each size o f area.

T h e g e n e r a l i z e d d e p t h - a r e a - d u r a t i o n v a l u e s o f t h e p r o b a b l e m a x i m u m
p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r t h e eastern U n i t e d States, as p r e p a r e d b yt h e N a t i o n a l W e a t h e r Service,
are illustrated i n Table 8.14.
T h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a r e c o r d i n g gage is n e e d e d f o r t h i s study. T h e p r o c e d u r e consists
o f first d e t e r m i n i n g the depth-area r e l a t i o n f o r the total d e p t h o f a s t o r m a n d t h e n breaking
d o w n t h e overall d e p t h relating t o each area a m o n g different d u r a t i o n s . T h e points o f equal
d u r a t i o n o n t h e d e p t h a n d area g r a p h p r o d u c e curves o f t h e d e p t h - a r e a - d u r a t i o n . T h e steps
are e x p l a i n e d below.
1. P r e p a r e t h e a c c u m u l a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r m a s s c u r v e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m a s t o r m f o r each
s t a t i o n i n t h e b a s i n , w h i c h , i n fact, are t h e records f r o m t h e r a i n gages.
2. F r o m the total a m o u n t s o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n f r o m the s t o r m a t v a r i o u s stations, prepare a n
isohyetal m a p . T h e simpler storms present a single isohyetal pattern. T h e complex
s t o r m s t h a t are p r o d u c e d b yt w o o r m o r e closely spaced bursts o f rainfall have closed
isohyetal patterns divided i n t o zones.
3. T h e i s o h y e t s are a s s u m e d t o b e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l areas. D e t e r m i n e t h e average d e p t h o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r t h e areas e n c l o s e d b y successive isohyets. T h i s p r o v i d e s
the total s t o r m d e p t h a n d area relation.
4. Start w i t h t h e smallest isohyet. W i t h i n a n area enclosed b y this isohyet, there w i l l b e a
certain n u m b e r o f gage stations. D e t e r m i n e t h e w e i g h t o f each station b y d r a w i n g the
Thiessen polygons for these stations.
5. F o r e a c h o f t h e a b o v e s t a t i o n s , u s i n g t h e m a s s c u r v e f r o m step 1 d e t e r m i n e t h e i n c r e m e n t a l (difference o f ) precipitation values for various durations. M u l t i p l y these values
b y the respective w e i g h t o f each station.
6. F o r a l l stations w i t h i n t h e area enclosed b y t h e smallest isohyet, s u m u p t h e values o f step
5 f o r different d u r a t i o n s separately, w i t h t h e last d u r a t i o n equal t o the s t o r m p e r i o d .
7. T h e r a t i o o f t h e average d e p t h o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n f r o m step 3 t o t h e v a l u e f r o m step 6 f o r
t h e t o t a l s t o r m p e r i o d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e area w i t h i n t h e smallest isohyet, isthe fact o r b y w h i c h all s t a t i o n values o f different d u r a t i o n s i n step 6 are m u l t i p l i e d t o derive
the adjusted values for this isohyet.
8. Steps 4 t h r o u g h 7 are r e p e a t e d f o r successive i s o h y e t a l areas o f t h e m a p c r e a t e d i n step 2.
T h e values are p l o t t e d o n s e m i l o g p a p e r a n d t h e lines t h r o u g h the s i m i l a r d u r a t i o n s are
d r a w n ass h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.8.

