lay out
intervals of length 10n1 and so on. Later a very similar backwards process
of decomposing the interval from 0 to A on the number line will be used to
help explain long division.
Remark It is also important to tie the number line to the order of whole
numbers and decimals by noting that a number A represented by a point P
on the number line is less than a number B represented by a point Q if P
is to the left of Q, and conversely.
Teaching sequence: Singapore texts. In the first grade Singapore
texts the concept of the number line is prepared for as follows:
173
1
2
3
10 ; 10 ; 10 ;
9
10
and
10
10
of the segment.
....... ....... ......... ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..
..
..
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
........
..................................................................
........ . . ......
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
...
...
...
..
...
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ....... ........ ....... .......... ....... ........ ....... .......... ....... ........ ....... .......... ....... ........ ....... .......... ....... .......... ....... ........
..
..
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......... ....... ....... ....... .......... ....... ....... ....... .......... ....... ....... ....... .......... ....... ....... ....... .......... ....... .......... ....... ....
and
1
10 ;
2
5
and
3
10 ;
2
5
and
5
10
3
5
and
6
10 ;
1
5
and
2
10 ;
2
5
and
4
10 .
Teaching sequence: Singapore, grade 4. By fourth grade, Singapore has the full number line in place. For example on page 61 of the 4A
174
Remarks
(1) As these examples indicate, both these programs use the number
line to support the introduction of fractions. Such an approach to
fractions is very common in high achieving countries, and will be
the basic approach taken here in the next chapter which very closely
mirrors the methods used in countries like Romania to teach this
subject.
(2) Pre-service teachers need to study the number line in great detail
to understand both the general layout and the fact that we can
expand the level of detail at any point we want. The first point of
the following exercises is to give practice with expanding the number
line to different levels, and the second point is to help prepare to
bring this material into the classroom.
Exercises:
(1) Label the tick marks on the three number lines in the figure below
in three different ways. In each case, your labeling should fit with
the fact that the tick marks at the ends of the number lines are
longer than the other tick marks. You may further lengthen the
tick marks at either end as needed.
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
..
.
.
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
...
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
...
..
....
.
7.1
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
7.1
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
...
..
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
...
.
7.1
Label These Number Lines
(2) Label the tick marks on the three number lines in the figure below
in three different ways. In each case, your labeling should fit with
the fact that the tick marks at the ends of the number lines are
longer than the other tick marks. You may further lengthen the
175
7.1
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
7.1
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
..
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
..
...
.
7.1
Label These Number Lines
(3) Label the large tick marks on the number line in the figure below so
that both 1.3784 and 1.37521 can be plotted visibly and distinctly.
Plot the two numbers.
..
..
..
..
..
..
.. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ..
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . .
..
.
.
.
.
.
176
Instructor note: It is
probably important to
preface the discussion of
historical place value
systems by explaining
what such history is
important. Pre-service
teachers may think the
discussion is not
germane to what they
must learn in order to
teach students.
not involve place-value and involves both addition and subtraction in representing numbers. This system is limited in terms of the numbers that can
be written, and in terms of being able to do basic operations with these
symbols.
The Egyptians during the period from 3000 to 2000 years ago used a
base-10 system that was strictly additive but had a different symbol for each
power of 10 up to 106 instead of using place-value, and similar systems were
used in a number of other societies during that time. Sums and products
were relatively direct, but the need for large numbers of symbols to denote
numbers larger than 107 1 limited their flexibility.
The Mayan system was an additive place-value system nominally based
on 20, but to conform to their 360-day calendar it was modified so that the
third position was multiples of 18 20 rather than 202 to conform to their
360-day calendar. The Mayans also had a 0 and they were able to do very
sophisticated astronomical calculations in this system.
One should not entirely dismiss non-place value systems. If one has a
long number like 63,992,991,911,111 and another long number, for example
but we place them far from each other, students will typically not count
digits to check magnitude, but will guess that the second number is smaller
since the first digit is smaller. One advantage of a non-place value base 10
system like the Egyptian hieroglyphic number system is that magnitude is
easy to understand:
177
These are the basic symbols for the powers of 10. Then, using these symbols,
numbers are determined by direct addition:
It is very easy to learn the system as far as it goes. Here are some examples
of how numbers are constructed and read.
178
It is unexpected that algorithm would be a red-flag word in K - 8 education in the United State in view of what algorithms are. However, today
there is a huge argument about whether the so called standard algorithms of
arithmetic should be taught to students. Many educators claim that there
is no such thing as a standard algorithm. Many resist teaching them, arguing that they are no longer necessary or that student developed algorithms
are better. For some sample discussion of teaching algorithms taken from
current mathematical methods texts see Appendix C.
Part of the backlash against the standard algorithms comes from a desire to move mathematics-education away from a purely rote and mechanical
approach to mathematics and towards a conceptual approach. The fundamental misunderstanding is that because teachers in the US often teach the
standard algorithms in a way that is devoid of understanding, it is thought
that the standard algorithms exist as purely mechanical operations, which
couldnt be farther from the truth. In fact, a true conceptual understanding
of the standard algorithms requires an expert understanding of the mathematics of the elementary grades that is rarely found in the US, simply
because it is not systematically studied at any level, K-16. Consider the
following comparisons of a US teacher and a Chinese teacher discussing how
they might help a student understand a multi-digit multiplication problem.3
US teacher: I would go back to place value and tell them that
when they are multiplying by the ones, it is lined up with the numbers above. And when they moved to the next number, which is the
tens, it lines up with the tens. And then the next number would be
lined up with the hundreds, and so forth. (p. 34)
Chinese teacher: Since the 5 in 645 is at the ones place, it stands
for 5 ones. 123 5 = 615, it is 615 ones. So we put the 5 at the
ones place. The 4 in 645 is at the tens place, it stands for 4 tens.
123 4 = 492, it is 492 tens. So we put the 2 at the tens place...
(p. 42)
An example of an algorithm. We are given 100 blank sheets of paper
arranged in a long row. Each paper is visited in turn by a student with a
pencil. The first student puts a mark on every paper. The second student
puts a (distinct) mark on every second paper. The third student puts a
(distinct) mark on every third paper, and in general the nth student puts
a (distinct) mark on every nth paper. Since there are only 100 papers, the
process will stop after the 100th student.
The output is an ordered sequence of 100 papers, each with at least
one mark on it.
The total number of marks on the nth paper is the number of whole
number divisors that the whole number n has.
3Liping Ma, Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics: Teachers Understanding of
Fundamental Mathematics in China and the United States, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc., 1999
179
The algorithm could be modified so that the nth student puts the number
n on every nth paper. In this case the nth paper would contain a list of the
divisors of n. So the fifth paper would contain only 1 and 5, but the twelfth
paper would contain 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
The lack of total precision in describing the algorithms above is worth
noting. We do not describe the method for placing the papers in a row.
We do not describe the way we get the students to move from paper to
paper, nor the exact process by which each student determines whether to
mark the current paper or not. On the other hand, if we were to write
a computer program that realizes the algorithm, we would have to specify
all those details, yet both would be considered algorithms. Mathematicians
are generally only interested in describing the algorithm to the level of detail given here, and when they talk about constructing and understanding
algorithms, this is what they mean.
Exercises
(1) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
than 100 that are divisible by 5.
(2) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
that 200 that are divisible by 11.
(3) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
than 100 that are not divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7, or 11.
The standard algorithms. By the standard algorithms we mean the
procedures for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole
numbers and decimals written in base-10, place-value notation, that are
commonly taught in the United States public school system, described at
a conceptual level as was the case in the examples above. The algorithms
that educators regard as distinct, mathematicians regard as simply different
implementations of these algorithms.
In this and the next four sections we will discuss the standard algorithms
in more detail and fill in their descriptions. For the moment it suffices to
point out that
All the fundamental properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division for decimals are reflected in these algorithms.
They are correct and extremely efficient, so they provide wonderful
examples for students to study.
The processes underlying these algorithms appear again and again
in more advanced areas of mathematics, so understanding the standard algorithms properly provides students with core preparation
for learning and understanding more advanced material.
Both teachers and students need to understand the concepts underlying
the standard algorithms and why these algorithms work. While students
will sometimes find clever ways to solve specific problems and teachers need
180
181
(2) second, add the digits attached to a fixed power of 10 in the expanded forms, and do so from the smallest power of 10 to the
largest,
(3) third, if the sum of the digits attached to a fixed power of 10 in
the second step exceeds a single digit, carry the excess to the sums
involving the higher powers of 10. (It may happen that these overflows involve more than just one power of 10.)
The standard algorithm for addition of a finite set of whole numbers could
be described at a greater level of detail as follows: Assume that all numbers
are already written in base 10 notation. We begin with a whole number
to be called Total. This Total is initially set equal to 0, but after each
iteration of the six steps below it will be reset until eventually it ends up
being the sum of all the numbers in the given list.
(1) Find the smallest power of 10 so that at least one number in the set
has a non-zero digit attached to this power of 10, and call it 10min .
(If there is no such number, then stop.)
(2) Add all the terms involving 10min in each number in the list.
(3) Write the sum as A 10min where A is a single digit whole number,
plus w 10min+1 , where w is a whole number.
(4) Add the term A 10min to total
(5) Set all the digits attached to the power 10min to 0 in each number
in the list, and adjoin w 10min+1 to the list.
(6) Repeat with the new list and total.
182
1
3
2
3
2
1
3
5
4
4
3
5
5
7
6
7
5
6
8
9
7
7
9
+ 8
2
1
3
1
3
2
4
3
5
5
4
3
6
5
7
6
7
5
7
8
9
8
7
9
3
2
1
2
1
3
5
4
3
3
5
4
7
6
5
5
6
7
9
7
8
9
8
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
so that, in the above notation, A = 0 and w = 12. Thus the total remains
0, and the number 1200 is adjoined to the original list. The new sum is
183
therefore
1
1
3
2
3
2
1
3
5
4
4
3
5
5
7
6
7
5
6
8
9
7
7
9
+ 8
2
2
1
3
1
3
2
4
3
5
5
4
3
6
5
7
6
7
5
7
8
9
8
7
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 first carry
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The least power of 10 with at least one non-zero digit attached to it is now
102 , (so that min = 2). When we add all the terms involving 102 we obtain
12 103 + 2 102 . Thus A is now equal to 2 and w = 12. So we reset the
total from 0 to 0 + 2 102 = 200, change every digit attached to 102 in
each of the numbers in the list to 0, and adjoin7 12 103 = 12000 to the
7It might seem odd to pre-service teachers to be changing the problem as we go by adding
these carries to the list. Depending on the implementation of the algorithm, one could handle
the carries as a separate sum or by placing them at the bottom of the list. To a mathematician
this is immaterial, but there might be pedagogical reasons to prefer a different implementation.
It should also be understood that this is not necessarily something that should import directly
into classroom instruction. However, it is very important that pre-service teachers have a deeper
understanding of these basic algorithms than is currently expected. A careful study of this example
should help here.
184
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
second carry
0 changed first carry
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10min is now 103 and when we add the terms in each expansion involving
103 we obtain 123000 = 12 104 + 3 103 . Thus w = 12, A = 3, and the
new total is 200 + 3 103 = 3200. By setting all the digits attached to
103 equal to 0, every number becomes 0 except the first one, which changes
from 12000 to 10000. Now adjoin 12 104 to the list and suppress the terms
which are 0. Then the sum just involves the carries and becomes
1 2 0 0 0 0
third carry
+ 1 0 0 0 0 changed second carry
So the total is 3200 + 130000 = 133, 200.
Note that the algorithm works for the addition of any finite set of whole
numbers. The example above is meant to show this. It is also meant to
show the delicacy involved in handling the carries. They can be quite large
if there is a sufficiently long list of numbers to sum, but a good algorithm
should work equally well no matter how large the set of numbers may be.
Some of the pre-service teachers may object that one would never sum such
a long list by hand if this example is used. This would be a very good time
185
to discuss averaging real data where such long sums arise naturally. It is
worth noting that entering a long list into a calculator with the problems
of key-press errors could well be slower than adding by hand.8 But, above
all, it should be strongly emphasized that sometimes one has to work a
somewhat extreme example to break through restrictive mind-sets. This
type of material is basic for
showing students the core concepts involved in understanding how
computers and algorithms work, how one writes computer programs, and why one should avoid addition programs that only work
with, say, two numbers,
algorithms and the ability to construct correct and efficient algorithms underlie virtually all applications of mathematics and much
of mathematics itself. It is far more important that students understand this material than that they become highly skilled at things
like, for example, mental math.
It should be made clear to the pre-service teachers that there are a number
of different ways one could realize the program but that, mathematically,
they all represent the same algorithm.
A completely detailed description of exactly how one does all the steps,
for example, putting the overflow above or below the existing summands,
would not, mathematically, represent a different algorithm, simply a different realization of the algorithm. Moreover, it would generally assume that
lower level algorithms, such as adding two numbers between 0 and 9, are
known. A fully detailed realization of an algorithm could be translated, line
by line, into a computer program, (assuming the computer had the same
built in core knowledge), while many processes have to be filled in with
most algorithms.
When one has an algorithm, it is important to know that it is correct,
and to know when the algorithm is valid. Knowing that an algorithm is
correct means two things. The first is that it will give the correct result for
the range of inputs where it is valid. The second is that it yields the correct
answer in finite time. An algorithm that runs forever is not useful.
These considerations often color our preferences. For example, it is very
easy to verify that the addition algorithm, described above, stops. On the
other hand, it is sometimes suggested that students should learn an addition
algorithm that involves adding the coefficients of the largest powers of 10,
in other words, adding from left to right. While it is possible to realize an
addition algorithm which starts from the left with the largest power of 10
8It is also worth pointing out that these algorithms are actually realized as the internal
programming in the very calculators that one might use to produce these sums.
186
187
Initial
Conditions
Operate
Operate
Test
STOP
=
=
=
=
=
=
(30 + 5) + (20 + 1)
(30 + 20) + (5 + 1)
(1)
56
27 + 16
(20 + 7) + (10 + 8)
(20 + 10) + (7 + 6) In adding two-digit numbers,
(2)
43
tens can be added to tens and
ones to ones.
(a) Solve the following problems, an explain your answers: 62 + 34
28 + 35
Instructor note: It is
worth noting to
pre-service students the
importance of having
students explain how
problems were solved.
Student explanations
provide teachers with a
rich source of
knowledge that can be
used to address
misunderstandings.
188
189
and they should be able to explain what each step is and why it
works.
Here is the discussion of this step in the second grade Russian
text translated by UCSMP. (pp. 253 - 257)
(3) Explain how the three-digit numbers are added together:
246 + 123
=
=
=
=
(200 + 40 + 6) + (100 + 20 + 3)
(200 + 100) + (40 + 20) + (6 + 3)
300 + 60 + 9
369
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6 4
+ 6 2 5
190
(5) Read the explanation and write the solution to the following problem:
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2 5 4
+ 4 4 6
7 2 9
+ 2 7 1
6 0 9
7 0 0
1 0 0 0
(7) Solve the problems, writing them in columns whenever you have
trouble adding them orally:
127 + 503
264 + 306
626 + 83
732 + 64
53 + 227
27 + 843
448 + 160
528 + 200
(8)
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191
3 7 1
+ 4 6 8
8 3 9
Here is the way in which this lesson is handled in the third grade Singapore
text, Book 3A
Exercise:
(1) Describe advantages and disadvantages for each of these regrouping
methods for implementing the addition algorithm:
(a)
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
4 0 0
1 2 0
1 4
5 3 4
(b)
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
1
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
3 4
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
5 3 4
192
(c)
1
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
4
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
3 4
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
5 3 4
[Note that (c) changes the problem as you go and addition is slightly
more difficult because you increase the top number, hold it in your
head rather than see it, then add it to the bottom number.]
Teaching sequence: subtraction, grade 3, Russia. The development of the subtraction algorithm, together with a clear understanding of
why and how it works mirrors the development of the algorithm for addition
in the second and third grade Russian texts translated by UCSMP.
On p. 27 of the second grade text we find the following discussion:
(1) Solve the following problems using any convenient method:
(70 + 8) (30 + 6)
(50 + 9) (20 + 7)
= (30 + 7) (10 + 4)
= (30 10) + 7 4)
= 23
(3) Solve the following problems, and explain how you solved them:
65 21
87 53
(4)
76 34
89 51
18 + 45
28 26
9 + 16 7
8 + 39 5
76 + 24 83
17 + 38 44
=
=
=
=
(60 + 4) (20 + 3)
(60 20) + (4 3)
40 + 1
41
=
=
=
=
(400 + 80 + 5) (200 + 30 + 1)
(400 200) + (80 30) + (5 1)
200 + 50 + 4
254
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5 6 3
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Explanation. 8 units cannot be subtracted from 5 units. Therefore, we take 1 ten from the 7 tens and place a dot above the digit 7
as a reminder. 1 ten and 5 units is 15 units. We subtract 8 from the
15 units and write the answer under the units. We then subtract
194
the tens, recalling that 1 ten has already been taken in subtracting the units . . . . Complete the solution and explanation of this
problem.
(4) Explain the solutions to the following problems:
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8 2 6
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Exercises:
(2) Explain clearly and concretely why we regroup the way we do when
we use the standard subtraction algorithm to subtract
1
0 2
8
(3) Using the example 305 7, explain the logic behind the regrouping
process.
(4) What specific feature of the decimal systems use of place value do
we use when we regroup in addition or subtraction? Explain.
(5) A store owner buys small, novelty party favors in bags of one dozen
and boxes of one dozen bags (for a total of 144 favors in a box). The
store owner has 7 boxes, 2 bags, and 1 individual party favors at the
start of the month. At the end of the month, the store owner has 2
boxes, 8 bags, and 6 individual party favors left. How many favors
did the store owner sell? Give the answer in terms of boxes, bags,
and individual favors. Solve this problem by working with a sort of
expanded form for these party favors, in other words, working with
7 boxes + 2 bags + 1 individual
2 boxes + 8 bags + 6 individual
Solve this problem by regrouping between the boxes, bags, and individual party favors.
195
The instructor should, of course, be aware that the problem above is just
straightforward subtraction but in base 12, and it should be pointed out
that the difficulties pre-service teachers have with this problem will be mirrored by students working with base 10 numbers. It takes time to develop
proficiency, and it doesnt transfer very well. The next two problems expand
on this theme.
(6) Erin wants to figure out how much time elapsed from 10:55 am to
11:30 am. Erin does the following:
0
1 61
1 0
0
12
:
:
:
10
63 60
5 5
7 5
5.6
2.3
+ 4.7
12.6
saying that Jane will have a piece of rope that is 120 600 long. Is
George right? If not, explain what is wrong with his approach and
explain how George can modify his method to make it correct.
(8) To solve 201 88, a student writes the following equations
200 90
= 110 + 1
= 111 + 2
= 113.
Although the student has a good idea for solving the problem, the
equations are not correct. In words, describe the students solution
strategy and discuss why the strategy makes sense. Then write
a correct sequence of equations that correspond to this solution
196
= some expression
= some expression
.
= ..
= 113.
=
=
=
=
90 + 10
100 + 100
200 + 1
201
2 + 10
= 12 + 100
= 112 + 1
= 113.
Although the student has a good idea for solving the problem, the
equations are not correct. In words, describe the students solution
strategy and discuss why the strategy makes sense. Then write
correct equations that correspond to this solution strategy.
(10) To solve 201 88, a student writes the following:
8 8
+ 2
2
+ 1 0
9 0
+ 1 0
1 0
1 0
2 0
+
2
0
0
0
1
1 2
0 0
1 2
+ 1
1 3
201 88 = 113
0 1
In words describe the students strategy and discuss why the strategy makes sense.
(11) Two students want to solve 4.23 1.97 by first solving 4.23 2.00 =
2.23. The first student says that they must subtract .03 from 2.23,
but the second says that they must add .03 to 2.23.
(a) Which student is correct and why. Explain in words which
answer is correct and why it is correct. Do not just say which
answer is numerically correct. Use reasoning to explain why
it is correct. Imagine that you are giving this explanation to
actual students.
(b) Use the number line to help you explain which answer is correct
and why it is correct. (You may wish to use a number line that
197
is not drawn perfectly to scale, but that helps you illustrate the
ideas.)
12. Algorithms: Multiplication
Introduction. Multiplication is associative and commutative as is addition. The basic property that relates multiplication and addition is the
distributive rule a(b + c) = ab + ac. If we have a way of expanding numbers in terms of simpler terms as we do when we write numbers in base-10
place-value notation, then we can expand the resulting product
(A1 + A2 + Am )(B1 + B2 + Bs )
as a sum
A1 B1 + A1 B2 + A1 Bs + A2 B1 + + A2 Bs + Am Bs
In turn we can regroup this sum in any way that is convenient and, perhaps
perform the addition more efficiently.
The algorithms that we are aware of for multiplying two decimal numbers
all have this form. We begin this section with a discussion of three different
ways of using the distributive rule to produce multiplication algorithms.
The standard multiplication algorithm. The essence of the standard multiplication algorithm for multiplying two decimal numbers written
in base-10 place-value form
an 10n + an1 10n1 + a0 1 + b1
1
1
1
+ b2
+ + bm m
10
100
10
is to choose one of the two as the first number and, using the distributive
rule, decompose the product as
a0k 10k (an 10n + + bm
1
1
1
) + + b0s s (an 10n + + bm m )
m
10
10
10
Since 10t 10w = 10t+w the powers of 10 in the above expansion just shift
answers to the left t places, while multiplication by 101 t shifts answers to the
right t places. Thus evaluating each term
a0s 10s (an 10n + + bm
1
)
10m
198
23.11 37.23
312.4 78.39.
199
B can vary wildly even though the number of digits in the base 10 expansion
is held fixed, the number of operations needed to calculate the product can
also vary wildly.
Exercise:
(4) Apply the Egyptian algorithm to the following products 63 5,
63 15, 63 31.
Teaching sequence: standard algorithm, Russia. Let us now look
at the way the standard algorithm is introduced in practice.
In chapter 3 4, we give the definitions and a discussion from the Russian
third grade text translated by UCSMP related to multiplication and division,
culminating in a discussion of the long division algorithm. We expand on
that discussion now.
Shortly after the definition of the product ab as the number of elements
in a equal groups of b, we find the following problem:
(1) Explain the method of solution:
426 3
=
=
=
=
(400 + 20 + 6) 3
400 3 + 20 3 + 6 3
1, 200 + 60 + 18
1, 278
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2, 315 3
23, 486 2
862, 562 4
200
6
8
3 6 8
4 6
3 0
3 6 8
+ 1 3 8 0
3 8 0
1 7 4 8
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202
203
= some expression
= some expression
.. ..
..
= 40.
(9) What property of arithmetic are you using when you think of the
5 multiplication table as half of the 10 table? Explain.
(10) To calculate 4 60 mentally, we can just calculate 4 6 = 24 and
then put a zero on the end to get the answer, 240. Use the figure
below to help you explain why this method of calculation is valid.
204
(b) Draw pictures showing two different ways that Ashley could
use the multiplication facts she knows well to determine 6 7.
In each case, write an equation that corresponds to the picture
and that shows how 6 7 is related to other multiplication
facts.
(14) Tamar calculated 41 41 as follows:
Four 4s is 16, so four 40s is 160 and forty 40s
is 1600. Then forty-one 40s is another 40 added on,
which is 1640. So forty-one 41s is 41 more, which is
1681.
(a) Explain briefly why it makes sense for Tamar to solve the problem the way she does. What is the idea behind her strategy?
(b) Write equations that incorporate Tamars work and that show
clearly why Tamars method calculates the correct answer to
41 41. Which properties of arithmetic did Tamar use (knowingly or not) and where? Be thorough and be specific. Write
your equations in the following format:
41 41
= some expression
= some expression
.. ..
..
= 1681.
205
= some expression
= some expression
.. ..
..
= 336.
= some expression
= some expression
..
.
206
3 4
3 4
2 7
2 3 8
0
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
Explain why we place this zero in the second line. What is the
rationale behind the procedure of placing a zero in the second line?
Suppose you have a calculator which displays only 8 digits (and if
you have a fancy calculator, you will be allowed to use only 8 digits!), but you have to calculate 856164298 65. Discuss an effcient
method to make use of the calculator to help with the computation.
Explain. Do the same for 376241048 872.
A student thinks that because 30 40 = 1200, and 1 1 = 1, it
follows that 31 41 = 1200 + 1 = 1201. Draw a picture and use
your picture to help you explain to the student how 30 40 and
31 41 are actually related. (A rough picture will do, your picture
does not have to be drawn perfectly to scale.)
Explain the rationale for the following rule: if you multiply a number that has 3 digits to the right of its decimal point by a number
that has 4 digits to the right of its decimal point, you should place
the decimal point 3 + 4 = 7 places from the end of the product that
is calculated by ignoring the decimal points. Work with powers of
10 to explain why this rule makes sense.
Explain the rationale for the following rule: if you multiply a number that has M digits to the right of its decimal point by a number
that has N digits to the right of its decimal point, you should place
the decimal point M + N places from the end of the product that
is calculated by ignoring the decimal points. Work with powers of
10 to explain why this rule makes sense.
Lameisha used a calculator to determine that 1.5 1.2 = 1.8.
Lameisha wants to know why the rule about adding up the number of places to the right of the decimal point doesnt work in this
case. Why arent there 2 digits to the right of the decimal point
in the answer? Is Lameisha correct that the rule about adding the
number of places to the right of the decimal points is not correct
in this case? Discuss this. Include a careful statement of the rule
about where to put the decimal point in a decimal multiplication
problem.
207
208
(2) Round 124.56 to the nearest ten. Explain in words why you round
the decimal the way you do. Use a number line to support your
explanation.
(3) Maya has made up her own method of rounding. Starting at the
right-most place in a decimal, she keeps rounding to the value of
the next place to the left until she reaches the place to which the
decimal was to be rounded. For example, Maya would use the
following steps to round 3.2716 to the nearest tenth:
3.27163.2723.273.3.
Is Mayas method a valid way to round? Explain why or why not.
In the above problem, get students to see the importance of a definition for
rounding, and to distinguish what one wants to accomplish in the process
from the definition being used. Also, it should be pointed out that the process above is closely related to what happens in calculators due to truncation
errors.
(4) The distance between two cities is described as 2100 miles. Should
you assume that this is the exact distance between the cities? If
not, what can you say about the exact distance between the cities?
(5) Johnny is solving the multiplication problem 13.8 1.42 by multiplying longhand. Ignoring the decimal points, Johnny gets 19596,
and now he must figure out where the decimal point goes. Explain
how Johnny could use reasoning about the sizes of the numbers to
figure out where the decimal point should go in his answer if he
doesnt know the rule about adding the number of places behind
the decimal points in 13.8 and 1.42.
At this point we return to a discussion of division with remainder, now
from the point of view that writing b = ma + c with 0 c < a gets as close
to b with multiples of a as we can, though we have, somewhat arbitrarily
decided that we will not allow ma to be larger than b even though it could
happen that the product (m + 1)a is actually closer to b than is ma. For
example 33 7 = 4 with a remainder of 5 though 5 7 = 35 is closer to 33.
One can then ask the question, what happens if we try to find even closer
approximations - division with remainder to tenths instead of integers? We
could take the problem above 33 7, and note that
4.1 7
4.2 7
4.3 7
4.4 7
4.5 7
4.6 7
4.7 7
4.8 7
4.9 7
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
28.7
29.4
30.1
30.8
31.5
32.2
32.9
33.6
34.3
209
so 33 = 4.67 with a remainder of .1. Draw this on the number line. This is
sufficient preparation for long division which is discussed in the next section.
14. Algorithms: Division
One of the most important summative steps in preparing students for
algebra and higher mathematics generally is understanding why the long division algorithm works. Underlying it are all the properties, commutative,
associative and distributive of addition and subtraction, as well as a precise
understanding of the base-10 place-value representation of numbers and a
precise undertstanding of the definitions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The following points should probably be discussed:
(1) The method of successive approximation that students learn here
will, later, help students understand convergence. It also is one of
the most important applications of approximation,
(2) Looking ahead to algebra, long division is the method used to divide
polynomials, and, if students do not understand the process of long
division, then it will be that much harder for them to succeed in
understanding polynomials.
(3) Properly presented, it leads students to an appreciation of one of
the key points of mathematics - putting things into their cleanest
form so they can be done most efficiently. At the same time, when
one does this, one is often able to see deeper aspects of the situation
more clearly.
(4) It should not be necessary that students drill on the algorithm excessively or learn to use it in every circumstance. If they can handle long division by a single digit number fluently, and have some
practice with long division by a two digit number, as well as some
excercises that involve the decimal place, this should be sufficient.
Teaching sequence: long division.
Since pre-service teachers often have great difficulty with long
division it is almost certainly essential to cover the process
in detail.
We completely unfurl an explicit example of the long division algorithm to
illustrate how the basic properties of numbers and the operations of addition,
subraction, and multiplication are put together to produce long division.
Consider the division of 3712 by 9. We are looking for whole numbers q
and r so that 3712 = q 9 + r, where r is less than 9. This is the precise
way of writing down the division-with-remainder of 3712 divided by 9 with
quotient q and remainder r.
The long division algorithm gives a step-by-step approximation to the
quotient q, one digit at at time, starting with the digit corresponding to
the largest power of 10 in q and working downwards exactly the opposite
order from the way in which we usually do addition, subtraction, and multiplication. First, can q be a 4-digit number? No, because if it were, then
210
q 9 would be at least 9,000, which is larger than 3712 whereas the equality
3712 = q 9 + r implies that q 9 is smaller than 3712. However, q must
have three digits because 100 9 = 900 < 3712 < 8100 = 900 9. The
first digit of q has place value 100, so that if it is 1, q 9 would be at least
900, and if it is 2, then q 9 would be at least 200 9 = 1, 800, etc. Now
400 9 = 3600 < 3712, while 500 9 = 4500 which is larger than 3712. We
conclude that the leading digit of q is 4. Remembering that q is a 3-digit
number, we may write q as q = 400 + q 0 , where q 0 is a 2-digit number.
From 3712 = q 9 + r, we obtain
3712 = (400 + q 0 ) 9 + r,
which, by the distributive property, leads to 3712 = (3600 + q 0 9) + r, and
by the associative property, we have:
3712 = 3600 + (q 0 9 + r).
We can rewrite this as:
3712 3600 = q 0 9 + r,
i.e., 112 = q 0 9 + r. In terms of the usual representation of long division,
we have:
4
.....................................................
...
9 ....... 3712
3600
...................................................
112
Now look at 112 = q 0 9 + r. This is the division-with-remainder of 112
divided by 9 with q 0 as quotient and r as remainder. We repeat the reasoning
above and search for the leading digit of q 0 (recall that this is the tens digit
of q). We do the same approximations as before and conclude that the
leading digit of q 0 must be 1. Thus, q 0 = 10 + Q, where Q is a single-digit
number. So 112 = q 0 9 + r becomes 112 = (10 + Q) 9 = r, which is
112 = 90+Q9+r, or, 11290 = Q9+r. Thus we have 22 = Q9+r.
In the usual representation, we have
41
9 3712
3600
...................................................
112
90
.................................
22
.....................................................
...
.
...
...
211
412
9 3712
3600
...................................................
112
90
.................................
22
18
............................
4
.....................................................
...
..
...
..
Unfurling the details of the algorithm and understanding the why of each
step gives pre-service teachers and, ultimately, students crucial experience
with the core types of reasoning that are essential for success in algebra as
well as experience with multistep processes.
Summary of the steps. When we summarize the division above we see
more clearly the steps involved. They are all simple and direct, and it is
hard to see how any one can be skipped:
3712 =
=
=
=
=
=
=
(400 + q 0 ) 9 + r
(400 9) + (q 0 9) + r
(400 9) + (10 + Q) 9 + r
(400 9) + (10 9) + (Q 9) + r
(400 9) + (10 9) + (2 9) + 4
(400 + 10 + 2) 9 + 4
412 9 + 4
(distributive property)
(q 0 = 10 + Q)
(distributive property)
(22 = 3712 3690 = 2 9 + 4)
(distributive property)
212
1, 600 800
3, 600 900
5, 400 600
(a) The same technique can be used in the case of a division which
leaves a remainder: 152 40
Explanation. There will be one digit in the quotient. Let us find out how
many units there will be in the quotient. We divide 152 by 10 and divide
the resulting quotient 15 by 4, obtaining 3.
Let us find out how many units were divided. We multiply 40 by 3, obtaining
120.
Let us find out how many units were not divided. We subtract 120 from
152, obtaining 32. This is the remainder.
152 40 = 3 (Remainder 32).
213
214
Exercises:
(1) Pretend that you dont know any kind of longhand method of division. Explain how you can use reasoning to solve 495 35. It may
help you to work with a story problem.
(2) Wu has been making errors on his division problems. Here are some
samples of Wus work:
150 7
372 8
154 12
= 21.3
= 46.4
= 12.10.
215
10k
= 9 + 1,
= 99 + 1,
= 999 + 1
.
..
=
= |99 {z
. . . 9} +1.
ktimes
56
56 9 5
= 9 5 + (5 + 6)
= 5+6
should be written down. But since this difference is 11, and 11 is not
divisible by 9, 9 does not divide 56. Indeed, the remainder on division of
56 by 9 is 2 which is the remainder of 11 divided by 9. It is important that
every step be written down here and, as needed, discussed.
Now put things together to arrive at the conclusion that every counting
number can be written as the sum of a number divisible by 9 plus the sum
of the digits. Thus 371 is the sum of 3 99 + 7 9 and 3 + 7 + 1. Conclude
that a counting number is divisible by three if and only if the sum of the
digits is divisible by 3. Similarly, it is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum
of the digits is divisible by 9.
The next simplest case is 11.
216
10k
=
=
=
=
=
=
11 1,
99 + 1
11 9 + 1
1001 1
11 91 1,
99 101 + 1,
.
..
=
= 11 Nk + (1)k .
1000
=
=
=
=
=
100 10
(99 + 1) (11 1)
99 11 + 1 11 99 1 1
11 90 + 11 1 1
11 91 1
and from this get the class to generalize so that they see the result
10k = 11 Nk + (1)k .
Use this to show that a counting number is divisible by 11 if and only
if the alternating sum of its digits is divisible by 11. Thus 473 = 43 11
and 374 = 34 11 are both divisible by 11.
Exercises:
(4) Using only the digits 2, 4, and 6, write down the six three digit
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
counting numbers that use each of these three digits exactly once
in their base 10 expansion. Show that each number is divisible
by 6. Is 6 the largest number that divides all six of these numbers
evenly?
(a) Show that a two digit counting number such as 56 is divisible
by 7 if and only if 3 the tens digit added to the ones digit
is divisible by 7. (In the case of 56, three times the tens digit
plus the ones digit is 15 + 6 = 21 which is divisible by 7, and
56 = 7 8.)
(b) Show that a three digit counting number such as 252 is divisible by 7 if and only if two times the hundreds digit plus 3
times the tens digit plus the ones digit is divisible by 7.
Show that 4 divides a counting number if and only if, when the
number is written in base 10 two times the 10s digit added to the
1s digit is divisible by 4. Example: for 3672, two times the tens
digit plus the ones digit is 14 + 2 = 16.
What is the condition that 6 divide a counting number?
Show that if a counting number with base 10 expansion a0 +10a1 +
100a2 + + ak 10k is divisible by 11, then the counting number
217
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105
.....
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35
........
..... .........
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Perhaps describe (or better, get the class to describe) an algorithm for
factoring a number by dividing the number by the smallest prime that
divides it, so N = p1 N1 , and point out that no prime smaller than p1 can
divide N1 since, otherwise, this smaller prime would divide N .
Point out that this material, in a very real sense, represents one of the
main beginnings of algebra as does the material on place value.
Exercises:
(10) Which of the numbers 63, 71, 72, 77, 101, 111, 169, 181 and 207
are prime. What are the prime decompositions of the composite
numbers in this list?
The key fact that needs to be stated here is the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic - every counting number is written uniquely as a product of
primes p1 pn with p1 p2 pn . That is to say, any two
methods of obtaining a prime factorization for the counting number n will
give exactly the same set of prime factors, though the order in which the
factors are found might differ.
218
219
same area:
In the second part of the grade three text fractions continue to be developed using an area model, but the level of sophistication as increased
significantly:
In the fourth grade the area model is moved systematically towards seeing
fractions on the number line as the basic operations of addition and subtraction of fractions are developed:
220
221
Remark: If possible, pre-service teachers should understand that fractions are an extension of the counting numbers.
Exercises:
(From the sixth grade Russian text by Nurk and Telgmaa) P. 88-89:
1
4
222
223
224
There were 7 boxes of blue pens and red pens. Therre were 12 pens
in each box. If there were 36 red pens, how many blue pens were
there?
After the discussion of equivalent fractions we find problems like
this:
Find the missing numerator or denominator.
(1) 14 = 12
(2) 23 = 6
8
= 4
(3) 10
Early development, Russian program, grade 3. While the Singapore standards would be highly challenging for US students according to
current expectations, the Russian expectations are even more challenging.
In the third grade Russian text, the notions of speed and the relationship
between speed, time and distance are introduced on page 82.
(1) A train traveled for 3 hours and covered a total of 180km. Each
hour it traveled the same distance. How many kilometers did the
train cover each hour
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180
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(2) In 10 minutes a plane flew 150 km. covering the same distance each
minute. How many kilometers did it fly each minute?
We may say that the train traveled at at velocity (speed) of 60
km per hour, and that the plane flew at a velocity of 15 km per
minute.
(1) Make up two problems in which it is necessary to find the velocity
when we know the distance and time of travel. Solve them.
225
(2) How can we find a velocity if we know the distance and the time of
travel? The velocity is equal to the distance divided by the time.
This may be written a a formula:
s
v=
t
where the letter v denotes the velocity, s is distance and t is time.
(1) A pedestrian walked for 3 hours, traveling at a speed of 5 km per
hour. What distance did the pedestrian cover in this time?
(2) Write the problem out in a table and solve it
(3) How can distance be found if the velocity and travel time are
known?
Distance is equal to velocity multiplied by time. This may be
written as a formula:
s=vt
(1) Make up a problem in which it is necessary to find a distance from
a known velocity and time. Solve it.
(2) A freight train covered a distance of 240 km in 6 hr., and a passenger
train covered the distance in 4 hr. How much greater is the speed
of the passenger train than the speed of the freight train?
(3) A passenger traveled 90 km by us. The speed of the bus was 45 km
per hour. How long did the passenger travel by bus? Write out the
problem in a table an solve it.
(4) A lauch traveled a distance of 90 km at a speed of 30 km per hour.
It spent one hour more on the return trip. How many hours did it
take the launch to complete the return trip?
Methods for directly approaching proportions in fourth and fifth grade
are discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 5
228
Additionally, we should keep in mind that school mathematics is ultimately the mathematics of rational numbers, so that the development of
fractions during the second four years of instruction becomes especially important as it builds the foundations for almost all of the mathematics and
its applications all the way through high school.2
A second reason for the importance of fractions is that students are
not given a second chance to revisit fractions after grade 7, except those few
who will become mathematics majors in college. Even our math majors only
revisit fractions around their junior year in college when they take a course
in abstract algebra. For the overwhelming majority of school students, what
they learn about fractions (i.e., rational numbers in general) in grades 4 to
7 must serve them for the rest of their lives.3
A third reason for a mathematically careful treatment of fractions is that
as students progress through the school curriculum, algebra would be the
stop right after fractions. The subject of fractions is therefore the bridge to
algebra. If the bridge is not robust, the learning of algebra can be gravely
compromised.
