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High
Tech
Crime
Brief

The nature of hacking

This paper describes how computer
hacking crimes are defined in Australia.
The term hacker has multiple meanings
and variously describes a person who
explores programmable systems, who
is obsessive about programming, who is
able to program quickly, or is an expert
in a particular program. More generally,
it refers to an expert enthusiast, one who
enjoys creatively overcoming limitations, or
a malicious meddler seeking confidential
information (Reymond 1996). Levy (1984)
described three generations of hackers,
beginning with the programming pioneers
of the 1950s and 1960s, followed by
those who developed the earliest PCs and
then those programmers who developed
computer games. Taylor (2000) added a
fourth generation those who illicitly access
other peoples computers. This is now
the common meaning given to computer
hacking (PJC 2004). However, because of
these overlays of meaning, it is difficult to
match the common understanding of what
constitutes computer hacking with antihacking laws.
Perhaps in view of the ambiguity attached
to the term hacking, it is not used in the
substantive offence provisions (however, the
heading of the Queensland provision does
refer to computer hacking and misuse).
Relevant offences do not rely on or define
the term hacking. In each jurisdiction except
Tasmania anti-hacking laws criminalise
hacker behaviour by reference to the
intention (or recklessness) of the hacker, or
instances where restrictions on data access
are breached by a hacker.
The Cybercrime Act model
In 2001, state and Commonwealth laws
dealing with computer crime were described
as diverse in policy and partial in their

Hacking offences
application (MCCOC 2001). Since then,
greater uniformity has been achieved as
New South Wales, Victoria, the Australian
Capital Territory and South Australia have
implemented laws in terms similar to the
Commonwealth Criminal Code provisions
inserted by the Cybercrime Act 2001
(Cwlth). The Northern Territory law is also
loosely based on this model.
Importantly, access in itself is not prohibited.
and an intention to obtain a benefit or
advantage is not sufficient to constitute
an offence, except for section 276B in
the Northern Territory. In this scheme
there has been a deliberate choice to peg
criminal liability at four levels based on the
defendants intent or the way access to data
is secured on a computer. It should be noted
that the standard of criminal responsibility for
the creators of viruses and worms under the
Cybercrime Act model is set quite high and
that this in itself reflects the tension inherent
in seeking to adequately deal with malicious
applications while allowing for the lawful use
of the internet. The four levels are:
Level 1
Accessing data or impairing an electronic
communication if this is done with the
intention to commit a serious offence (defined
as an offence with a maximum penalty of at
least five years). In the Northern Territory the
intention required is to cause loss or damage
or to gain a benefit or advantage.
Level 2
Impairing or modifying data, or impairing
electronic communications, if done with the
intent to cause (or with recklessness to)
harm or inconvenience.
Level 3
Possession, control, production or supply
of data with the intent to commit any of the

AUSTRALIAN HIGH TECH CRIME CENTRE

2005

05

above computer offences. Recklessness

is not sufficient. This type of offence may
be very difficult to prove in relation to the
unexpected consequences of the release of
a virus, such as occurred with the Melissa
virus (Ling 2000).
Level 4
Accessing data that is subject to an access
control restriction (Commonwealth, ACT,
NSW, Victoria).
Other laws
The remaining three jurisdictions of Western
Australia, Queensland and Tasmania have
quite different laws to regulate hacking
offences.
Western Australia
In Western Australia, section 440A of the
Criminal Code was introduced in 1990
under the heading unlawful operation of a
computer system. The section refers to a
person who without authorisation accesses
information stored in a restricted access
system or who operates such a system in
some other way. A restricted access system
is defined as a computer system or a part
or application of a computer system that is
accessible only through the use of a code
that is withheld by the person in control of
the computer system or made available on a
restricted basis. This provision is particularly
suited to the situation of someone hacking
a computer from outside but leaves
considerable difficulty in determining
when initially authorised access becomes
unauthorised either by exceeding initial
permissions or by the subsequent use of
data or information accessed.
Queensland
The Queensland law introduced in 1997
uses the heading computer hacking and
misuse but the offence is defined as the