2.10

EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION

P r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t d o e s n o t u l t i m a t e l y b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e as s u r f a c e o r s u b s u r f a c e r u n o f f is
c a l l e d water loss. I t c o n s i s t s o f evaporation, w h i c h i s t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r v a p o r i z e d i n t o t h e
a t m o s p h e r e f r o m f r e e w a t e r s u r f a c e a n d l a n d a r e a s , a n d transpiration, w h i c h i s t h e w a t e r
absorbed b y plants a n d crops a n d eventually discharged into the atmosphere. A s discussed
i n S e c t i o n 2.2, e v a p o r a t i o n a n d t r a n s p i r a t i o n take place i neach stage o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c
cycle. T h e y f o r m a m a j o r s e g m e n t o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c cycle since a b o u t 7 0 % o f t h e precipitat i o n i n the U n i t e d States i s r e t u r n e d back t o the a t m o s p h e r e as e v a p o r a t i o n a n d t r a n s p i r a t i o n . F r o m o p e n w a t e r b o d i e s s u c h as lakes, r e s e r v o i r s , seas, a n d o c e a n s , t h e loss is b y d i r e c t
e v a p o r a t i o n . F r o m a drainage basin the loss is d u e t o ( I ) e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m the soil, (2)
e v a p o r a t i o n o f the intercepted water, ( 3 ) e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m the depression storage, a n d (4)
t r a n s p i r a t i o n o f w a t e r b y plants a n d trees. T h i s c o m b i n e d t o t a l loss f r o m t h e drainage

S e c t i o n 2.10

Evaporation a n d Transpiration

61

Figure 2.8

Depth-area-duration c u r v e .

b a s i n i s a l s o c a l l e d evapotranspiration.
T h e methodologies f o restimation are grouped
according t othe type o f surface f r o m w h i c h evaporation/transpiration occurs.

2.11

EVAPORATION FROM FREE-WATER

BODIES

E v a p o r a t i o n is a t w o - p h a s e process. T h e first phase occurs w h e n w a t e r molecules acquire

sufficient energy t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r surface a n d escape i n t o the a t m o s p h e r e . T h i s
energy isp r o v i d e d p r i n c i p a l l yb y solar r a d i a t i o n . T h e second phase consists o f transporting the v a p o r molecules f r o m the vicinity o f the water surface into the atmosphere. T h i s is
controlled b ythe difference between the v a p o r pressure o f the b o d y o f water a n d that o f
the air for molecular diffusion, a n d b ythe w i n d speed for evaporation due t o convection.
T h e r e a r ea t least eight factors o n w h i c h t h e rate o f e v a p o r a t i o n depends: ( 1 ) solar radiation, (2) air temperature, (3) atmospheric pressure, (4) relative h u m i d i t y , (5) water t e m perature, ( 6 ) w i n d speed, ( 7 ) q u a l i t y o f water, a n d ( 8 ) g e o m e t r y o f t h e e v a p o r a t i n g surface.
T h e m e t h o d s o f e s t i m a t i n g e v a p o r a t i o n i n c l u d e ( 1 ) c o m p a r a t i v e m e t h o d s , s u c h as p a n
e v a p o r a t i o n a n d a t m o m e t e r s ; (2) a e r o d y n a m i c m e t h o d s , such aseddy correlation, gradient,
a n d mass transfer; (3) balance m e t h o d s , such as w a t e r budget a n d energy budget; a n d (4)
c o m b i n a t i o n m e t h o d s such as t h e P e n m a n m e t h o d ( 1 9 4 8 ) . T h e s e a r ediscussed i n detail i n
t h e National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water Data Acquisition ( U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , 1977'*^). F o u r w i d e l y u s e d m e t h o d s , o n e f r o m e a c h c a t e g o r y , a r e d e s c r i b e d n e x t .

* T h e c h a p t e r o n e v a p o r a t i o n w a s p r e p a r e d i n 1982.

62

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

2.11.1 E v a p o r a t i o n U s i n g P a n s
T h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d o fe s t i m a t i n g e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m a free-water b o d y is b y m e a n s
o f a n e v a p o r a t i o n pan. T h e Standard N a t i o n a l W e a t h e r Service Class A p a nis w i d e l y used.
T h i s p a n , b u i l t o f u n p a i n t e d g a l v a n i z e d i r o n , i s 4 ft i n d i a m e t e r b y 1 0 i n . i n d e p t h , a n d i s
m o u n t e d o n a w o o d e n frame 12 i n . above t h eground, t o circulate t h eair beneath t h e pan.
I t i s filled t o a d e p t h o f 8 i n . T h e w a t e r s u r f a c e l e v e l i s m e a s u r e d d a i l y b y a h o o k g a g e i n a
stilling w e l l . T h e e v a p o r a t i o n isc o m p u t e d as t h e difference i n t h e observed levels adjusted
for a n yprecipitation during observation intervals. I t has been observed that evaporation
occurs m o r e rapidly f r o m a p a n t h a n f r o m larger water bodies. A coefficient is accordingly
applied t o p a nobservations t o derive t h eequivalent lake o r reservoir evaporation.
EL = KEp