A final reason why the teaching of fractions matters is that (finite) decimals are a special class of fractions,4 so that when fractions are badly taught,
students knowledge of decimals also suffers. Because scientific data are expressed in finite decimals, the failure in the teaching of fractions not only
reinforces math-phobia but science-phobia as well. In 8 - 10 we give a
careful discussion of decimals, distinguishing finite from infinite decimals,
and giving examples of ultimately periodic decimals that initially appear to
have one period, then another, and only after a long time finally exhibit their
actual period. Such examples need to be seen and studied by pre-service
teachers.
The need for mathematical rigor in the teaching of fractions is well justified. The first step in achieving this rigor is to give a definition of a number
that applies simultaneously to whole numbers, integers and fractions. This
insures that there is continuity in going from whole numbers to fractions,
an issue that was already mentioned above. Why this kind of continuity
is important can be inferred from a statement made by a teacher, to the
effect that fractions are so difficult for a child because they are a totally new
kind of number. We have to minimize this misconception, and by so doing,
we are likely to help provide stability for childrens learning processes. Unless she understands through experience that what she learns today will not
be superseded tomorrow, a child has little incentive to learn material more
deeply than is required for the next exam.
2School mathematics can use some clarification of the relationship between rational numbers
and real numbers; see 14 below for further discussion.
3For this reason, when university professors complain about the inability of calculus students
to compute correctly, they are unwittingly criticizing the teaching of fractions back in grades 5 to
7.
4Keep in mind that there are fractions which are not (finite) decimals.
229
There are many ways to define a number. We believe that the simplest
one for school mathematics is to realize a number as a point on the number
line. Once we have a definition of a number, fractions can be defined, in
the sense that we actually put our cards on the table and tell teachers and
students alike that from now on, this is what we mean by a fraction and,
moreover, we will all abide by this single meaning of a fraction. Any future
statement about fractions will be traced to this one single meaning and
justified in terms of this meaning.
We have explained why it is necessary to achieve some measure of rigor
in the teaching of fractions and why, in the discussion below, some abstractions are inevitable. On the other hand, the need for rigor in the teaching
of fractions must be moderated by the needs of teachers and students in
grades 4 to 7. From a university perspective, one can dispose of the issue
of rigor quite trivially by pointing to the treatment of fractions in abstract
algebra. The idea of introducing fractions as equivalence classes of ordered
pairs of integers was in fact tried out during the New Math. This proved
difficult because students coming to grade five are grounded in their conception of fractions as parts of a whole. In a vague sense, Ordered pairs
and equivalence classes fit students experiences of ratios (e.g., as 3 : 5)
rather than as fractions. Our proposed treatment of fractions in pre-service
professional development must therefore respect this reality and address the
subject in a way that is at once correct and appropriate for this grade level.
Therefore we will start with the definition of fractions as parts of a whole.
It is here that the number line enters and makes possible a formulation of
this naive concept into a more precise one. Using the interval from 0 to 1
as the whole, fractions become points or intervals on the number line defined in a specific manner. There is no room for ambiguity in this definition,
and there is also no need in this approach to invoke any extra-mathematical
considerations in explaining all that needs explanation in the subject of
fractions.
The specific needs of elementary teachers affect professional development not only on this global level, but with respect to many subtle details
as well. Consider the simple example of asking how long a piece of wood is
if it is one of the parts when a two-yard stick is cut into three equal parts
(in terms of length). A mathematician would reply without thinking that
it is two-thirds of a yard and, if asked why this is correct, would probably
be tongue-tied for a few seconds because the problem is too trivial for an
explanation. After some struggle, the response might be that 2 divided by
3 should give the equi-division of 2 into 3 parts, and 2 divided by 3 is what
the fraction 32 means. To a mathematician, a fraction is division. To a fifth
grader, however, 32 is not a division. Rather, it is 2 parts when a pie is divided into 3 equal parts, or at least this is what every student is taught. But
by using this division interpretation as a meaning of 23 , we create doubts
in the minds of children about what a fraction really is at a time when the
progression from whole numbers to the shadowy concept of part-whole is
230
231
whole numbers a and b, with b not equal to 0, is the fractions. The number
a
b is called the fraction with numerator a and denominator b.
It is more intuitive to express the above by using the language of length.
The segment [0, ab ] from 0 to ab is said to have length ab , as is every segment
congruent to [0, ab ]. Then we can describe the fraction ab as the point on the
number line obtained by reproducing a segment of length 1b a-times to the
right of 0. The segment [0, 1] is called the unit segment.
As a consequence of the definition, we see that the whole numbers are
part of the positive fractions.
This definition of fractions is a transcription to the number line of the
usual conception of fractions as parts of a whole, the whole in this case
being the unit segment, or in fact any segment of the same length. When
the location of the number 0 is understood, then the role of the number 1
deserves special attention. The location of each fraction ab on the number line
depends on the location of the numbers 0 and 1. Thus fractions cannot
be defined until the unit segment has been fixed on a given number
line. This fact is fundamental in any discussion of fractions,5 and needs to
be emphasized for teachers: the size of any fraction ab depends on the size
of the 1 whole that has been equi-factored into equal parts.
To illustrate the efficacy of this definition of a fraction, suppose we let the
unit 1 be the area represented by a pie. The fraction 21 would then be any
subset of the pie with area equal to half of the pie. So it could be one of the
two portions when the pie is cut along a diameter, or it could be the union
of any two sectors when the pie is cut along perpendicular diameters into
four sectors, etc. With this unit in place, the concept of a fraction can now
be illustrated along the line of the traditional presentation, but with three
pronounced differences. First, we can afford to look at this presentation as
an illustration of a precise concept but not as the concept itself. Second, in
this example, a fraction is the area of a particular subset of a pie, not just
the subset itself, because the unit 1 is, we repeat, the area represented by
the pie. When this fact is made clear to students, we would at least be in
the position of explaining why none of the three pieces of pie below is 13 .
............................................
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5Mathematicians would readily perceive a sleight of hand here: in any discussion of fractions
(or numbers in general), we are assuming a number line has been fixed during the discussion.
Strictly speaking, what we call the number 1 should really be the equivalence class of all the 1s
on all the number lines.
232
It is recommended that
course instruction
present the three
models here in the
following order (1)
fraction bars on the
number line, (2)
squares, and (3) pies.
This is important
because many
pre-service students
have a poor
understanding of
fractions, and this
course is likely to be
their first opportunity
to actually understand
them. Course
instructors should not
confuse pre-service
students by first
discussing the more
problematic
representations of
fractions.
If we use the area of a square as the unit 1, then many fractions would
be conveniently represented as a collection of small rectangles inside the
square, e.g., the following is one way to represent 14 :
...................................................................................................................................
... .
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.
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.....................................................................................................................................
In this case, the square that represents 1 is called the unit square and this
way of representing fractions is said to be the area model representation of
fractions.
Finally, with the concept of a fraction clearly defined, even lessons on
fractions using the so-called pie-model unfortunately the most popular
method of discussing fractions in classrooms will be taught differently in
the context of the number line. For example, because all fractions, proper
or improper, are introduced in one stroke, fractions such as 47 or 11
3 would
be a natural part of any lesson. A teacher using the pie-model would have
to draw many identical pies instead of just one pie. The exclusive focus on
just one pie, which is what one usually finds in the elementary classroom,
is what leads many students to think that a fraction is a small fraction
(both numerator and denominator are small numbers, with the numerator
smaller than the denominator). It would benefit students to be introduced
to all ab from the beginning, with a and b being arbitrary whole numbers.
Whole numbers are built up from whole things, each of which is taken
to be a unit. Fractions are built up from unit fractions, each of which is a
particular kind of equal fracture of some whole unit. Seeing and working
with unit fractions as entities and as written representations (e.g., 1/5 or
1/9) is the core of a meaningful approach to fractions. Showing labeled
unit fractions on top of a number line (see the example below) can indicate
how any fraction is composed of unit fractions. The solid unit fraction
bars clarify that the model is using length and make the referent for the
unit fraction clear. Longer number lines clearly show whole numbers and
improper fractions as composed of unit fractions and generalize to these
cases immediately and easily.
Teachers and students can make unit fractions by folding equal lengths
of paper, and they can make the drawing shown by equal divisions of the
unit interval on the number line. Both of these exercises demonstrate the
inverse relationship between unit fractions and their denominators. It is
often difficult for students to grasp, for example, that 15 < 14 because students
know so readily that 5 > 4. Folding, drawing, and labeling unit fractions will
students to overcome such misunderstandings, and to grasp the idea that
233
more equal parts of the same whole means that each part must be smaller.
The related representations of unit fractions on the number line can be used
to show all of the core fraction concepts. They form a unifying theme in
this chapter, though of course other visual representations of fractions can
be useful.
Unit fraction bars on a number line
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
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...
..
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1
1
0
1
1
1
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...
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..
..
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1
2
1
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
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...
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1
3
1
3
0
3
1
3
1
3
3
3
2
3
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..
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1
4
1
4
0
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
3
4
2
4
4
4
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1
5
1
5
0
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
2
5
1
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
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1
6
1
6
1
6
0
6
1
6
1
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2
6
1
6
3
6
1
6
4
6
5
6
6
6
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.
.
.
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1
7
1
7
0
7
1
7
1
7
2
7
1
7
3
7
1
7
1
7
4
7
1
7
5
7
6
7
7
7
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..
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1
8
0
8
1
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1
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1
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2
8
1
8
3
8
1
8
4
8
1
8
5
8
1
8
6
8
1
8
7
8
8
8
If we let the unit 1 be something else, say the weight of a ham, then
fractions would have quite different interpretations. For example, if the
weight of the ham is 3 pounds, then the length 34 would represent the weight
of 4 pounds. In this fashion, the precise definition of a fraction as a point on
the number line provides a central framework for a multitude of interpretations of fractions in everyday life. The existence of this central perspective
234
facilitates learning.
The importance of the unit in any discussion of fractions should be properly emphasized.
It is recommended that
students also be given
exercises that require
them to (1) construct
fraction bars on the
number line to
represent different
fractions, and (2) use
fraction bars on the
number line to solve
word problems. This is
to lend additional
support to the model
that teachers should
ultimately use in actual
instruction.
Exercises:
(1) Anna says that the dark blocks pictured below cant represent 14
because there are 5 dark blocks and 5 is more than 1 but 14 is
supposed to be less than 1. What must Anna learn about fractions
in order to overcome her confusion?
(2) Frank says that 23 + 32 = 46 and uses the picture below to justify
his assertion. Explain why Franks method is not a valid way to
add fractions. Be specific. (Do not explain how to do the problem
correctly, explain where the flaw is in Franks reasoning.)
235
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(4) You showed Johnny the picture below to help him understand the
meaning of the fraction 53 .
But Johnny doesnt get it. He says the picture shows 56 , not 35 .
(a) How could you help Johnny interpret the picture as showing
5
3?
(b) What is another way to show 53 to Johnny, other than with
parts of objects?
(5) (a) Give three different fractions that you can legitimately use to
describe the shaded region in the figure below. For each fraction, explain why you can use that fraction to describe the
shaded region.
(b) Write an unambiguous question about the shaded region in
the figure below that can be answered by naming a fraction.
Explain why your question is not ambiguous.
236
(7) If 34 of a cup of a food gives you your daily value of potassium, then
what fraction of your daily value of potassium is in 1 cup of the
food? Draw a picture that helps you solve this problem. Use your
picture to help you explain your solution. For each fraction in this
problem, and in your solution, describe the whole associated with
this fraction. In other words, describe what each fraction is of.
Until further notice, in the rest of this chapter the symbol ab should be
understood to mean that a and b are whole numbers and that b is not zero.
Three immediate consequences of the definition of a fraction deserve a
discussion. The first is the concept of equivalent fractions: two fractions
a
c
b and d are said to be equivalent if they are the same point. In symbols:
a
c
b = d . (Thus equality among fractions means exactly that they are the same
point.) In the language of school mathematics, equivalent fractions name
the same amount.
The fundamental fact in this connection is known under the name of
cancellation law: for any fractions ab and for any nonzero whole number n,
a
na
a
b and nb are equivalent. The fact that any fraction b (which is a point on
the number line) is the same point as the fraction na
nb for any nonzero whole
number n is the basic building block of the whole discussion of fractions,
and needs to be developed for teachers and for students.
A simple application of the cancellation law shows that two fractions ab
and dc are equivalent exactly when ad = bc. This is known as the crossmultiply algorithm for equality, and the proof is simply a repeated application of the cancellation law:
a
ad
=
b
bd
and
c
bc
= ,
d
bd
and the desired conclusion follows. We have more to say about the crossmultiply algorithm presently.
It is useful for students to know that every fraction is equivalent to a
unique fraction in lowest terms, in the sense that the greatest common divisor of the numerator and denominator is 1. This requires the use of the
Euclidean algorithm. This piece of information is usually given to students
without any explanation and, just as often, students are required to write every answer in fractions in lowest terms. We can make two recommendations
on mathematical grounds.
Students in the sixth or seventh grades should be taught the essence
of the argument of why a fraction can be brought to lowest terms.
It is not necessary, in any grade, to insist that in every answer the
fraction must be in lowest terms. While an overabundance of 24 s
or 93 s can be annoying, one should be aware that sometimes it is
not so easy to decide whether a fraction is in lowest terms or not,
171
. A teacher should be able
much less to actually reduce it, e.g., 285
237
a b
a 1
a
= =
1 1
1 b
b
...
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....
It is important to
illustrate arguments like
these by using simple
numerical values
followed by, or in
parallel with, the
algebraic arguments in
order to minimize
confusion and provide
pre-service teachers
with good models for
K-8 instruction.
238
The discussion of the last paragraph accounts for the essential abandonment after elementary school of the division symbol a b in favor of the
fraction symbol ab . We know that the result of doing the operation a b is
the fraction ab .
A final consequence is the possibility of ordering fractions. The standard
literature does not define what it means for a fraction dc to be bigger than
a
c
a
b . For us, it is both simple and unambiguous: we say d is bigger than b ,
c
a
c
a
c
in symbols d > b , if the point d is to the right of b or if the length d is
bc
c
and ab = ad
greater than the length ab . Because dc = bd
bd , we see that d is
the bc-th division point on the number line when the latter is divided into
1
segments of length bd
. Likewise, ab is the ad-th division point on the number
line when the latter is divided into segments of the same length. Therefore,
c
a
d > b exactly when the bc-th division point is further to the right of the
ad-th division point, i.e., when bc > ad. This is the cross-multiply algorithm
for inequality.
Very often, the cross-multiply algorithm (for both equality and inequality) is either presented with no explanation, or not presented at all in school
texts. Neither is an acceptable alternative. In particular, the usual reason
given for barring the algorithm is that it promotes learning by rote. One
may surmise that, in this instance, learning-by-rote takes place in the following fashion. Without being able to say what a fraction is, one cannot
articulate clearly what it means for one fraction to be bigger than the other
(e.g., which angel is taller, Peter or Gabriel?). Under the circumstance,
the cross-multiply algorithm becomes the first clear-cut statement of when
a fraction dc is bigger than another fraction ab . The cross-multiply algorithm therefore becomes the de facto definition of when one
fraction is bigger than the other. Because without precise definitions
no logical reasoning is possible, the cross-multiply algorithm would therefore have to be presented as an article of faith and students are forced to
memorize the algorithm by brute force. This is of course what we mean by
learning by rote. By contrast, the present approach to fractions explains
precisely what it means for one fraction to be bigger than the other, and the
cross-multiply algorithm then becomes a simple logical consequence of this
definition. This is valid mathematics from any angle and should therefore
be taught.
One way to emphasize the importance of the cross-multiply algorithm
84
is to check, for example, whether 119
is equal to 228
323 ? (It is.)
Exercises:
(1) Susie wants to know why its true that 34 = 32
42 but its not true
:
Susie
says
that
in
both
cases
you are doing the
that 43 = 3+2
4+2
3
same thing to the top and the bottom of 4 , so she wants to know
239
why one way is correct but the other is not. Explain this to Susie,
using pictures or diagrams to support your explanation. Susie does
not know about multiplying fractions.
(2) Frank says that when you do the same thing to the top and bottom
of a fraction you get an equivalent fraction. Is Frank right, or is
it possible to do the same thing to the top and the bottom of a
fraction and not get an equivalent fraction?
(3) Using the fractions 13 and 34 , describe how to give two fractions
common denominators. In terms of a number line, what are you
doing when you give fractions common denominators?
(4) Plot 56 , 54 , and 43 on the number line below in such a way that each
number falls on a tick mark. Lengthen the tick marks of whole
numbers.
...
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..
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.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(5) Explain clearly and in detail why we can determine which of two
fractions is greater by giving the two fractions common denominators. What is the rationale behind this method? What are we really
doing when we give the fractions common denominators?
(6) Show how to use the cross-multiplying method to determine which
7
of 58 and 12
is greater.
(7) Explain clearly and in detail why we can determine which of two
fractions is greater by using the cross-multiplying method. What is
the rationale behind this method? What are we really doing when
we cross-multiply in order to compare fractions?
(8) Find three different fractions in between 34 and 45 .
(9) Conrad says that 38 > 27 because 3 > 2 and 8 > 7. Regardless of
whether or not Conrads conclusion is correct, discuss whether or
not Conrads reasoning is valid.
(10) Minju says that fractions that use bigger numbers are greater than
fractions that use smaller numbers. Make up two problems for
Minju to help her reconsider her ideas. For each problem, explain
how to solve it, and explain why you chose that problem for Minju.
(11) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of 19
94 and
19
is
greater.
Explain
your
reasoning
clearly
and
in
detail.
107
(12) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of 38
39 and
45
is
greater.
Explain
your
reasoning
clearly
and
in
detail.
46
(13) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of 21
43 and
41
is
greater.
Explain
your
reasoning
clearly
and
in
detail.
81
(14) Indicate the approximate position of each of the following on the
number line, and also write it as a mixed number.
240
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(a) 67
4 ,
459
(b) 23 , and
(c) 1502
24 .
31
Write down a fraction that is between 63
and 32
63 , and one between
5
8
and
.
8
13
311
Which fraction is greater: 94
95 or 314 ? (No calculator allowed.)
An alcohol solution mixes 5 parts water with 23 parts alcohol. Then
3 parts water and 14 parts alcohol are added to the solution. Which
has a higher concentration of alcohol, the old solution or the new?
Let A and B be two fractions such that A < B. Show that there is
always a fraction C so that A < C < B. (After finding what you
think is a good candidate for C, don t forget to actually prove that
A < C < B.)
2. Negative fractions
At this point, the subject of fractions can be developed along different
paths. One way is to go on and develop the subject of positive fractions
in more depth before turning attention to negative fractions. The other is
to treat negative fractions right now and discuss the rational numbers (i.e.,
both positive and negative fractions) all at once the rest of the way. Either
a
a
way, one has to make sense, for example, of why a
b = b = b .
For definiteness, and because it is easier to think only about positive
fractions, we shall follow the first path, that is to say, we will go on to
treat positive fractions in greater depth before getting around to treating
rational numbers. However, one may identify fractions of integers as points
on the number line as follows. For positive a and b, define a
b as a point
a
a
on the number line that is ab units to the left of the origin, b
b , and
a
a
b b . The cancellation law and cross multiply algorithm for fractions of
integers then follow from their analogues for fractions of counting numbers.
Following the definition of addition (see the next section), ab may be defined
a
as the additive inverse of ab . The identification a
b = b then follows from
a
a
a+a
= 0. One may develop the arithmetic of rational numbers
b + b =
b
along the lines of the following section, taking care to use the cancellation law
to prove that the standard formulas for the arithmetic operations are well
defined, and dealing with separate cases of positive and negative fractions
as needed.
3. Arithmetic operations
Again there are several possible approaches to the arithmetic operations
on fractions. One way is to first define them by formulas: if ab and dc are
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
241
=
b d
bd
ad + bc
a c
+
=
b d
bd
a c
ad bc
=
b d
bd
It is understood that for the third formula, ab > dc . One then goes on to
explain why these formulas are reasonable and what they mean in everyday
contexts. For example, the first formula defining the multiplication of ab and
c
d is a natural extension of the multiplication of whole numbers because if
b = d = 1, then both sides of this formula reduce to ac, and if b = 1, then the
left side becomes a dc which should mean the repeated addition of a copies
of dc , i.e., equal to ac
d , which is exactly the right side. Notice that in this
approach, the formula for multiplication is simpler than that for addition
(with unequal denominators). It is therefore natural to do multiplication
first.
For division of fractions, one discusses the meaning of division as the
inverse operation of multiplication and then defines it just as in the case of
the division of whole numbers without remainder. In other words, if A, B
A
are fractions with B 6= 0, then B
is the fraction C so that A = CB. Of
course the existence and uniqueness of C has to be proved first. Once this
is done, the invert-and-multiply rule follows.
We now outline another approach which emphasizes the continuity in
progressing from the arithmetic operations on whole numbers to those on
fractions. For addition, we know that if a, b are whole numbers, then a + b is
exactly the length of the segment obtained by concatenating two segments
of length a and b. With this in mind, we define:
the sum ab + dc is the length of the segment obtained by
concatenating a segment of length ab with a segment of
length dc .
One then proves by using the cancellation law that ab + dc = ad+bc
bd . This is
the basic formula for the addition of fractions. The common definition of
fraction addition in terms of the least common multiple of the denominators
has played havoc with the mathematics education of generations of school
students (and many a college freshmen), and deserves to be retired at this
point. (Naturally, as a special shortcut for adding fractions in some situations, it should be taught.) A discussion of the subtraction of fraction can
be given in like manner6.
6Special care must be taken here. This approach is quite distinct from what is typically
taught in school mathematics today, and prospective teachers will need considerable explanation
to justify it.
242
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
243
244
It might be better to
use alternating colors or
shade the fraction bars
instead of circling the
approximate areas in
the classroom
discussion.
a
b
c
d
ac
bd .
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
245
a
1
c
d
ac
d,
k
l ln
m
n ln
kln
l
mln
n
kn
,
lm
246
kn
.
lm
This line of reasoning will be seen to contain the germ of a correct method
to introduce fraction division, but as it stands, there are serious logical
difficulties. Consider the first step:
k
l
m
n
k
l ln
m
n ln
Now recall that at this point, we are still trying to give meaning to the
division of fractions. For example, we as yet have no idea what dividing kl
by m
n means. The preceding equality, however, claims that the two separate
divisions of fractions lead to the same number. We have therefore done the
remarkable deed of equating two quantities without knowing what either
means. Furthermore, even if we know that both sides are fractions, there is
no reason to believe (as yet) that they are equal, for the following reason.
A
Up to this point, the cancellation law applies only to those B
where A and
B are whole numbers, not fractions. Therefore the reference to cancellation
law in the above is misleading.
This argument can be resurrected if we agree to exercise a little care.
We shall imitate the algebraic approach to multiplying fractions outlined in
3. We start by assuming that the quotient
k
l
m
n
make sense as a fraction and that it behaves like an ordinary fraction when
both numerator ( kl ) and denominator ( m
n ) are multiplied by the same fracA
AC
tion. In other words, we assume that B
= BC
even when A, B, C are
fractions and not just whole numbers. We will go on this assumption and
work with such a quotient for a while to see if the results we get are reasonable. If they are, then the assumption would be seen to be a good one and
we would proceed on this basis. With this clearly understood, the preceding argument now makes sense, and we obtain the invert-and-multiply rule.
Once this is done, we see in a straightforward manner that for fractions A,
B and C,
A
=C
exactly when
A = CB.
B
The particular assumption we have made concerning the division of fractions
is therefore seen, a posteriori, to be consonant with our understanding of
the division-without-remainder among whole numbers. We conclude that
our working assumption (that the quotient of fractions is a fractions, and
that when the denominator and numerator of this quotient is multiplied by
the same fraction, the quotient remains the same) is a good one and will
henceforth be adopted.
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
247
It may be beyond the capability of most fifth or sixth graders to know the
difference between these two ways of dealing with fraction division. However,
teachers must have a clear conception in their own minds of this difference
in order to guard against making wrong pronouncements in the classroom.
They need to know that the first way tells lies and the second doesnt. Instead of believing in a fallacious proof of the invert-and-multiply rule (the
first argument), they would be better off knowing what precise assumptions
one makes in order to make sense of the invert-and-multiply rule (the second
argument). It is a worthwhile trade-off.
The division of fractions can be viewed in a broader context. Suppose
we are in possession of whole numbers but do not know about fractions.
When we come across the equation ax = b where a and b are given whole
numbers and x is an unknown, we recognize that there is no solution for
x except under the restrictive circumstance that b is a multiple of a. For
example, there is no whole number x so that 2x = 5. If we insist that this
equation ax = b must be solvable for all a and b, then the solutions so produced (which we know with hindsight are ab ) are exactly the fractions. In
other words, we may look at (positive) fractions as the numbers that solve
the equation ax = b for whole numbers a and b.
Exercises:
(1) Which of the following are story problems for 12 34 and which are
not? Explain briefly in each case.
(a) There is 34 of a cake left. One half of the children in Mrs.
Browns class want cake. How much of the cake will the children
get?
(b) A brownie recipe used 34 of a cup of butter for a batch of brownies. You ate 12 of a batch. How much butter did you consume
when you ate those brownies?
(c) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats 12 of
a pan of brownies. Now what fraction of a pan of brownies is
left?
(d) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats 12 of
what is left. What fraction of a pan of brownies did Johnny
eat?
(2) Write a story problem for 13 23 .
(3) Write one story problem for 4 32 and one story problem for 32 4.
Say which is which.
(4) Ken ordered 45 of a ton of sand. Ken wants to receive 31 of his order
now (and 23 of his order later). What fraction of a ton of sand
should Ken receive now?
(a) Solve the problem numerically and explain why you can set the
problem up numerically the way you do.
248
(b) Draw a picture to help you solve the problem. Explain how
your picture helps you to solve the problem. Discuss how the
way you set the problem up numerically is related to your picture.
(5) Write a simple story problem for 34 35 : Use your story problem and
use pictures to explain clearly why it makes sense that the answer
33
to the fraction multiplication problem is 45
: In particular, explain
why the numerators are multiplied and why the denominators are
multiplied.
(6) Explain why it would be easy to interpret the picture below incor9
rectly as showing that 3 34 = 12
. Explain how to interpret the
picture correctly and explain why your interpretation fits with the
meaning of 3 43 .
(7) Write a story problem for 23 21 and draw pictures to help you solve
the problem. Explain clearly how to interpret the pictures.
(8) Write one story problem for 34 21 and another story problem for
3
1
4 2 , making clear which problem is which. In each case, draw
pictures to help you solve the problem. Explain clearly how to
interpret your pictures.
(9) A rectangle has area 3 13 and one side of length 32 . What is the
length of the other side?
4. Complex fractions
In this section, a fraction continues to mean a positive fraction.
A
If A and B are fractions, then B
is called a complex fraction in the
A
school mathematics literature. In 3, B was defined as A divided by B. It
is important to remark that the notation is well chosen, in the sense that if
A
A and B are whole numbers instead of fractions, then we saw in 1 that B
also has the interpretation of A divided by B.
In any serious application in the school mathematics curriculum, complex fractions play a dominant role. For example, if your sales tax is 5.5%
from the state, 1.2% from the county, and 1.8% from the city, then each
time you make a purchase, (5.5 + 1.2 + 1.8)% = 8.5% of your payment is
sales tax. The addition we have just made is then an addition of complex
4. COMPLEX FRACTIONS
fractions:
12
85
+ 10
+ 18
10
= 10
100 100 100
100
100
Unfortunately, the important role of complex fractions in school mathematics does not seem to be recognized at all in elementary mathematics
education. One obvious consequence of this neglect shows up in the lack
of a precise definition of percent in school mathematics textbooks and
standard professional development materials. We shall deal with percent in
the next section.
We are going to make a clean break with tradition by calling explicit
attention to the arithmetic of complex fractions. They are extremely wellbehaved, so much so that one could wave ones hands and say: Just do
unto complex fractions as you would ordinary fractions.9 Precisely, let A,
B, . . . F be fractions (which will be assumed to be nonzero in the event
any of them appears in the denominator). In the following, we shall omit
the multiplication symbol between letters. Thus A B will be simply
written as AB. With this understood, then the following are valid:
(a) A
55
10
12
10
18
10
249
55
10
B
AB
=
.
C
C
C
A
C
A
>
(resp., = ) exactly when AD > BC (resp., AD = BC).
B
D
B
D
A
C
(AD) (BC)
=
B D
BD
A
C
AC
(e)
=
B D
BD
(f) Distributive law :
A
C
E
A
C
A E
B
D F
B D
B F
(d)
As noted above, these rules (which can all be proved in an entirely mechanical manner) are exactly the same as those for ordinary fractions if A, B,
etc., are read as ordinary fractions. Their importance however will emerge
in the next two sections and in 14.
9This could very well be the reason why complex fractions are not emphasized in the school
curriculum: students can be lured into the false belief that what they know about the arithmetic
of ordinary fractions is true automatically for anything that looks like a fraction. This kind of
misconception is nothing new in school mathematics.
250
5. Percent
A fraction is still a positive fraction in this section.
Students failure to achieve proficiency on the topic of percents, both
with regard to computations and problem solving, is a banner topic in any
discussion of mathematics education. Proposals for improvements usually
center on pedagogy and the use of manipulatives. Scant attention is paid
to the fact that students are not given any reason why they should learn
about percents, and that the concept itself seems to be never defined in
school materials. A little reflection would reveal that it is difficult to learn
something with this double handicap. The fact that percent is not clearly
defined is a natural consequence of the lack of emphasis on complex fractions
because, as will be seen presently, a correct definition requires the use of
complex fractions.
What is meant by what percent is 4 of 17? It means: what is the
fraction C so that
4
C
=
?
17
100
The answer: by the preceding section (e.g., (e)), we have
9
4
= 23 .
17
17
Note that no amount of picture drawing which is the current method of
choice for promoting the conceptual understanding of percent can pro9
duce this answer of (23 17
)%. Picture drawing has its place in mathematics
education, but only if precise mathematical definitions are also made available to students.
In general, we say a fraction A is C percent of another fraction B (where
B 6= 0) if C is a fraction and
C = 100
A
C
=
.
B
100
From the discussion of the division of fractions in 3, we know that such a
fraction C exists and is unique. In fact,
A
100A
=
.
B
B
This definition of percent is therefore meaningful. Notice that everyday
situations often demand that we make sense of percent for one fraction A
with respect to another fraction B. For example, if a bag of flour has only
about two-and-a-half cups of flour left, and you need to use a third of a cup,
about what percent of the flour in the bag are you using?
Why should anyone bother learning about percent? It is because society
has miraculously reached the consensus of using percent to express partwhole relationships in everyday life. This then makes the comparison of
part-whole relationships a painless task. Comparing 57 with 11
15 , for example,
C = 100
5. PERCENT
251
5
3
11
1
% and
%.
= 71
= 73
7
7
15
3
It is then clear at a glance that
11
15
Exercises:
(1) James gave a riddle to his friends: I was on a hiking trail, and
7
after walking 12
of a mile, I was 59 of the way to the end. How long
is the trail? Help his friends solve the riddle.
(2) Helena walked to school from home but quit after having walked
5
21
2 of a mile. She was 8 of the way to school. How far is her home
from School?
(3) What percent is 18 of 84? 72 of 120? What is 15 percent of 75?
And 16 percent of what number is 24?
(4) A shop plans to have a sale. One suggestion is to give all customers
a 15% discount after sales tax has been computed. Another suggestion is to give a 20% discount before sales tax. If the sales tax
is 5%, which suggestion would give the customer a greater saving?
(5) Explaining your reasoning clearly, use pictures to help you answer
the following:
(a) What percent of 15 is 52 ?
(b) What percent of 25 is 51 ?
(6) A farmer has two plots of land. Twenty percent of the first plot
is planted with cotton and 40% of the second plot is planted with
cotton. Can we calculate the percentage of the farmers (total) land
that is planted with cotton by adding 20% + 40%? Explain your
answer.
(7) A farmer has two plots of land, both of the same size. Twenty
percent of the first plot is planted with cotton and 40% of the second
10With hindsight, we can see that the choice of 100 as the fixed denominator is not all that
surprising: we are in a decimal numeral system, and 10 is a trifle too small while 1000 is obviously
too big.
252
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
253
254
255
256
per dollar and dollars per frank. Likewise, when working with scale drawing
or scale models one wants to determine the lengths in the original from the
lengths in the model and vice-versa. In this treatment of ratios, rates, and
proportions, this symmetry is revealed in a natural way.
In the first variant of this approach, which has been used successfully
with several classes of fifth graders who varied from little understanding of
multiplication of whole numbers to partial understandings of fractions, lines
are derived from the numerical ordered pair approach. The multiplication
table is used to ground and concretize the notion of ordered pair to make
it accessible to teachers and to students. In the second variant, a ratio is
defined as a line, and the ordered pair is used to describe the line. Generalizing this approach, we also describe ratios of three numbers as three tuples
and as lines in three space.
There are effective lesson sequences employing these ideas which have
been used with success already for fifth graders.14 One such approach begins
with the definition of a ratio a : b as the equivalence class of all ordered pairs
such that for t 6= 0, a : b = ta : tb. This equivalence class is given meaning
by first looking for ratios as 2 columns in the multiplication table. Columns
preserve the a : b notation and create a vertical ratio table. A proportion
can be seen in the four corners of any rectangle in the multiplication table
(i.e., each ratio comes from a different row of the ratio table. Here are some
sample illustrations:
14See e.g., Karen C. Fuson and Dor Abrahamson, The multiplication table as the grounding for understanding ratio and proportion, in J. Campbell (Ed.) Handbook of Mathematical
Cognition. New York; Psychology Press.
257
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..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
6
14
3
4
5
15
35
6
7
8
9
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
6
14
3
4
35
5
6
7
8
9
10
Seeing Numbers in
a Proportion
14
N 35
3 7
Then N = 3 5 = 15. Cross multiplication can be seen to hold since the
same four factors are used.
3 7
2
23 72
53 75
Exerc ses or th s
sect on shou d beg n by
exp c t y ask ng
pre serv ce students to
prepare a mu t p cat on
tab e to so ve
proport on prob ems
and then graph ng
order pa rs to so ve rate
prob ems Indeed the
first exerc ses n any
sect on shou d ask
students to app y the
presented teach ng
mode s
258
(40, 20)
.
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(20, 10)
(20, 10)
(40, 20)
In fact they lie on the same (non-horizontal or non-vertical) line through the
origin if and only if their quotients taken in the same order are the same. We
take as a definition of ratios the lines through the origin in the coordinate
plane. Thus the ratio associated to the pair (2, 3) is the line consisting of
all the points of the form (2t, 3t) as t varies over all real numbers. Of course
the same ratio is associated to any point different from the origin on this
line. It is customary to denote the ratio that contains the point (a, b) as
a : b and note that for t 6= 0, a : b = ta : tb.
When we assign dimensions to the two coordinates, for example the first
coordinate representing minutes and the second miles, then the ratio (a, b)
is called a rate, and is read a minutes per b miles, or b miles per a minutes.
A unit rate is the pair in the rate (a, b) where either a or b is 1. Thus we
have the two unit rates (a/b, 1) read a/b minutes per mile, or (1, b/a) read
b/a miles per minute.
We can also specify the meaning of percent in this notation. In a ratio,
the point (c, 100) in the ratio a : b gives a ratio of c percent. If the ratio
contains (4, 5) then (100, 125) is on the line through (4, 5) and (0, 0), so
the associated percent is 125%. Similarly, the ratio that contains (4, 3) also
contains (100, 75) and the associated percent is 75%. Conversely, if we want
to determine 75% of 16 we find the y coordinate in the pair (16, y) in the
ratio associated to 100 : 75, hence 12 since (16, 12) is in this ratio.
Ratios involving three (or more) numbers also arise in everyday situations and in schoolwork. As an illustration, consider a recipe for chocolate
chip cookies that requires 21 cup butter, 1 18 cups flour, and 12 cup chocolate
chips to make 45 cookies. If we wanted to make 90 cookies we would need
1, 2 14 , 1 cups butter, flour, and chocolate chips. Similarly, if we wanted to
make 180 cookies we would need 2, 4 12 , 2 cups of the respective ingredients.
259
1
1
1
2 18
2
1 2 1 1
4
2 4 12 2
Varying t over all real numbers generates a straight line that passes through
(0, 0, 0) and ( 12 , 1 18 , 21 ) in three dimensional coordinate space.
This straight line can be visualized using the following picture.
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The generalization of this example and the concept of a ratio of three numbers relies on the following definition.
Definition. Given an ordered 3-tuple (a1 , a2 , a3 ), the straight line through
the origin, (0, 0, 0), and this 3-tuple is the set of all the ordered 3-tuples of
numbers of the form
(a1 t, a2 t, a3 t).
Here t runs over all real numbers.
Example: The line through the origin in 3 dimensions defined by (1, 2, 3)
consists of all points of the form (t, 2t, 3t). It follows that (2, 4, 6) and
( 12 , 1, 32 ) are on this line, but (1, 2, 5) is not.
This definition may be generalized to arbitrary tuples of numbers, including
2-tuples.
Definition. Given an ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an ), the straight line
through the origin, (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0), and this n-tuple is the set of all the ordered
n-tuples of numbers of the form
(a1 t, a2 t, a3 t, . . . , an t).
Here t runs over all real numbers.
The fundamental idea of this section is the following definition:
Definition. Given a non-zero ordered n-tuple of numbers (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
the Ratio defined by this ordered n-tuple is the straight line through the origin that passes through this ordered n-tuple.
260
A key property of ratios is that any non-zero point on the line determines
all of the other points. That is, given any point X on a line through the origin
in n-dimensions, we can obtain any other point on the line by multiplying
the coordinates of X by an appropriate fixed number t.
As an example, if the ratio contains (1, 3, 5) and we want the point whose
third coordinate is 20 that is in this ratio, we multiply each coordinate by
20
5 = 4, obtaining (4, 12, 20).
By way of notation, the ratio defined by the non-zero ordered 3-tuple
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) is sometimes written as
a1 : a2 : a3 .
Thus the ratio defined by the 3-tuple (2, 1, 2) would be written 2 : 1 : 2,
though it could equally well be written 4 : 2 : 4 or more generally 2t : t : 2t
for any non-zero t.
The two ordered n-tuples are said to be proportional if they define the
same ratio. Thus, (3, 4, 5) and (6, 8, 10) define the same ratio and are therefore proportional, but (3, 4, 5) and (6, 8, 11) do not define the same ratio and
are not proportional.
Rates differ from ratios in that the dimensions associated to the coordinates are part of the data in a rate.
Definition: When we are given dimensions, and we have a non-zero ordered
n-tuple, the line through the origin that this n-tuple defines, together with
the dimensions associated to the coordinates, is called the rate associated
to the n-tuple, and the dimensions are an integral part of the definition.
Now that rate has been defined, we may extend our definition of proportion to rates. Two ordered n-tuples are proportional if they define the
same ratio or rate.
If we have two rates for example, (2, 1, 2) with dimensions feet, pounds,
dollars and (2, 1, 2) with dimensions inches, ounces, pesos they are not to
be regarded as proportional even though the ordered 3-tuples define the
same ratio because the dimensions are not the same.
What About Slope?
Now we make the connection between the discussion here and the definition of ratio as a quotient of two numbers given in 7. In the special case
when we are describing ratios for a non-zero ordered pair of numbers, (a, b)
then the line through (a, b) and (0, 0) can be described by its slope ab . This
provides us with an alternative way of describing rates, ratios, and proportions in this special case. We can specify the line through the origin
via its slope in the coordinate plane. When the slope, m, is given, a
convenient point in the ratio is (1, m). However, as was noted earlier, in
dealing with ratios there is no a priori reason to take the slope with respect
261
262
8. FINITE DECIMALS
263
mixture. Because you add the same amount of each color, the
second mixture should look the same as the first mixture. Jose
says that the second mixture should be more yellow than the first
because it uses 8 parts yellow and the first mixture only uses 7 parts
yellow. Discuss the childrens ideas. Is their reasoning valid or not?