use of a restricted computer without the

consent of the computers controller. A
restricted computer is defined as one that
requires a device, code or sequence of
electronic impulses to gain access. There
is a penalty scale of two, five or 10 years
maximum term of imprisonment depending
on whether (1) an offender simply uses a
computer, (2) causes detriment or damage,
or gains or intends to gain a benefit, or (3)
the detriment, damage or gain is valued at
more than $5,000.
Tasmania
The Tasmanian law follows the
recommendations of Gibbs (1988). MCCOC
(2001) noted that Gibbs addressed the
protection of data stored on Commonwealth
computers. The Tasmanian law requires
intention and a lack of lawful excuse,
in relation to damaging (or destroying,
erasing or altering) computer data or
simply accessing a computer or system
of computers without authority. This
formulation gives rise to uncertainty whether
a person has a lawful excuse, which is not
further defined. MCCOC (2001) argued that
this formulation over-criminalises behaviour
because of the breadth of the concepts of
lawful use, access and what constitutes
a computer. It is suggested, for example,
that for one student to borrow the calculator
of another student without permission would
constitute unlawful use.
General issues
Hacking incorporates two quite distinct
concepts of acting without authorisation
and of acting illegally.
Access
An initial problem is that of defining access.
As Kerr (2003) puts it, no one knows what it
means to access a computer.

Unauthorised
Determining whether a hack is authorised or
not is not straightforward and may involve
detailed consideration of whether a computer
owner has any data access policy, whether
and how that policy is communicated to
others, how accessible a computer is, and
how accessible are the files, directories and
other information on that computer. There
may be questions of contractual or moral
rights, or of implied consent, or the limits of a
consent once given. A dominant characteristic
of modern computing is the interconnection
of devices via local area networks (LANs)
and global connectivity via the world wide
web. Sorting out legitimate from illegitimate
use of encryption, trademarks in metatags,
bulk spam, anonymity and disguised identity
has been seen as particularly problematic
(MCCOC 2001). The use of cookies is an
example of how the internet is itself based
on the free exchange of data between
computers and where the vagueness of
standards for internet behaviour can be
exploited. A cookie is a piece of data inserted
by one computer on another so that the first
computer can recognise that other computer
on a subsequent occasion. However, cookies
can also be used to track, monitor and
report on other internet activity conducted
on the second computer. A cookie with this
capacity is sometimes referred to as spyware.
Spyware is relatively common and someone
surfing the net may not realise, in agreeing
to the terms of a download, that they are
agreeing to such a cookie being placed on
their computer (Barrett 2002). In the US and
Australia it has been proposed to require
consent for the insertion of such software
(BBC 2004).
Privacy
In the Northern Territory there is an
offence of unlawfully obtaining confidential

information. Otherwise, Australian anticomputer hacking laws are concerned

with computer security rather than issues
of privacy. Where unauthorised access to
data that are subject to access control is
prohibited, but the relaying of confidential
information gained through authorised
access is not.
Computer
The laws in Queensland, Tasmania and
Western Australia specifically refer to
systems or networks of computers within
the definition of computer. While the other
jurisdictions refer to a computer, under
the Cybercrime Act model, computer is
not defined. The use of digital technology
in everyday machines and appliances is
ubiquitous and the ordinary meaning of
computer must be applied. An individual
computer may or may not be connected
to other computers and an increasing
array of devices are capable of being
connected either physically or using wireless
technology. Interconnected computers can
be hacked internally or externally and the
world wide web itself might be considered
to be a single computer (MCCOC 2001).
Computers that are not connected to other
computers nevertheless can be hacked by
someone directly accessing that computer.
Conclusion
Given the interconnectivity of the internet
and the jurisdictional complications that
flow from different laws in relation to this
type of offending, there is a clear need to
continue the process of harmonising antihacking laws in Australia. The Cybercrime
Act model has now been adopted in the
majority of states and territories and should
be considered for adoption in the remaining
three states.