Which paint will be more yellow and why?
(15) A dough recipe calls for 3 cups of flour and 1 14 cups of water. You
want to use the same ratio of flour to water to make a dough with
10 cups of flour. How much water should you use?
(a) Set up a proportion to solve the problem. Explain why you
can set up the proportion as you do. What is the logic behind
the procedure of setting up a proportion? What do the two
fractions that you set up mean and why do you set those two
fractions equal to each other?
(b) Solve the proportion by cross-multiplying. Explain why it
makes sense to cross-multiply. What is the logic behind the
procedure of cross-multiplying?
(c) Now solve the problem of how much water to use for 10 cups of
flour in a dierent way, by using the most elementary reasoning
you can. Explain your reasoning clearly.
8. Finite decimals
Here we return to the main discussion. Fractions mean positive fractions in this section.
Define a finite decimal (sometimes called a terminating decimal) to be
a fraction whose denominator is a power of 10. Because we know how
to add, subtract and multiply fractions, we know how to do the same to
finite decimals. The notation with the decimal point for finite decimals
(i.e., writing 5.12 for 512/102 , etc.) requires that we systematically re-write
the results of the addition, subtraction, and multiplication of these special
fractions in terms of the decimal-point notation. This is easily accomplished
because once these special fractions are expressed in terms of a common
denominator in a suitable power of 10, these operations become operations
on the whole numbers in the numerators. These are the so-called rules
about the decimal point in decimal computations. A clear explanation of
these rules should be a major emphasis in professional development.
There are many stories concerning students failure to deal with the
comparison or computation of decimals, yet the most likely explanations for
these anecdotes are defects in mathematics instruction, not student inability.15 It is difficult for students to learn about decimals if they are never told
what a decimal is. For example, there are textbooks that introduce decimals
as numbers with a decimal point, and proceed to teach decimals before
15This is based on the much larger success rate in teaching these concepts in other countries
264
discussing fractions.16 As another example, teachers commonly permit students to read a decimal like .04 as point oh four. This practice contributes
to the inability to recognize the relationship between fractions, decimals and
percents as it permits both students and pre-service teachers to believe that
4
or 5 percent because they are read
.04 is fundamentally different from 100
differently. Under these circumstances, the rules concerning the arithmetic
of decimals would have to be taught by rote. And of course in the absence of
mathematical explanations, students also have to learn these rules by rote.
Now it is time that the subject of finite decimals be properly recognized as
a part of the subject of fractions. A possible teaching sequence could go as
follows:
(1) Read decimals representing tenths and hundredths,
(2) Write decimals representing tenths and hundredths,
(3) Several minimally different sets such as .07, .70, .7, .4, .04, .40
should be included among the examples to focus attention on the
number of digits following the decimal point,
(4) Reading and writing decimals representing thousandths
(5) Combining all these steps including minimally different sets through
thousandths and even ten thousandths.
Just as in the case of arithmetic operations, finite decimals can be ordered in the same way as whole numbers. For example, to order 0.1103 and
0.098, it suffices to order
1103
980
and
,
4
10
104
and therefore 0.1103 > 0.098 because 1103 > 980. Again, one can formally
interpret this method of comparison directly in terms of the decimal-point
notation. For use in science, it is essential to go one step further and interpret
this comparison in terms of the scientific notation for finite decimals. Careful
explanation should be given to the following rule: if a 10k and b 10` are
two finite decimals in scientific notation, then:
if k = `, then a < b implies a 10k < b 10k ,
if k < `, then a 10k < b 10` .
In a similar vein, the justification of rules for moving decimal points
in long division calculations for decimals rely on principles discussed in 3,
such as this general statement:
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
n
,
n
where n is a nonzero fraction (or whole number). From this it follows, for
example, that
=
16This had often been the case in California before 2000, though it may not have been as
frequent in other states.
9. INFINITE DECIMALS
265
25.56
25560
=
.
0.004
4
Exercises:
(1) Plot 22
7 , 3.14, and 3.15 on the number line below in such a way that
each number falls on a tick mark. Lengthen the tick marks of whole
numbers (if any).
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Show
1
8
(4) Show how to use pennies and dimes to help you explain why
1
1
4 =, 25, and 8 = .125.
(5) Order the following numbers: 87 , 0.9998, 65 , 1.13.
1
5
= .2,
9. Infinite decimals
Fractions continue to mean positive fractions in this section.
The division of finite decimals was conspicuous by its absence in the
discussion of the arithmetic of decimals in the preceding section. This is
because such divisions do not always lead to finite decimals, and the reason
for this comes from the theorem that a fraction ab is a finite decimal (i.e.,
equals a fraction with a power of 10 in its denominator) exactly when the
266
9. INFINITE DECIMALS
267
is an infinite decimal:
= 3 100 + 1 101 + 4 102 + 1 103 + 5 104
+6 105 + 2 106 + 6 107 + 5 108 + 3 109
+5 1010 + 8 1011 + 9 1012 + 7 1013 + ,
which, according to our notation convention, is usually written as
= 3.14159265358979323046 . . .
As another example,
268
with 0 r1 < b,
with 0 r2 < b,
with 0 r3 < b,
and then
10r3 = q4 b + r4 , where 0 r4 < b,
in self-explanatory notation. And so on.
Now one proves that each of the quotient q1 , q2 , . . . above is a single
digit number. It is then simple to pull all these equations together (e.g.,
q1
1
the first equation can be written as ab = 10
+ ( 10
)( rb1 ) ) to arrive at the fact
that
a
q1
q2
q3
=
+ 2 + 3 +
b
10 10
10
= 0.q1 q2 q3 q4
It remains to observe that each of these decimal digits qi s is the quotient
of a division of 10ri by the same b. But the ri s all satisfy 0 ri < b, so
that among {r1 , r2 , . . . , rb+1 }, two of them must be the same, say r5 and r15 .
Then q6 and q16 must be the same, and therefore the sequence (q6 , . . . , q15 )
must be identical to the sequence (q16 , . . . , q25 ). And so on down the line.
This exhibits the repeating phenomenon in the above decimal expansion of
a
b.
9. INFINITE DECIMALS
269
Two additional facts are worthy of note. One, any of the qi s could
be 0. So if, for example, q1 = q2 = 0, then ab would be a decimal whose
first nonzero digit appears no earlier than the third decimal digit. Two, the
usual rule about where to put the decimal point is explained precisely by
this algorithm: it appears right before q1 .
Theorem B can be explained using either the geometric series or the
fact that every decimal (finite or infinite) is a number and can therefore be
added or multiplied.18 The latter approach is the one most commonly found
in school texts, but the presentation is usually garbled and students are not
explicitly told that they are operating on the assumption that decimals are
numbers. Take a simple example: 0.12. Let x = 0.12. Then 100x = 12.2
and 10x = 1.2. Subtracting gives 90x = 12.2 1.2 = 11. Therefore, x =
0.12 = 11/90. There is opportunity here to emphasize how each decimal is
treated like a number in terms of arithmetic operations.
We started this discussion by noting that finite decimals do not produce
finite decimals through the process of division. We now bring closure to this
discussion by drawing the obvious conclusion that division of finite decimals
leads to either a finite decimal or a repeating decimal. Indeed, if A and B
are finite decimals, then they are fractions and therefore by 3, the division
A
A
B is a fraction. By Theorem A, B is a finite or a repeating decimal.
Theorem B has another important consequence that has a bearing on
our understanding of numbers. Assuming as usual the stated fact that any
infinite decimal is a number, we can now produce at will an infinite collection
of numbers that are not fractions: consider for instance the infinite decimal
0.1010010001000010000010000001 . . . ,
where the number of zeros between successive 1s increases by one as we
go from left to right. Then this is clearly not a repeating decimal and, by
Theorem A, is not a fraction. We therefore see that there are many numbers
which are not fractions. These are called irrational numbers.
We can also produce irrational numbers by using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. For example, we can easily
prove that if n is a whole
270
271
(p) 0
(q)
Because positive fractions are to the right of 0, the numbers such as (1),
(2), or ( 59 ) are to the left of 0. Here are some examples of the reflections of
positive fractions (remember that positive fractions include whole numbers):
(3)
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3
2 4 (2) 85 (1) 23
2
3
8
5
2 34
272
The collection of all the positive fractions, their mirror reflections with respect to 0, and 0 itself is called the rational numbers. The reflections of the
positive fractions are called negative fractions.
Recall that the whole numbers are a sub-collection of the positive fractions. The collection of whole numbers and their mirror reflections,
. . . (3), (2), (1), 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
is of course the integers. Thus the integers are contained in the rational
numbers.
We pause to make a comment about notation. To prospective teachers,
a number like (2) is just 2, and ( 13 ) is 31 . We choose not to use the
negative sign without the parentheses at this point because it carries too
much psychological baggage. For one thing, if we write 2, many teachers
would automatically think of subtract 2. It is our intention to elucidate
the meaning of subtraction among rational numbers (see next section), however, and it would be counterproductive to invite this kind of distraction.
So for now, we just use the notation (), though any other consistent notation, for example replacing (a) by a would do as well.
273
For definiteness, we write ~x for the vector pointing from the origin to a
number on its left, where ~x is the vector from the origin to the equidistant
number on the right.
As an illustration, here is what ~2 + ~1 looks like:
3
..
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..
..
..
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...................................................
(x+y)= ~x + ~y ,
by definition. If x and y are positive fractions, it is seen immediately that
the line segment of ~x + ~y is one obtained by concatenating the segments of
x and y. Therefore x + y coincides with the sum of the respective fractions
as defined in 3. Thus this definition of addition for rational numbers is an
extension of the usual definition of the addition of positive fractions.
The addition of rational numbers so defined has the usual algebraic properties expected of addition:
(A) x + (x) = (x) + x = 0 for any x.
(B) 0 + x = x + 0 = x for any x.
(C) If x + y = 0, then x = (y) and y = (x).
(D) If x + y = x or y + x = x, then y = 0.
(E) Commutative law:
(F) Associative law:
These are not difficult to prove, and in any case, the proofs are straightforward. A more substantial assertion is the following:
(G) (x + y) = (x) + (y).
The proof of (G) is instructive, as it illustrates the level of abstraction
that is needed in elementary mathematics when the latter is taught properly.
We have to show that (x) + (y) is equal to (x + y), and the key is to
realize that the latter is characterized by the fact, stated in (C), that it is
the only rational number W satisfying W + (x + y) = 0. Thus if we can
274
show that
((x) + (y)) + (x + y) = 0,
then it would follow from (C) that (x) + (y) = (x + y). This we can do
easily:
((x) + (y)) + (x + y) = (x) + (y) + x + y
(associative law (F))
= (x) + x + (y) + y
(commutative law (E))
= 0 + 0 = 0,
(by (A))
exactly as claimed. So (G) is proved.
It is time for us to revisit the concept of subtraction at this point. By
the direct use of the definition of addition of rational numbers, we see that
if x and y are positive fractions and x y, then
x y = x + (y).
This is because (y) points to the left, so that the vector addition x + (y)
amounts to taking away a segment of length y from the right end of the
segment from 0 to x, as shown, so that x + (y) is the same as x y:
0
..
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.
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x y = x + (y).
It follows that for any rational number y,
0 y = (y),
so that, for brevity, we shall agree from now on to write
y
for
0y
or
(y).
x y = x + (y)
Moreover, (C) and (G) become, respectively,
(C) If x + y = 0 , then x = y and y = x.
(G) (x + y) = x y.
(G) is important for the purpose of explaining why the usual rule about
removing parentheses is correct, i.e.,
275
(x y) = x + y.
This is because,
(x y) =
=
=
=
(x + (y))
(by definition of x y)
x (y)
(by (G))
x + ((y))
(by definition of x (y))
x + y
276
Now since (q)p = (qp), it follows again by (C) of 11 that (q)(p) = pq.
An immediate consequence of these facts is that forany rational number r,
(1)
(1)r = r
What we have just done is to indicate how we may define the multiplication of rational numbers if we are willing to make some reasonable
assumptions about them. In general, one can approach the multiplication of
rational numbers in one of two standard ways. The first is to define outright
the product as follows: if p and q are any two positive fractions, then
(p)q = pq
p(q) = pq
(p)(q) = pq
This suffices to define all products xy for rational numbers x and y. One then
proceeds to verify that the multiplication so defined obeys the associative,
commutative, and distributive laws. This verification is noteworthy only for
its tediousness. A side remark is that one can also verify that, in fact, for
any rational numbers x and y, it is true that
(2)
(x)y = x(y) = xy
and
(x)(y) = xy.
277
xy + x(z) + x(w) = xy xz xw, where we have made use of the (ordinary) distributive law and also (2). The same fact remains true if, instead
of three terms in the parentheses, there are any number of terms.
Finally, division. If x and y are rational numbers and y 6= 0, what is
meant by xy ? Having answered this question for positive x and y in 3,
there is no surprise left: we should define xy to be the rational number z so
that x = zy, i.e.,
x
= z if x = zy (y 6= 0)
y
As in 3, we can easily show that if x and y are rational numbers and
y 6= 0, then there is a unique rational number z so that x = zy. This fact
immediately insures that the preceding definition of xy is always meaningful.
For a reason that will be obvious presently, we wish to examine in greater
detail this solution z.
Let a, b, c, d be whole numbers. If x = ab and y = dc , then the z that
satisfies x = zy is z = ad
bc (see 3). Next, still with x = zy,
c
a
c
ad
a
or x = , y =
implies z = .
x= , y=
b
d
b
d
bc
(3)
Finally,
a
c
ad
x= , y=
implies z =
.
b
d
bc
The observation we wish to make, by looking at (3) and (4), is that the division of rational numbers does not obey the invert-and-multiply rule because
of the presence of the (negative) signs. We wish to remedy this situation.
Using the same notation as above, we may consider a, b, etc. as rational
numbers so that
a
a
a
or
or
c
c
c
is already well-defined as a division of rational numbers. In fact, equating a
with a1 , b with 1b , etc., we see from (3) and (4) that
a
a
a
=
=
c
c
c
a
a
=
c
c
a
a
We make the further observation that regarding a
c or c or c as a division
of the numerator by the denominator is consistent with the symbols ac itself
because the latter also means a divided by c; see the discussion in 1. We
shall refer to a division of a rational number by another also as a quotient of
rational numbers for convenience. In this terminology, we have just shown
that every rational number, positive or negative, can be written as a quotient
of two integers.19 In particular, if x, y are rational numbers and x = ab and
(4)
278
y = dc where a, b, etc., are now integers, then (3) and (4) may be neatly
summarized as:
a
b
c
d
(5)
ad
bc
Thus the invert-and-multiply rule is again valid for the division of rational
numbers.
We can reap immediate benefit from the generalized invert-and-multiply
rule. Recall that in 5, all the equations regarding complex fractions are derived from the invert-and-multiply rule for the division of positive fractions.
With the availability of (5), we see that all the equations in 5 are now
valid for the quotient of rational numbers. In particular, the counterpart of
equation (a) in 5 implies that if x and y are rational numbers, then
x
1
=x .
y
y
We shall follow the common practice of writing y 1 for y1 and call y 1 the
multiplicative inverse of y, or more simply inverse if there is no danger of
confusion. Thus
x
= xy 1 ,
y
and the division of rational numbers is now expressed in terms of multiplication. This is the exact analogue of expressing subtraction in terms of
addition among rational numbers (see 11). Note also that the inverse of
a product xy can be expressed in terms of the inverses of the individual
factors:
1
1 1
(xy)1 =
=
= x1 y 1 .
xy
xy
In this notation, the cancellation law for rational numbers (i.e., the counterpart of equation (b) in 5) becomes conceptually more transparent:
x
xz
= xz(yz)1 = xzy 1 z 1 = xzz 1 y 1 = xy 1 = .
yz
y
Exercises: In these exercises it is important that students explain both
what they are doing and why they are doing it.
(1) Compute and simplify:
2.5
(a) 3.6
5 0.9 .
7
5
(b) 1.2
+ 1.8
.
4
1
(c) 27 3.6 .
279
We have pictured x and y to be both positive for easy understanding, but the
correctness of the subsequent argument is not affected by this assumption.
Since p > 0, the relative positions of px and py will not change: px is to the
left of py, though the distance from px to py is p times that of x to y:
y
0.
x.
.
..
..
..
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280
Now the algebraic proof. This requires the ability to mentally translate
the intuitive concept of x < y into purely algebraic terms. By our discussion, x < y is the same as y x > 0. If z < 0, then z > 0, so that
by (B), (z)(y x) > 0, and by the distributive law (see the end of 11),
(z)y + (z)(x) > 0, i.e., xz yz > 0. This is then the same as xz > yz.
Incidentally, the first proof gives another convincing argument why defining rational numbers as points on the number line is pedagogically sound.
14. The Fundamental Assumption of School Mathematics
We have been careful to chart a course of development of numbers that
provides a smooth transition from whole numbers to positive fractions to
rational numbers. Although school mathematics, as we mentioned earlier,
is essentially that of rational numbers, irrational numbers do show up naturally from time to time. Unfortunately, a discussion of the transition from
rational numbers to real numbers is entirely missing in the school curriculum. We take up this topic briefly here.
Suppose we have a cylinder with a radius of 1 foot and a height of
feet. What is its total surface area S ? A simple computation gives
(6)
S = 2 + 2 2
(7)
= 2(1 + 2)
Such computations are routine in school mathematics, and can take place
as early as the seventh grade. From a mathematical standpoint, however,
these are anything but routine. Equation (6) adds two numbers neither of
which is rational, but thus far we have only dealt with rational numbers
and, in fact, spent a good deal of time to make sense of the addition
of two
rational numbers (3 and 11). So what does it mean to add 2 to 2 2 ?
Equation (7) is obtained from (6) by use of the distributive law, but so far
we have only discussed the distributive law for rational numbers. How do
we know (7) is correct?
Suppose we also ask for the ratio (i.e., the number obtained by division,
see 7) of the surface area S to the surface area of the sphere of radius 1,
which is 4. This ratio is then:
2(1 + 2)
1+ 2
(8)
=
4
2
We have used the cancellation law for fractions. But wait: both the numerator and denominator here are irrational! What does it mean, and more
importantly, how do we know the cancellation law is valid?
We will answer all these questions first by making a sweeping statement
and then we give a very brief discussion. School mathematics operates on the
281
=
=
=
=
=
..
.
1
1.4
1.41
1.414
1.4142
a15 = 1.41421356237309
a16 = 1.414213562373095, etc.
for i = 1, 2, 3, . . .
282
2)
Next we look at the quotient 2(1+
in equation (8) and explain
4
what it means. Still using the same
notation,
we
have a sequence of rational
numbers a1 , a2
, . . . with limit 2, and b1 , b2 , . . . with limit . Then the
2)
quotient 2(1+
is by definition the limit of the following sequence of
4
complex fractions (and therefore rational numbers):
2bi (1 + ai )
for i = 1, 2, 3, . . .
4bi
Note two things: one is that the cancellation law for complex fractions ((b)
of 5) shows that
2bi (1 + ai )
1 + ai
=
4bi
2
for each i, and since the limit of ai is 2, the limit of the right side is 1+2 2 .
This is exactly equation (8) and it shows the importance of knowing complex
fractions and their arithmetic operations.
The second and last thing to notice from this discussion is that since
complex fractions are suppressed in school mathematics, it stands to reason
that so is FASM. The two kinds of neglect go hand-in-hand.
15. Sample Problems from Other Nations
We end this chapter with a collection of sample problems from other
nations.
Sixth Grade Japanese Math Problems
(1) Kate is 9 and her mother is 43. How old will Kate be when her age
is one-third of her mothers age?
(2) Kim is 30 years old and her daughter is one-third her age. How old
will Kim be when her daughter is just one-half her age?
(3) Becky and her sister have some money. The ratio of their money
is 3 : 1. When Becky gives $5 to her sister, their ratio will be 2 : 1.
How much money does Becky have?
(4) Arnold and Kirk have some money. The ratio of the amounts they
have is 9 : 5. When Arnold gets $12 more and Kirk gets $16 more,
the difference of their amounts will be $4. How much money dies
Kirk have?
(5) When you divide a number by 43 and subtract 13 from it, it equals
7
9 . What is the original number?
(6) Tom and Kims houses are 180 miles apart. If Tom travels to Kims
house at 35 mph and Kim travels to Toms house at 25 mph, how
long will it take till they meet?
(7) Two dogs started running around the lake in the same direction
at 11 : 30am. The distance around the lake is 1.2 kilometers. The
first dog runs 180 meters per minute and the second dog runs 150
283
meters per minute. What time is it when the first dog passes the
second dog for the first time?
(8) The train whose length is 200 meters entered a tunnel at 10 : 30
sharp. When the last car of the train came out of the tunnel it was
10 : 36 and 10 seconds. The length of the tunnel is 3500 meters.
How fast was the train traveling?
(9) You divided some money into 2 groups, A and B. 50% of the money
was divided equally into each group, but A got twice as much of
the remaining 50% as B. In the end, group A contained 60 cents
more than B. What is the combined total of A and B?
(10) Kim ate 18 of the apples he had. Then he ate 3 more than 19 of the
rest. At this point he had 11 apples remaining. How many apples
did he have originally?
(11) The sum of your money is 10 cents less than the sandwich that you
want. Also, your money is 15 cents more than 90% of the price.
How much is the sandwich?
(12) 45 of Bobs money is 10 cents less than the price of the steak. Also,
5
6 of his money is 5 cents more than the steak. How much is the
steak?
(13) A 100 meter long train traveling at 90 kilometers per hour took
50 seconds to completely pass by a 150 meter long train. At what
speed is the 150 meter train traveling?
(14) Use hose A you filled 13 of the pool in 3 hours. After that, you only
used hose B. After 3 hours, 12 of the pool was filled. Assume water
flows from each hose at a constant rate. How many more hours do
you need to fill the pool using both hoses together?
(15) Hose A can fill a pool in 4 hours and hose B can fill the pool in 6
hours. Hose B was used first to fill the pool for 21 hour. Then, hose
A and hose B were both used together for 1 hour. After that, if
only hose A were used to fill the rest of the pool, how long would it
take? Assume that water flows from each hose at a constant rate.
(16) Tina, Becky and Brenda have a total of $165. Becky has $5 more
than Brenda. If Tina gives Brenda 10% of her money, Brenda will
have $2 more than Becky. How much money does Becky have?
Russian Second Grade Problems on Fractions
(1) Cut out a rectangle and fold it into 2, 4, and 8 equal parts. How
many halves, fourths, and eights are there in one rectangle?
284
(2) Cut out a square from a piece of paper and cut it into 2 equal parts
so that each forms a triangle. What fraction of the square is each
such part?
(3) 4 meters of wool cloth were bought at 12 rubles a meter, as well as
some silk at 8 rubles a meter. The same amount of money was paid
for the silk and the wool. How many meters of silk were bought?
(4) Some adults were gathering apples in large baskets, 16kg to a basket. Some Young Pioneers used small baskets, 10kg to a basket.
They filled as many baskets as the adults. How many kilograms of
apples did the Young Pioneers gather if the adults gathered 80kg.
(5) Fold a strip of paper 12cm long into 4 equal parts. Color 14 of the
strip. Find the length of 14 of the strip. How can you find it?
(6) A girl cut off 13 of a string 6 meters long. How long is the piece of
string she cut off?
(7) A book has 60 pages. A boy read 13 of the book. How many pages
does he have left to read?
(8) The length of 12 of a strip equals 4 cm. What is the length of the
entire strip?
(9) Misha memorized half a poem. He memorized 18 lines. How many
lines in all are there in the poem?
Russian Third Grade Problems
The beginning discussion:
Into how many equal parts is the segment divided? Find in the
figures of the segment, two-fourths three-fourths, and four-fourths
of the segment.
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.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Count how many equal parts each circle is divided into. How many
eighths of each circle are shaded? How many are not shaded?
The number written beneath the line, the denominator of the fraction, shows how many equal parts the circle is divided into; the number above the line, the numerator of the fraction, shows how many
of these equal parts of the circle are taken.
285
(1) Read the fractions and explain how they are pictured.
1
3
7
9
(2) 522 Divide a line into 10 equal parts and mark 10
, 10
, 10
, 10
of the
segment.
(3) 523 Divide a segment into 9 equal parts and mark 19 29 , 79 , 99 of it.
(4) (a) 32 girls dresses or 16 womens dresses can be made from a
length of cotton fabric. Each girls dress requires 2 meters
of cotton. How many meters of cotton are needed for each
womens dress?
(b) One student wrote the following expression for the problem:
(2 32) 16. Another wrote the equation x 16 = 2 32.
Explain how each student thought about the problem.
(5)
(a) Look at the figure. What fractions of a rectangle are represented? Name them. How many thirds are there in a whole
rectangle? How many sixths?
(b) Using the figure, replace the squares with number that make
the following equalities true:
4
3
1
=
; =
; 1=
; =
.
3
6 6
3
6 3
6
(6) Using the figure in 538 and the figure below compare the following
6
7
fractions: 53 and 45 ; 10
and 53 , 1 and 55 , 10
and 35 , 23 and 29 , 66 and 55 ,
286
3
9
and 13 .
287
CHAPTER 6
1. Introduction
It is important that students have a clear understanding of the underlying processes of mathematics before they begin to use technology as an aid in
performing mathematical computations or to help deepen their understanding about mathematics concepts. For example, if students do not understand
how real numbers are represented as decimals, then reading information from
calculator computations can be risky. If a decimal representation of a real
number is finite or infinite repeating, then the real number is a rational
number; otherwise, the real number is an irrational number. (Reference:
Algebra Chapter, Section titled Polynomials, subsection titled
Application of polynomials to summing finite geometric series)
Graphing calculators, like the TI-83 Plus, represent every number by up to
15 decimals but only show the first 10. So, calculators represent real numbers as rational numbers with denominator of the form 2a 5b where 2a 5b <
1016 . In addition, there are important reasons why calculators do not show
all the decimals they work with internally in the display.
Technology can be very misleading if you dont understand the mathematical behavior of what is under consideration. For example, if you graph
y = x2 15x 5 in the standard viewing window (-10 x 10, -10
y 10) on a graphing calculator you will see what appears to be a
line. However, if you know all the possibilities for the graph of a quadratic,
then you can use a graphing calculator to find an appropriate graph (it is
NOT a line) and many of the important features of the graph. Without basic mathematical understanding of the graph a graphing calculator doesnt
help.
Technology used appropriately can be a powerful exploration device
for mathematical investigations. Again understanding the mathematics, or
mathematical possibilities behind the scene, is crucial to appropriate use of
the technology.
289
290
291
F ig.1
The next two rows of keys (Fig. 2) begin with the
and
keys
are used to edit expressions and values. The left, right, up, and down arrow
keys are used to navigate on the Home screen and within menus on the
calculator.
F ig.2
The next row of keys that begin with the
menus of the advanced features (Fig. 3).
F ig.3
292
Finally, the bottom 6 rows of keys are used to access the scientific calculator
capabilities of the graphing calculator (Fig. 4).
F ig.4
Binary Operations
Numbers can be entered using the binary operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division using the keys in the last column in
rows 6 through nine. For example, to perform the following computations
1.
2.
3.
4.
123.5 + 67.9
123.5 67.9
23.4 11
552 12
293
we press the corresponding keys shown below producing the results shown
on the Home screen (Fig. 5).
F ig.5
Note that the decimal point key
Order of Operations
To compute the expression 14 + 7 8 using standard mathematical order of operations, we multiply 7 times 8 first and then add the result to 14
obtaining 70. Figure 6 shows that our calculator also interprets the expression the same way. Our calculator uses algebraic logic, which means it uses
mathematical order of operations that we are accustomed to.
F ig.6
Pressing
produces 70.
If we want to add 14 and 7 before multiplying by 8, we can use parentheses (14 + 7) 8. This produces the result 168 which we can check with
294
F ig.7
Pressing
produces 168.
Example 1 Use mathematical order of operations to interpret and calculate the expression 81 3 2. Then check with a calculator.
Solution Divisions and multiplications are done in order from left to
right. So 81 3 2 = 27 2 = 54. Notice that it does not mean to multiply
the 2 and 3 before dividing. Our calculator gets the same result (Fig. 8).
F ig.8
Pressing
produces 54.
(End of Example) Subtraction versus Negation The key
in the eighth
295
negative 3.
F ig.9
F ig.10
If we press
we store the number 2 into the temporary memin yellow. Then, if
ory called ANS located above the negation key
we press
we store the expression Ans + 2 into the temporary
memory called ENTRY located above the
key in yellow. Now if
we press
repeatedly, we will add 2 to the previous result as shown in
296
F ig.11
Press
followed by 3
s.
F ig.12
Press an additional 6
s.
Notice that 22 is the result of adding eleven 2s. We will study more
uses of the ANS and ENTRY features of the calculator.
If we repeat the above process using
in place of
and
in place of
we obtain repeated multiplication by 3 as illustrated in Figures 13 and
14.
297
F ig.13
Press
followed by 3
s.
F ig.14
Press an additional 6
s.
F ig.15
298
The number 3 is the base in the first computation above and negative
2 is the base in the next two computations. The exponents are 11, 10, and
13, respectively.
Fractions
The FRAC feature of the calculator can be used to perform operations
with fractions to display the results in fractional form. The FRAC feature
is the first item in the MATH menu. Press the
key to see the menu
below (Fig. 16).
F ig.16
For example, if we want to add
in Figure 17.
1
2
and
3
4
F ig.17
Press
299
F ig.18
34 = 14
2
5
5
3 6 = 9
3
2
9
4 3 = 8
(End of Example)
A second way to perform the computation in part (c) of Example 2 is
to use the fact that dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its
inverse. The inverse can be obtained using the
key in the fifth row, first
column. Here are the keystrokes and corresponding calculator display (Fig.
19).
F ig.19
The
Scientific Notation
Any positive number can be written in scientific notation c 10m , where
1 c < 10 and m is an integer. To put a negative number in scientific
notation, first put its absolute value in scientific notation and then take the
negative of the result. Scientific notation provides a compact way to work
with very large and very small numbers. For example,
0.0001 = 1 104
300
Here is the way our calculator represents numbers in scientific notation (Fig.
20).
F ig.20
Type the number followed by
.
m
Notice that to represent the number c 10 , the calculator uses c
followed by E followed by the exponent m.
Numbers can be entered directly in scientific notation using the EE
feature in yellow above the comma key 0 in the sixth row, second column.
Whenever we press the
key followed by a second key, whatever appears
in yellow above the second key is accessed. The keystrokes and corresponding calculator display are shown in Figure 21 for 2.5 106 , 1.7 103 , and
1.7 104 .
F ig.21
When you enter negative integer exponents less than or equal to 4, the
calculator simply returns its scientific notation rather than standard scientific notation. The same thing is true for positive exponents greater than or
equal to 10.
Decimals
We investigate calculator produced decimal representations of numbers
and begin by setting our calculator into floating point decimal mode as
301
F ig.22
F ig.23
Press
We can use long division to find out that the repeating block of 16
1
1
is 0588235294117647, so 17
= 0. 0588235294117647. We can
decimals for 17
1
conclude that our calculator does not display all the decimals for 17
, but
does give a sufficiently accurate approximation.
The numbers to the right of Float in the Mode screen above allow the
user to set the number of decimals shown in the calculator display. To set
the 3, use the arrow keys to move the cursor onto the 3 and press
302
(Fig. 24).
F ig.24
1
17
F ig.25
Graphing
303
x-intercept (- 32 , 0) and y-intercept (0, 3). Its graph is shown in Figure 26.
F ig.26
We want to study how to graph this example with our calculator. Press
(first row, first column) and type the expression 2x + 3 into Y1.
Use the key
in the third row, second column, for x. When we
use function-graphing mode on our calculator, X is always the independent
variable and Y is the dependent variable (Fig. 27).
F ig.27
Viewing Window
304
F ig.28
Then press
F ig.29
[5, 5, 1]x[5, 5, 1]
We usually put the notation for the window, [-5, 5, 1] x [-5, 5, 1] in this
case, underneath the figure as shown above. Notice that the x-intercept and
y-intercept appear in this window. Also notice that a portion of the x-axis
and y-axis appear in this window. In fact, if Xmin < 0 and Xmax > 0, part
of the x-axis will always be shown in the window. Similarly, if Ymin < 0
and Ymax > 0, part of the y-axis will always be shown in the window.
Trace
305
F ig.30
You can move the cursor to the right by repeatedly pressing the right arrow
key
left arrow key
if you want to move to the left. In Figure 31 we
have pressed the right arrow key 5 times.
F ig.31
[5, 5, 1]x[5, 5, 1]
Notice when you use Trace the calculator places a blinking crosshair on
the point on the graph. The screen shots we use sometimes capture the
crosshair as in Figure 30. Other times the crosshair can show up as a small
rectangle as in Figure 31.
The coordinates of the point on the graph shown in Figure 31 are about
(0.53191489, 4.0638298). The second coordinate gives the value of Y at the
first coordinate. The X-coordinate is complicated. The reason is that if
Xres in the Window menu is 1, the calculator uses 95 equally spaced values
from Xmin to Xmax. In this case the distance between consecutive X-values
used by the calculator is
5 (5)
Xmax Xmin
=
0.1063829787.
94
94
If you multiply this value by 5 you will get the value of X shown in Figure
31.
306
F ig.32
Decimal Window
We can choose another window in which the X-coordinates are nicer.
We will use the so-called Decimal Window which can be obtained by
pressing the
key (first row, third column) and selecting the fourth
item in the list (Fig. 33).
F ig.33
You can select it by pressing
F ig.34
307
F ig.35
We have nearly lost the Y-intercept because 3 is barely less than Ymax =
3.1. If we dont change Xmin and Xmax the X-coordinates will not change.
So a nice improvement on the window above is to change Ymin to 10 and
Ymax to 10 leaving Xmin and Xmax the same as before. The corresponding
graph is shown in Figure 36.
F ig.36
Now as you press the left or right arrow keys after you press
will get nice decimal values for X. The reason is
Xmax Xmin
4.7 (4.7)
=
= 0.1.
94
94
, you
308
F ig.37
[4.7, 4.7, 1]x[10, 10, 1]
Notice that the slope of the line y = 2x + 3 in the [-4.7, 4.7, 1] x [-10,
10, 1] window in Figure 37 appears different than the slope in the decimal
window [-4.7, 4.7, 1] x [-3.1, 3.1, 1] in Figure 34. Some viewing windows
distort geometric features like slope and distance. The decimal window is an
example of a square viewing window, that is, a viewing window that doesnt
distort angles and unit distances in the horizontal or vertical direction.
Standard Viewing Window
Another common window to use in graphing is the Standard Viewing
to get the screen in Figure 38,
Window. Press
F ig.38
and select 6:Zstandard by pressing
to get the screen in the standard
viewing window . You can check that the parameters for the Standard
Viewing Window are [10, 10, 1][10, 10, 1] by pressing
as shown
309
F ig.39
Tables
F ig.40
Make sure that Auto is selected for the independent variable X (Indpnt) and dependent variable Y (Depend). To select Auto, place the
. The first value used
cursor on Auto using the arrow keys and press
for X is the value typed in for TblStart, 0 in the above figure. Tbl is
the value that will increment X, 1 in this case. Now press
to
310
F ig.41
You can move around in the table using the four arrow keys. In Figure
41 we have used the right arrow key
to get to the second list, and then
the up arrow key
to get to the top of the second list. Notice that the
equation relating X and Y appears at the bottom when the cursor is at the
top of the second list.
If we move the cursor into the first list, we can expose move values for X
by using the up or down arrow keys as suggested in figures 42 and 43. The
table can be extended as far as you want in either direction.
F ig.42
F ig.43
311
We can directly type the values we wish to use for X by setting Indpnt
to Ask. In this case the settings for TblStart and Tbl have no effect.
Press
and move the cursor to Ask in the Indpnt row and
to obtain Figure 44.
press
F ig.44
Now press
(Fig. 45)
F ig.45
Once you type in seven values for X you will need to overstrike one of
the seven entries to type in a new one. Notice in this mode the values for X
need not be equally space.
Using STAT PLOT
Suppose we want to plot the following points with our calculator.
(-3, -13.5), (-2, -4), (-1, -0.5), (0, 0), (1, 0.5), (2, 4), (3, 13.5)
We will put the first coordinates (x-coordinates) in list L1 and the second
coordinates (y-coordinates) in list L2. Lists can be found in the STAT menu.
312
Press
F ig.46
Then select 1:Edit (press
or
) to access the lists. If there are entries
in lists L1 or L2, use the arrow keys to go to the top of the list and press
to clear the entries. Your screen should look like the one
in Figure 47.
F ig.47
Now put the x-coordinates in list L1 and the y-coordinates in list L2.
Type the number and press
to get to the next row. Use the arrow
keys to move through the lists (Fig. 48).
F ig.48
If you enter an incorrect entry, place the cursor on the incorrect entry
and overtype the incorrect entry with the correct one. If you leave an entry
313
out, you can use the INSERT feature in yellow above the
key. Place
the cursor where the entry should be, then press
. A 0 will be
entered in the table. Now overtype the 0 with the correct entry and press
.
Now press
to get to the STATPLOT menu as shown in Figure
49.
F ig.49
Select Plot 1 by pressing
or
F ig.50
Again the arrow keys are used to move around on this menu. Move your
cursor to ON and press
to turn on the Plot. The first diagram
in the Type List represents scatter plot. Place your cursor on it and press
. Make sure L1 is in the Xlist. Place the cursor on whatever is there
. Notice that L1 is in yellow above the
key. Make sure
and press
that L2 is in the Ylist. Notice that L2 is above the
key.
Finally, Mark is the symbol used to mark the plotted point. It can be
a small square, a small plus sign, or a point. It is possible to show up to
three different plots on the same screen. In those cases you will likely want
to distinguish the plots by using different marks. If there are only a few
points in the plot, then using the small square or cross can be helpful to
identify the points. On the other hand, if there are many points in a given
plot, then using the small square can clutter the plot. We choose to use the
314
small square in our example. Your screen should look like the one below
(Fig. 51).
F ig.51
We need to choose a viewing window that contains the points to be
plotted. The WINDOW settings given in Figure 52 will work.
F ig.52
Press
to see the points plotted in this window. You should get the
graph in Figure 53.
F ig.53
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
315
Exercises
4. Mathematical Activities
The TI-83 Plus does not usually display all the digits it uses internally
to represent a number. At most 10 decimals are shown as in the floating
1
decimal point representation for 17
in Figure 23. However, it is possible to
see the remaining digits that the calculator is hiding if we make an extra
step.
Example 3 Find some of the decimals that are not shown on the display
for the following numbers.
1
(a) 17
(b) 3
316
F ig.54
F ig.55
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
317
3.
F ig.56
F ig.57
318
F ig.58
One reason that calculators store some digits (behind the screen as it
were) was an attempt to correct this problem. With more digits in the
calculator the result of multiplying 19 by 9 can appear to round to 1 using
the hidden digits. There is no way to avoid this problem as long as numbers
are stored as finite decimals, but now it is quite difficult to find examples
where the problem occurs.
Lets look at this calculation on the TI-83 Plus (Fig. 59).
F ig.59
After entering 19 and pressing
, the
keys were pressed. Because we did not directly enter a number before pressing the times key,
the calculator used the result of the previous computation, ( 91 ), as the second number. The result of the previous computation is stored in the ANS
variable as we discussed in the section on repeated addition and repeated
.
multiplication. Finally, press
All manufactures have to deal with this problem, and different companies
use different methods, so that sometimes the answers shown by different
machines will actually be different. We will find the ANS feature to be a
powerful technique to use on our machines.
Evaluating Expressions
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
319
There are several ways to use handheld technology to enter and evaluate
algebraic expressions for real numbers. First we will explore how to store
numbers and algebraic expressions on a calculator.
Algebraic variables such as A, B, C, and so forth, can be found above the
keys in green in rows 4 through 9. To access these letters we press the green
key in the third row followed by the key below the letter. For ex.
ample, to store the number 5 into D we press the keys
Now when we press the keys
we retrieve the stored number
5.
We can store an algebraic expression into the temporary memory ENTRY above the
key by simply typing the expression on the Home
screen using the
and other keys and pressing
. Details are
given in Example 4. This feature can be used to evaluate the expression for
one or several values of the variable.
Example 4 Store the expression 2a2 + 5a 3 and evaluate it for the
particular value a = 3.
Solution Our technology contains the full alphabet plus the letter
above the keys starting with
in the 4th row. Figure 60 shows the display when we store 3 to the variable A by pressing the keys
then type the expression 2A2 + 5A 3, and finally pressing
to evaluate the expression for A = 3.
F ig.60
Not only have we evaluate the expression for a = 3, but the expression is
stored in ENTRY as you can see by pressing the keys
as
320
F ig.61
(End of Example)
We can evaluate the expression 2a2 + 5a 3 for other values of a by
entering those values for a as we did in Example 4. This process can be
streamlined by using the concatenation feature as illustrated in Example
5. The concatenation symbol : is located above the
key and looks like
a colon.
Example 5 Use the concatenation
feature to evaluate the expression
2a2 + 5a 3 for a = 5, -3, 34 , and 3. Then locate the ordered pairs (a, 2a2
+ 5a 3) on the graph of 2a2 + 5a 3.
Solution The concatenation key : is accessed by pressing
.
2
Figure 62 gives the value 72 for the expression 2a + 5a 3 for a = 5. Press
after entering the expression.
F ig.62
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
321
F ig.63
F ig.64
322
Now compute the remaining values for a. The results are shown in Figure
65.
F ig.65
The value of the expression 2a2 + 5a 3 is 1.875 for a = 34 , and the value
F ig.66
We need to pick a viewing window [Xmin, Xmax, Xscl]
x [Ymin, Ymax,
Yscl] that contains the four points (-3, 0), ( 34 , 1.875), ( 3, 11.66), and
(5, 72). So we need to choose Xmin to the left of the four x-coordinates,
Xmax to the right of the four x-coordinates, Ymin to the left of the four ycoordinates, and Ymax to the right of the four y-coordinates. Press
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
323
and enter the values shown in Figure 67 which satisfy these conditions.
F ig.67
Notice that the four x-coordinates are to the right of 5 (Xmin) and to
the left of 6 (Xmax). The four y-coordinates are between 10 (Ymin) and
75 (Ymax). Press the
window (Fig. 68).
F ig.68
[5, 6, 1] [10, 75, 5]
We can obtain the coordinates of the points computed above using the
CALC menu, which is accessed by pressing
as shown in Figure
69. (
is in the first row.)
F ig.69
To see the pair (5, 72), press
or
to obtain the CALC feature
1:value. You will see an X= in the bottom left hand corner of the screen
324
F ig.70
Now press
to enter the value 5 for X. Press
to obtain the value 72
for Y and notice the small cross on the graph at the point (5, 72) as shown
in Figure 71.
F ig.71
Repeat this procedure to see the pairs (X, Y) for X = -3,
shown in Figures 72 - 74.
F ig.72
3
4,
3 as
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
325
F ig.73
F ig.74
F ig.75
326
and press
F ig.76
When we press
and use the left and right arrow keys the calculator will display the values it uses to draw the graph generally very messy
decimals. In this case, 5 was not one of the numbers that the calculator
used so it was necessary to type the number 5 and force the calculator to
use the number 5.
(End of Example)
Teacher Note: Using the insert feature to edit expressions on the home
screen can save time if the expressions are complicated. Students should
also try retyping the entire expression themselves to compare.
Example 6 Evaluate the expression 2a2 + 5a 3 on the TI-83 by entering the expression as Y1 = 2X2 +5X-3 in the Y= menu and then use the
Table feature of the TI-83 Plus.
Solution Press
and enter the expression as shown in Figure 77.
F ig.77
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
327
F ig.78
Press
F ig.79
Remember that the table of values can be extended to the left of X =
0 by placing the cursor in the left column and then press the up arrow key
several times. The table of values can be extended to the right of X = 6
by placing the cursor in the left column and then press the down arrow key
several times. Possible resulting screens are shown in Figures 80 and 81.
F ig.80
328
F ig.81
(End of Example)
The table feature can also be used to compute values for Y1 similar to
the ones computed in Example 5. However, we will need to set up the table
screen a little differently as illustrated in Example 7.
Example 7 Use thetable feature to evaluate the expression 2a2 + 5a
3 for a = 5, -3, 43 , and 3.
Solution Enter Y1 = 2X2 +5x-3 in the Y= menu. Choose the settings
for TABLE SETUP as shown in Figure 82. Recall that the settings for
TblStart and Tbl have no effect when Indpnt is set to Ask in the
TABLE SETUP menu.
F ig.82
When you view the table you might see the numbers 3 through 9 from the
previous table above. If so, place the cursor on any X entry and then press
the
key (2nd row) to remove the entry until your table looks like the one
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
329
in Figure 83.
F ig.83
Now we can enter the four values for X in the left column. The corresponding values for Y1 will appear in the second column. Notice that 34 and
F ig.84
In the last row there are more decimals than shown. To see the rest of
the decimals move the cursor to the entry using the arrow keys as shown in
Figures 85 and 86.
F ig.85
330
F ig.86
(End of Example)
Rectangle Problem
Consider rectangles with side lengths h and v as shown in Figure 87.
Suppose further that the perimeter of each such rectangle is 40.
F ig.87
.................................................................................
..
.
....
...
...
...
...
..
.............................................................................
2h + 2v = 40
h + v = 20
h
The area of this rectangle is A = hv. We construct a table of values v and
A using the values 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 for h. Notice that v = 20
h.
h
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
v
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
A
36
64
84
96
100
96
84
64
36
Example 8 Place the values of h, v, and A into lists L1, L2, and L3, respectively, on the TI-83 Plus. Then graph the pairs (h, A) using STATPLOT
and describe the graph.
Solution We can simply type the values of h, v, and A in lists L1, L2,
and L3, as we did earlier. We can save a little work by first typing in the
values for L1 (Fig. 88). Then we use the fact that L2 is an explicit function
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
331
F ig.88
We use the up arrow key
L2 as shown in Figure 89.
F ig.89
Press
F ig.90
332
F ig.91
F ig.92
We will create a STATPLOT using the points (h, A) from L1 and L3.
The collection of these points should give us some information about how
the area A depends on h. Press
and select Plot 1 as we did before.
Enter the settings shown in Figure 93. Notice that L3 is above the
key.
F ig.93
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES
333
Next we choose a viewing window to plot the points. The window shown
in Figure 94 contains the points of this STATPLOT.
F ig.94
Press
F ig.95
The points appear to lie on a parabola that opens down. In fact, this is the
case because A = h v = h(20 h) = 20h h2 .
(End of Example)
Teacher Note:
1. Certainly you will want your students to plot some points by hand
before using technology to produce the points. Selecting windows for plots
is not easy and take quite a bit of teacher assistance and a good deal of
student practice.
2. You need to help students understand that graphs can now be used
as a tool to learn. As long as we know that what is being viewed and the
techniques being used are based on good mathematics we can be confident
in the use of technology.
Exercises
In Exercises 1-3, (a) find the calculator display for the fraction.
(b) Does the calculator show all the digits in its decimal representation?
(c) If the answer to part (b) is no, give some of the missing digits.
1. 38
1
2. 13
334
1
of the expression for c = -5, - 4 , 5, and 7. Show the table.
In Exercises 11-12, use tables to evaluate the expression from the specified exercise.
11. Exercise 5
12. Exercise 6
In Exercises 13-14, use the table from the lesson about the rectangles
with perimeter
40.
13. Draw a scatter plot of the pairs (h, v).
14. Draw a scatter plot of the pairs (v, A).
5. References
Texas Instruments (TI) commissioned an independent review of approximately 180 published studies on the use of handheld graphing technology in
5. REFERENCES
335
secondary school mathematics courses that was reported in Handheld graphing technology at the secondary level: Research findings and implications for
classroom practice (Burrill, G et al, 2002). Subsequently, a follow-up review
and analysis of five of these studies focusing on curriculum typically taught
in the secondary school algebra-precalculus course sequence were judged to
meet No Child Left Behind (NCLB) research criteria and is available from
TI at
http : //education.ti.com/downloads/pdf /us/whitepaper.pdf.
The five studies are:
Harskamp, E., Suhre, C., & Van Streun, A. (2000). The graphics calculator and students solution strategies. Mathematics Education Research
Journal, 12(1), 37-52.
Ruthven, K. (1990). The influence of graphic calculator use on translation from graphic to symbolic forms. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
21, 431-450.
Schwarz, B. B., & Hershkowitz, R. (1999). Prototypes: Brakes or levers
in learning the function concept? The role of computer tools. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 30(4), 362-389.
Thompson, D. R., & Senk, S. L. (2001). The effects of curriculum
on achievement in second-year algebra: The example of the University of
Chicago School Mathematics Project. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education, 32(1), 58-84.
Van Streun, A., Harskamp, E., & Suhre, C. (2000). The effect of the
graphic calculator on students solution approaches: A secondary analysis.
Hiroshima Journal of Mathematics Education, 8, 27-39.
Significant findings for student achievement that were reported are:
Handheld graphing technology has been demonstrated to have a
positive impact on
- General skill and understanding of algebra concepts
- Student comprehension of functions
Handheld graphing technology has been demonstrated to have a
positive impact on student learning in a range of settings, using a
variety of instructional approaches.
Use of graphing handhelds can improve students skill in creating
algebra descriptions of Cartesian graphs (symbolization), even when
- Teachers are inexperienced in the use of such graphing devices; and
- There is no specified structure for integrating graphing handhelds into
the curriculum.
Integrating graphing handhelds with existing precalculus-level instruction can lead to
- Increased student use of graphical solution strategies, a trait linked to
improved performance
- Improved general understanding of functions
336
CHAPTER 7
338
also provides a clear idea of the content needed to help our teachers to know
this material and be able to bring it to the classroom.
Additionally, we include Appendix D, which consists of the table of
contents, a few detailed lessons and a number of sample problems from a
Russian sixth grade geometry text that has been translated by UCSMP.
The instructor should be prepared to discuss the fact that the coordinate
plane and geometry represent abstractions from real life situations. While
the results studied in geometry inform and guide astronomy, construction
of buildings, mechanisms, and many other areas of essential importance in
our society, they only represent certain aspects of such application problems.
However, what makes geometry so important is that the aspects it represents
are among the most important properties that need to be analyzed in these
situations.
Another concern that has to be handled is that current state and national standards for geometry in K-8 include some to considerable discussion
of the Euclidian group in the sense that students are expected to work with
translations, rotations, reflections and some compositions of these operations. Consequently, this material should be present in the course and must
be carefully presented. This is especially true currently since virtually all
mathematics texts for K - 8 classrooms in this country do not explain these
transformations very well.
It is also worth noting that suggestions for modeling geometry appear
at various points in this chapter. There are a number of useful modeling
tools and programs that can be helpful here. One possibility is the Zometool (www.zometool.com), that gives students the capacity to relatively inexpensively construct very sophisticated models. Another useful website
is http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/paper-models.html which
discusses procedures for making very elegant paper models.
As in the other chapters, it is important that course instructors require
that their pre-service students frequently explain their reasoning either verbally or in writing when solving problems. Besides the clarity that explaining what one is doing develops, this provides important information about
student misconceptions.
Finally, it should always be kept in mind that an extremely important consideration in these courses should be to provide key material that
pre-service teachers can transport directly to the classroom, and that the
mathematics presented should make sense and not simply be viewed by these
students as lists of isolated fact to be learned for the test and then forgotten.
2. Lines, Planes and Figures in Space
Around third grade or below many state standards today mandate that
students should study the number line. So pre-service teachers should clearly
understand how to put coordinates on the line and the fact that in doing this
one selects a base point (0) and a unit, and that these points are arbitrary.
Once this is done then any rational number is uniquely associated to a point
339
on the line by standard constructions. The same is true of the reals of course,
and this gives an ordering of these numbers, i.e. a < b if and only if a is to
the left of b on the number line.
From this one observes that each point, p, on the line divides the line
into two rays with only p in common, those points a so that a p and those
points b so that b p. The definitions of line segment, and ray should be
given. In the exercises below, we use the term region as shorthand for
rays and segments. In general, we will use it as shorthand for connected
components.
Exercises:
(1) The line segment below is 23 units long. Show a line segment that
is 35 units long. Explain how you know your segment is the correct
length. (It is expected that this will be solved by measuring, the
line segment, and then figuring out how long - approximately - the
required segment is to be. But this can lead to further discussion.
For example, it is very important to make sure that pre-service
teachers understand that the conventions behind their answers depend on definitions and that different conventions for naming the
points on the line would give different results.)
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2
3
unit
(2) Plot 13
5 and at least two other nearby integers on a number line
and explain why you have plotted these numbers appropriately.
(3) Order the numbers 22
7 , 3.14, , 3.15, 2, 4.
(4) (a) Into how many regions do the numbers 22
7 and divide the
number line?
(b) Give precise descriptions of the regions.
(5) (a) Into how many regions do the numbers 3.14, 3.12 and 4 divide
the number line?
(b) Give precise descriptions of the regions.
(6) Suppose you have n distinct numbers on the number line, where n is
any counting number, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Into how many regions do these
n numbers divide the number line? Give a detailed justification for
your answer.
(7) Draw 10 unit intervals, each one 10 inches long. Label the ends
of the intervals 0 and 1. Divide the first number line into halves,
the second into thirds, the next into fourths, and so on so that the
ninth number line is marked by tenths. On the tenth number line,
mark and label all of the fractions that appear on the other nine
number lines.
(a) On the last number line that includes all of the fractions, what
is the largest distance between any two labeled fractions? (The
answer is 1 since 0 and 1 are labeled).
(b) What is the next largest distance?
(c) What is the smallest distance?
Lines in the plane and space. Students should understand that two
distinct points in the plane or space determine a unique line that joins them
Geometry is a very
vocabulary intensive
subject, so care should
be taken with
definitions. It might be
a good idea to have
student develop a
geometry glossary
whenever new terms are
presented.
340
and in that line a unique segment between them. The basic definitions
should be given: two distinct lines in the same plane are parallel if they
do not intersect, but a line is parallel to itself. Two planes in space that
do not intersect are parallel, and a plane is parallel to itself. Examples
of parallel lines and planes in buildings, the lines on a ruled paper, etc.,
may be given. Students should know that a line and a point not on the line
determine a plane, and from the above, three non-collinear points determine
a plane. Point out that two intersecting lines in space determine a plane.
Give examples of skew lines.
Explain that a point on a line decomposes a line into two regions, a line
decomposes a plane that contains it into two regions, and a plane in space
decomposes space into two regions.
As regards figures in space, define right prisms on various bases, particularly rectangular prisms and cubes. Define cones and pyramids, and explain
what a net is.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Construct a regular tetrahedron using the following net:
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(b) Identify the skew line pairs among the edges of this regular
tetrahedron.
(c) For each pair of intersecting lines in this tetrahedron identify
the plane that contains them.
(2) Follow the directions for problem 1 for the net below for a regular
octahedron. Identify parallel and transverse planes of the faces.
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(4) Label the faces of the figure above that can be be folded up to
make a cube with the numbers 1 to 6 in such a way that the sum
of opposite faces is always 7. Do this in at least two different ways.
After folding the figures check to see if it is possible to rotate the
first figure so that it becomes the same as the second. In how many
different ways can you label the faces so each cannot be rotated to
agree with any of the others?
(5) For the pattern below, name the shape it would make if it were cut
out, folded, and taped to make a closed shape. (Do this without
cutting and folding!) Label the base(s) (if any). Determine whether
it is oblique or right.
342
343
Perimeter is typically introduced in the early grades. Here is the definition of perimeter from the second grade Russian text translated by UCSMP:
The sum of the lengths of the sides of a triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon,
or any other polygon is called its perimeter.
(2) Find the perimeter of a triangle if the length of one side is 8 cm,
the length of the second is 6 cm, and the length of the third is 10
cm.
(3) On a sheet of graph paper, draw a square with a side of 3 cm. Find
the perimeter of the square.
Preliminary remarks on circles: Introduce the circle as the set of points
with a fixed distance from a given point on the plane. Define radius and
diameter. The pre-service students should practice using a compass to construct circles. Bring up the circumference of a circle and discuss how one
might try to measure the circumference by inscribing and circumscribing
regular polygons. Define as the ratio of the circumference to the diameter
of the circle. Point out that after the topic of similarity is discussed, it will
344
be possible to justify the fact that is independent of the circles used, but
for now this is just to be accepted. A typical method for giving a plausibility argument in the classroom might be to bring in a bicycle wheel and
measure to approximate . Later we discuss how one can make the process
of approximating by inscribing explicit polygons and actually approximate
in this way. See the end of the next section for a possible method.
Triangles, quadrilaterals and their applications:
Students should review the basic ruler and compass constructions involving bisecting an angle, finding the mid-point of a line segment, and
constructing the perpendicular to a line through a point.
It should be pointed out that triangles are rigid figures. What this means
is that if one gives the three lengths of the sides of a triangle, then, if there
is a triangle at all (the lengths satisfy the three triangle inequalities, one for
each side), there are only four distinct triangles that we can construct by
drawing a line segment having one of the lengths, and using our compass set
to the two remaining lengths to draw two circles centered at the endpoints
of this segment. These circles intersect in two points, and, depending on
which length is at the left-hand segment, this will give the four cases. Note
that they are all either reflections or rotations of each other. This property
is crucial in construction.
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the side lengths, any quadrilateral can be deformed, and students can explore
the different quadrilaterals that occur with the same side lengths.
It is common that pre-service teachers will not have the intuition that triangles are rigid but quadrilaterals are not. This
can easily be seen by forming triangles and parallelograms
with ones fingers. It can also be illustrated by threading
straws together or pinning together strips of cardboard
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Students may try to find examples of how these ideas are used for
example many desk lamps have mechanisms for moving the light around
and changing the angle and height of the lamp that take advantage of these
facts. For example showing that the linkage below has this property would
346
be a good exercise.
Oil well pumps also take advantage of the fact that one can freely rotate the
shortest side of a quadrilateral (this is a crank-shaft attached to an electric
motor), provided that the sum of the lengths of any two of the remaining
three sides is greater than the sum of the short side and the third of the
remaining sides.
347
The basic nature of the mechanism and the relative motion of the parts can
best be described with the aid of the accompanying figure, in which the
moving parts are lightly shaded. The darkly shaded part 1, the fixed frame
or block of the pump or engine, contains a cylinder, depicted in cross section
by its walls DE and FG, in which the piston, part 4, slides back and forth.
The small circle at A represents the main crankshaft bearing, which is also
in part 1.
Dynamic Geometry Exploration Reciprocating Piston Pump Conversion of rotary motion to straight-line motion. Use Cabri GeometryT M to
perform the following steps.
(1) Construct a circle and label its center A. The center represents the
crankshaft bearing. Construct a segment (to represent the cylinder)
so that the endpoints of the segment and the center of the circle
are collinear.
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(2) Construct a radius of the circle (to represent the crankshaft) and
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(3) Use the Compass Tool to transfer the segment length, centered at
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C. Hide the compass circle.
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Notes:
In Cabri Jr., the following tools are used: Circle, Alpha-Numeric Label,
Segment, Compass, Intersection Point, Animation.
To stop an animation in Cabri Jr., press while the object is in motion.
The tool icon in the upper left corner of the screen changes to
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Stop
349
Then press
to stop the animation. To re-animate, press again,
then select the desired point and press
to start the motion.
The segment length that is transferred using the Compass tool to construct the connecting rod is an arbitrary fixed length. Any length larger
than the sum of the circle diameter and the distance from the circle to the
segment (that represents the cylinder) will suffice. To keep the construction
simple, the existing cylinder segment was used.
Engine reference: http://www.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm. This
excellent site www.howstuffworks.com contains quite a bit more information
that can be used as well.
At this point it is appropriate to recall the K - 12 terminology for triangles and quadrilaterals, isosceles, equilateral, and scalene, rhombus, parallelogram, kite, square, trapezoid, etc., taking care to explain that these
represent classes of such objects, but that the interest in these figures is not
in the the list of names, rather in what their properties are, and how they
are used. The names are a convenience. (With respect to this, it is common
in school mathematics to define a trapezoid as having exactly one pair of
parallel sides. Some thought should be given to redefining it as having at
least one pair of parallel sides.)
Exercises: After calculating the lengths of the sides of the triangles in the
following two exercises, use the triangle inequality to verify that triangles
with those dimensions really exist.
(1) The longest side of a triangle is seventeen inches more than the
shortest side, and nine inches longer than the third side. Find each
side if its perimeter is eighty-two inches.
(2) The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle are each five inches less
than three times the length of the third side. Find each side if the
length of the perimeter is thirty-nine inches.
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Some discussion of the case where the sum of the two angles is more than
360 degrees is needed here. Also, note that if we define the opposite of an
angle by reversing the order of the rays, the sum of an angle and its opposite
is the 0 angle.
One way to introduce right angles is explained in the Singapore series
for elementary school. Tear off the edges of a sheet of paper and fold what
is left. Then fold again, bringing part of the first fold on top of the rest of
the first fold. The crease marks from the fold are then perpendicular.
Discuss the straight edge and compass construction of the angle bisector,
and talk about constructing right angles as well as other angles of the form
360/2n .
Introduce angle measure. Have students compare and add measures by
cutting corners off figures. As a particular example, have them cut corners
off triangles and combine them to see that the sum of the interior angles of
a triangle is a straight angle. Pre-service teachers should understand that
such activities, while valuable, are not mathematical proofs. This particular
theorem for triangles is important enough to merit more than one proof.
One method is to verify the result for a right triangle first by recognizing
that two congruent right triangles form a rectangle, and the sum of the
angles of a rectangle is 360 . From here, the general case follows for an
arbitrary triangle by dropping a perpendicular to the longest side of the
triangle from its opposite angle. The triangle is thus partitioned into two
right triangles, and the result follows. Following this demonstration, the
usual proof involving transversals to parallel lines may be given, or delayed
until parallel lines are studied.1
Exercises:
A French sixth grade problem (DECIMALE 6)
(1) About circles.
1A proof is given in the second section on Elements of the Euclidian Group as Application
# 2. See also the seventh grade Singapore standards for a discussion of transversals of parallel
lines, and further topics that could be covered at this point.
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(a) Draw a circle and a cord [AB] of the circle. On one of the two
arcs with end points A, B label three points P , Q, and R.
\
\ and ARB.
[
(b) Compare the angles AP
B, AQB,
In this problem, it is expected that students will verify that the
angles are the same by measuring, but they are not expected to be
able to justify this in sixth grade. However, teachers will benefit
from an understanding of the underlying theorem for this exercise.
(2) Amanda got in her car at point A and drove to point B along the
route indicated in Figure 9.
(a) Show all of Amandas angles of turning along her route.
(b) What is the total amount of turning that Amanda did along her
route? Describe how you can determine this without measuring
individual angles and adding them up.
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Give the definitions of acute triangle and scalene triangle and state the
Pythagorean theorem.
One can use the Pythagorean theorem to derive a sequence of approximations for the perimeter of a circle, and therefore for . For example, start
with an inscribed
square in a circle of unit radius. The
sides of the square
each have length 2, so a first approximation to is 2 2 2.828427. A
better approximation is half of the permeter of an inscribed regular octagon.
The diagram below shows a portion of an inscribed square and an inscribed
regular octagon in a circle with center O. Two sides of the square are [OA]
and [OB], while [AC] and [CB] are two sides of the octagon.
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AOD is a 45 degree right triangle and side [AD] is has length 22 so the
1
2) 2 . Consequently the regular inscribed octagon gives
length
AC
is
(2
p
12
is 2 2 + 2 , and this gives
1
q
2
8 2 2+ 2
3.121445
as an approximation to . The next four give
3.1365485, 3.14033115, 3.141277251, and 3.1415138011
as the resulting approximations to . One could mention at this point that
there are better methods for calculating . Although not the most rapidly
converging series for estimating , Eulers series serves as one example:
1
1
1
2
+
+
+
=
12 22 32
6
An explanation of the relationship between the length of the arc cut by
1
an angle of 360
n degrees as n times the circumference may be given at this
point.
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354
Another common error is to think that if you know the perimeter of a shape you can determine the area. Diagrams such as
this one might help students to realize that this is false.
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356
(3) How many equal squares are needed to form the figure in the picture? Compare the areas of the figures.
The area of a rectangle of height h and width w is given as hw, and from
this one determines formulae for the general parallelogram as hb and the
area of a general triangle as 21 hb by appropriate dissection.
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(4) Each of the following figures is made up of two rectangles. Find the
area and perimeter of each figure.
Do the figures have the same area? Do they have the same perimeter?
(5) Assume that the area of a unit square is 1 square unit. Show that
the area of a rectangle of length l and width w is lw square units
when l and m are non-negative rational numbers. Show that the
area of a right triangle is 21 bh square units where b is the length of
one leg, and h is the length of the other.
(6) Assume that the area of a rectangle of length l and width w is
lw square units for any positive numbers l and w. Show that the
area of any triangle is 12 bh square units where b is the length of the
longest edge and h is the distance from this edge to the remaining
vertex.
(7) Realize a trapezoid as half of a parallelogram. Relate the standard
area formula (A = 12 (a + b)h, where a and b are the lengths of two
opposite parallel sides, and h is the separation between them) for
the trapezoid to the area of the parallelogram.
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At this point one can give the tangram proof of the Pythagorean Theorem:
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a2
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(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
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2A = ab
The area of the trapezoid is 12 (a + b)2 as we see from the figure on the
right, but the figure on the left shows that the area of the trapezoid is also
1
1
1 2
2 ab + 2 ab + 2 c . Equating these two expressions and canceling ab on both
sides gives the conclusion.
Next recall perimeter which has been discussed earlier. In the plane
consider a figure made up of a union of polygons with disjoint interiors.
The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the line segments making up the
boundary.
Exercises:
(1) (a) For a triangle of a given base and a given area, where can the
third vertex be? (What are the possible locations of the third
vertex?)
(b) Is there any limit on the perimeter of the triangles in part a)?
(2) (a) For a triangle of a given base and having a perimeter of fixed
length, where can the third vertex be?
359
(b) Is there any limitation on the area of the triangles of part a)?
Be as specific as possible. (The maximizing triangle is isosceles;
its area can be computed using the Pythagorean Theorem.)
(3) Using the previous two problems, find all triangles with a given
base, area, and perimeter. (4, 2 and 0 are the possibilities.) How
many are there up to congruence? (1 or 0.)
(4) (a) What is the area of a regular hexagon with a side of length 1?
(b) What is the area of a regular hexagon with a side of length v?
(5) Fix a parallelogram ABCD, and consider all the trapezoids which
can be realized by dividing ABCD in half by a line through the
center. For special positions of the bisecting line, the two halves
of the parallelogram can be a triangle (if the bisecting line passes
through one (hence, two) of the vertices of ABCD; or a parallelogram (when the bisecting line is parallel to a (pair of) side(s) of
ABCD. Does the area formula for the trapezoid remain valid in
these special cases?
(6) Let L1 , L2 be parallel lines, and let E be a point between L1 and
L2 . Let a line passing through E intersect L1 and L2 at A and C,
respectively, and let another line passing through E intersect L1
and L2 at D and B, resp. Explain why triangles AEB and DEC
have the same area.
Scaling and its effect on area should be discussed. If one scales a square,
the side length is multiplied by a scaling factor and the area of the scaled
square is 2 area of original square. This formula works for all figures
made up of a union of polygons with disjoint interiors: the area of a scaled
figure of this kind is the square of the scaling factor times the original area.
Exercises: The second through fourth exercises are from a sixth grade
French text DECIMALE 5.
(1) Given an equilateral triangle ABC whose side is of unit length. Let
T be the triangle obtained by joining the midpoints of the sides of
ABC. Compute the area of T and explain your steps.
(2) A kite.
(a) Draw a kite ABCD so that (AC) (BD), AC = 6cm, and
BD = 7cm.
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361
Circles
By the end of grade 7, students in high performing countries are expected
to know how to find the areas and perimeters of rectangles, triangles, and
other polygons, as well as area and circumference of circles via the usual
formulas A = r2 , C = d. However, some texts attempt to explain why
the same constant occurs in both the formula for circumference and for
area, while other texts do not. By this grade, students are also expected to
understand the relationship between the angle in degrees subtended by
(1) Consider the following two areas: A is the area that remains after
(the inside of) a circle touching all four sides of the unit square
(each side of length 1) has been taken away from the square, and
B is the area that remains after (the inside of) the square with all
four vertices lying on the unit circle (i.e., it has radius 1) has been
taken from the circle. Which is bigger, A or B?
(2) The same area
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In the two figures above [AB] is a line segment having the same
length 2cm, and I is the midpoint of [AB]. The inner circles with
centers both labeled O are both tangent at I and the outer circles
both contain A and B. Show that the blue and green annuli have
the same area.
\ in the triangle ABC be(3) The lunes of Hippocrates Angle BAC
low is a right angle. The three semi-circles below have diameters
respectively [BA], [AC] and [BC].
363
(5) (a) The edge of each square in the figure below is 5cm. Count the
number of squares inside the red lines; then count the number
of squares inside the blue lines.
364
the sides multiplied by the volume of a unit cube. Similarly, a more general
prism has area Ah multiplied by a fixed constant, where A is the area of the
base. In practice it is probably best to either not mention these constants
or to point out that by choosing the volume of a unit cube to be 1, they are
equal to 1.
Exercises: The fifth and sixth problems are from the seventh grade Japanese text translated by UCSMP, p. 161 - 162
(1) A box is 2 feet deep, 3 feet wide, and 4 feet tall. Give a detailed
explanation of why we can calculate the volume of the box by multiplying.
(2) A cubic foot of water weighs about 62 pounds. How much will the
water in a rectangular fish pond weigh if the fish pond is 3 feet
wide, 4 feet long, and 2 feet deep? Give a detailed explanation of
why we can multiply to solve this problem.
(3) How many cubic inches are in 2 cubic feet? Explain your answer so
as to convince a skeptic that it is correct.
(4) (a) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many different
shapes can have the same area
(b) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many different
shapes can have the same perimeter
(c) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many different
solid shapes can have the same volume.
(5) The cube below has an edge of 6 cm. Solve the following problems
(a) Find the volume of the triangular pyramid AHEF .
(b) Using the answer to (1), find the volume of the triangular pyramid AHF C.
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366
(2) A typical adult male gorilla is about 5 12 feet tall and weighs about
400 pounds. King Kong was supposed to have been about 20 feet
tall. Assuming that King Kong was proportioned like a typical
adult male gorilla, approximately how much should King Kong have
weighed? Explain your reasoning.
Real life measurement and errors in measurement
In discussing errors in measurement, it is important to discuss two types
of error: absolute error and relative error. The first refers to the last reported
digit, and the second refers to the total number of significant digits. The
larger a quantity is, the larger the error can be and still be acceptable, and
in fact, the larger the error is likely to be. Students should understand that
accuracy of more than four significant digits is rare, and usually requires
significant effort. Often one significant digit is sufficient, and three is quite
accurate for most purposes. Here we are talking about final numbers. Since
error can propagate during calculations, it is important to consider how
trustworthy results of computations with approximate numbers is. One
does not want to get too involved in this, but some appreciation of the issue
is desirable.
An excellent example to help understand how errors can propagate is a
mechanism that consists of two line segments, the first of length l1 and the
second of length l2 , with the initial point of the first segment fixed at the
origin. If we only know the angles the two segments make with the x-axis
up to an error of, say, one tenth of a degree, have students estimate the
uncertainty of the position of the end point of the second link as a function
of the angles.
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367
the distance between the original points. Then emphasize this by pointing
out the definition: The number is called the constant of proportionality.
With regard to congruence, it should be explained that the definition
makes precise the intuitive idea that two figures are congruent if you can
copy one to a transparent sheet, slide it, rotate it, and possibly turn it over
to bring it into exact correspondence with the second figure. Thus, except
when having to actually verify things, they can think of congruence in this
way
First properties of congruence If two figures constructed from line segments in the plane are congruent, and two of the segments have an angle
, not equal to a straight angle, between them, then the angle between the
corresponding segments is either or . Moreover, if it is then all the
corresponding angles will be negatives of the angles in the original figure.
(The angles will reverse if a reflection was necessary in bringing the figures
into congruence, otherwise they will all be the same.)
The above statement can be justified by marking points on the two
segments at an equal distance from the vertex of the angle. Then the images
of these points will have the same distance from each other, and will have the
same distance from the vertex as in the original figure. Next, we connect the
two points in the original figure by a line segment and the two corresponding
points in the congruent figure by a line segment. The triangles so constructed
have corresponding sides of equal length. From this and the rigidity of
triangles the statement about the angles follows. Similarly, one verifies SAS,
and ASA.
The special case of a right triangle needs to be covered in detail, so
students are aware that any side and any angle other than the right angle
determine the triangle up to congruence, as do any two sides.
Using these observations we can now make and justify a number of ruler
and compass constructions, for example, the construction of the perpendicular bisector and the angle bisector.
The perpendicular bisector should be characterized as the line so that
every point on the line is equidistant from the endpoints of the segment.
Also, one needs to construct and justify the construction for the perpendicular to a given line through a given point.
Students may be encouraged to use the constructions above to show that
the angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal and
conversely, if the angles made with a side are equal the triangle is isosceles.
As an application, these results may be used to show that there is one
and only one circle through three non-collinear points. To demonstrate this,
construct the triangle with these points as vertices. Then construct the
perpendicular bisectors of any two of the three sides. The center of the
circle is their intersection. This may be shown using triangle congruence
theorems. Based on this construction, it follows that the three perpendicular
bisectors of a triangle meet at a single point, and now this statement should
368
(4) Drag a vertex of the triangle to change its shape. Note that the perpendicular bisectors are concurrent regardless of the type of triangle
created.
Exercises:
(1) Measure the distance from O to A, O to B and O toC. What
property of perpendicular bisectors supports your finding? Drag a
vertex of the triangle to change its shape and verify your conjecture.
369
370
1
3
Similar arguments show that if two triangles have the same included angle
between corresponding sides, and the sides of the second angle have lengths
that are the same rational multiple of the corresponding lengths for the
sides of the first angle, then the third side of the second triangle has length
the same rational multiple of the length of third side of the original triangle.
Some history of this statement should be discussed, particularly the difficulty
involved with showing the truth of the statement for more than rational
scale factors in order to do this, one must introduce continuity and
proportionality should be reviewed. It is effective to note that the number
Pk
2
of congruent triangles in k the original triangle is
j=1 (2j 1) = k .
Consequently, area increases as the square of the proportionality factor k
when k is rational.
Exercises:
(1) (Hong Kong, grade 6). The figure shows a star in a regular pentagon. From the figure find
(a) the number of triangles,
(b) the number of types of
congruent triangles,
(c) the number of types of
similar triangles,
(d) similar figures of other
shapes.
(2) Suppose you are looking down a road and you see a person ahead of
you. You hold out your arm and sight the person with your thumb,
finding that the person appears to be as tall as your thumb is long.
Lets say that your thumb is 2 inches long, and that the distance
from your sighting eye to your thumb is 22 inches. If the person is
6 feet tall, then how far away are you from the person? Solve this
problem using either the scale factor method or the relative sizes
method, and say clearly what the idea behind the method is. In
other words, explain why it makes sense to solve the problem the
way you do.
371
l2
m
a
r
l1
Here is a modification of this proof that uses the fact that area of proportional triangles varies by the square of the proportionality factor. l1 is the
hypotenuse of one of the two included similar triangles. l2 is the hypotenuse
of the other, and h is the hypotenuse of the original triangle. Since the
triangles are similar, the ratio of the area of each triangle to the square of
its hypotenuse is a non-zero constant, C 6= 0. Also, the area of the including
triangle is the sum of the areas of the two smaller triangles. Hence, writing
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= A(l1 ) + A(l2 )
= A(l1 )
= A(l2 )
so h2 = l12 + l22 .
The basic results about similar triangles should be reviewed. If any two
angles of the first triangle are equal to angles of the second triangle, then the
triangles are similar. If the three sides of the second triangle are proportional
to the sides of the first (with the same constant of proportionality), then
the triangles are similar.
At this point, it would be appropriate to state and prove the converse
of the Pythagorean Theorem. That theorem will be used in the discussion
of rotation in the section, The Euclidean Group: I.
In the following pages, we include a sample lesson for an eighth grade
class on scaling and models. This or a similar lesson could be used as the
basis of a class discussion. Among the issues that could be discussed are
whether this is likely to be an effective lesson, and if not, how it could be
improved. For example, would this lesson work better in Minneapolis or in
Louisiana? How important is it that the lesson relate to a contemporary
event rather than a historical one? And so on.
Building scale
models of historic
ships is a popular
hobby.
Scale factors:
Compare the distance between two points in a scale model to the distance
between the corresponding points in the original. The ratio is a constant
called the scale factor.
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We multiply the scale factor 14 inches per foot by the length in feet in the
original, obtaining 14 45 = 11.25 with the dimension of inches. So the
answer is 11.25 inches.
If we know the scale factor and the distance between two points in the
model, we can find the distance between the two points in the original by
1
division. If the scale is 10
, then the distance in the original is 10 times the
distance in the model.
Remember: If the dimenA model of a theme park is built at a
sions of the scale factor are
scale of 1 cm = 100 meters. On the
a per b, then when we dimodel, the distance between the Klondike
vide, obtaining
roller coaster and the Roaring Rapids
1
River Ride is 24.25 cm. What is the acscale factor
tual distance between the Klondike and
the dimensions also reverse
the Roaring Rapids?
and become b per a.
1
Since the scale factor is 100
centimeters per meter we divide the di1
mensions in the scale model by the scale factor 100
to get dimensions in
the original. This is the same as multiplying by 100. Thus the answer is
100 24.25 = 2425 meters.
Warning: Since the scale factor has units of centimeters per meter the
units are not the same. This scale factor is a rate, not a ratio. But rates
and ratios are very similar. We will not have difficulties if we take care to
record the units even if we are sometimes working with rates and sometimes
with ratios.
Dangerous bend - What is the error? Ratios can be treated as though
they were fractions when using them to find dimensions or when finding the
ratio of b to a when we know the ratio of a to b. However, finding new ratios
from given ratios requires careful reasoning in other cases.
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9. COORDINATE GEOMETRY
375
The first thing one has to do at this stage is introduce coordinates (Of
course, underlying this is the intuitive assumption that lines are what we
think they are. It is best to make this assumption and not indicate that
there is a mathematical issue here, but be prepared to discuss the more
subtle aspects of coordinatization if the topic comes up.)
Here is a good practice exercise to help review coordinates.
The center of mean position Definition: The center of mean position
of three points A, B, C, is a point which may be found as follows: - Bisect
the line segment joining A and B in G, join G to the third point C, and
divide GC in H, so that GH = 13 GC: G is the center of mean position of
the system of points.