Contact
Further reading
Australian Institute of Criminology
Barrett R 2002. Free software is the lure, online surveillance is the reality. Consumer web watch news. http://www.
consumerwebwatch.org/news/articles/spyware.htm
GPO Box 2944 Canberra ACT 2601
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BBC 2004. US moves to rein in spyware. BBC news 18 June. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3818057.stm
Phone: 02 6260 9200
Fax: 02 6260
9201
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11000000110001010101010010101101010101010101010101101100000000000000110101101011011111111101101000000000000010010
Gibbs H 1988. The review of Commonwealth criminal law: interim report on computer crime. Canberra: AttorneyWeb: www.aic.gov.au
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Project no. 0074

Generals Department

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Kerr O 2003. Cybercrimes scope: interpreting access and authorisation in computer misuse statutes. New York
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University law review 78(5): 1596
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Levy S 1984. Hackers: heroes of the computer revolution. New York: Bantam Doubleday Bell
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Ling P 2000. Is Australian criminal law up to the threat of computer viruses? Journal of the society for computers and
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the law 41. http://www.nswscl.org.au/journal/41/Crime.html
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Model Criminal Code Officers Committee (MCCOC) 2001. Damage and computer offences. MCCOC report. Canberra:
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Attorney-Generals Department
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Parliamentary Joint Committee on the Australian Crime Commission (PJC) 2004. Cybercrime. Canberra: Parliament of
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the Commonwealth of Australia
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Reymond E 1996. The new hackers dictionary (third edition). Cambridge MA: MIT Press
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00000000011010110101101111111110110100000000000001001011111111110011111111110010011111111111110101011111111111111111
00000000011010110101101111111110110100000000000001001011111111110011111111110010011111111111110101011111111111111111
0001001010010100101001010010010010100101001010010100100101001010010101001001010100101001010010100101001010010100
01111001011010110101101011010101011010110101011010101101011011111101010010110100000101011010110101001010010101000
01111001011010110101101011010101011010110101011010101101011011111101010010110100000101011010110101001010010101000
00000000101010000000000111111111100000000000101001010110101001010100101001010100011010110001101001100110011000000
0001001010010100101001010010010010100101001010010100100101001010010101001001010100101001010010100101001010010100
0001001010010100101001010010010010100101001010010100100101001010010101001001010100101001010010100101001010010100
00000000101111111110101110101101010101010110101010110101010110101010101010110101010101010010010101010000111011010
00000000101010000000000111111111100000000000101001010110101001010100101001010100011010110001101001100110011000000
00000000101010000000000111111111100000000000101001010110101001010100101001010100011010110001101001100110011000000
1010111111111111110010100110101010001010010111111111111110111111111111010100101001001010010100111100001110000001100
00000000101111111110101110101101010101010110101010110101010110101010101010110101010101010010010101010000111011010
00000000101111111110101110101101010101010110101010110101010110101010101010110101010101010010010101010000111011010
01010101010010101101010101010101010101101100000000000000110101101011011111111101101000000000000010010111111111100
1010111111111111110010100110101010001010010111111111111110111111111111010100101001001010010100111100001110000001100
1010111111111111110010100110101010001010010111111111111110111111111111010100101001001010010100111100001110000001100
1111111111001001111111111111010101111111111111111101111001011010110101101011010101011010110101011010101101011011111
01010101010010101101010101010101010101101100000000000000110101101011011111111101101000000000000010010111111111100
01010101010010101101010101010101010101101100000000000000110101101011011111111101101000000000000010010111111111100
1010100101101000001010110101101010010100101010000001001010010100101001010010010010100101001010010100100101001010
1111111111001001111111111111010101111111111111111101111001011010110101101011010101011010110101011010101101011011111
1111111111001001111111111111010101111111111111111101111001011010110101101011010101011010110101011010101101011011111

ISSN 1832-3413

The Australian High Tech Crime Centre

funded this research.

Disclaimer: This research paper does not necessarily reflect the policy position of the
Australian Government, the AIC or the AHTCC