A nice problem can be made out of this, which can be done at
different levels for teachers at different grade levels. The best way
to do this is to use notation which needs to be familiar to teachers
from grades 5 on, (x1 , y1 ), etc. However, this notation will get in
the way of early elementary school teachers understanding what the
problem says. Ask them to show that the same point is found no
matter which of the three points are labeled A, B, and C. It is
probably best to first ask this for numerical values, ask that two
cases be worked out to see that the same point occurs both times,
and then ask that this be shown by dealing with points given as
(a, A), . . . .
At this point the Pythagorean theorem can be applied to give the formula
for the distance between two points in the coordinate plane.
In terms of the distance formula, one can present the equation for a
circle with center at the origin.
The need for mathematics to make sense to pre-service K-8 teachers
suggests that it would be a good idea to connect the lines of plane geometry
with the linear equations of algebra, and make as rigorous as possible the
statement that the graph of a linear equation in the plane is a straight line.
There is a discussion of how one might do this in chapter 8.
Then a review of slope, the different forms of the equations for lines,
lines through two points, lines through one point with given slope, and x
and y intercept forms for the equations of lines.
Emphasize the geometric connections. Parallel lines are either parallel
to the y-axis or they have the same slope, and if the equations of two lines
have the same slope, they are parallel. Recall the relationship between the
slopes of perpendicular lines.
Finally, indicate the connection between the axiom of Euclidian geometry that asserts that two non-parallel lines in the plane intersect in a single
point and the solution of two linear equations in x and y.
The shortest path between two points in the plane is the straight
line segment joining them
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shown on the map). The developers will only say that all the locations they are considering are less than 7 miles from Kneebend and
more than 5 miles from Anklescratch. Indicate all the places where
the Giant Super-store could be located. Explain your answer.
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Anklescratch
Kneebend
(2) John says that his house is more than 5 miles from Walmart and
more than 3 miles from KMart. Indicate all possible locations for
John s house on the map
below.
Explain
your
answer.
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5 miles
KMart
Walmart
(3) A GPS unit receives information from two satellites. The GPS
unit learns that it is 10,000 miles from one satellite and 15,000
from the other satellite. Without any further information, describe
the nature of all possible locations of the GPS unit. Explain your
answer.
(4) Show that if (x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 and (x c)2 + (y c)2 = s2 are
the equations of two circles, then the difference of the two equations
is the equation of a line. How is this line related to the two circles?
10. The Euclidian Group: I
From a purely mathematical viewpoint, the Euclidean group is best
introduced using matrices. But that approach is not readily understood by
pre-service teachers, nor is it transportable to K-8 classrooms. This section
outlines a more elementary treatment of the Euclidean group.
What is suggested is that initially the elements of the Euclidian group,
translations, rotations and glide reflections, be introduced in a purely hands
on way. Then, a few limited examples can be given in terms of coordinates.
(A number of middle school programs present the 90 rotation about the
origin in terms of the transformation (x, y) 7 (y, x), but they give virtually
no justification for it.) The difficulty that should be kept in mind here is that
it is a major jump for pre-service teachers to move from an understanding
of one-variable functions and their graphs to transformations of the plane.
Translations
Once more, the key tool here should be transparent sheets of paper.
A coordinate system should be drawn, and the pre-service teachers should
378
(b) Construct the figure F0 given as the image of F by the translation that moves D to A.
(c) What are the images of the lines (AD), (DC) and (BC)? What
is the image of the semi-circle C1 ?
379
(2) Which of the four patterns below can be used to tile the plane using
only translations?
Transparent coordinate sheets are helpful for the following exercises that
illustrate that rotation by 90 and then translation is not the same as first
translating and then rotating by 90 .
Exercises Unless otherwise indicated, rotations are assumed to be in the
counterclockwise direction.
(1) Verify that rotation by 90 about the origin, and then translation
by 1 in the x direction takes the point (1, 0) to (1, 1).
(2) Verify that translation by 1 in the x direction and then rotation
about the origin by 90 takes (1, 0) to (0, 2).
(3) Verify that translation by 1 in the x direction and then rotation
about the origin by 90 clockwise takes the point ( 12 , 21 ) to itself.
The exercises above, or similar ones, lay the ground work to go a little
deeper into the subject of rotations. Ask pre-service teachers to pin down
the transparent sheet at the origin so that the origins on both fixed and
transparent coordinate systems agree, and so that the positive x and y
axes also agree. Pre-service teachers can then rotate the transparent sheet
through 90 degrees. They should note that the positive x-axis now aligns
with the positive y-axis while the positive y-axis aligns with the negative
x-axis. Guide them to realize that the image of a general point, (x, y), is
the point (y, x).
Using the specific formula for this transformation, it should be verified
that it preserves distance. This is given as an exercise below, but it may be
instructive to do this exercise in class.
380
l+m ml
,
2
2
to itself.
(6) Verify that the map g of Exercise (5) takes lines through the point
ml
l+m ml
( l+m
2 , 2 ) to perpendicular lines that also contain the point ( 2 , 2 ).
(7) Show that if a line is given by the equation ax + by = c with
a2 + b2 6= 0, then the equation of a line perpendicular to this line is
given by bx + ay = d.
Iterating the right-angle rotation about the origin.
If we take the right angle rotation about the origin, f (x, y) = (y, x), and
repeat it we have
f
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Students can verify, first, that this is the same as first rotating through
90 at the origin, and then translating by (l, m). They should look at the
special case where the translation by (l, l) is along the 45 degree line through
the first quadrant. x axis, and verify that the point (0, l) is taken to itself,
the line parallel to the x-axis through (0, l) is taken to the y-axis, and the
y-axis is taken to the line through l parallel to the x-axis.
11. Euclidean Group II: Reflections and Applications
Reflections can be initially studied by using a transparent paper. This
time, a line is drawn on the transparent paper, with a point marked, and a
corresponding line and point are identified on the fixed coordinate system.
To see the effect of a reflection, the transparent paper is turned over and the
lines and points brought into coincidence. If other figures are drawn on the
fixed coordinate system and traced on the transparent paper, their images
under reflection are now easily studied.
The key points are these:
(1) Reflections in the plane are entirely determined by a reflection line
that can either be thought of abstractly, or as a specific line of the
form ax + by = c.
(2) Points are mapped in the following way. Any point on the reflection
line for the reflection Ta,b,c is taken to itself. If the point P is not
on the reflection line then its image is obtained as follows. Let V
on the reflection line be the intersection of the perpendicular to the
reflection line through P , and rotate P through about the point
V . Reflection is what happens when one looks into a mirror.
One checks directly that these transformations preserve distance using
similar triangles and quadrilaterals, perhaps by breaking the demonstration
into two steps, the first being when the two points are originally on one side
of the reflection line, and the second when they are on opposite sides. This
is likely to be a good class exercise. A number of pictures will help make
things clear.
The next thing to cover is a discussion of iterating two reflections. Show
that if the reflection lines are parallel, say a distance d apart, then the
iteration is a translation through a distance of 2d. Probably, the best way
to do this is to follow a number of points as they are reflected through the
first line, and then reflected through the second. Then a general argument
can be developed.
After this, the class can do the same thing when the two reflection
lines intersect. They should begin to see that the composition is a rotation
through two times the angle between the lines.
A very good exercise here has to do with understanding a kaleidoscope.
If you open a kaleidoscope up you will see two mirrors arranged at an angle to
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each other, with colored bits of plastic or glass at one end. The colored bits
reflect in the first mirror, then the entire thing reflects in the second. Since
the iteration of two reflections is a rotation, this has the effect or rotating
the original reflected image about twice the angle between the mirrors, and
the iterate reflections are again rotated. If the original angle between the
mirrors was 30 then the effect is to give six distinct images via rotation and
six more images that are reflected and then rotated. What will be the effect
if the mirrors are at 45 , other angles?
Remark: Of course, what is going on here is that two reflections through
non-parallel lines generate a subgroup of the copy of O(2) comprising all
elements of the Euclidian group that fix the intersection point. If the angle
between the two fixed lines has the form n for a non-negative integer n, then
the group generated is the dihedral group D2n with fundamental domain the
sector between the two rays. Alternately, D2n is generated by one of the
reflections and the rotation through 2
n given as the composition of the two
reflections. While this discussion is certainly not appropriate for the preservice teachers, it is appropriate to draw the fundamental domain and its
rotates and reflections, showing that they close up as we go entirely around
the circle, and indicating how the 2n reflections of the colored pieces appear.
It is probably worth taking some time to point out that if we reflect and
translate in the direction perpendicular to the fixed line of the reflection,
this is the same as reflection about a parallel line half the distance from
the fixed line to its translate. Hence, any glide-reflection is the same as a
reflection followed by translation in the direction of the fixed line.
It is also well worth while to mention, at this point, that we have observed that translations, rotations with arbitrary centers in the plane, reflections about arbitrary lines in the plane, and glide reflections all preserve distance, but in fact these are the only transformations that have this property.
If we know that a transformation of the plane to itself preserves distance,
then it must be one of these. The proof is more advanced, of course, but
pre-service teachers should be aware of this fact.
Remark: In fact, there is an elementary proof. It depends on the fact that
the distances of an arbitrary point in the plane from three non-collinear
points determines the arbitrary point uniquely. It follows that any two
distance preserving transformations that take the first set of three points to
the second must agree.
At this point it is relatively direct to show that, given any three noncollinear points, and three other non-collinear points having the same distances from each other as the originals, there is a transformation of the form
383
(2) Construct a line m and perform a reflection of the triangle over the
line.
(3) Measure the distance from the pre-image triangle ABC to line m
and the distance between the two triangles. What do you observe?
384
(5) Measure the distance between the parallel lines and the distance
from vertex A to the corresponding vertex of the final triangle.
What do you observe? Drag one of the lines to confirm your conjecture.
Exercises:
385
(2) Hide the parallel line n and create a line p that is not parallel to the
original line m. What happens if a figure is reflected twice over a
pair of intersecting lines? What single transformation is equivalent
to the composite reflection over the intersecting lines?
(3) Use the Measure tools and the Hand cursor to confirm that a reflection results in an image congruent to the pre-image.
Notes:
In Cabri Jr., the following tools are used: Triangle, Alpha-Numeric Label, Line, Reflection, Perpendicular, Distance & Length, Parallel, Hand.
Notice that the distance between a point and a line is measured as a
perpendicular distance.
The composite reflections explored in the activity are each equivalent to
a single transformation.
A composite reflection of a figure over two parallel lines is equivalent
to a translation of twice the distance between the lines, in a direction
from the pre-image perpendicular to the lines of reflection.
A composite reflection of a figure over two intersecting lines is equivalent to a rotation. The center of rotation is the point of intersection
of the lines, and the angle of rotation is equal to twice the angle
between the lines.
Applications It might be worth pointing out that one can actually prove
most of the basic assumptions of plane geometry in the context of the coordinate plane and the existence of translations, reflections, and rotations.
Application 1: Opposite interior angles cut by transversals to parallel lines
are equal
Place the center of a rotation through a straight angle midway between
the two parallel lines on the transversal and note that the two parallel lines
are interchanged while the transversal is taken to itself, so that for either of
the two pairs of opposite interior angles, the two angles are exchanged and
are consequently equal.
386
387
(3) Draw a picture of what the Moon looks like to people on Earth when
the Earth, Moon, and Sun are aligned as shown in the diagram
below (which is not drawn to scale). Explain your answer
(4) The picture below shows the earth and moon as seen from outer
space, looking down on the north pole (not to scale!).
(a) For a person located at point P, approximately what time is it?
Explain your answer.
388
(5) The picture below shows the earth as seen from outer space, looking
down on the north pole (labeled N).
(a) What time of day is it at point P? Explain how you can tell.
(b) If a person at point P in the picture above can see the moon,
and if the moon is neither new nor full, then is the moon waxing
or is it waning? Explain how you can tell from the picture.
389
390
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(7) What symmetries does the design in Figure 27 have? Describe each
symmetry as precisely as you can. (Consider the design as a whole.)
(9) Sequences and symmetry. Find a rule that constructs the following
sequence of figures from the first. Give the fifth figure using your
392
rule.
393
Note that a plane decomposes space into two half-planes, one defined as
all those points (x, y, z) so that ax + by + cz d and the other defined as
all the points so that ax + by + cz d. In terms of these half-planes, define
a convex polyhedron as the intersection of a finite number of half-planes.
Define and describe the basic families of figures studied in K - 8, prisms
including rectangular parallelepipeds and cubes, and cones (pyramids).
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the intersection of the two half-planes, z 0 and
z 1.
(b) Same problem for the two half-planes y 0 and y 1.
(c) Same problem for the two half-planes x 0 and x 1.
(d) Identify the intersection of all six half-planes in (6a), (6b) and
(6c).
(2) Identify the intersection of the following five half-planes:
z
y+z
yz
x+z
xz
0
2
2
2
2
394
(1) What is the longest pole that can fit in a box that is 4 feet wide, 3
feet deep, and 5 feet tall? Explain briefly.
(2) Have students create the tessellation of R3 by octahedra and tetrahedra as follows:
(a) Create a square grid in the plane.
(b) On each square of the grid, erect a pyramid with equilateral
faces.
(c) Observe that if the apices of two adjacent pyramids are connected, then the frame created by the two facing sides of the
pyramids and the line connecting the apices is a regular tetrahedron.
(d) Fill in the tetrahedra. Then observe the the holes enclosed by
the tetrahedra and pyramids around a fixed lattice point in the
plane are upside down pyramids, congruent to the ones built
in step ii). The base of one of the upside-down pyramids is the
square made by the four lines connecting the apices of the four
pyramids around one of the original lattice points.
(e) If right-side-up pyramids are now built on top of the bases of
the upside-down pyramids, then the two pyramids with the
same base form a regular octahedron.
(f) Furthermore, the upside-down pyramids completely fill in the
region between the original plane and the plane containing the
apices of the original set of pyramids. Also, the new right-sideup pyramids form the start of the same construction in the next
layer up. Evidently, this can be continued to fill all of space
with octahedra and tetrahedra.
(3) Have students create a tessellation of R3 by rhombic dodecahedra
as follows:
(a) Form a regular cubic lattice.
(b) Divide every other cube into six pyramids; each pyramid has
its vertex at the center of the cube, and one of the faces of the
cube as base.
(c) Observe that an undivided cube together with the six pyramids
in adjacent cubes, with bases on the sides of the undivided
cube, form a rhombic dodecahedron, and the collection of all of
these tessellate space. (Note: the volume of one of the rhombic
dodecahedra is twice the volume of one of the cubes.)
17. A Problem Solving Example in Plane Geometry
The discussion of polygons above is closely connected with the decomposition of the plane into regions, the inside and outside of the polygon.
Related to this, it is worthwhile to consider the following problem, which is
a variant of an example often discussed by Polya:
Given n lines in the plane so that no two are parallel and no three have a
point in common, into how many regions do they divide the plane?
395
Our intuition is that the line divides the plane into two parts, one lying above
the line, and the other below it. This intuition is not 100% firm since our
line could be vertical, in which case the plane is still divided into two parts,
but one is to the left of the line and the other to the right of it. However,
in both cases, there are two parts.
Now that the meanings of all the terms in the problem are precise, (at
least for one line), we can move on to the steps in Polyas approach to
problem solving. The first step is to devise a plan.
Can we describe the regions in terms of the given line? The line is the
solution set of ax + by c = 0, so we should try to describe the parts in
terms of the equation. There is one evident thing that we note: the function
(x, y) 7 f (x, y) = (ax + by c) describes our line as the pairs (x, y) so that
f (x, y) = 0. Moreover, the region above the line is the set of pairs so
that f (x, y) > 0 and the region below the line is the set of pairs so that
f (x, y) < 0. Or more exactly, there are two regions that the equation of the
line gives us. The first is the region consisting of those pairs (x, y) in the
plane for which ax + by c 0 and the second is the region consisting of
the pairs (x, y) that satisfy ax + by 0. (Students can be reminded of the
similar situation with rays on a single line.)
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The line is the intersection of these these two regions in the plane, just
as the endpoint of a ray is the intersection of the two corresponding regions
on a single line. Thus, we can say that the line breaks the plane into three
regions, the region above the line, where ax + by c > 0, the region
below where ax + by c < 0 and the line itself, where ax + by c = 0.
This even works in the case of vertical lines, so that we are justified in
describing the regions as the points where f (x, y) > 0 for the first region
and f (x, y) < 0 for the second.
What about the situation for two lines?
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Here, intuition suggests that there are four regions, the first above both lines,
the second above the first but below the second, the third below the first but
above the second, and the fourth below both. To make this precise, let the
equation of the first line be a1 x+b1 y c1 = 0 and the equation of the second
a2 x + b2 y c2 = 0. For the first line the function is f1 (x, y) = a1 x + b1 y c1 ,
and for the second the function is f2 (x, y) = a2 x + b2 y c2 . Consequently,
the four regions are given as the sets of points (x, y) so that
f1 (x, y) > 0
f1 (x, y) > 0
f1 (x, y) < 0
f1 (x, y) < 0
and
and
and
and
f2 (x, y) > 0
f2 (x, y) < 0
f2 (x, y) > 0
f2 (x, y) < 0
= Region I
= Region II
= Region III
= Region IV
There is the beginning of an idea of what the definition could be for region,
but just to firm things up one can consider the case of three lines:
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Here it should be observed - at least for the picture above - that there are 7
regions. There are eight possibilities for the three inequalities, but for one
of them there are no solutions - the region is empty.
Here is an explicit example. Let the three lines be x y = 0 ,x = 0 and
y 10 = 0.
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y < 10
x>0
xy <0
Also, the three inequalities
y > 10
x<0
xy >0
are inconsistent, since the first two imply x y < 0. Thus this set of three
inequalities is the only set that cannot be satisfied, but the other seven
describe the seven distinct regions.
At this point the class should have observed two things. The first is that
it is sensible to define a region cut out by n lines in the plane as the set of
points that satisfy a system of inequalities. Precisely, if f1 (x, y), f2 (x, y), . . . , fn (x, y)
are the functions associated to our n lines, then a region Re1 ,...,en in the plane
cut out by the lines consists of all the points in the plane that simultaneously
satisfy the n inequalities
Main system
f1 (x, y)
f2 (x, y)
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e2
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0
0
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fn (x, y)
en 0
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a1
a3
a2
a5 a4
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To gain further insight one can explore some more cases with three lines:
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Here there are 11 regions, and the class can try out a number of further
decompositions by four lines. As long as the lines are not parallel and no
three of them have a point in common they will find that there are always
11 regions.
At this point there is enough data to try to see if there is some structure in the data that might guide the class towards understanding what is
happening. They can look at the sequence of numbers 1, 2, 4, 7, 11 and see
if there is a simple underlying rule that generates it. Perhaps the simplest
kinds of rules are rules that are polynomial in n. In order to find a polynomial that leads to these numbers one checks the differences of successive
terms.
If the differences after one step are constant, then a linear polynomial
will work. If the differences form an arithmetic sequence, then the differences
of differences will be constant and a quadratic polynomial will work and so
on. So check differences:
Number of lines
Number of regions
11
Differences - step 1
Differences - step 2
400
Note that if the nth line intersects one of the regions defined by the first
n 1 lines, then it breaks that region into two regions. Moreover, since the
nth line intersects each of the first n 1 lines in a point distinct from its
intersection with the other lines, the nth line can and will only intersect n
distinct regions. This is the case because n 1 distinct points on a line
decompose it into exactly n regions, the region from to the left-most
point, the region from the left-most point to the next point, and so on.
Thus, if we assume that our conjecture is true for n 1 lines satisfying our
conditions, so these lines break the plane into
(n 1)2 + (n 1) + 2
2
regions, the addition of one more line so that all n lines satisfy the conditions
breaks each of n regions into precisely 2 regions, and does not affect the
remaining regions. Thus we would have
(n 1)2 + (n 1) + 2
+n
2
new regions, and this can be written as
(n2 2n + 1) + (n 1) + 2n + 2
n2 + n + 2
=
,
2
2
exactly the conjectured expression.
The conjecture is very likely to be correct. There is a very strong justification for it now.
It is probably sufficient at this point to finish the discussion. While this
is not a complete proof, it is very close and experience tends to show that in
similar situations, it has been very hard to get students to understand more
than this.
For completeness, here are the details that would be necessary to
make the argument above into a detailed proof
The assumptions made in the heuristic must all be justified. The first of
these is that if the nth line intersects one of the regions defined by the first
(n 1) lines, it decomposes it into exactly two regions.
In fact we can justify this. Recall that the region in question is defined
by (n 1) proper inequalities. If we assume that the nth line intersects this
region, our assumptions guarantee that it passes through the interior, and
does not just touch one of the edges. This says that there are points in the
region for which fn (x, y) > 0 and there are points for which fn (x, y) < 0.
This shows that there are precisely two regions associated to our n lines
inside the original region given by our n 1 lines.
Also, if the line does not intersect a region, then all the points in that
region will satisfy either fn (x, y) < 0 or fn (x, y) > 0. Thus the region will
not decompose further at this stage.
Finally, since there will be exactly n regions that the new line will intersect, the heuristic argument has been justified and the solution is complete.
CHAPTER 8
402
some of the topics that are currently required in middle school and early
in the high school curriculum. But besides this, these topics, and particularly the material in the sections on combinations, permutations, Pascals
triangle, and compound interest prepares students for the more advanced
material centered around calculus that is the normal expectation for high
school graduates in high achieving countries. For example, the treatment of
the volume of the right-circular cone at the end of 12 previews and prepares
for the introduction and rigorous handling of limits. Likewise, the material
on compound interest centers around the geometric series.
When one looks at the courses in the high achieving countries for the
preparation of teachers, they go considerably beyond this course, and one
would hope that courses for our pre-service teachers ultimately will as well.
2. Objectives of the Algebra Course and Key Definitions
There is considerable confusion about what the objectives of algebra
are in this country. We begin with some observations that might help with
clarifying this issue.
Many of the most important questions that arise in mathematics and
its applications are inverse problems. Specifically, we are given a map from
one set to another, have identified a set of points of particular interest in
the image and are asked to identify all the points in the domain or input
set that map to the given set in the image. For example, when one is given
problems of the form
Using hoses A and B together, you can fill the pool in 12
minutes. Hose B alone can fill it in 14 minutes. How many
minutes would it take if you only use hose A?
one transforms the problem into the three equations
12(r1 + r2 )
14r2
N r1
=
=
=
P
P
P
and asks what is N ? One is thus asking for all triples (N, r1 , r2 ) of real
numbers that have as their image a triple (P, P, P ) under the map defined
by the three functions (12(r1 + r2 ), 14r2 , N r1 ). Once one has the set of these
triples, (N, 0, 0) for P = 0 and (84, r, 6r) with r 6= 0 for P 6= 0. one has the
complete answer to the original question.
Similarly, subtraction is an inverse problem as is division by a non-zero
number.
Of particular importance are inverse problems where the set in the image
is the single point 0. Thus, if one has a quadratic function f (x) = 2x2 5x+3,
then the solution of the inverse problem for 0 in the image is the same as
the question of finding the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 5x + 3 = 0.
403
404
405
406
We have not directly addressed this problem of handling the reals, but
rather tend to regard school mathematics as mathematics with rational numbers and the discussion of irrational numbers as nothing more than heuristic.
However, a theme should be emerging by this time, the notion of extension and the requirement that the basic operations, (addition, subtraction,
and multiplication), in the extended context agree with the operations in
our original numbers, and that the extended numbers satisfy the basic rules
of associativity, commutativity, and the distributive rule. The following
exercises illustrate these properties.3
Exercises:
(1) Explain how the commutative property of multiplication is relevant
to the following question. The price of a blouse was first reduced
by 25% and then reduced by 20% (from the reduced price). What
if instead, the blouse had first been reduced by 20% and then by
25% (from the reduced price), would the final price be lower, higher
or the same?
(2) Explain briefly how the commutative property of multiplication is
relevant to the following: if the price of an item goes up by 10%
and then by 15% (of the increased price), the item costs the same
as if the price of the item had first gone up by 15% and then by
10% (of the increased price).
(3) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
16 25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your use of
the associative property of multiplication.
(4) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
24 0.25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your
use of the associative property of multiplication. Explain how your
solution method is related to solving 24 0.25 by thinking in terms
of money.
(5) A sales tax problem: Compare the total amount of sales tax you
would pay if you went to a store and bought a pair of pants and
a sweater at the same time, versus if you first bought the pair
of pants and then returned to the store later to buy the sweater.
Which property of arithmetic is relevant to this sales tax problem?
Explain.
(6) A store is having a 30% off everything sale. The
clerk adds up the cost of all your items and then takes 30% off
this total. Do you get the same discount as if the clerk took 30%
off each individual item and then totaled? Explain your answer,
relating it to a property of arithmetic.
3These exercises and most of the exercises in this chapter will be challenging for most preservice teachers, so care should be taken to lay the foundations and guidance should be readily
available.
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408
It may be advisable
that instructors begin
the course with a
review of these basic
properties. This will
certainly be necessary if
pre-service students
have not completed the
earlier courses outlined
in the previous
chapters.
represent numbers, and that algebraic expressions are subject to all of the
usual principles of arithmetic. This leads to the use of the basic properties of
arithmetic to rewrite expressions in equivalent forms, when the variables are
not replaced by explicit numbers. For example, the distributive property, the
associative property, the commutative property, and the rules of exponents
may be used to expand x(3x2 4x):
x(3x2 4x)
x 3 x2 x 4 x
=
=
=
3 x x2 4 x x
3 x3 4 x2
3x3 4x2 .
409
our schools, rather than just the top students Polyas concern with this as
a skill focused in the high schools is outdated. This is already important in
the earliest grades and becomes essential by the time students reach grades
4 to 6.
Many educators have taken Polyas admonition to engage students in
problem solving to heart, but many do not realize that Polya intended a
large portion of problem solving to be the setting up and solving of word
problems using equations. Furthermore, the level of problems that Polya had
in mind is much higher than many people realize. Consider, for example,
the following problem taken from Mathematical Discovery, Vol 1 p. 47:
When Mr. And Mrs. Smith took the airplane, they had together
94 pounds of baggage. He paid $1.50 and she paid $2.00 for excess
weight. If Mr. Smith made the trip by himself with the combined
baggage of both of them, he would have to pay $13.50. How many
pounds of baggage can one person take along without charge?
Many students struggle with this problem because they need to introduce
a variable that represents price-per-pound for excess baggage, a quantity
not explicitly referred to in the problem. Polya calls this type of variable an
auxiliary element, and considering that students have trouble representing
explicitly mentioned quantities as variables, it isnt surprising that they have
trouble realizing that they need to introduce auxiliary elements.
What is the prerequisite knowledge needed for students to successfully
use algebra to solve problems? First, algebraic expressions and equations
must make sense to students. This includes familiarity with the order of
operations convention. Students (and teachers) need to be able to verbalize
the mathematical content of a numeric or algebraic expression. For example:
3 + 4 7 72 means Three plus the product four times seven, minus
seven squared, and
3+4xx2 means Three plus the product four times x, minus x squared.
Mathematically inclined people take this sort of interpretation for granted,
and often find the translation to the verbal domain to be a bother since they
can work so much more efficiently within a symbolic domain. However, for
more verbally inclined people, this process helps demystify algebraic symbolism, as many of them feel that an algebraic expression has no inherent
meaning and should be manipulated according to a set of arbitrary rules for
no apparent reason.
Once students feel comfortable with verbal interpretations of expressions
and equations, they should work on translating in the other direction. At
first, they should work problems similar to those above, but backwards,
by formulating a verbal instruction as an algebraic expression. Then they
should translate components of word problems into mathematical expressions. Consider, for example, the following two problems:
Sara has x apples, and Dominic has twice as many apples. How many
apples does Dominic have?
The discussion
presented in this section
is important for course
instructors to
emphasize. Many of the
pre-service students will
regard algebra as
meaningless symbol
manipulation
disconnected from
practical applications
because thats how the
subject is often treated
in secondary schools
today. What algebra is
should be one of the
first topics teachers
should discuss with
pre-service students.
While it is necessary for
students to practice
solving equations, there
most always be a mix of
word problems to help
them recognize that
what they are learning
is useful.
410
Sara has some apples, and Dominic has twice as many apples. How many
apples does Dominic have in terms of the number of apples that Sara has?
Notice that these two problems make different demands; the first provides the variable, and the second does not. Students need practice writing
mathematical expressions for word problems, including the identification of
appropriate variables. It should be emphasized that an answer is not complete without a definition of the variables that are introduced.
Another type of exercise for developing facility in problem solving is
the construction of word problems associated with a particular algebraic
expression. For example,
Create a word problem whose solution is 6x + 3.
A sample response is: Juan has some marbles and 6 bags. He puts x
marbles in each bag and still has 3 marbles left over. What is the total
number of marbles in terms of x?
Pre-service teachers need practice with a wide variety of algebra problems. Here are some examples.
If you multiply an even number and an even number, what kind of
number do you get?
Translate the term even number as 2m where m is an integer and the
phrase multiply an even number and an even number to the expression
2m 2n together with the condition that m and n are both integers. The
above example may be extended:
If you add a number that has a remainder of 1 when it is divided
by 3 to a number that has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by
3, then what is the remainder of the sum when you divide it by 3?
The phrase a number that has a remainder of 1 when it is divided by 3
becomes 3m + 1 with the condition that m is an integer, and the phrase a
number that has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by 3 becomes 3n + 2
with the condition that n is an integer. Finally the direction to add the two
numbers becomes
(3m + 1) + (3n + 2)
with m and n both integers, and the question becomes to determine the
remainder when dividing this sum by 3.
Generally, once a word problem has been decomposed in this way a
method of solving the problem becomes evident - but this need not always
be the case. Polya gives the following example of a problem that has a
unique solution but appears not to:
A man walked five hours, first along a level road, then up a hill,
then he turned round and walked back to his starting point along
the same route. He walks 4 miles per hour on the level, 3 uphill,
411
Let x be the total distance walked - the number that we want to find - and
let y be the length of the uphill walk. We have that the distance walked on
the level is x 2y, and this distance is traversed at 4 miles per hour. We
have that the distance y up the hill is traversed at 3 miles per hour, and the
distance y down the hill is traversed at 6 miles per hour. Moreover, we are
given that the total time is 5 hours.
x 2y
4
y
3
y
6
x 2y y y
+ +
= 5
4
3 6
We should have to be very lucky (or the numbers would have to be selected
in just the right way) for x to be uniquely determined in this equation. In
fact, the only way this could happen is if the terms involving y canceled out.
But this is exactly what happens:
2y y y
+ +
4
3 6
=
=
=
y y y
+ +
2 3 6
3y + 2y + y
6
0
412
413
=
=
100
3a1 + 9v.
414
J(2)
=
=
1
J J
5
4
J.
5
J(3)
=
=
1
J(2) J(2)
4
3
J.
5
J(2)
J(3)
1
3
J(4)
of J(3) is removed.
=
=
1
J(3) J(3)
3
2
J(3).
3
415
So J(4) is the amount of juice left after step (4). The information in (5)
tells us that J(4) = 23 cup, so we have
J
J(2)
J(3)
J(4)
J(4)
Finally, we are told that we have written down all the information contained
in the problem.
The problem is to find J, and it appears that we have sufficient information to do this. The last equation determines J(4), which determines J(3)
from the equation above. In turn, J(3) determines J(2) from the previous
equation, and J(2) determines J from the second equation.
Here is another sample problem for students.
Exercise: Break the following problem apart in the same way as the previous problem was decomposed. When the problem has been reduced to
a sequence of mathematical expressions determine if it appears likely that
sufficient information to solve the problem has been provided.
A flock of geese on a pond were being observed continuously. At
1 : 00 P.M., 15 of the geese flew away. At 2 : 00 P.M., 81 of the
geese that remained flew away. At 3 : 00 P.M., 3 times as many
geese as had flown away at 1 : 00 P.M. flew away, leaving 28 geese
on the pond. At no other time did any geese arrive or fly away.
How many geese were in the original flock?
Summary. The process described in this section for helping students
understand algebraic expressions and equations involves the following steps
(a) Students verbally read and explain what an expression/equation
means,
(b) Students formulate a verbal instruction as an algebraic expression,
(c) Students translate components of word problems into mathematical
expressions,
(d) Students construct word problems associated with a particular algebraic expression,
(e) Students define variables, and
(f) Students explicitly solve problems
This approach should be embedded in all the sequences of exercises presented to pre-service students in this course. Additionally, the exercises for
416
=
=
=
=
b
b
c
cx + d.
In each case, the goal for students is to solve for x. Further practice
beyond linear expressions can be gained in manipulating simple polynomial
expressions. For example, when a 6= 0,
b
c
ax2 + bx + c = a(x2 + x + )
a
a
b
= a(x2 + x) + c
a
b
= ax(x + ) + c
a
6. FUNCTIONS
417
(c) Find all real numbers that satisfy the equation resulting from
the equation of (2b) when both sides are multiplied by (1 z)2 .
6. Functions
Introduction: The formal definition of a function as a subset of a
Cartesian product satisfying the rules,
(1) if (x, y) and (x, y 0 ) are both in the set then y = y 0
(2) for each x X there is an element (x, y) in the set,
can be confusing to pre-service and in-service teachers. Without intuitive explanations to help students internalize the concept of function,
there is a danger that formal definitions will add to the air of mysticism that surrounds this topic.
Already, in Kindergarten, students are asked to sort objects by color or
shape. As long as each object has an unambiguous color or shape associated
to it, such a process is an example of a function. Simply stated, a function
is a rule that associates to each object in one set, a single, unique object in
another. To help students distinguish between the domain and co-domain of
a function, it may be helpful, at least initially, to use more descriptive terms.
In that spirit, we use the terms input and output in this section for
domain and co-domain, respectively. In the example above, the function is
from colored objects to colors - each object has just one color associated to it,
and the object is the input while its color is the output. Another illustrative
example of a function is the assignment of a grade to each student. Each
student (input) gets a unique grade (output).
There is a tendency for pre-service teachers to lose sight of key issues in
the morass of terminology. The danger is that students will be misdirected
into focusing on terminology, rather than on mathematical concepts. Nevertheless, there are some conventions that need to be stated. This includes
the usual functional notation
f : XY
for a map from the set X to the set Y . In this context, it must also be
understood that a function is defined on the entirety of its input set, X,
but the range, the set of points in Y of the form f (x) with x X, need
not be all of the the output set Y .
Also, it should be pointed out that two functions with the same input set
and the same output set are equal if and only if for each point in the input
set, the output value for the first function and for the second function are
the same. Examples should be given of functions that only differ at a point
or two and, consequently, are not equal. Also, examples should be given of
functions which, though they are defined by different rules, are equal - for
example, f (n) is the Fibonacci sequence where f (n + 1) = f (n) + f (n 1),
418
.
2
2
5
The following is an outline of how the development of the topic of functions may proceed for pre-service teachers after the initial discussion of the
definition.
Assignment Rules. In order to define a function, one must have an
assignment rule. Such a rule can take many forms. For example if the input
set is the set of objects S = {cup, hat, rug, stone} and the output set is
the set of numbers B = {0, 1}, then a rule could be a set of ordered pairs
in the Cartesian product S B,
{(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (stone, 1)},
with the understanding that the element b in B in the pair (a, b) is the
element assigned to a. We say that this set of pairs defines a function from
S to B. Another way to say this is that the object associated to a by the
function is b, and we use the notation
a 7 b
to indicate this. To see this in the context of our example, we have that
cup 7 1,
hat 7 0,
rug 7 0,
stone 7 1.
However, not every set of ordered pairs can be a function. The rule cannot
be, for example,
{(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (cup, 0), (stone, 1)}
or,
cup 7 1
hat 7 0
rug 7 0
cup 7 0
stone 7 1
because cup is not assigned to a unique point in the image - it is assigned
to both 0 and 1 since both (cup, 1) and (cup, 0) are in the rule. Likewise,
the rule could not be
{(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (stone, 1)}
since the point in the input set rug has no value associated to it by the rule,
and the rule must associate to every point in the input set a unique point
in the output set.
6. FUNCTIONS
419
Procedures. Another form that could occur for the rule is a procedure
that determines a unique element in the output set for each element in the
input set. For example, the rule could be if the first letter of the element
in the input set precedes l in the alphabet, then associate the element 0,
otherwise associate the element 1.
The most familiar type of function is one whose rule is an algebraic
expression. For instance, if the input set is the set of positive integers
{1, 2, 3, . . . }, and the function assigns the square of the number to it, then
we can write the rule this way:
n n2
and we have that (1, 1), (2, 4), (10, 100) are a few of the pairs (there are an
infinite number; one for each element of the input set). We can write this
as follows,
1 7 1,
2 7 4,
10 7 100,
etc. One distinguishes it from the standard squaring function by clearly
indicating that the input set is the positive integers instead of the real numbers.
Finally, we need to emphasize that while every element in the input set
must have an element in the output set associated to it by a function, it
is not necessary that every element in the output set be associated to an
element in the input set. Thus the following rule in S B is a perfectly good
function:
{(cup, 0), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (stone, 0)},
even though 1 does not correspond to any element in the input set.
Sample Exercise
(1) Give an example of a procedure that uniquely assigns 0 or 1 to cup,
hat, and stone, but fails to assign a unique element 0 or 1 to rug.
Very important examples of functions occur when the input set is the
set of non-negative integers, 1, 2, 3, . . . while the output set is e.g., {even,
odd}, or {divisible by 3, not divisible by 3} and each integer in the input set
goes to the statement in the output set that is true for it. So we get
{(1, odd), (2, even), (3, odd), (4, even), . . . }
and
{(1, not divisible by 3), (2, not divisible by 3), (3, divisible by 3), . . . }
One can think of these functions as sorting functions, which are natural
extensions of the functions kindergarteners see when they sort by shapes
and colors.
Sequences
420
Also very common are functions with input set the set of non-negative
integers and output set the set of all real numbers. Such functions are generally called sequences. The example above assigning each positive integer
its square is an example of a sequence. As another example, the rule that
assigns n2 to n - for each n in the input set, the value of the function is
the area of a circle of radius n, so that
n n2
- is a sequence. Most often, people see sequences written as lists, e.g.,
, 4, 9, 16, ...
Here, the input set is implicitly the positive integers, and for the sequence
to be well-defined, the rule must be specified. One way to think about a
sequence is as a way to give an order to a set. Thus, we think of the image
of 1 as the first number in the list, the image of 2 as the second number
in the list, and so on. We call the entries in the list (or equivalently the
outputs of the function) terms in the sequence.
In a case like that above, the rule that defines the sequence is given in
the form of a short ordered set of basic arithmetic operations involving n
and some constants, where the ordered set does not vary from one n to the
next. For example, associated to the rule n n2 , the ordered set of basic
arithmetic operations is Square the input, then multiply the result by ,
or simply, (square, multiply by ). Here are some sample exercises:
(1) For the following sequences, describe an ordered set of basic arithmetic operations that determine the rule.
(a) n 7 n12
n3
(b) n 7 (n+2)
5
3
(c) n 7 n
However, not all rules for sequences have this form either. For example
the rule n 7 n! is not of this kind, since the set of operations grows bigger
with each n.
Another kind of rule is what is called recursive. This is a rule that
depends on the values of the rule at previous ms to determine the value at
n. That is, for a recursive rule, a value is defined in terms of earlier values.
For example, the rule could be that the value at n is the sum of the value at
n 1 and the value at n 2. Of course, to get started, the first two values
must be explicitly stated. Such a rule has to be given explicitly at n = 1
and n = 2. Thus, this rule will give the following as the first few values
when the values at n = 1 and n = 2 are both 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
(where the top row contains n and the bottom row the result of applying
the rule at n). However, if we change the first two values, then the result of
6. FUNCTIONS
421
applying the rule will be different. We have the following when the values
are 1 and 0:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
Function Notation
Let x be an element in the input set of a given function. We call the
function f . Then we write f (x) for the image of x in the output set of f ,
and we allow x to be any element of the input set of f . Thus, if a is an
input, then f (a) represents the corresponding output. It is important to
emphasize that this is just a convenient notation that tells us the function
and the element in its input set where it is being evaluated, nothing more.
When one is given a function, one has the set of pairs (x, f (x)) contained
in the Cartesian product (i.e., ordered pairs) of the input set and the output
set. This set of pairs is called the graph of the function f .
Example: Suppose the function f from the set of real numbers to real
numbers is given by the rule f (x) = x2 2x + 1, then the graph
G(f ) ( R R
is the set of pairs, (x, x2 2x + 1) as x runs over all real numbers.
We can use a graphing calculator to visualize the graph of f (x) = x2
2x + 1 by entering it into Y1 as illustrated on the left below. Then graph
Y1 in the [-5,5, 1] x [-2, 8,1] viewing window as shown on the right below.
Press
422
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 4 9 16 25
are six pairs contained in the graph. On the other hand, there are any
number of distinct functions from the reals to the reals that have this set of
values for the consecutive integers 1, . . . , 6. For example any polynomial of
degree 6 or greater having the form
(x2 2x + 1) + g(x)(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4)(x 5)(x 6)
will equal x2 2x + 1 at the points x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Exercise
(1) Suppose that I have a function from the positive integers to the
integers, but I only know its value at the first three: F (1) = 3,
F (2) = 9, F (3) = 27. Give two distinct rules, with one of them a
polynomial formula, and one of them not, that give these values at
the first three places, but differ at the next.
7. Graphs of Equations Contrasted with Graphs of Functions
The graph of an equation in two variables and the graph of a function
are distinct concepts but are often conflated in many teachers and students
minds.
The graph of a function is properly defined as the set of ordered pairs in
the Cartesian product of the input set and the output set having the form
(x, f (x)).
A solution to an equation in two variables is a pair of values (x, y)
that satisfy the equation.
The graph of the equation is the set of all points in the plane whose
coordinates satisfy the equation, or the same, the graph is the set
of all pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation.
In the case where the input set and output set are the real numbers,
we can convert the graph of a function into the solution set of an equation,
y = f (x) or y f (x) = 0, and thus, the graphs of functions are solution sets
for special kinds of equations.
The simple examples x + y = 1 vs. x2 + y 2 = 1 show that an equation
can have a familiar graph but that it may or may not determine a function.
Instructors should be prepared for the possibility that the audience does
not know that the graphs are a straight line and a circle. For the second
example, one can start by pointing out that the Pythagorean theorem says
that the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs. Then draw a number of right
triangles with the legs parallel to the axes and one end of the hypotenuse at
423
the origin:
...
...
...
...
...
...
........
...... ..
...
...... ....
...
...
......
.
.
...
.
.
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.....................................................................................................................................
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.
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.
(5, 4)
52 + 42 = 41
41
If the other
p end of the hypotenuse is at (x, y) then the length of the hypotenuse is x2 + y 2 , and so the set of pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation
x2 + y 2 = r2 is the set of points r units away from the origin.
The general equation of a circle can be developed through exercises similar to these:
We have seen how to graph the line x + y = 1. We can also graph the
circle x2 + y 2 = 1 with a graphing calculator but we must first take an extra
step. We begin by solving for y in terms of x.
x2 + y 2
y2
y
=
=
=
1
1 x2
1 x2 or y = 1 x2
424
c
b
y,
a a
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS
425
426
(x0 , y0 )
(x, y)
(x0 , y0 )
L1
(x, y)
L2
Triangle ABC and triangle AED are both right triangles with the same
vertex A. Therefore all three corresponding angles have equal measure, and
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS
427
the two triangles are similar. Therefore ratios of corresponding sides must
be equal. Since AB = x, AE = x0 , BC = y, and DE = y0 , this tells us
that
y
y0
=
x
x0
But y0 /x0 = m because (x0 , y0 ) lies on the graph of y = mx. Therefore
y/x = y0 /x0 = m, and y = mx. It follows that (x, y) lies on the graph of
y = mx. We have shown that any point (x, y) on the line from the origin to
any point on the graph of y = mx lies on the graph. Therefore the graph of
y = mx is a straight line, since if the graph contained any points in addition
to those on the line, it would violate the vertical line test for a function.
The converse, that every non vertical line through the origin, is the graph
of a function of the
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(x0 , y0 )
L1
(x, y)
L2
Again let (x0 , y0 ) be a non zero point on the graph of y = mx. Let (x, y) be
an arbitrary non zero point on the line L. As before, by similar triangles,
y0
y
=
x
x0
Therefore, for any point (x, y) on the line L, y = mx. Hence, any line
through the origin is the graph of an equation of the form y = mx, where
m is the ratio of the y coordinate to the x coordinate for any point on the
line L (except (0, 0)).
Exercises
(1) How should this argument be modified to show that the graph of
the function y = mx + b is a straight line when b 6= 0?
(2) How would the argument above for the graph of y = mx be modified
if all of the coordinates of the selected points are negative, instead
of positive (you may assume that m > 0)?
Students should also recognize that any vertical line has an equation of
the form x = c for some constant c, and that any non vertical line is the
graph of an equation of the form y = mx + b. Students should be able to
calculate the x intercept of a line and to recognize b as the y intercept of the
428
graph. Changing the value of b raises or lowers the graph of the function,
and translates the line in a vertical direction.
When a line is given by y = mx + b, the graph consists of all pairs of
the form
(x, mx + b).
If (x1 , mx1 +b) and (x2 , mx2 +b) are two points on this line, then the change
in x is x2 x1 , the second x-value minus the first, and the corresponding
change in y is
(mx2 + b) (mx1 + b)
=
=
mx2 mx1
m(x2 x1 )
So, for non-vertical lines, the change in y-value is m multiplied by the change
in the x-value, and the quotient
change in y-value
= m
change in x-value
is a constant. The slope of the line may be defined as this constant
m. Students need plenty of practice finding the equation of a line from the
coordinates of two points on the line, or the slope and the coordinates of
one point on the line.
It is intuitively that changing the y intercept of a line results in a parallel line. This intuition is important for pre-service teachers and it can
be understood visually. Beyond that, algebraic arguments may be used to
prove that two non vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the
same slope. We take as a definition of two parallel lines the usual geometric
definition: two lines in a plane with no points in common. The result may
be formulated this way:
Two different non vertical lines given by y = mx + b and y = m0 x + b0
are parallel if and only if their slopes are the same, i.e. m = m0 .
Proof: If (
x, y) is a point that lies on both graphs then it must be true that
y = m
x + b and also y = m0 x
+ b0 . Setting the two right hand expressions
equal gives
m
x + b = m0 x
+ b0
or
b b0
=
=
m0 x
m
x
0
(m m)
x
If m = m0 this is impossible because b 6= b0 (since the two lines are not the
same). This shows that if two different lines have the same slope, they are
parallel because they can have no points in common. On the other hand, if
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS
429
n n0
.
m0 m
1
.
m
(m, 1)
(1, m)
1
Exercises:
(1) Find the point of intersection of the lines: 2x+3y = 1, and x+2y =
3.
(2) Determine the equation of the line through (1, 0) and (0, 1).
(3) Determine the equation of the line through (1, 0) and (d, 1) where
d 6= 1.
430
(4) Explain the similarity between the formulas that determine m and
n above and the formulae in the previous section that determine
the point (
x, y) common to two lines.
(5) Ellen baked cookies for the neighborhood children. She gave each
child 6 cookies and she had 7 cookies remaining. So she gave one
more cookie to each child, but was one cookie short. How may
cookies did she bake in total?
(6) Larry bought a total of 32 apples and oranges for $52. An apple
costs $2 and an orange costs $1. How many apples did he buy?
(7) Kim is 30 years old and her daughter is one-third her age. How old
will Kim be when her daughter is just half her age?
(8) Find the equation of the form y = mx + n that has (3, 0) as xintercept and (0, 4) as y-intercept.
(9) If (0, 0) is the x-intercept for the equation y = mx + n, what is the
y-intercept?
(10) Describe all equations of the form y = mx+n where the x-intercept
is equal to the y-intercept.
(11) Give the equation of the line through the origin that is perpendicular to the line y = 4x. Find the equation of the line parallel to
y = 4x whose graph also contains the point ( 12 , 53 ).
(12) Give the equation of the line through the origin that contains the
point (3, 4).
(13) Find all the points (a, b) with a and b both integers that lie on the
line through the origin containing (3, 4).
(14) Fill in the details of the argument that y = 1
m x is perpendicular
to the line y = mx for negative m and for m = 0.
In a presentation on lines and their graphs it is valuable to make a clear
connection between lines through the origin with ratios, rates, proportions
and percents. The core of this relationship is that the ratio m : n with m, n,
not both zero is the line through the origin and the point (m, n). If m 6= 0
n
n
then the points on this line have the form (x, m
x), and m
describes the ratio.
n
The unit ratio on this line corresponds to the pair (1, m ) and is usually given
n
as m
, but the pair form is better. The percent description is given by the
n
n
point (100, 100( m
)), though it is usually given as just the y-value, 100( m
).
Two non-zero coordinates in the plane (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are in proportion
when they lie on the same ratio, i.e., line through the origin. If x1 and x2 are
non-zero, this is the same as saying that xy11 = xy22 . Finally, we get rates when
the coordinate lines are labeled by different units such as (oranges, $) and
we take ratios. So we would interpret the ratio (7, 1) in these dimensions as
7 oranges per dollar.
10. Polynomials
Polynomials are a difficult subject to justify for pre-service teachers.
There is a strong tendency on their parts to want a relatively immediate
10. POLYNOMIALS
431
pay-off for their students in the mathematics they teach. But, for the most
part, the core applications of polynomials lie far in the future for these
students. However, there are some applications that are appropriate to
discuss in K-8, and we present some of them here.
There are aspects of polynomials that have more immediate interest.
Here is one example. Let L be a rectangle in the plane with side lengths r
and s.
s = 12
......................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.......................................................................................................................
r = 30
The perimeter of the rectangle is 2(r + s) and the area is rs. Assuming that
rs
r + s > 0 we can look at the ratio 2(r+s)
of the area to the perimeter, and we
can ask which rectangles have the largest areas relative to their perimeters.
More precisely, suppose that we fix the perimeter, so r + s = c is a constant.
Then what is the largest area that a rectangle with perimeter 2c can have?
Of course, it might be that there is no bound on the area, but this is not
the case. As we now show, it turns out that the area will be greatest exactly
when the rectangle is a square of side length 12 c.
Since r + s = c it follows that s = c r and the area is r(c r) = cr r2 .
Thus, the area is a function of r, A = A(r), and if we take the graph of this
function y = cr r2 ,
..
...
..
...
...
..........................
.....
....
...
....
....
...
....
...
...
...
...
.
...
..
...
.
...
.
.
...
.
..
.
.
...
...
.
...
...
...
.
...
..
...
.
...
.
.
...
.
...
..
...
.
..
..
..
...
.
..
...
...
..
.
..
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
..
.
...
.
...
...
...
...
.
..
...
...
.
...
... ....
...
... ...
...
... ...
...
... ...
...
... ...
..
..
... ...
..
... ...
..
..
... ...
..
..
.......
..
.....
..
..
......
.
..
.
.............................................................................................................................................................................
....
..
....
...
...
....
.
432
It appears from the graph that A( 2c ) > A(w) for w 6= 2c . This is the
same as saying that A( 2c ) A(w) should be greater than or equal to zero for
all w, and should equal 0 only when w = 2c . Let us expand out
c
c
c
A
=
c
2
2
2
c 2
=
2
2
c
=
4
A(w) = w(c w)
wc w2 .
=
Consequently,
A
c
2
A(w)
=
=
c2
cw + w2
4
c
2
w
2
and this is, indeed, greater than or equal to zero. In fact, it is zero only
when w = 2c . It follows that we have verified that the rectangle with the
greatest area for a given perimeter is the square.
But there are further properties that the graph appears to have. It seems
that the graph is symmetric about the line midway between the roots and
parallel to the y-axis. How can we express this: If w is on the left side of 2c
then the distance from w to 2c is 2c w, and the point at an equal distance
on the other side is 2c + 2c w = c w. Conversely, if w > 2c then the point
on the other side of 2c at the same distance is 2c (w 2c ) = c w. Thus,
in either case the point corresponding to w is c w, and what we want to
verify is the statement that A(w) = A(c w). This can be checked by direct
calculation. We have A(w) = cw w2 while A(c w) = c(c w) (c w)2 =
c2 cw (c2 2cw + w2 ) = cw w2 . We have verified the symmetry.
One can develop from this the general properties of the graph of the
quadratic: writing it in the form a[x2 ab x]+c, or a[x(x ab )]+c indicates that
one starts with the function x(x ab ), which we have just studied, multiplies
by a, which changes the steepness of the graph and whether the graph opens
b
,
upwards or downwards, but not the property of having a extremum at 2a
b
and not the property of being symmetric about the line 2a = x. The role
of adding c shifts the graph vertically, and changes the roots, but not the
b
if there are any roots.
property that the roots will be equidistant from 2a
Here is an important point to mention. The value of c for which the
graph just touches the x-axis should be explicitly pointed out to the preservice teachers. Here is one way to do this using the previous discussion:
10. POLYNOMIALS
433
b
2a ,
b
b2
=
2a
4a
so f (x) = ax2 bx +
b2
4a
= a(x
b2
,
4a
b 2
2a ) .
Using a graphing calculator to Reinforce the discussion. A graphing calculator can be used to visualize the general properties of the quadratic.
We can start with the graph of the function x(x 4) shown below.
434
10. POLYNOMIALS
435
(3) Let
of x2 31. Show that
r1 andr2 are 31 and
r1 , r2 be the roots
436
Now students should be ready to complete the discussion of the relationship between roots and factorization at least for quadratics. One way of
doing this follows: compare f (x) = x2 bx + c with g(x) = (x r1 )(x r2 )
regardless of whether r1 and r2 are roots of f (x).
Note that
f (x) g(x)
x2 bx + c (x r1 )(x r2 )
=
=
x2 bx + c (x2 (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2 )
((r1 + r2 ) b)x + (c + r1 r2 )
=
=
(r1 + r2 )
r1 r2 .
The quadratic formula. At this point, students are ready to understand the quadratic formula. Rather than giving them the unmotivated
proof via completing the square, we can discuss the formula from the perspective of factorization. Note that and x = r2 and x = r2 and x = r2 and
x = r2 and x = r2 and x = r2
b
c
2
2
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
,
a
a
so the roots of ax2 + bx + c are the same as the roots of x2 + ab x + ac . If these
roots are r1 and r2 then
b
a
c
a
(r1 + r2 )
r1 r2 ,
10. POLYNOMIALS
b 2
a
(r1 r2 )2
437
2+c
2+c
b
+
b
b
b
x+
.
x2 bx + c = x +
2
2
Polynomial multiplication. The next step in the discussion of polynomials is to introduce polynomial multiplication. Polynomial (long) division can be deferred until after quotient functions are introduced.
Polynomial multiplication should be introduced by noting that if we have
two functions on the same input space, f (x) and g(x) with output space the
real numbers, then, multiplying the values of f (x) and g(x) for each input
x gives a new function of x, the product f (x)g(x). Thus if we have two
438
But the difference is in the fact that while there is no restriction on the
values that the coefficients a0 , . . . , a3 can take in a polynomial, there is
when we write a number in base 10. Since every coefficient in the base 10
representation of a number is an integer between 0 and 9, and since it is
relatively frequent that ab > 9 for integers a and b in this range, there will
be additional manipulations (carrying) needed to rewrite each row above
when they are meant to give base 10 representations of numbers.
For example 9 9 = 81 = 8 10 + 1. Thus when we multiply 29 94 =
20 90 + 9 90 + 20 4 + 9 4, this becomes 18 100 + 81 10 + 8 10 + 36,
which, taking account of the constraints that base 10 notation puts on the
439
or finally
2 103 + 7 102 + 2 10 + 6.
One thing that this example indicates is the complexity of the carrying
procedure, and it gives a strong argument for the very efficient stair-step
long multiplication algorithm.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 107 73.
(b) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 123454321
4567.
(2) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of b (105 1).
11. Rational Functions
After the basic discussion of polynomials above, the next step is to introduce division of functions via the usual inverse property. But one has to
be careful about the issue of division by zero in discussing this topic. When
dealing with functions, this changes the domain (or input space), and that
fact has to be carefully developed.
Definition. If f (x) and h(x) are functions of x with the same set of
inputs and range or output space the real numbers, and if h(x) 6= 0 for any
x in the set of inputs, then g(x) is the quotient f (x)/h(x) if and only if
f (x) = g(x)h(x).
As a consequence of the definition, for any h(x) satisfying the conditions
of the definition and any f (x), a quotient function exists and is, moreover,
unique.
It is important to explain the definition carefully. As an example, the
quotient of the function 1, defined as f (x) = 1 for all x, by the function
h(x) = x 3 is not defined on all the real numbers, x, since h(3) = 0. But
if we restrict the input set so that it consists of all numbers except 3 then
the quotient g(x) is defined and is given by the rule
1
g(x) =
,
x 6= 3.
x3
On this domain g(x)h(x) = 1 for each value of x as desired, so it is true that
f (x) = g(x)h(x) and g(x) is the quotient f (x)/h(x). But since h(x) is not
defined on the real numbers, f (x)/h(x) is given no meaning here. However
we can look at the graph of this function away from the point x = 3. When
1
< 0 for x < 3 and a similar
x < 3 we note that x 3 is negative so that x3
440
1
argument shows that x3
> 0 for x > 3. On the other hand, x 3 is very
1
small in absolute value when x is very close to 3, so x3
is very large in
absolute value. It follows that near 3 the graph has the following form
y
4
3
2
1
0
1
1
2
3
4
5
10
11
x
1
1
1
which is the graph of (x2)(x4)
. This looks very much like the graph of xr
2
1
near
r
.
So
it
is
reasonable
to
compare
near r2 and like the graph of xr
1
1
1
with
the
function
(xr1 )(xr2 )
A
B
.
x r2 x r1
To do this we should start by putting the two functions above over the
common denominator (xr1 )(xr2 ). But care should be taken at this point.
441
=
(x r2 )(x r1 ) (x r1 )(x r2 )
(x r1 )(x r2 )
and consequently that
1
1
=
(x r1 )(x r2 )
r2 r1
and that
x
1
=
(x r1 )(x r2 )
r1 r2
1
1
x r1 x r2
r1
r2
x r1 x r2
1
1
.
x r3
(x r1 )(x r2 )
Historical Note: There have been attempts to remove partial fraction
decompositions from the high school curriculum, and even from the normal
first year college calculus course. However, in engineering and applied areas,
partial fractions are the key to the integration of rational functions, and these
are crucial in applications of mathematics. Thus, it has been noted that
students who have not had partial fractions often have inordinate difficulties
with higher level courses in engineering and related areas.
Polynomial long division. What happens if we take the quotient
f (x)/h(x) where f (x) is a polynomial of degree n 1 and h(x) is the
polynomial x r?
Note that x = (x r) + r so that
r
x
= 1+
,
xr
xr
x 6= r.
442
Likewise
x2
[(x r) + r]2
(x r)2 + 2r(x r) + r2
so that
x2
r2
= x+r+
,
xr
xr
while combining these gives that
x 6= r,
ax2 + bx + c
ar2 + br + c
= ax + (ar + b) +
,
x 6= r.
xr
xr
This suggests that the quotient of a general polynomial f (x) by x r should
c
be the sum of a polynomial in x of degree one less than f and a function xr
for an appropriate constant c. Polynomial long division can be introduced
and developed to justify and explain what has just been observed . Start by
noting that axn = axn1 (x r) + arxn1 , so that,
a0 xn + a1 xn1
443
where g(x) is a polynomial of degree one less than the degree of f (x), and
iterating this process shows that the number of real roots of f (x) is always
less than or equal to the degree of f (x).
Sometimes it is possible to discover roots of polynomials by looking at
a graph.
Example Use a graph to help find the factors of x2 6x 7.
The graph of Y1 = X2-6X-7 on the right below suggests that 1 and 7
might be roots of this polynomial.
444
The figure below shows the graph of f in the [-5, 10, 1] x [-25, 30, 5]
viewing window.
It appears that 2 is a root of f. You can use long division to show that
f (x) = 2x3 9x2 2x + 24 = (x 2)(2x2 5x 12).
Thus, 2 is indeed a root of f. In this case we can factor 2x2 5x 12 to
complete the factorization of f. From the graph, it appears that 4 is also a
root. The complete factorization is
f (x) = 2x3 9x2 2x + 24 = (x 2)(2x2 5x 12) = (x 2)(x 4)(2x + 3).
The third and final root of f is 3/2.
An Application of Cubic Polynomials
Start with an 8.5 in. by 11 in. piece of paper and cut out equal squares
of side length x from each corner of the piece of paper. Actually, it is a good
idea to use graph paper for this purpose. Fold up the sides to form a box
with no top.
...x
..............................................................................................................................................x
.........
.
.
.
x ..................................... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ................................... x
...
...
...
....
...
.
...
...
.
...
..
...
....
..
...
...
.
...
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
...
...
...
...
....
...
.
...
..
...
...
.
...
.
...
...
.
.
...
.
...
.
...
...
...
....
...
...
.
..
...
...
...
.
...
.
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
...
...
...
....
...
.
...
..
...
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
...
...
.
...
...
...
....
...
...
.
..
...
...
...
.
...
.
.
...
...
.
.
...
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
..
...
...
.
..
...
.
.
......................... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ......................
...
...
..
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
....
..
..........................................................................................................................................................
x
x
x
Make a table of values for the dimensions of the box and its corresponding
volume. To get started we complete the following table.
height
x
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
length
11 2x
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
width
8.5 2x
7.5
6.5
5.5
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
445
volume
x(11 2x)(8.5 2x)
37.5
58.5
66
63
52.5
37.5
21
6
Next we use the STAT PLOT menu on our technology to graph the
ordered pairs of the function (x, volume) listed in the table above. We put
the values of the height into the list L1 and the corresponding values of the
volume in L2.
To set up Plot1 in the STAT PLOT menu we make the following settings.
The figure below shows some of the values in the Lists L1 and L2, in
fact, all the values except the elements in the last row of the table above.
446
Here is the graph of these 8 points in the [0, 5, 1] x [0, 80, 10] viewing
window.
We can use
to estimate the coordinates of the maximum point in
the figure above or we can use the maximum feature in the CALCULATE
menu to get an even better approximation to the coordinates of the maxito get the menu shown
mum point in the figure above. Press
on the left below. Press
to select 4:maximum and obtain the graph on
447
Notice that we are prompted to enter a left bound for the x-coordinate
of the maximum point. Move the cursor to the left of the maximum point
by using the arrow keys as suggested on the left below. Then press
to accept the left bound and to obtain the graph on the right below.
Use the right arrow key to move to the right of the maximum point
as suggested on the left below. Press
to accept the right bound as
448
449
This provides even more support for the approximation we found above.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 107 73.
(b) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 123454321
4567.
(2) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of b (105 1).
Application of polynomials to summing finite geometric series
Suppose that we are given the finite geometric series,
1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + + xn
where the terms are the successive powers of x from the 0th to the nth . Note
that if we multiply it by x 1, we have
(x 1) (1 + x + x2 + + xn )
=
x(1 + x + x2 + + xn ) (1 + x + x2 + + xn )
x + x2 + x3 + xn+1 (1 + x + x2 + + xn )
xn+1 1
450
=
=
=
(102 1)v
121.323232 1.21323232
120.11
120.11
.
102 1
Note that 102 1 = 99 and multiplying both top and bottom by 100 to get
rid of the decimal point on the top, we have
v =
12011
9900
for the explicit fraction that equals 1.213232. To see the connection with
the geometric series, consider the simple repeating decimal 0.131313. This
can be written as
13
13
13
13
+
+
+
+
2
3
100 100
100
1004
1
+
Thus we get 13 ( 100
13
1
1
100n+1
1
1
100
1
1002
(1) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal .232323.
(2) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal 0.124124124.
(3) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal
0.00315315315
451
Output
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
4
8
16
32
452
What is the next term? (The point to emphasize here is that while
the most likely next term is apt to be 6 and 64 with rule n 7 2n , it
is far from certain that this is the case even though there were more
data points given here than previously. More data merely makes
the conjecture more likely.)
(3) We are given the following table:
Input
Output
1
2
3
4
5
3
1
4
1
5
What is the next term? Most of the class would likely suggest that
the next term should be 1, but point out that 9 is a perfectly fine
continuation with as simple a rule as would give 1. (The sequence
could have been the successive digits in the decimal expansion of
.)
On the other hand, while inductive reasoning has to be handled carefully, it
is an invaluable technique for making conjectures and gaining a preliminary
understanding of what might be happening in a problem situation.
A short discussion of the sum-notation is needed at this point
We often need to add together long sequences of terms. For example, consider the following:
1 + 3 + third odd number + fourth odd number + + 20th odd number.
To simplify the writing of this expression we use the following notation
20
X
ith odd number,
i=1
and this is read sum the odd numbers from the first to the 20th .
We can express the ith odd number as 2i 1, (when i = 1, 2i 1
is 1, when i = 2, 2i 1 is 3, when i = 3, 2i 1 is 5, and so on).
Consequently, an equivalent way of writing this sum is to simply
write
20
X
(2i 1).
i=1
453
Mathematical induction:
Mathematical induction is a completely distinct process from inductive
reasoning. This is a method of proof, and one of the most powerful techniques in the mathematicians arsenal. Explain to pre-service teachers that
mathematical induction is a procedure for verifying the truth of formulas
f (n) = g(n) where n runs over the counting numbers. For example we
can writePthe formula in words the sum
P1 of n copies
P2 of 1 which we abn
breviate
1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
j=1 1. We can note that
j=1 1 = 1,
P3
Pj=1
n
j=1 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. We then conjecture that
j=1 1 = n. In order
to verify this conjecture we have to have a method of checking, in finite
time, each case, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Explain and justify that it is sufficient to
verify the first case, and then verify the statement The truth of f (n) = g(n)
implies the truth of f (n + 1) = g(n + 1).
P
(1) Prove nj=1 1 = n by induction.
P
(2) Prove nj=1 2j 1 = n2 by induction.
P
n+1
(3) Prove nj=1 3j = 3 2 1 .
Also, discuss other forms of mathematical induction, for example where the
truth of f (j) = g(j) for all counting numbers j n implies the truth of
f (n + 1) = g(n + 1), or where a finite number are needed, for example
the truth of f (j) = g(j) for n 1, and n implies the truth of f (n + 1) =
g(n + 1). Perhaps, illustrate this with the formula for the nth Fibonacci
number. Define the Fibonacci sequence via the rule f (n) = f (n1)+f (n2)
with f (1) = f (2) = 1.
(1) Suppose that a sequence is constructed via the rule g(n + 1) =
2g(n) g(n 1) with f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2.
(a) Determine the first 5 terms in this sequence.
(b) Make a conjecture about the formula for the nth term, and
prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.
(c) Suppose g(1) = 1, g(2) = 1. Write out the first five terms.
(d) Make a conjecture about the formula for the nth term, and
prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.
(2) Write down the first 8 Fibonacci numbers.
(3) Show by mathematical induction that each Fibonacci number f (n)
is less than 2n .
(4) Obtain an exact formula for the nth Fibonacci number via the following steps.
(a) Show that
the solutions
of the equation x2 x 1 = 0 are
1+ 5
1 5
r1 = 2 , r2 = 2 .
(b) Show that xn+1 = xn + xn1 with n > 1 only if x = 0, r1 , or
r2 .
(c) Show by mathematical induction that f (n) = 5r1n satisfies the
property that f (n + 1) = f (n) + f (n 1).
(d) Same for f (n) = 5r2 .
454
(e) Same for f (n) = ar1 + br2 with a and b and real numbers.
(f) Show by mathematical induction that the nth term in the Fibonacci sequence is 15 (r1n r2n ) for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . as n runs
over the counting numbers.
455
456
and then a white ball in two picks from two different jars.
What happens when we no longer care about the order? Then only the pair
of jars matters, so jar #1 then jar #5 is not to be regarded as different from
457
54
= 10
2
since there are exactly two ways of ordering the two jars in each path.
As another example, if we had 7 jars, each with a red ball and a white
ball, and we ask for the number of ways that we can pick 4 white balls where
the order matters, we have
7 6 5 4 = 840
distinct ways. When the order does not matter we have to find out how many
different ways there are of ordering four jars, and divide by this number. But
we can order four jars by first selecting any one of the four, then, for the
second position, any one of the three remaining, for the third position any
one of the two now remaining, and for the last position the final jar. Hence
there are
4 3 2 1 = 24
7654
= 35
4321
ways of selecting four white balls from 7 jars when the order does not matter.
Here is another example appropriate for lower grades. Suppose we have
four boxes. Inside each box are three cartons. Inside each carton are two
candy bars. How many candy bars do we have?
This approach was expanded in a very nice way in the book Annos
Mysterious Multiplying Jar by Masaichiro and Mitsumasa Anno suitable for
458
459
(1) Show that the number of ways in which we can pick 3 white balls
from 8 jars, each containing a white ball, a red ball, and a yellow
ball is 336. Show that
8!
336 =
5!
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can pick k white balls
from 8 jars, each containing a white ball, a red ball, and a yellow
8!
ball is (8k)!
where k is any integer between 1 and 8 inclusive.
Lemma 1. Let n be any positive integer. Show that the number of ways
in which we can pick k white balls from n jars, each containing only a white
n!
ball, is (nk)!
when order matters.
Proof: The distinct ways of picking k balls is the same as the number of
distinct ways of listing k different jars from among the n jars. Now, envision
the process of picking k distinct jars. The first can be picked as any one of
the n jars, the second as any one of the n 1 remaining, and so on until the
k th which can be picked arbitrarily from the n k + 1 remaining jars. Thus
the number of ways of picking k jars where order matters is
n!
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) (n k + 1) =
(n k)!
since the terms in (n k) factorial are the same as the last n k terms in
n!, so these will cancel in pairs, and only the first k terms will be left to
multiply out.
(1) How many ways can you pick 7 white balls from 13 jars when each
jar contains exactly one white ball, and order matters.
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can order n objects is
n! for any positive integer n.
(3) You have a run of 300 items that pass by you on a production line.
In how many ways can you pull out 3 items for testing? There are
two different situations that should be considered. The first is that
since the error rate may vary with the number of items produced,
the order could matter. The second is that this effect is likely to be
vanishingly small, so one would be justified in ignoring the order in
which the items were picked. Analyze both cases.
Example: Suppose you are a member of a very democratic group of 10 people that does not even believe in elections. You want to choose a president,
vice president, treasurer, and secretary. In how many ways can you do this?
This is just like choosing balls from jars where order matters. The first
ball (president) can be chosen in 10 ways, second (vice president) in 9 and
so on. So the answer is 5040.
The counting problem referred to in the example above is sometimes
called finding the number of permutations of 10 things taken 4 at a time
and denoted by 10 P4 . We can compute this number on the Home screen
460
Now press
and type the number 4 to obtain the figure on the left
below. Finally, press
to obtain the figure on the right below. This
agrees with the number computed by hand.
(1) Show that the number of ways you can pick 5 white balls from 11
jars, where order does not matter is
11!
= 462,
5! 6!
461
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can select k white balls
from n jars, where each jar contains a white ball only and order
doesnt matter, is
C(n, k) =
n!
,
k!(n k)!
Now press
and type the number 5 to obtain the figure on the left
below. Finally, press
to obtain the figure on the right below. This
agrees with the number computed by hand.
462
n!
Definition 2. C(n, k) = k!(nk)!
, for integers n and k with 1 k < n
n
is called the binomial coefficient, n choose k, and
is
written
k . The
n n
definition is extended to k = 0 and k = n by setting 0 = n = 1.
The binomial coefficient nk counts the number of ways in which k objects
can be choosen from among n when order does not matter, and this is the
reason that the extreme cases are given as 1, since there is only one way to
choose 0 objects from n as there is only one way to choose all n. Also, note
n!
n!
= 1n!
= 1, it
that we have defined 0! = 1, so, since we can also write 0!n!
follows
that,
n
n strictly speaking, we do not need to give separate definitions for
and
0
n . However, in view of the fragile understanding that students are
likely to exhibit at this point, it is very likely to be a good idea to include the
additional remarks here, and distinguish the extreme cases from the general
case.
The following lemma is very useful.
Lemma
(a)
(b)
(c)
0 = n = 1,
For n > 1 and 1 k n 1 we have
n
n1
n1
=
+
.
k
k1
k
n
n!
Proof: For (a) note that nk
= (nk)!(n(nk))!
. But n (n k) = k.
Consequently,
n
n!
=
nk
(n k)!k!
n
and this is k .
Part (b) is simply a restatement of a part of the definition, and the
reason for this choice has been indicated.
n1
For (c), the combinatorial reason for the formula nk = n1
+ k1
k
when all the terms make sense
is direct. Look at the first position. If it
is choosen then there are n1
k1 ways of choosing k 1 from among the
463
n1
n1
1 + (n 1) =
+
0
1
n1
n1
=
+
.
n1
n2
Thus, the formula is verified in these
We
cases.
n1
now assume that 2 k
n 2. In this case, we start with n1
+
and simplify:
k1
k
n1
+ (n1)(n2)(nk1)
+ n1
= (n1)(n2)(nk+1)
k!
k
(k1)!
k1
(n1)(n2)(nk)k+(n1)(n2)(nk+1)(nk)
k!
3
4
1
2
6
10
10
464
where the terms in the nth row are the binomial coefficients nj , with 0
j n. The first and last terms in each row are 1s while the each interior
term is obtained by adding the two terms nearest it in the row above. This
array is called Pascals triangle.
There are any number of interesting and unexpected relations that hold
between the terms in Pascals triangle. Let us sum the terms in each of the
rows above. For the first row we get 1, for the second 2, for the third 4, for
the fourth 8 and for the fifth 16. This leads to the following conjecture:
P
Conjecture: The sum all the binomial coefficients for a fixed n, ni=0 ni =
2n .
Translation into colloquial language: What this statement says is
that if we take all of the terms in the nth row of Pascals triangle and add
them up then the sum will be 2n .
The conjecture is certainly true in the first five cases. This makes the
conjecture highly plausible. It is very unlikely that this could be an accident.
And we can check one or two further cases for further confirmation. So, for
n = 6 we have 1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 64
Thus, being convinced that the result is extremely likely to be true we
seach for a way of demonstrating its truth for all n. The lemma gives us a
way of writing nk as a sum for 1 k n 1. Hence
n1
!
n
X
X n 1 n 1
n
EXP
=1+
+
+1
i
i
i1
i=0
The sum
Pn1 n1
i=1
expands as
i
n1
n1
n1
n1
+
+
+ +
1
2
3
n1
n1
and this is the sum for (n 1) diminished by 0 = 1. Likewise the second
n1
P
sum n1
i=1 i1 expands as
n1
n1
n1
n1
+
+
+ +
0
1
2
n2
n1
and this is the sum for (n 1) diminished by n1 = 1.
Thus, if we combine one of the extra 1s in EXP with the first sum
and the second sum with the second extra 1, we see that the sum for n is
exactly two times the sum for n 1. Consequently, since we know the sum
for n = 6 is 64 = 26 it follows that the sum for 7 is 2 26 = 27 , so the result
is true for seven. But applying our calculation of EXP again, the sum for 8
is 2 27 = 28 , and we see that if our conjecture is true for a positive integer
n then it is true for the next, n + 1.
Since we can arrive at any positive integer in this way, starting with one,
it follows that the conjecture is true for each positive integer, and hence true.
i=1
465
Here is a possible teaching sequence for the proof above. The reality appears
to be that, even this far into the sequence, we cannot assume the audience
will have sufficiently internalized the processes of symbolic manipulation to
handle something that general. Consequently, it is recommended that each
line above be mirrored by the line written out in detail with a specific n, (5
is suggested since it is sufficiently large to be non-trivial, but not so large
that it would require an innordinate amount of time to write out).
Exercises:
(1) Show that 65 = 61 and
both are equal to 6.
n
n
(2) Show that n1 = 1 = n.
(3) Recall the last verse of the well-known song:
On the twelfth day of Christmas, my true love sent to me
Twelve drummers drumming,
eleven pipers piping,
ten lords a-leaping,
nine ladies dancing,
eight maids a-milking,
seven swans a-swimming,
six geese a-laying,
five golden rings.
Four calling birds,
three French hens,
two turtle doves
and a partridge in a pear tree!
How many gifts in all?
(4) Recall the famous story about Gauss summing the integers between
one and 100. He thought of it this way. First he added the first
and the last, getting 101. Then the second and second from last, 2
and 99, getting 101.
.....................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
........................................................................
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
....
..
..
..
.
.
.
Summing each column gives 101, and so twice the sum is 100 101.
More generally, show using the method above that the sum of the
466
first n integers is
n+1
2 , or in symbols
n
X
n+1
i =
.
2
1
m+1
2
(3) Show that
2 2 = (m + 1)
2
(4) Use the results of problems 10 and 7 to show that the sum of the
successive odd integers 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + + 2m + 1 is equal to
(m + 1)2 for m any non-negative integer. Verify this result by direct
calculation for 2 m 4.
14. Problem Solving Applications of Binomial Coefficients
We now give three sample applicatations of binomial coefficients presented in a problem solving mode. The first relates these coefficients to
experimental and theoretical probability.
467
(x + y)x + (x + y)y
=
=
x2 + yx + xy + y 2
x2 + 2xy + y 2
468
(x + y)2 (x + y)
=
=
=
x3 + 2xyx + y 2 x + x2 y + 2xyy + y 3
x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 x + x2 y + 2xy 2 + y 3
x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
since xyx = x2 y. Notice that the coefficients are exactly the binomial coefficients in these examples. Let us try one more example.
(x + y)4
(x + y)3 (x + y)
= 2n
from our previous work. Thus the conjecture is true in the first three cases
of n and for three values of the pair (x, y). It is very likely to be true.
469
=
=
=
=
=
=
(x + y)4 (x + y)
4
!
X 4
xi y 4i (x + y)
i
i=o
4
!
4
!
X 4
X 4
i 4i
i 4i
xy
x+
xy
y
i
i
i=0
i=0
4
! 4
!
X 4
X 4
xi y 4i x +
xi y 4i y
i
i
i=0
i=0
4
4
X 4
X 4
xi+1 y 4i +
xi y 4i+1
i
i
i=0
i=0
5
4
X
X
4
4 j 5j
j 5j
x y
+
x y
j1
i
j=1
j=0
(In the first sum on the last line we substituted j 1 everywhere that
i appeared, and since the original sum was for i between 0 and 4, the new
sum is for j between 1 and 5.)6
5
4
4
=
+
j
j
j1
so the sum above can now be rewritten in the form
5
X
5 i 5i
5
(x + y) =
xy ,
i
i=0
and the conjecture has been verified in one more case. But this verification
is more convincing in terms of showing the truth of the conjecture because
it gives us a way to connect the truth of the conjecture for the nth stage
st
with the truth for the
n(n
+ 1) . The key is the formula
that
connects the
binomial coefficients k with the binomial coefficients n+1
k .
6This level of detail is needed when presenting this material to pre-service teachers. They
will need to be able to supply it in the classroom, and, for a number of them, who are still not
comfortable with symbolic manipulation, it is necessary so that their difficulties will be minimized.
470
Then
(x + y)n+1
=
=
=
(x + y)n (x + y)
n
!
X n
xi y ni (x + y)
i
i=0
n
n
n n+1 X n j nj+1 X
n
y
+
x y
+
xj y n(j1))
0
j
j1
j=1
j=1
n n+1
+
x
0
n
n + 1 n+1 X n + 1 j n+1j
n + 1 n+1
y
+
x y
+
x
0
j
n+1
j=1
n+1
X
j=0
n + 1 j n+1j
x y
j
It follows that the truth of the conjecture for n implies its truth for n + 1,
and since we know the conjecture is true for 1 n 6 we know that it is
true for every n. We have verified the binomial formula.
Theorem 1. (Binomial Formula) The following expansion is valid
for every non-negative integer n:
n
X
n i ni
n
xy .
(x + y) =
i
i=0
When we expand out the right hand side we use the distributive rule and
obtain that each monomial in the expansion is obtained by picking one of
x, y from each of the n factors (x + y). Each monomial obtained in this way
has the form xi y ni where i of the choices were xs and the remaining ones
ys. It follows that the number of terms xi y ni that appear is exactly the
number
n of ways we can pick exactly i xs from the n (x + y) terms, and this
is i since order is not an issue here - we can assume the first pick is from
the first factor, the second from the second, and so on.
471
This argument could be somewhat better than the first in that it explains
the underlying reason that the binomial coefficients appear and avoids the
detailed calculations that were necessary above. However, it is very seldom that the first argument that someone finds to prove a result like this
is conceptual. Typically, the conceptual proof comes only later and after
much thought. For this reason the first proof that was presented was not
conceptual.
On the volume of a cone Suppose we have a right circular cone. How
does one show that the volume is 13 hA where A is the area of the base and
h is the height? (Since the cone is circular A = a2 .)
We can embed the cone in a sequence of concentric right circular cylinders,
......................................
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.
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.
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a
n
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3
4h
........
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.........................................................
3
4r
2
4h
........
... .......
.
..... .........
.....
...
.....
...
.....
....
....
...........................................
2
4r
1
nj 2
1
h a2
= 3 ha2 (n j)2
n
n
n
472
a2 h X 2
s .
n3
s=1
= 2
n+1
3
n+1
2
n+1
2
= 2(n+1)n(n1)
3!
3
=
n3 n
3
while
n+1
n2 + n
=
2
2
and we get the following explicit determination of the containing volume:
3
a2 h
n
n2 n
1
1
1
2
+
+
= a h
+
+
.
n3
3
2
6
3 2n 6n2
Assuming that a reasonable solid figure properly contained in a reasonable
solid figure has volume no more than that of the bigger figure gives that
1
1
1
Volume of right circular cone a2 h
+
+ 2 ,
3 2n 6n
473
for every non-negative integer n. Since, as n gets very large, the last two
terms get as small as we want, the only way that all these relations can be
satisfied is if
a2 h
Volume of right circular cone
.
3
2
We have bounded the volume by a3 h .
But we can argue similarly that the concentric sequence of right circular
n2
1
h
cylinders of radius a n1
n , a n up to a n and height n fit inside of
the right circular cone.
.......
.....
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....................................................................................
a2 h X 2
But this is the previous sum diminished by the volume of the largest right
2
2
circular cylinder, an3h n2 = an h , and we have
1
1
1
+ 2
a2 h
Volume of right circular cone,
3 2n 6n
Arguing a before we have that, under the assumption on the volume of
reasonable figures properly contained in a reasonable figure being less than
or equal to the volume of the containing figure we have
a2 h
Volume of right circular cone.
3
Thus, under these two very reasonable assumptions the volume of a right
2
2
circular cone must be a3 h since, we have shown that it is both a3 h and
2
a3 h .
15. Compound interest
As a final application we discuss various aspects of money management.
These are topics that seem to have disappeared from most K - 12 curriculums
currently. This is clearly a mistake. Students should be prepared to deal
474
with money issues and should be able to understand things like the amount
that it costs to max out credit cards and only pay minimum payments.
In seventh grade students can be introduced to compound interest and
should know that if r is the rate per period, n is the number of periods
and A is the initial amount, then the amount after n rate periods will be
(1 + r)n A. Pre-service teachers can work this out for themselves by checking
what happens after 1 period, 2 periods, 3 periods, generalizing, and then
proving the result by induction.
The remainder of the discussion of compound interest should be part of
the material discussed in Algebra I and Algebra II. It can start by looking
at what happens when interest is compounded, but one adds a constant
amount B at the end of each interest period. Hence, after the first period
there will be (1 + r)A + B. At the end of the second there will be
(1 + r)[(1 + r)A + B] + B = (1 + r)2 A + (1 + (1 + r))B.
At the end of the third period there will be
(1 + r)3 A + (1 + (1 + r) + (1 + r)2 )B,
and applying induction, one arrives at the formula for the amount after n
periods as
n
X
(1 + r)n+1 1
(1 + r)n+1 A +
(1 + r)n B = (1 + r)n+1 A +
B.
r
0
Using this formula one can determine things like the payments on a loan if
it is desired to pay it off in k equal payments. Thus in the formula above,
let B be negative, and suppose that one wants to pay off the initial amount
A in n payments. It follows that
(1 + r)n+1 A
or
(1 + r)n+1 1
B=0
r
r(1 + r)n+1
A.
(1 + r)n+1 1
Students can usefully practice with this formula using calculators.
There are many other types of things that can be done here, depending
on the time available. Among them are present value of money.
B =
CHAPTER 9
476
the lower grades is less apparent, and at the moment such students are much
less likely to be enrolled in mathematics courses. On the face of it this makes
sense. At the K-5 level, the mathematics is truly elementary, and one might
imagine that prospective teachers already know it when they enter college.
Certainly, everyone must know how to multiply two whole numbers, to divide two positive fractions, and so on! Moreover, elementary school teachers
must teach many subjects besides mathematics; they must learn pedagogical
methods suitable for young children; they must be aware of learning disorders; they must manage classrooms including students with developmental
and behavioral issues; they must use assessment tools and give feedback to
children and to their parents; they must be able to teach mathematics to
students with diverse needs and widely differing levels. At the 6-8 level the
situation is similarthough middle school teachers may teach mathematics
that is preparation for algebra and geometry, this mathematics is in level
still far below that of most college math classes.
The response of the community responsible for preparing pre-service
teachers has been to teach a series of courses concerned with the pedagogy
of mathematics. Prospective teachers learn about active and collaborative
learning, the use of manipulatives, various assessment tools, as well as models of childhood development and cognition. This suits such teachers well,
as these are topics of obvious use. However, this community has not widely
taught another series of coursescourses concerned with the mathematics
itself.
As noted above, one might expect that this is a good decision. After all,
multiplying whole numbers or dividing fractions is not college level mathematics. However, increasing evidence suggests that it is, crucially, wrong.
There are two issues here. First, there is the question as to whether or not
prospective teachers truly know the mathematics they will teach. In fact, a
prospective teacher may graduate and be licensed with large, documented,
gaps in their subject knowledge; indeed, this is widely accepted. Consider
what is required for teacher licensing. Mitchell and Barth report that In
some states, candidates can pass subject-matter exams by correctly answering as few as half the test items. Yet the harm done by a teacher who
misremembers the law of exponents and teaches the rule ab+c = ab + ac
cannot be exaggerated. Second, we must ask whether or not basic subject
knowledge of mathematics is sufficient to teach mathematics well. Increasingly, authorities such as Liping Ma have argued that to do an excellent job
in the classroom, teachers must know elementary mathematics at a much
more sophisticated level. For example, a teacher should know not simply
that one can multiply by ten by adding a zero but be able to explain
why this is true. A teacher should not simply know how to divide fractions,
but why the rule for this operation is true. More generally, a well-qualified
teacher should understand that mathematics is not a system of rules but a
system of thought, that the rules make sense and can be explained. If we are
477
to raise a generation of children who are prepared for an increasingly mathematically sophisticated world, we must explain the meaning of mathematics
from the first instant.
It is important to emphasize that the mathematics we are discussing goes
beyond high school mathematicsnot in terms of covering new ground such
as calculus, but in terms of covering elementary mathematics at an advanced
and more sophisticated level. As such it is suitable for study at the college
level. We are not discussing remediation, but college level material.
So far, we have argued that there is a body of mathematics which must
be taught to prospective teachers. But why should mathematics departments get involved in teaching it? There are two answers here. The first
is that it is not apparent that the education community can do this job
by itself. The faculty in education schools are not always deeply knowledgeable about mathematics content, particularly of the type we have been
discussing. Though such faculty may be expertly equipped to teach a pedagogy of math course, their professional efforts need not have gone to establishing sophisticated mathematics content knowledge. Of course, there
are some education faculty who have established such knowledge, but from
a nationwide perspective, there is still a serious gap.
The second answer is that we, the mathematics community, can do this
job. We can develop and teach the courses which will serve the needs of
these new teachers, and of the country. We have the deep mathematical
knowledge, we have the broad perspective, we have the disciplinary enthusiasm which we wish to pass on to these teachers and through them to their
students.
However, we must sound a note of realism. We are vitally needed, and we
can do this job. But we must do it well. We must speak to prospective teachers in their own language, delivering knowledge whose classroom-usefulness
is immediately apparent. We must explain to them what elementary mathematics is truly important and why it is, with great respect for their aspirations and great encouragement as they struggle to master it. We must
model excellent pedagogy in our own teaching, putting our best teachers in
these classes. We must work with students who are sometimes very afraid
of mathematics, and work with them with patience and concern as well as
enthusiasm. We must succeed at these courses, both as mathematicians and
as educators. For ultimately the changes proposed here can only be deemed
successful if in future years they result in greater student achievement as
new prospective teachers enter their profession. We must not lose sight of
this goal.
It is one thing to talk of success, and another to achieve it. This success
will require learning from successful models, gaining experience in working
with teacher candidates, and climbing the learning curve for this kind of
teaching, individually and collectively. Moreover, mathematics departments
can successfully take on these responsibilities only with support. They will
need internal resources so that they can devote enough faculty to this. They
478
479
should not be surprising, therefore, that very few of them would think of
mathematics as a coherent, logical flow of ideas. Instead, they have been
conditioned to believe that mathematics is a haphazard collection of facts
to be passively tolerated and at times memorized, with the help of manipulatives if necessary. It has never occurred to them that every standard topic
in the curriculum is there for a reason, that every statement has a logical
explanation, and that there is a well-defined structure in the unfolding of
the ideas. Unless we can change their attitude towards mathematics during
the pre-service courses, they will impose the same negative outlook on their
own students. Instructors of pre-service courses therefore have the unenviable task of changing, in the span of two or three semesters, the habits
of mind of pre-service teachers formed over a period of more than thirteen
years. They must convince these pre-service teachers to always ask why, not
only why a statement deserves to be learned, but also why it is true. The
instructors chance of success is not high, but the only hope they have is to
constantly remind teachers of the need to do so and, of course, to always
supply the reasoning.
One way to justify the teaching of any topic is to apply it to concrete
problems within or outside mathematics. When teachers see how a new
concept or a new technique leads to solutions of problems which were inaccessible up to that point, they understand the importance of the new idea.
For this reason, a central ingredient of pre-service professional development
has to be the constant posing (and solving) of problems.
Teaching prospective teachers how to explain (i.e., prove) why something
is true is far more difficult, and one must approach this task with plenty of
patience and perseverance. Any persistent attempt to do so tends to provoke
resistance, but that should not be cause for us to try less hard. Nevertheless,
we should remind ourselves that we are often less than successful in teaching
regular mathematics majors how to prove theorems, so the difficulty with
prospective teachers is no more than par for the course.
The first major hurdle in teaching proofs to teachers, at least in my
experience, is to convince them that definitions in mathematics must be
taken seriously. To mathematicians, precise definitions are the bedrock on
which proofs rest, but since school mathematics rarely gives any proofs,
prospective teachers have no reason to believe that definitions matter. For
example, one can emphasize all one wants about the importance of the
definition of the remainder in the division-with-reminder (division algorithm
in mathematical language), but after having used the remainder all through
K12 with nothing more than an intuitive idea of what is left over, rare
is the teacher who can remember to use the defining property of r as the
number satisfying 0 r < b (b being the divisor) to explain the long division
algorithm.
480
The lack of appreciation for precise definitions goes deep in the culture
of school mathematics. The absence of precise definitions of important concepts such as fractions, decimals, and ratios has accounted for severe difficulties with the teaching of these concepts. For example, many fifth graders
consider a fraction to be a piece of pie that you eat ([Niemi]). Many
textbooks define a decimal as a number with a decimal point, but what a
decimal point is of course goes unexplained. And a ratio is a quotient of
two numbers, with both quotient and number left undefined. Certainly
getting teachers to develop a healthy respect for definitions should be the
first step in turning school mathematics education around. Even when one
makes the effort to teach prospective teachers how to explain things, there
is an additional difficulty that awaits the instructor: because logical arguments are not easily digested by non-mathematicians, the instructor must
proceed very slowly in teaching logical arguments to prospective teachers.
It was mentioned earlier that the teaching experience of the average mathematician is such that, if he or she gets to teach a proof, it would be for
an audience who is relatively speaking mathematically sophisticated. On
the other hand, prospective elementary teachers tend not to be among the
mathematically sophisticated1. So how does one go about explaining a delicate, or even a not-so-delicate piece of reasoning to this audience? Take
nothing for granted, and use plenty of concrete examples. Compare Theme
#2 in Burmesters Perspective in [Burmester-Wu].
Let me illustrate this point by recounting two of my own learning experiences. Once I tried to explain that the basic rigid motions of the plane
(reflections, rotations and translations) preserve distance. So I began by
defining the distance between two points as the length of the line segment
joining them. I then made a passing remark that the so-called triangle inequality about the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle exceeding
the length of the third is translated into this terminology as
dist(A, B) dist(A, C) + dist(C, B)
for any three points A, B, and C. Trusting that this fact was too obvious
to merit any comment, I went on to explain the significance of the distancepreserving property and gave no more thoughts to this inequality. It was
only later that I found out from my staff that the teachers didnt understand
at all what I said about this inequality until they were given three Cuisinaire
rods, one longer than the other two combined, and verified to their own satisfaction that, indeed, they could not form a triangle using such a collection
of rods. Another time I tried to explain why, under a dilation of ratio r, the
area of a region changes by r2 . I had earlier given the intuitive definition
1And for a good reason too. Mathematics is only a small part of their professional life, as
they must also teach reading, science, and social studies, not to mention their need to be daytime
parents to many of their charges as well. One should also add, perhaps unnecessarily, that this
generic statement about elementary teachers mathematical sophistication has many delightful
exceptions.
481
that the area of a region is the limit of the areas of an exhausting sequence
of polygons. So starting with a region R, I took an approximating polygon
P n . If the dilation is D, then it seemed to me straightforward that D(P n ) is
another polygon that is near D(R) in some intuitive sense. I thought what
needed explaining was why, in spite of the ratio of dilation r, D(P n ) would
still get as close to D(R) as we like, provided P n does exhaust R as n gets
larger and larger. Then it dawned on me that the teachers were not getting
it at all. I stopped the lecture and asked them to do a simple activity: draw
a small circle with an arbitrary inscribed 10-gon; then fix a dilation of ratio
3 and map the circle and the 10-gon separately to see what each becomes.
They could see that the dilated polygon did seem to be quite close to the
dilated circle. Then I asked them to imagine the 10-gon changing to a 20gon or 100-gon, or even a 1000-gon. After that, they seemed to get a much
better feel of the situation and the lecture could continue.
Teaching teachers makes one aware that certain things that seem obvious to those who do mathematics for a living can be quite mysterious to
outsiders.
Finally, if my own personal experience is a valid guide, a mathematician
cannot teach prospective elementary teachers very effectively without direct access to the advice of accomplished working elementary teachers. (Cf.
[Burmester-Wu].) Successful pre-service professional development in mathematics is high quality mathematics instruction rooted in the reality of the
classroom. If the mathematics taught is out of touch with what takes place
in a school classroom, then it would not benefit prospective teachers no matter how good it is, mathematically. The critical input of classroom teachers
therefore keeps the mathematics honest and relevant, and furnishes insight
on what students usually dont get. My guess is that, in the past, the
failure of pre-service professional development (in mathematics) was more
likely than not the result of a lack of mathematical substance. If, however,
it comes to pass that an increasing number of competent mathematicians
teach pre-service courses and better textbooks for pre-service teachers are
written as we certainly hope will be the case, then gaining access to the
counsel of working teachers will be the limiting factor in achieving good
professional development. References
482
483
484
485
strategies, doing problems together and sharing resources are all ways to
build forums.
2. More than any other aspect of teacher training, content must receive
first priority, even to the point of proposing National Standardized subject
tests for all K-8 teachers. We can no longer assume that a college diploma
signifies mastery of content. Due to the fact that Algebra is now started as
early as the seventh grade, certification must change as well, namely K-6, 78, and 9-12 certification. The most consistent, content related malady, which
I have observed, is that a new teacher sees curriculum in small disjoint pieces
and is unable to see content as a continuum. If we must remedy anything, it
is this. As a result of not having developed a larger integrated perspective,
the new teacher is not autonomous and relies too heavily on textbooks. One
of the consistent responses on Presidential Award winner surveys is that the
winners are teachers who dont use a single textbook, but draw from many
resources. Novice teachers often dont recognize superficial curriculum and
the practice of low-level skills resulting in shallow mathematics, and lack the
confidence or resources to develop alternatives. It is possible to fill a room
with mathematics at any level. Tables, graphs, charts, models, activities,
mathematical terms, numbers, problems of the day or problems of the week;
the love and respect of mathematics should be shamelessly promoted, and
this will only happen when teachers are confident and experienced. This
confidence is built by doing a lot of mathematics at the pre-service level
under the guidance of mathematicians and math educators. Id like to see
the creation of a list of tough questions, like why do we use a reciprocal when
we multiply fractions, whats the difference between 8.33 and 8.33 , why
is the area of a circle r2 , which has more, the irrational numbers or the
rational numbers.
3. The example of using R for remainder is an excellent illustration of my
point. When I asked several elementary teachers in my district whether it
was important to keep the R in long division, most of them had absolutely
no rationale other than its the way the textbook teaches it, or that the
younger children hadnt learned fractions or decimals yet. When I threw the
question out to mathematicians, the response was clear, rich and consistent.
The clarity lay in seeing the whole picture. This is what we must seek to
transmit to pre-service teachers.
Teachers of mathematics at any level, K-8 must be proficient and must
be able to make informed decisions regarding content. Pre-service teachers
must be able to develop the skill of engaging students in mathematics so as
to uncover the beauty of this complex body of knowledge. Solving difficult
math problems brings fulfillment and develops autonomy, like few other
subjects can. Pre-service teachers must be convinced that hard work is
key to success in mathematics and that it is a good thing, not something
which is unpopular and to be avoided. Repetition and spiraling are not bad
strategies in math education. Since we cant throw out the entire paradigm
of the classroom at this time, teachers must realize that the day to day,
486
lifetime struggle to educate oneself is inconsistent with the quick and easy,
self gratifying lifestyle of many children. It must be made clear from the
start that education is not a form of entertainment for a passive audience
on cushy couches. Mathematics is hard work, the higher you go the harder
it gets. Theres no shame in this and there are personal rewards for those
who persevere.
I think an excellent exercise would be to have pre-service teachers examine standardized assessments as well as textbooks. In this way, they would
have to sculpt their own informed opinions about what is most important
and how the sequence of topics should be developed into a continuum clearly
defining where theyve come from and where theyre going. They must develop the confidence to be critical of textbooks and math programs in order
to bring good solid, engaging mathematics to their students. They must be
alerted to that fine line between developing sufficient skills in computation
and developing skills in problem solving. Pre-service teachers must be involved in solving word problems and develop strategies which can be used
to break down these problems. They must develop a repertoire of problem
solving skills. Pre-service teachers must learn by example to meet difficult
material head on and not use the strategy of avoiding anything that looks
hard.
4. Assessment has become an increasingly important aspect of teaching, because of a growing dependence on computer technology and state
and federal requirements. Pre-service teachers need to receive training with
regard to using spreadsheets, statistical reports, validity, reliability, rubrics,
scoring, and data management issues. In the past, standardized test results
were perceived as for the parents. Now educators must be able to read statistical information in order to inform instruction and develop remediation
and intervention programs. Its expensive to administer tests such as NAEP,
STAR, TIMMS and various State Tests. Ironically, everyone assumes that
educators are using the results when oftentimes the results are piled high
on an administrators desk somewhere or on transcripts which no one has
time to access. Parents are now beginning to rely on classroom teachers to
interpret standardized test results.
I believe that as undergraduates, there is a limit to what pre-service
teachers can absorb. I think it would be a wise strategy for NSF to see a
K-8 teacher as a long-term investment. The state of affairs right now is that
school districts are paying large amounts of money to publishing companies
to do their professional development. Teachers come back from these summer workshops, excited and empowered. Too often it isnt the mathematics
that has been the energizer. Id like to see this professional development
(both dollars and expertise) stay within the educational community. Id like
to see NSF set up regional professional development summer institutes, run
by University Professors and not publishing companies using veteran public
school teachers as their messengers.
487
Let me create a hypothetical situation. A young teacher receives training from Key Curriculum on the use of Geometer Sketchpad. The teacher
buys a book of labs. Too often, the teacher will look into the resource at the
last minute, pick out something related to what he/she is doing and watch
happily as the students occupy themselves. There is no large picture, no closure, just a resource which seems to occupy students on a regular basis with
no great effort on the part of the teacher. An added bonus is that the teacher
will create an illusion that the students are engaged and, even better, using
technology. Superintendents and principals validate expenditures, parents
and taxpayers feel like their children are being prepared for the work place.
Yet in reality, unless the teacher really understands the whole picture and
is working toward a more global perspective, there is never any closure or
connection. Its back to an endless cycle of unrelated fragments of information. If the professional development came from a University Mathematics
Professor, the goal would not be to sell merchandise or to pacify students, it
would be to craft lessons in an attempt to cover a large body of information
in a rich and coherent fashion.
Moving onto another issue in teacher training, Id like to see pre-service
teachers evaluated in order to identify strengths and weaknesses in content
and in teaching style. Continuous self-evaluation is essential in order to improve and grow as a professional. Videotaping is an excellent method, which
unfortunately is not used often enough. How well a prospective teacher uses
the language of mathematics is extremely important. The higher you go on
the mathematical instructor chain, the more noticeable it becomes. Clear
precise language is often a sign of a teacher who has command of the subject. The logical and sequential development of topics is another skill, which
should be developed in teachers who dont come by it naturally.
5. A very sensitive issue, which should be uncovered at the pre-service
level, is the masking of confusion and lack of understanding. There is no
shame in not being able to solve a problem spontaneously. The shame is
in not pursuing the problem and triumphing over it. Oftentimes, students
who claim to understand something are too embarrassed to admit that they
dont. Quite often, this lack of understanding is because the student has
not been given enough processing time. For whatever reason, this is a very
sensitive and destructive aspect of teaching mathematics to young children.
All children can learn mathematics and they must be continually reminded
of this, so as to empower them. A teacher must learn to create a supportive
and trusting environment so that students feel comfortable asking questions
and take ownership for their learning. There should be no complacency in
saying Im not good at math.
6. Pre-service teachers should be made aware of the current situation
in mathematics curriculum. Discussions of the math wars and fuzzy math
should be facilitated so that novice teachers are ready to take on the parents,
colleagues and State Departments of Education. This is not a small matter
at present. There should be understanding in reference to Traditional vs.
488
489
490
=
=
=
=
(20 1) 30
20 30 1 30
600 30
570.
They also learn to draw a rectangle and use it to explain why the solution
method makes sense. We emphasize relating explanations given in words
to explanations that use equations and explanations that use pictures. By
writing equations that go along with verbal descriptions, teachers learn that
the manipulations in mental math are the very algebraic manipulations their
students will study in middle and high school.
I have used some of the problems and activities that I have developed for
prospective teachers with in-service teachers. The teachers have especially
appreciated learning about solving problems with the aid of pictures and
relating picture solutions to solutions with equations. A number of teachers
also commented favorably on learning about different solution methods to
problems. To date, all my in-service work has been with groups of teachers
from all grades K-5. With such groups of teachers, I have emphasized thinking about the progression of topics throughout the elementary grades and
just beyond. The teachers have said they found these discussions worthwhile. But I believe that many teachers of grades 4 and 5 would benefit
from more detailed discussions about the mathematics they teach and the
mathematics their students will learn in middle school than it is possible to
provide when working with a group of teachers who teach all grades from
K-5. I am therefore especially interested in in-service work with teachers in
grades 4 and 5, who teach mathematics content which can be quite subtle,
and who must help to prepare their students for algebra in middle school.
6. Teaching Math for elementary Ed majors
Paul Wenston
After 26 years in the UGA mathematics department with teaching focused on Calculus, Numerical Analysis (my research area), and Mathematical Modeling, I taught my first math course for Elementary School teachers
the summer of 2000. The course was Math 7001-Arithmetic and Problem
Solving and the class was a small cohort (7) of in-service elementary school
teachers. These students were different and an interesting change from the
491
undergraduates that I had been teaching for the last 26 years. There were
two kindergarten teachers, two 2nd grade teachers, two 3rd and 4th grade
teachers, and one middle school teacher who was planing to switch to elementary school. The average age of this cohort was around 40 with the
oldest my age at the time, 52. The class was part of a new masters degree
program for elementary school teachers and met off campus in a middle
school located in a suburban Atlanta county. The main reason I wound up
teaching this course was that I was the sole mathematics faculty living in
this county. I really had no idea what to expect of these students. These
students were energetic in this and the follow-up course, Math 7002- Geometry and Problem Solving, especially given that the first course was one
of two that they took during a 4-week summer session and the second met
once a week after their school day during the fall semester. These students
were not docile. If they did not understand, or if they felt that I was going
too fast, they let me know immediately. While all of them had experience
teaching mathematics to elementary students, and were very acquainted
with manipulatives, they were somewhat of a mathematical blank slate and
were receptive to new extensions and interpretations of the mathematics
they had been teaching.
Since teaching the two courses for in-service elementary teachers I have
taught 7 courses (5001, 5002, 5003) to undergraduate Elementary Ed majors, 1 course (5001) to undergraduate Special Ed majors, and 3 courses
(7020,7035) to a group of in-service middle school math teachers. About
the third time I taught one of these courses, I first joked that I really dont
like children. While I always enjoy the rise that I get out of my classes
when I deliver this joke, there is a more serious point. As a mathematician my role is not to teach how to teach children. While there are many
times in class, and in the text, where we analyze typical mistakes made
by elementary school students, my role is to increase the mathematics content knowledge and perspective of my students. Hopefully, this increased
mathematical background will positively inform the mathematics teaching
judgments that my students make in the future.
I like to think of these courses as delivering a sophisticated approach to
elementary mathematics, as opposed to an elementary approach to sophisticated mathematics. Instead of a superficial look at the field axioms that one
would see in a modern algebra course, the course is devoted to developing
written, pictorial, and physical models of elementary school mathematics
topics. For example a + b is defined-modeled as the number of objects one
gets when a group of aobjects is combined with a group of b objects. Similar
models for the other arithmetic operations are presented. The decimal system is modeled with toothpicks. Individual toothpicks for the ones place,
bags of 10 for the tens place, bundles of 10 bags for the hundreds place.
The fraction a/b is modeled as what one gets when the whole is divided
492
into b equal parts and a of these parts are gathered together. Instead of directly using arithmetic operations, diagrams and logical reasoning are used
to solve problems such as:
One serving of cereal is 2/3 of a cup. What fraction of a serving is 1/2
of a cup?
A diagram such as
............................................................
.
.
..............................................................
..
....
..................................................................................
.
.. ..
................................................................................... ...
.... ............................................................... ....
... ....
. ..
... .............................................................. ....
... ...
... ...
.
.
.
.....................................................................................................
1
2 -cup
1 serving
might be used in a students explanation of their solution. In fact a couple of in-service middle school Mathematics teachers once suggested to me
that middle school students might be better served if arithmetic operations
with fractions were not taught at all until after many story problems with
fractions were solved with diagrams and reasoning.
The undergraduate students are on the whole more docile than the inservice teachers, although this may be due to the age difference. While
there are some fairly consistent Mathematical misconceptions among the
undergraduates, in general they are as energetic and open to new interpretations and explanations as the in-service teachers. The Ed School
courses for Elementary Ed majors emphasize a constructivist as opposed
to behaviorist approach to education and this is sometimes reflected in
student willingness to consider new explanations (constructions) for previously learned mathematical procedures. The class attendance and on time
homework rate in 5001-5003 is much higher than in the calculus classes at
U.G.A. and approaches 100% in the 5002-5003. These last two classes are
taken in cohort groups of students who have already been admitted into the
highly competitive (3.5 GPA) elementary Ed undergraduate major. The
undergraduates are less of a blank slate when compared with the in-service
teachers. All of them have taken other math courses (Calculus is not too
unusual) at UGA and nearly all are recent high school graduates.
For nearly all students, division is the most difficult topic in these
courses. In these courses division is not just multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Instead the quotient a b is defined as either the number
of groups of b objects in a group of a objects or as the number of objects in
each group when a group of a objects is divided into b equal groups. While
these are the most difficult definitions-models in the course, most students
can understand these definitions and can apply them to story problems when
both a and b are positive integers. Usually students are able to use these
definitions to explain why 0 b is defined (assuming non-zero b), but a 0
is not. The real difficulties arise when either a or b is a fraction. This
may be due to difficulties conceptualizing groups consisting of a fractional
number of objects, and this may be why students have more success solving
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and creating story problems focusing on food than with other kinds of story
problems (3/4 of a pizza is easily conceptualized). (Of course, given the ongoing childhood obesity epidemic, it may be a good idea to limit the number
of food centered story problems in the elementary school classroom.) Even
then, students have a very difficult time with how many in each group story
problems such as:
If you can make 2/3 of a loaf of bread with 5/4 cups of flour, how much
flour do you need in order to make a whole loaf of bread?
Many students would solve this problem by setting by setting up a ratio
such as
( 54 )
x
2 = 1
(3)
and then mechanically using algebra to solve for x. Recently I have observed
several students using the following approach to this type of problem:
(5/4) cups of flour corresponds to (2/3) of a whole loaf of bread. Since
there are (3/2) groups of (2/3) of a loaf of bread in 1 loaf of bread, (3/2)
groups of (5/4) cups of flour ((15/8) cups) are needed to make a whole loaf
of bread.
This approach of course has the advantage that the difficult (5/4) makes
(2/3) of a group, how much is in the whole group approach is avoided.
Instead, the student answers the easier how many groups of (2/3) are in
1 question, and then computes that many groups of (5/4). Of course the
students were implicitly using the fact that the ratio of flour to loaves of
bread is constant.
In fact, as alluded to in the above paragraph, many students want to use
ratios as a solution tool for just about every type of fractional or percentage
problem:
If 15% of the population is 36,000 what is the total population?
Student solution: Solve the ratio
15
100
36,000
x
494
One of the best students in the class completed this problem fairly
quickly and volunteered to put this problem on the board. Her presentation was really excellent. She first observed that 1 worker digs 2/3 of a
ditch in 1 day. Next, she said that 4 workers dig 8/3 of a ditch in 1 day, and
hence 4 workers dig 8 ditches in 3 days. (i) was solved. Next she observed
that it takes 5/(8/3)=15/8 days for 4 workers to dig 5 ditches. Another
student in the class asked why she divided 5 by 8/3 and roughly speaking
she said that was because the 4 workers can dig 8/3 of a ditch in 1 day and
there are 5 ditches to be dug. At this point I observed that she was asking how many 8/3s are in 5 and that hence she was using the How many
groups interpretation of division. She immediately stated that what I had
just said made the problem more difficult and that it made the problem
more confusing to think that way. I was somewhat surprised. Here was a
student who was doing a very nice job on a difficult problem resisting the
explanations that had been developed in the class and in the text. In general, the How many groups and the How many in each group division
models are the most difficult concepts in the course for the students and
there is some resistance to the use of these models.
Recently I noticed another disconnection from classroom and textbook
explanations in my 5001 class. We were covering the standard addition and
subtraction algorithms. As an example we considered 122 - 38. I carefully
observed that the first step was to borrow 10 groups of 1 from the 2 in
the tens place in 122. After computing 12-8=4, I next observed that we
needed to borrow 10 groups of 10 from the 1 in the hundreds place. We
then compute 11-3=8, so that our final answer is 84. I then asked two of the
students to reenact with bundles of toothpicks what I had just done on the
blackboard. I gave one student one bundle of 100 toothpicks, actually 10
bags of 10 toothpicks bundled together with a rubber band, two bags of 10
toothpicks, and two individual toothpicks. I then told this student to give
the student next to her 38 toothpicks in a way that reflects the standard
subtraction algorithm. Her first step was to break open the bundle of 10
bags of 10 and to give the student next to her 3 bags of 10. Next, she
opened a bag of 10 and counted out 8 toothpicks to give to her neighbor.
Now what she did was certainly a valid subtraction, but did not reflect the
standard subtraction algorithm. However what she did may more accurately
reflect how people actually do subtract when dealing with tangible items.
For example, if I was paying a restaurant bill of 38$ I would subtract $30
from my wallet first.
As the students admitted to the Elementary Ed major all have high grade
point averages they are all recipients of the Hope Scholarship which is funded
by the GA. lottery. A year ago I told one of my classes that an indication that
school teachers were doing a really fine job of teaching mathematics would be
the collapse of the Georgia lottery, and consequently the demise of the Hope
scholarship. I did not get a positive response. Recently I asked my Math
5003 class if any of them had ever played the lottery. None had, although
7.
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496
During the first day of classes, I had a general chat with the students,
and tried to find out what they hoped to get out of the class. Several of
them very openly told me that they hated geometry, and were only there
because they had to take this class in order to get certified as a teacher.
Many of the students seemed to have some sort of anxiety about the class,
and a general feeling that they didnt know why they needed to know any
geometry anyway.
In spite of these initial attitudes, the class was an enormous success. By
the end of the semester, one of the students who initially professed to hate
geometry told me how much she had loved the class, and how relevant it
seemed to her future teaching. And pretty much all of the students seemed
to be having fun, even if they were a little apprehensive about the final
exam.
Im happy to say that my students in this class gave me the best teacher
evaluation rating Ive ever had. In general, I must say that Im not much
of a fan of the American system of teacher evaluation, because it tends to
measure how happy the students are, rather than how much theyve learned.
I dont regard it as my job to make the students happy, although doing so
can sometimes help them learn better, which I do regard as my job.
I attribute my success with this class largely to a set of notes written by
the faculty member who designed the course. The secret of the style of these
notes is to make every concept seem immediately relevant to everyday life.
The strong use of manipulatives also makes the material easy to translate
directly into course material for the students classes, when they finally get
around to teaching.
Some of the material was unlikely to get taught directly to elementary
students. For example, we proved the Pythagorean theorem two different
ways, and we classified the Platonic solids. But the way these things were
presented involved taking paper and scissors, and turning the ideas into
physical processes. The purpose of this sort of material, it seems to me, it
twofold. One is that elementary school is a preparation for secondary school,
and to teach elementary school it is necessary to know something of how the
concepts will be built upon later. The second is that these were very good
examples of how abstract concepts can be turned into physical processes,
which is essential for teaching at the elementary level.
These were hard working students. The assignments I gave them were
writing intensive. It was not good enough just to get an answer, the point
was to write it up as a verbal explanation of the geometric reasoning involved. This is difficult, because it involves linking the two sides of the
brain. But it is important, because thats precisely what teaching involves.
Its not good enough just to understand something, youve got to be able to
explain it.
The thrust of the course was to understand the very basic properties of
length, angle, triangles, area, volume, symmetry, and so on, but to understand them really well enough to be able to teach them. We analyzed what
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APPENDIX A
500
2
read and write money using decimal units
3
add and subtract money in compound units using decimal notation
4
multiply and divide money in compound units using decimal notation
(2) read and interpret decimals up to 3 decimal places
Include use of the number line to illustrate the concept of decimals
Include identifying the values of the digits in a decimal
Include sums such as the following
(a) 0.125 =
(b) 0.125 =
1
2
10 + 100
125
(c) 21.203 = 21 +
1000
1000
1
1
Exclude 0.125 = 10
+ 50
+ 200
(3) compare and order decimals
(4) add and subtract decimals up to 2 decimal places
Include mental calculations involving addition and subtraction
of 1-digit whole numbers/tenths and tenths
(5) multiply and divide decimals up to 2 decimal places by a 1-digit
whole number
Include division of whole number by whole number with decimal answers
(6)
(7)
Grade
(1)
(2)
501
502
3
4
6. FRACTIONS
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(2) list the first 8 equivalent fractions of a given fraction with denominator not greater than 12
(3) write the equivalent fraction of a fraction given the denominator/
numerator
(4) express a fraction in its simplest form
(5) compare and order related and unlike fractions with denominators
up to 12
Include both increasing and decreasing order
Number of fractions involved should not exceed 3
Grade 4
(1) add and subtract
like fractions
related fractions
Denominators of given fractions should not exceed 12
Exclude sums involving more than 2 different denominators
(2) recognize and name fractions as parts of a set of objects
(3) calculate the product of a proper fraction and a whole number
(4) express an improper fraction as a mixed number, and vice versa
Include expressing an improper fraction/mixed number in its
simplest form
(5) solve up to 2-step word problems involving fractions
Include using unitary method to find the whole given a fractional part
Exclude question such as Express the number of girls as a
fraction of the number of boys. as it will be dealt with under
the topic Ratio
(6) express a decimal as a fraction, and vice versa
Grade 5
(1) add and subtract
mixed numbers
unlike fractions
Include listing of equivalent fractions to identify fractions with
common denominator
Denominators of given fractions should not exceed 12
(2) calculate the product of 2 fractions
Exclude mixed numbers
(3) associate a fraction with division
Include conversion between fractions and decimals
(4) divide a proper fraction by a whole number
(5) solve word problems involving fractions
(6) change fractions and decimals to percents, and vice versa
Include use of percentage notation %
Include recognizing the equivalence between percentage and
fraction/decimal
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:8
(b) 2 :
= 1: 4
recognize equivalent ratios
reduce a given ratio to its lowest terms
Include reducing a : b : c to its lowest terms
solve up to 2-step word problems involving ratio
express a part of a whole as a percentage
calculate part of a whole given the percentage and the whole
solve up to 2-step word problems involving percentage
Exclude use of the terms profit and loss
Grade 6
(1) calculate
speed
distance
time
Include use of the formula
Include activities for pupils to read, interpret and write speed
in different units: km/h, m/min, m/s and cm/s
Exclude conversion of units such as 10 km/h = ? m/min, and
vice versa
(2) solve word problems involving average, rate and speed
Exclude problems where rest time is involved in finding the
average speed of a journey
(3) express one value as a fraction of another given their ratio, and vice
versa
(4) find how many times one value is as large as another given their
ratio, and vice versa
(5) recognize that two quantities are in direct proportion
(6) solve direct proportion problems using unitary method
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
505
Grade 2:
(1) LINES, CURVES AND SURFACES
(a) identify straight lines and curves.
Include forming figures with straight lines and curves and
describing how they form the figures
(b) draw a straight line of given length
(c) identify flat and curved faces of a 3-D object
Grade 4:
(1) 2-D REPRESENTATION OF A 3-D SOLID
(a) visualize cubes and cuboids from drawings
(b) state the number of unit cubes that make up a solid
(c) visualize and identify the new solid formed by increasing/decreasing
the number of cubes of a given solid drawn
Grade 6:
(1) 2-D REPRESENTATION OF A 3-D SOLID
(a) visualize a prism and a pyramid from drawings
Include cylinder
Include the terms prism and pyramid
(2) NETS
(a) identify nets of
a cube
a cuboid
a prism
a pyramid
Exclude net of cylinder
(b) identify the solid which can be formed by a net
9. Length and perimeter
Grade 2:
(1) Addition and subtraction of
length
Grade 3:
(1) Units of measure
length : kilometer, meter, centimeter
(2) Addition and subtraction of length in compound units
Grade 4:
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508
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Identify the following plane figures: triangles: isosceles triangles, equilateral triangles, right-angled triangles, acute-angled
triangles, obtuse-angled triangles and scalene triangles
Include the use of the following geometrical terms: right angles, acute, obtuse and reflex angles, complementary and supplementary angles, base angles, interior and exterior angles,
Angle properties
Angles formed with a common vertex. Calculate unknown angles involving:
Adjacent angles on a straight line
vertically opposite angles
angles at a point
Angles formed with parallel lines, calculate unknown angles involving:
corresponding angles
alternate angles
interior angles between parallel lines
Angle properties of triangles. Calculate unknown angles involving:
angle sum of a triangle
base angles of an isosceles triangle
angles of an equilateral triangle
exterior angle of a triangle
Angle properties of squares, rectangles, parallelograms and rhombuses. Calculate unknown angles using the angle properties of
squares
rectangles
parallelograms
rhombuses
Include angle properties related to their diagonals
Grade 8:
(1) Similar and congruent figures
find unknown sides/angles of similar/congruent figures Exclude
tests for similarity/congruency between two triangles
(2) Angle properties of polygons
calculate
the sum of interior angles of a polygon
the sum of exterior angles of a polygon
Include regular polygons
calculate unknown angles of a polygon. Include finding the
number of sides of a polygon.
(3) Arc length
express arc length as a fraction of circumference
find arc length
solve problems involving arc length
509
510
APPENDIX B
512
to explain it. In and atmosphere that says, Lets figure out why this works,
students can profit from making sense of these algorithms just like any other.
But the responsibility should be theirs, not yours.
Accept a traditional algorithm (once it is understood) as one more strategy to put in the class tool box of methods. But reinforce the idea that like
the other strategies, it may be more useful in some instances than others.
Here is a somewhat more traditional approach from Mathematical
Reasoning for Elementary Teachers by Calvin T. Long, Duane W.
DeTemple, Third Edition, Addison Wesley, (2003), pp. 165-168.
Developing the Addition Algorithm
Find the sum of 135 and 243.
Solution With units, strips, and mats
One hundred thirty-five is represented by 1 mat, 3 strips, and 5 units,
and 243 is represented by 2 mats, 4 strips, and 3 units, as shown. All told this
gives a total of 3 mats, 7 strips, and 8 units. Therefore, since no exchanges
are possible, the sum is 378. Note how this illustrates the column by column
addition algorithm typically used in pencil-and-paper calculation.
Then the same sum is illustrated using place value cards. Finally, the
authors give this:
With place-value diagrams and instructional algorithms. An even
more abstract approach leading finally to the usual algorithm is
provided by the following place-value diagrams and instructional
algorithms.
Next a similar three step approach is followed for addition with exchanges:
first with units, strips, and mats, second with place-value cards, and
finally with place-value diagrams and instructional algorithms.
513
It should be clear from these examples that the approach taken in the
Long-DeTemple work - which is typical - is that these algorithms are only
utilitarian. The belief seems to be that fluency in the use of these algorithms
is an essential part of the mastery of early mathematics. With the advent
of calculators, however, there is no longer a compelling need for exceptional
fluency in computation with large numbers (e.g., multiplication of four-digit
numbers by six-digit numbers). The time previously spent developing this
exceptional fluency should now be spent studying the mathematics underlying these algorithms. It should not be assumed that students will discover
it for themselves.
The actuality is that even the first observation in the paragraph above
is somewhat problematic. While it is surely true that adults seldom need
to actually do long division with divisors having three or more digits, nonthe-less, most students have to learn the algorithm to quite a deep level
in order to take away sufficient understanding of how it works that it will
support the learning of more advanced material such as polynomial long
division and convergence of power series that are essential components of
the toolbox needed for entry into any of the technical professions. Moreover,
given that mathematics and computer science are largely about algorithms
and their construction, suppression of the basic algorithms and, indeed, both
the structure of algorithms and some idea of what it means to show that an
algorithm is correct seems to be tantamount to depriving students of one of
the most important aspects of mathematics.
APPENDIX C
515
516
A
B C
C is not between A and B
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The segment AB
The midpoint M of the line segment AB is the point A + 12 (B A) which
is the unique point in AB so that |M A| = |B M |.
Exercises
(1) Is 3 between 2 and 4?
(2) Is 0.75 between 1 and 0?
(3) Determine the midpoint of the interval [2][5].
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518
translation along the line a distance of |a|. Another example is the map r
defined by r(A) = A that reflects the line about the origin. Related to r
is the map rM defined by
rM (A) = 2M A.
rM is the map that preserves distance and reflects the line about the point
M . In particular, if M is the midpoint of the interval AB then rM (A) = B,
rM (B) = A, so rM exchanges the points A and B and reflects AB to itself.
Thus we can conclude that AB is congruent to the line segment BA, and
any line segment AB is congruent to a line segment A0 B 0 with A0 < B 0 .
Exercises
(1) Determine s4.5 (3), s2 (1 13 ), s 2 (1.5).
3
(2) Determine r3 (2), r3 (4), r4 (4), r0 (3).
(3) Show that rM (M ) = M for all real numbers M .
(4) Show that if w 6= M then rM (w) 6= w.
We have the following basic result.
Theorem 2.
a. A necessary and sufficient condition that two line
segments AA0 and BB 0 on the line be congruent is that the distance
from A to A0 be equal to the distance from B to B 0 .
b. Any two rays on the line are congruent.
Proof:
a. We have already shown that if AA0 and BB 0 are congruent line
segments it follows that |A0 A| = |B 0 B|. We need to show
the converse, namely that if |A0 A| = |B 0 B| then the two
line segments are congruent. We may suppose that A0 > A and
B 0 > B, and we consider the transformation sBA . Note that
sBA (A) = A + (B A) = B, and since A0 A = B 0 B it follows
that
sBA (A0 ) = A0 + (B A) = A0 + (B 0 A0 ) = B 0 .
b. If R is a ray with vertex A and S is a ray with vertex B then sBA
maps A to B and the ray R to one of the two rays with vertex
B. If this image is S then rBA gives the desired congruence. If
it is not S then we use rB to exchange the two rays at B, and the
composition rB sBA gives the congruence between R and S.
These arguments give the result.
There are other sets on the line that are of interest. For example Z is
the integers. If f : Z
Z is a one-to-one onto and distance preserving map,
then f (0) = n for some integer n. Since 1 is at a distance of 1 from 0, it
follows that f (1) is either n + 1 or n 1. If it is n + 1 then it follows that
f (2) is n + 2 or n + 1 1 = n, but since f (0) = n and f is one-to-one, it
must be the case that f (2) = n + 2. Similarly f (3) = n + 3, and so on,
so that f = sn . On the other hand, if f (1) = n 1, then f (2) = n 2,
f (m) = n m, and f is r n2 .
519
A
B
C
D
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A
B
E
The Segment AE
We verify that this axiom holds for geometry on the line. Indeed, we may assume that A B, and C D from our discussion above.
Then we simply set E = B + (D C). Since the distance from B to E is
|D C| it follows that BE is congruent to CD. Uniqueness follows directly
if C = D. If C < D then there are exactly two points B (D C) and
B + (D C) that have distance |D C| from B. But B is not between
B (D C) and A since both these points are less than B.
Exercises.
(1) Suppose that A = 3, B = 5.2, C = 11.3 and D = 12.6. What is
the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is congruent to
CD?
(2) Suppose A, C and D are as in exercise (1), but B = 2.3. Then
what is the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is
congruent to CD?
(3) Suppose C and D are as in exercise (1), but A = 10, B = 12.2.
What is the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is
congruent to CD?
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x+
y=
,
2
2
2
2
2
a +b
a +b
a + b2
and in this new equation the sum of the squares of the coefficients of x and
y is 1. Thus, lines are the graphs of ax + by = c with a2 + b2 > 0. One can
directly generalize the previous theorem and its proof to show
Theorem 3. Two linear equations ax + by = c with a2 + b2 > 0 and
dx + ey = f with d2 + e2 > 0 have the same graph if and only if there is a
real number 6= 0 so that d = a, e = b and f = c.
However, in the remainder of this discussion we will continue to assume
that a2 + b2 = 1 in the equation of a line. The reason for this assumption
is that this condition on the coefficients makes distance on the line easier to
study.
Given a line l in the plane with equation ax+by = c, we say that a point
P = (p1 , p2 ) in the plane lies on the line l if and only if (p1 , p2 ) is in the
graph of ax + by = c, that is to say, P lies on l if and only if ap1 + bp2 = c.
Exercises.
(1) Let l be the line with equation x = 34 .
(a) Show that the points P = (.75, 7) and Q = ( 34 , 0) both lie on l.
(b) Show that the point (3, 1) does not lie on l.
(c) Construct the graph of 4x = 3. Is it the same as the graph of
x = 34 ?
(2) Let l2 be the line with equation y = 25 .
(a) Show that the points (0, .4) and (5, 25 ) both lie on l2 .
(b) Construct the graph of 5y = 2. Is it the same as the graph of
y = 52 ?
(3) Let ax + by = c be the equation of the line l3 . Show that there is
a point of the form (r, 0) or a point of the form (0, s) on l3 . Show
that if both a and b are non-zero there is a point of the form (r, 0)
and a point of the form (0, s) on l3 . These points are called the
x-intercept of l3 and the y-intercept of l3 respectively.
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(4) Find the x and y intercepts of the line with equation 313 x+ 213 y =
7.
(5) Show that if l3 is the graph of ax + by = c with both a and b nonzero, then the x-intercept of l3 is (c/a, 0) and the y-intercept of l3
is (0, c/b).
The line is in one-to-one correspondence with every line in
the plane. Let the line l in the plane be the graph of ax + by = c with
a2 + b2 = 1, and let P = (p1 , p2 ) be a point on l. Then for any real number
t we let Q(t) = (p1 + bt, p2 at) and we have
Lemma 4. The map of the real line to the plane defined by Q(t) =
(p1 +bt, p2 at) described above has the property that the point (p1 +bt, p2 at)
lies on the graph of ax + by = c for every real number t.
Proof: For any real number t we have
a(p1 + bt) + b(p2 at) = ap1 + bp2 + abt bat
= ap1 + bp2
= c
and Q(t) the line l as asserted.
Lemma 5. The map of the real numbers to the graph of ax + by = c
defined by t 7 Q(t) is one-to-one and onto.
Proof: The map is one-to-one since (p1 + bt1 , p2 at1 ) is the same point
as (p1 + bt2 , p2 at2 ) means that p1 + bt1 = p1 + bt2 and p2 at1 = p2 at2 .
We can subtract p1 from both sides of the first equation and p2 from both
sides of the second. This gives the conditions bt1 = bt2 and at1 = at2 .
If b is non-zero we can divide the first equation by b obtaining t1 = t2 , and
if b = 0 then a 6= 0 so we can divide the second equation by a obtaining
again that t1 = t2 . This shows that the images Q(t1 ) and Q(t2 ) are different
for t1 6= t2 .
It remains to show that given any point Q on l there is a t so that
Q(t) = Q. Suppose Q = (q1 , q2 ). Then ap1 + bp2 = aq1 + bq2 = c and
(ap1 + bp2 ) (aq1 + bq2 ) = 0 so a(p1 q1 ) + b(p2 q2 ) = 0. If b is non-zero,
this shows ab (q1 p1 ) = (q2 p2 ), so if we set t = 1b (q1 p1 ) then Q(t) = Q.
If a 6= 0, then we can set t = a1 (q2 p2 ) and again Q(t) = Q.
Exercises.
(1) For the line with equation x = 3 and the point (3, 1) = P on this
line, Q(t) = (3 + 0 t, 1 3t). Find Q(0), Q(1), Q(2).
(2) For the line l4 with equation 15 x 25 y = 3 and the point P equal
to the x-intercept of l4 , determine Q(2), and Q(3).
(3) The line l4 also is the graph of the equation 25 + 25 y = 3.
For this equation and P again the x-intercept of l4 , determine the
new value of Q(2) and Q(3). How do they relate to the values
determined in the previous problem?
523
(2) Show that the segment between (0, 5) and ( 5, 5) on the line with
equation y = 5 is congruent to the segment in (1).
(3) Find the two segments that have length 5 with one endpoint equal
to (1, 1) on the line 12 x 12 y = 0.
Now that we have distance we can also define what we mean by a circle.
524
The definition of a circle in the plane. We can now define the circle
with center O = (a, b) and passing through the point A = (c, d) with A 6= O
to be the graph of the equation
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = (c a)2 + (d b)2 .
From the definition we see that this circle is exactly the set of all the points
in the coordinate plane that are at a distance from the point O that is equal
to the length of the segment OA.
The radius of the circle above is the length of the segment OA which is
the distance from the center O to any point on the circle. (The term radius
is also used to refer to any line segment with one endpoint on the circle and
the other end the center of the circle.) If we denote the radius by the symbol
r, then
(c a)2 + (d b)2 = r2
and we can rewrite the equation of the circle as
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2
or expanding out using the formula (A B)2 = A2 2AB + B 2 ,
x2 + y 2 2(ax + by) + a2 + b2 = r2 .
A key question is how many points do two circles have in common. If two different circles have the same center, then they must have
different radii, and it follows that the circles have no points in common. So
if two circles are to have any points in common they must either be the same
circle or they must have different centers.
Let us look at some examples.
(1) The first circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), x2 + y 2 = 1, and
the second circle has radius 1 and center (0, 2), so has equation
x2 + y 2 4y + 4 = 1 or x2 + y 2 4y = 3. In this case, if (x, y) is on
both circles then x and y must satisfy both equations, so x2 +y 2 = 1
can be plugged into the second equation obtaining 1 4y = 3 or
4y = 4 and y = 1. Since y = 1 and x2 + y 2 = 1 it follows that
x = 0 so there is one and only one point of intersection, (0, 1).
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(2) The first circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), and the second circle
has radius 1 and center (1, 0) so has equation x2 2x + 1 + y 2 = 1 or
x2 + y 2 2x = 0. In this case x2 + y 2 = 1 so 1 2x = 0 and x = 12 .
If x =
1
2
and x2 + y 2 = 1 then y 2 =
3
4
and y =
3
2 .
Consequently,
( 12 , 2 3 ).
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.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
. .
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(3) The first circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), and the second has
radius one and center (1, 2), so has equation x2 2x+1+y 2 4y+4 =
1 or x2 + y 2 2(x + 2y) = 4. In this case when we replace x2 + y 2
by 1 we obtain 2(x + 2y) = 5 or x = 25 2y. When we substitute
this for x in the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 we have
4y 2 10y +
25
+ y2 = 1
4
or 5y 2 10y + 21
4 = 0. This quadratic equation does not have any
real solutions since b2 4ac = 100 105 = 5 is negative, and the
two circles have no points of intersection.
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.
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1
1
(c 2(b0 b)y) or y =
(c 2(a0 a)x).
2(a0 a)
2(b0 b)
526
Plugging this value for x or y into one of the two original equations gives a
quadratic equation of the form mx2 + nx + q = 0 or my 2 + ny + q = 0, and
since a quadratic equation has either 2, 1, or no roots, the result follows.
Exercises.
(1) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles x2 +
y 2 = 4 and (x 1)2 + y 2 = 1.
(2) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles x2 +
y 2 = 9 and (x 1)2 + y 2 = 2.
(3) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles (x
2)2 + y 2 = 1 and x2 + y 2 = 4.
4. Further Properties of Lines in the Plane
The next question that needs to be studied is this: suppose we have
two distinct lines, how many points do they have in common? To
answer this question we consider two distinct lines ax+by = c and dx+ey =
f with a2 + b2 = d2 + e2 = 1. We need to find all (x, y) that simultaneously
satisfy both equations. Suppose a 6= 0. Then we have x = a1 (c by) from
the first equation, and replacing x in the second equation by this expression
for x we have
b
c
1
d( (c by) + ey = f, or (e d )y = f d .
a
a
a
It is an important exercise to check that the only time e d ab = 0 is when
a = d and b = e or a = d and b = e, and we verify this now.
Lemma 7. Suppose that we are given two lines in the plane, ax + by = c
and dx + ey = f with a2 + b2 = 1 and d2 + e2 = 1. If a 6= 0 then e d ab = 0
if and only if a = d and b = e or a = d and b = e. Similarly, if b 6= 0
and d ab e = 0 then the same conclusion holds.
Proof: With a 6= 0 we have b = ab a and, by the assumption that e ab d = 0
we have that e = ab d. Writing ab = then b = a, e = d and a2 + b2 =
a2 (1 + 2 ) while d2 + e2 = d2 (1 + 2 ). Since both of these are equal to 1,
we have a2 = d2 , so d = a. Now, using the equation e ab d = 0 we have
that e = b as well, and the result follows in the first situation. The proof
of the second statement is identical.
As a consequence, we have that either we can assume the two equations
for the two lines have the form ax+by = c and ax+by = f with a2 +b2 = 1, or
e ab d 6= 0. In this second case, the coordinate y for any point of intersection
of the two lines is given as
f d ac
af cd
.
y=
=
b
ae bd
e da
Moreover, since ax + by = c it follows that x = a1 (c by) and there is exactly
one point of intersection.
We have shown the following result.
527
Theorem 4. : Any two distinct lines in the plane either have no points
in common in which case the equations of the two lines are
ax + by = c
ax + by = d
with c 6= d or the lines have exactly one point in common, in which case the
point in common is given by
ce bf
x =
ae bd
af bd
y =
.
ae bd
Finally, we give a special name to two lines that do not intersect.
Definition 4. Two lines in the plane that do not have a point in common or are the same line are called parallel.
Exercises.
(1) Find the point that is contained on both the line x + y = 1 and the
line 2x y = 3.
(2) Find the point that is contained on both the line x y = 2 and the
line x + 2y = 1.
(3) Verify that the lines x + y = 2 and 3x + 3y = 7 are not the same
line, but are parallel.
If we know that a given line contains 2 distinct points P and Q, and we
have a second line that contains these same two points, then the two lines
must be the same by the theorem weve just proved. On the other hand,
we do not yet know if there is any line that contains P and Q. We now
show that, in fact, there is at least one, and consequently exactly one line in
the plane that contains both P and Q, so any line in the plane is uniquely
determined by any two distinct points that it contains.
Two distinct points in the plane determine one and only one
line. What we need to show is that given two distinct points in the plane,
there is a line that contains them. Let P = (p1 , p2 ) and Q = (q1 , q2 ) be
two distinct points in the plane. Let = (q2 p2 ) and = p1 q1 . Then
p1 + p2 = p1 (q2 p2 ) + p2 (p1 q1 ) = p1 q2 p2 q1 and q1 + q2 =
q1 (q2 p2 ) + q2 (p1 q1 ) = q2 p1 q1 p2 so they are both equal to the same
constant c = q2 p1 q1 p2 , and since , are not both zero, both P , Q lie on
the line given as the graph of
p
x+ p
y=p
.
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+ 2
Exercises.
(1) Find the point of intersection of the two lines
3
4
5 x 5 y = 2.
3
5x
+ 45 y = 1 and
528
(2) Find an equation for the line that contains the two points (0, 3) and
(0, 6).
(3) Find an equation for the line that contains the two points P = (1, 0)
and Q = (0, 2).
(4) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line 35 x + 45 y = 1 and
the circle x2 + y 2 = 4.
(5) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line 35 x + 45 y = 1 and
the circle x2 + y 2 = 1.
(6) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line 35 x + 45 y = 1 and
the circle x2 + y 2 = 41 .
5. Rays and Angles in the Plane
Let a line in the plane be given as the graph of ax + by = c with
a2 + b2 = 1, and let P = (p1 , p2 ) be a point on this line. Then the map Q(t)
defined by Q(t) = (p1 + tb, p2 ta) of the real numbers onto this line takes 0
to P and naturally divides the line into two parts, the points Q(t) for t 0
and the points Q(t) for t 0. These two parts have exactly the point P in
common, and every point on the line is in one or the other of the two parts.
These two parts are called the two rays on the line with vertex P . Thus,
for each point P on the line there are exactly two rays on the line with P
as vertex, and every point on the line is on one ray or the other.
An angle in the plane is a figure composed of two rays with a common
vertex.
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Definition 5. Two angles in the plane are congruent if and only if there
is a one-to-one and onto map of the first angle to the second that preserves
distance.
We call an angle a straight angle if the two rays are distinct but lie on
a single line.
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.
.
.
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................
From the definition, any two straight angles are congruent since, given any
two lines in the plane, a point P on the first, and a point Q on the second,
then there is a distance preserving one to one and onto map of the first line
to the second that takes P to Q.
When we have an angle we also have the two lines that contain the rays.
If these lines are distinct, then the two lines intersect only in the vertex of
the angle, and since each line contains two rays with the given vertex, there
529
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Example 1. The positive x-axis and the positive y-axis make an angle
that we believe should be a right angle. The square of the distance from (x, 0)
to (0, y) with x and y both non-negative is x2 +y 2 . If we take the angle made
by the positive y-axis and the negative x-axis, then the square of the distance
from (x, 0) to (0, y) with y non-negative and x non-positive is x2 + y 2 , and
if we define a one-to-one and onto map from the first angle to the second
by (x, 0) 7 (x, 0), (0, y) 7 (0, y) this map is distance preserving, hence
these two angles are congruent. Similarly the map of the first angle to the
angle given by the positive x-axis and the negative y-axis defined by (x, 0) 7
(x, 0) and (0, y) 7 (0, y) is distance preserving as is the first angle to the
angle given by the negative x-axis and the negative y-axis, (x, 0) 7 (x, 0),
(0, y) 7 (0, y).
These three maps show that all four of these angles are congruent, and
that the angle defined by the positive x-axis and the positive y-axis is, indeed,
a right angle according to the definition.
Example 2. Suppose that we have a line through the origin defined by
ax + by = 0 with a2 + b2 = 1. We can define a second line through the origin
by the equation bx ay = 0, and the map P (t) = (bt, at) maps the nonnegative real numbers t onto a ray in the first line with vertex the origin,
while the map Q( ) = (a, b ) maps the non-negative real numbers onto a
ray in the second line with vertex the origin. The square of the distance
530
(0, y) 7 Q(y)
defines a congruence between these two angles, and the angle defined by the
two rays P (t), Q( ) with t 0, 0 is a right angle as well.
Corollary 1. The line ax+by = c with a2 +b2 = 1 makes a right angle
with the line bx ay = d at their point of intersection (ac + bd, bc ad).
Proof: We map the right angle defined by the positive x-axis and the
positive y-axis to this angle as follows
(x, 0)
7
(ac + bd + bx, bc ad ax)
(0, y)
7
(ac + bd + ay, bc ad + by)
The square of the distance between these image points is
(bx ay)2 + (by + ax)2 = (a2 + b2 )(x2 + y 2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )
and it follows that these two angles are congruent. As a result the two lines
intersect in a right angle as asserted.
In order to complete our discussion of right angles we need to show that
if we are given a line through the origin, ax + by = 0 with a2 + b2 = 1, and
another line through the origin, cx + dy = 0 with c2 + d2 = 1, that makes a
right angle with the first line then this second line is bx ay = 0.
To see this we look at the square of the distance between a general point
on the positive ray with vertex the origin for the first line and for the second
line. For the point (bt, at) on the first line and the point (d, c ) on the
second line the square of the distance is
(a2 + b2 )t2 + (c2 + d2 ) 2 2(bd + ac)t = t2 + 2 2(bd + ac)t.
On the other hand, if there is a distance preserving one-to-one and onto map
of this angle to the angle made by taking the positive ray for the first line
and the negative ray for the second, we can assume that it is the identity
on the first ray, and takes the point (d, c ) to the point (d, c ) for the
second ray (since it preserves distance on the line). But then we must have
that the square of the distance for any two points on the first angle is equal
to the square of the distance for the corresponding points on the second
angle, which gives
t2 + 2 2(bd + ac)t = t2 + 2 + 2(bd + ac)t,
and the only way this can happen is if bd + ac = 0. Since both a2 + b2 = 1
and c2 + d2 = 1 it is direct to check that the only way bd + ac = 0 can
531
APPENDIX D
533
Circles
(1) Pg. 4 #9. The orbits of satellites are often nearly circular. Assuming that a satellite moves in a circular orbit with the center of the
earth as its center, answer the following questions:
(a) Could 1000 satellites be launched so that their orbits would not
intersect?
(b) Could two satellites be placed in orbits which have the same
radius and do not intersect?
(2) Pg. 4 #10. Construct two circles with a common center O and
radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2 ). Shade the figures consisting of those X
in the plane for which
(a) |OX| r2 ;
(b) |OX| r1 ;
(c) r1 |OX| r2 .
(3) Pg. 5, #17. A figure is called bounded if there exists a disk which
contains this figure. Which of the following are bounded figures: a
point, disk, segment, line, angle, triangle, ray, square? Give other
examples of bounded and unbounded figures.
Measurement
(4) Pg. 6. #21. Find the numerical value of the quantity a = 3cm if
the following are taken as the unit of measure: (a) millimeter; (b)
meter; (c) kilometer.
(5) Pg. 7. #22. How will the numerical value of the quantity change if
its unit of measure is (1) decreased by a factor of 10; (2) increased
by a factor of 100?
(6) Pg. 9. #27. Given that |AB| = 8cm and |BC| = 4cm. (1) is
it possible for the distance |AC| to equal (a) 20cm, (b) 4.5cm, (c)
12cm, (d) 4cm, (e) 3cm, (f) 6cm? (2) Indicate some other possible
values for the distance |AC|.
(7) Pg. 9, #28. The distance AB equals 2cm. (1) What could be
the distance |AX|, where X is an arbitrary point on the circle with
center B and radius 3cm? (2) Is there a point C on this circle such
that points A, B, and C lie on the same straight line?
(8) Pg. 19, #67. (1) Calculate the length of a segment if the coordinates of its endpoints are: (a) 2 and 3; (b) 3 and 10; (c) 4 and
9; (d) 7 and 15; 3.7 and 7.3; (f) 6.8 and 12. (2) Find the
coordinates of the midpoint of segment AB if the coordinates of its
endpoints are know to be: (a) A(2), B(3); (b) A(3), B(10); (c)
A(4), B(3).
(9) Pg. 19, #68. The coordinates of points A and B on a line are 7
and 9 respectively. What coordinates can point C on the line AB
have if it is known that: (1) point C lies between points A and B;
(2) point C does not lie between points A and B.
Placement
(10) Pg. 10, #35. Show that the number of point of intersection of three
lines can be equal to 0, 1, 2, or 3.
(11) Pg. 10, #36. How many points of intersection can there be in four
mutually intersecting lines? Make a drawing for each possible case.
(12) Pg. 10, #37. Prove that four point can define one, for, or six lines:
(13) Pg. 12, #39. Point X lies between points A and B. Is it true that
point X lies between points B and A?
(14) Pg. 12, #40. Is it true that if point X does not lie between points
A and B, then these three points do not lie on the same line?
(15) Pg. 12, #43. Draw the relative locations of the three points P , Q,
and R, if (1) |P Q| + |QR| = |P R|; (2) |P R| + |QR| = |P Q|; (3)
|RP | = |RQ| |P Q|.
(16) Pg. 13, #46. The distance from home to school is 2km, and from
home to the railway station is 5km. (1) Can the distance from
school to the railway station be: (a) 2km; (b) 3km; (c) 6km; (d)
8km? (2) Indicate the greatest and least possible distances from
school to the station (illustrate your answers).
(17) Pg. 13, #47. Figure 14 shows the lengths of hinged rods. (1) fore
each of these hinged mechanisms, indicate the greatest and least
distances that the ends A and B of the rods can be separated.
Draw hinged mechanisms in these extreme positions. (2) Can the
distance |AB| assume all intermediate values between the greatest
(18) Pg. 22, #70. The following illustration shows various figures which
are unions of line segments. Which of them are simple broken lines?
(A simple broken line is the union of segments A1 A2 , A2 A3 , A3 A4 ,
. . . , An1 An which, when adjacent do not lie on the same line, and
when non-adjacent have no points in common.)
(19) Pg. 23, #78. Prove that the length of broken line ABC (sum of the
lengths of the segments in the broken line) is less than the length
of broken line AM C, (fig. 31a)
(20) Pg. 23, #79. Prove that the length of broken line ABC is less than
the length of broken line AM T C (fig. 31b).
(21) Pg. 28, #95. Show by a drawing that the intersection of two
segments can be (1) an empty set; (2) a point; (3) one of the given
segments; (4) a segment distinct from the given segments.
(22) Pg. 41. #141. Mark two points A and B such that |AB| = 5cm.
Construct point X if it is known that: (1) |AX| = 3cm, |BX| =
4cm; (2) |AX| = 2cm, |BX| = 3cm; (3) |AX| = 6cm, |BX| = 1cm.
How many such points can be constructed in each of these cases?
(23) Pg. 42, #143. Draw two circles each of which passes through the
center of the other. (1) How many points do these circles have in
common? (2) What is the distance between their centers?
(24) Pg. 42, #144. Construct points located at a distance a from a
given point A and at a distance b from another given point B. For
what conditions do these points exist?
Notice, in particular, that by the end of this discussion, these students have
been exposed to the definition of an equivalence relation, though not to the
formal consequence that an equivalence relation decomposes a set into a
union of disjoint subsets.
Problems:
(25) Pg. 62, #206. Can a figure consisting of two points be congruent
to a figure consisting of three points?
(26) Pg. 62, #210 Prove that two segments of different lengths are not
congruent.
(27) Prove that two circles of different radii are not congruent.
Angles and Angle Measure: Angles and angle measure are defined and
the basic results such as two angles are congruent if and only if the have
the same angle measure are demonstrated. As is the case throughout the
Russian program close attention is paid to definitions as well.
(28) Pg. 66, #220. Draw an arbitrary segment AB. (1) Using a protractor, construct a triangle ABC if (a) angle A = 45 , angle B = 75 ;
(b) angle A = 30 , angle B = 60 . Measure angle C. (2) How many
different triangles can be constructed using these data?
(29) Pg. 65, #213. Formulate a definition for the bisector of an angle.
(30) Pg. 66, #223. Prove that the angle between the bisectors of two
supplementary angles equals 90 .
(31) Pg. 66, #224. Formulate definitions for obtuse and acute angles.
Rotations:
(32) Pg. 70, #227. What figure is each of the following mapped onto in
a rotation: (1) a line passing through the center of rotation; (2) a
circle whose center coincides with the center of the rotation; (3) an
angle with its vertex at the center of the rotation
(33) Pg. 71, #231. Construct several centers of rotations for which a
given point A will be mapped to another given point B.
(34) Pg. 71, #232. Which figures consisting of congruent semicircles are
mapped onto themselves for some non-identity rotation
Triangles;
(36) Pg. 85, #275. Given the congruent triangles ABC and DEM ,
(1) It is known that |AB|
= |DE|, |AC|
= |DM |. Indicate the
angles of triangle ABC which are congruent to angles D, E,
and M .
(2) It is known that 4DEF
= 4ABC, D
= A, E
= B.
What sides of these triangles are congruent?
(3) Prove that each bisector (median, altitude) of triangle ABC is
congruent to some bisector (median, altitude) of triangle DEF .
(37) Pg. 85, #378. Construct a triangle given two sides b, c, and angle
lying between them if: (1) b = 5cm, c = 4cm, and = 72 ; (2)
b = 3cm, c = 4cm, and = 108 .
(38) Pg. 85, #280.
(40) Pg. 93, #309. Sides AB and CD and also angles A and D of
quadrilateral ABCD are congruent. Prove the congruence of angles
B and C.
(41) Pg. 93, #310. Given two pointe A and B. What is the figure
formed by the set of points X such that (1) |AX 6= |BX|; (2)
|AX| |BX|; (3) |AX| < |BX|?
(42) Pg. 93, #311. Towns A and B are located on the same side of a
railway line (fig. 153). At what point on this line should a platform
C be built so that (1) the distances |AC| and |BC| are equal; (2)
the sum of the distance |AC| and |BC| is the smallest possible; (3)
the difference between |AC| and |BC| is the greatest possible?
(43) Pg. 96, #324. How can you use a hinged mechanism with sections
of equal length (fig. 159) to construct (1) the bisector of a given
angle; (2) the midpoint of a given segment; (3) the center of a given
circle?
(44) Pg. 100, #332. Given a point M within triangle ABC, prove
that the sum of the distances from this point to the vertices of the
triangle is greater than the sum of the distances from this point to
the sides of the triangle.
Circles again:
(45) Pg. 107, #356. A circle is divided by two points into two arcs.
What is the measure of each of these arcs if: (1) the measure of
one of them is 30 greater than the measure of the other; (2) the
measure of these arcs is proportional to the numbers 1 and 3?
(46) Pg. 107, #357. (1) Construct and equilateral triangle whose vertices lie on a given circle. (2) Use a ruler and a protractor to
construct a regular five-pointed star.
(47) Pg. 110, #366. Construct a circle of a given radius r tangent to a
given line a at a given point M on the line.
(48) Pg. 111, #371. Construct a circle tangent to all the sides of a given
triangle.
(49) Pg. 115, #376. Construct a tangent to a given circle passing
through a given point.
APPENDIX E
543
544
The beginning discussion of expressions is quite a bit more precise and careful than is typically the case with U.S. programs. For example, here is the
last paragraph:
38
The expression (48/6)8
has no numerical value since not all of the
indicated operations can be performed (you cannot divide by zero!).
Such expressions are said to be meaningless.
7. Which of the following expressions are meaningless:
7.845
a) 4.182.092
;
1
4
b) 6 2 1 920
;
3
c)
5 13 3 16
?
0.81.2 23
10
b) 243 27 and 243/ 10
27 .
(1) 41. Give some pair (x, y) of values for the variables x and y which
turns the following propositions into true statements:
a) city x is farther north than city y;
b) word x is part of speech y.
47. Let n be a natural number. Give:
a) the number following n in the sequence of natural numbers;
b) the number preceding n (n > 1) in the sequence of natural
numbers;
c) the product of two sequential natural numbers, the lessor of
which is n;
d) the product of three sequential natural numbers, the greatest
of which is n (n > 2).
64. One reservoir contains 380m3 of water and another contains 1,500m3
of water. 80m3 of water enters the first reservoir every hour, and
545
60m3 flows out of the second every hour. In how many hours will
there be an equal amount of water in the reservoirs?
86. a) One side of a triangle is twice as long as the second side, and
3cm shorter than the third side. Find the lengths of the sides
of the triangle, given that the perimeter of the triangle is 33cm.
b) A rectangular sports field is enclosed by a fence 320m long.
Find the area of the field, given that it is 40m longer than it is
wide.
126. One shelf contained twice as many books as a second shelf. After 14
books were removed from the first shelf and 7 books were removed
from the second shelf, there were again twice as many books on the
first shelf as on the second. How many books did each shelf contain
originally?
Paragraph 8 of Chapter II starts out as follows:
If the domain of definition of a function is a finite set, the number
of elements of which is not very great, then the function can be
given by a listing of all pairs of corresponding elements. Tush, the
function f , given by the description each two-digit number less
than 16 has a corresponding remainder from the division of the
number by 4, can be given by listing all pairs of corresponding
elements:
(10, 2), (11, 3), (12, 0), (13, 1), (14, 2), (15, 3).
Arrows can be used to represent pairs of corresponding elements.
(Note the care taken to make sure that the domain and range in
these cases are small finite sets. The implication that such methods
can be used to give a function with infinite domains and ranges is
a persistent error in U.S. texts.)
546
176. The number 0 corresponds to each two-digit prime number, and the
number 1 corresponds to each two-digit non-prime number. What
number corresponds to 12, to 17, to 29, to 99? Does this description
express a function?
177. Function r is given by the description for every natural number
there is a corresponding remainder when the number is divide by
4. What number is the image of 13, 120, 162, 999? What is the
range of values of function r?
Direct proportion is also handled very carefully. After a thorough discussion students are expected to solve problems like these:
227. Divide the number 468 into parts proportional to the numbers 3, 4,
6.
228. Find the angles of a triangle, given that they are proportional to
the numbers:
a) 2, 3, 10;
b) 1, 3, 4.
231. An alloy consists of copper, zinc, and nickel, the masses of which
are proportional to the numbers 13, 4, 3. What is the mass of the
alloy if it is known to contain 2.4kg more copper than nickel?
item[302.] Given the sets A = {3, 1, 0, 7} and B = {2, 3, 5}.
The relation between sets A and B is given by the proposition
a + b > 0, where a A and b B. Give this relation by means
of arrows.
303. The relation between sets A = {3, 8, 11, 15} and B = {5, 7, 10} is
given by the proposition The difference a b is a positive integer,
where a A and b B. Give this relation by means of a list of
pairs.
371. The domain of definition of the function y = f (x) is the set of all
non-zero numbers. If x (, 0), then the function is given by the
12
formula y = 12
x , and if x (0, +), then by the formula y = x .
Graph the function f . How can the function f be given by a single
formula?
547
548
256.
261.
363.
364.
460. Prove that for any natural number n, the value of the fraction
is a natural number.
549
10n +2
3
550
Here is the way the program begins the general discussion of polynomials:
566. A student found that the values of two expressions in a single variable were different for a certain value of the variable. Is this enough
to assert that these expressions are not identically equal on the set
of all numbers?
551
The problems that follow are some of the more interesting problems from
the rest of the book except for the final chapter on systems of equations:
594. Some algebra students were given the problem: Find the value of
the expression
(7a3 ga2 b + 5ab2 ) + (5a3 + 7a2 b + 3ab2 ) (10a3 + a2 b + 8ab2 )
for a = 0.25, b = 0.347. One of the students stated that there
was superfluous data in the problem. Was he correct?
599. Prove:
a) that the sum of any two-digit numbers of the form ab and ba
is a multiple of 11;
552
605.
618.
620.
645.
669.
670.
671.
696.
720.
750.
772.
553
2x y = 1;
6x 5y = 15,
b) 13x + 3y = 86,
3x + y = 18?
554
997.
1002.
1003
1004.
1013.
1017.
1020.
555
cover the distance without being late? (Two people cannot ride the
bicycle at the same time).
Prove that the value of the expression 116 + 146 133 is a multiple
of 10.
If you take a certain two-digit number and split up its digits by
inserting the same two-digit number in between them, then the
four-digit number you get will be 77 times greater than the original
number. Find this number.
Find a three-digit number which is equal to the square of a two-digit
number and the cube of a one-digit number.
When the polynomial 2x3 5x2 + 7x 8 was multiplied by the
polynomial ax2 + bx + 11, the product was a polynomial which did
not contain either and x4 term or an x3 term. Find the coefficients
a and b and find the polynomial which was the product.
Can the difference of two three-digit numbers, the second of which
has the same digits as the first, but in reverse order ,be the square
of a natural number?
Prove that p2 1, where p is a prime number greater than 3 is
divisible by 24.
10 +1
1o11 +1
Which is greater 10
or 10
12 +1 .
1011 +1