[L]

(2.16)

where
Ej^ - e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m a w a t e r b o d y
Ep - e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m t h e p a n
K - p a n coefficient
P a n coefficients a r e n o r m a l l y c o m p u t e d o n a n a n n u a l basis, b u t m o n t h l y coefficients
also have b een used. G r a y ( 1 9 7 3 ) a n d L i n s l e y et al. (1982) have s u m m a r i z e d t h e coefficient
values, w h i c h range f r o m 0.6 t o 0.8w i t h a n average o f 0.7.
K o h l e r e tal. (1955) proposed a f o r m u l a t o b eused before applying the p a n coefficient,
t o adjust t h e p a n o b s e r v a t i o n f o r h e a t exchange t h r o u g h t h e p a n a n d t h e effect o f w i n d
( a d v e c t e d e n e r g y ) . T h e National Handbook s u g g e s t s a n o t h e r c o r r e c t i o n f o r s p l a s h o u t a n d
b l o w o u t w h e n e v e r precipitation is greater t h a n 8 m m . K o h l e r a n dP a r m e l e (1967) indicate
that t h e corrected p a n data represent t h e "free w a t e r e v a p o r a t i o n " that w i l l occur i n a v e r y
shallow water body. F o ra natural water body, i tis necessary t o consider significant heat
storage a n d energy advected b y w a t e r c o m i n g i n o r g o i n g out. A ne q u a t i o n for this adjustm e n t hasbeen suggested b y K o h l e r a n dParmele (1967).
A r e f i n e m e n t t o eq. (2.16), w h i c h is suitable f o r e s t i m a t i n g m o n t h l y o r even daily evapo r a t i o n losses, c o n s i d e r s t h es a t u r a t i o n v a p o r pressure o f t h e l a k e ( w a t e r b o d y ) a n d t h e p a n .

Ep=K'^^EZl^E

[L]

(2.17)

where
e^L = s a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e f o r m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e j u s t b e l o w l a k e s u r f a c e
e^p = s a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e f o r m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e i n e v a p o r a t i o n p a n
^2

= m e a n v a p o r pressure o f air a ta height Z above t h elake surface

K'

= a c o e f f i c i e n t , m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e t y p e o f p a n , e q u a l t o 1.5 f o r U . S . class
A p a natZ = 4 m (Webb, 1966)

D a i l y c o m p u t e d v a l u e s o f ^ a r e s u m m e d u p t o g e t t h e m o n t h l y e v a p o r a t i o n . F o r
d i r e c t m o n t h l y c o m p u t a t i o n , m e a n m o n t h l y v a l u e s o f e^L, e^^, a n d e^are u s e d t o c o m p u t e
E^. S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e i s g i v e n i n A p p e n d i x C .

S e c t i o n 2.11

E v a p o r a t i o n firom F r e e - W a t e r B o d i e s

63

T h e pan-to-lake coefficient is a m a j o r cause o ferror i n t h e p a n m e t h o d . Errors i n t h e

range o f 10 t o 1 5 %o f a n n u a l estimates a n d u p t o 5 0 %f o rm o n t h l y estimates have been
reported. T h e m e t h o d thus is preferred for l o n g - d u r a t i o n estimates.
E X A M P L E

2.7

F i n d t h e daily evaporation f r o m a lake for a d a yo n w h i c h t h e following data were observed:

1 . A i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t 4 m ( m e a n ) = 3 0 C
2. L a k e temperature
M a x i m u m = 2 0 C
M i n i m u m = 1 8 C
3. P a n t e m p e r a t u r e
M a x i m u m = 2 8 C
M i n i m u m = 2 5 C
4. Relative h u m i d i t y = 2 5 %
5. W i n d s p e e d a t 4 m = 6 m / s
6. P a n e v a p o r a t i o n = 9 m m
C o m p u t e t h e results b y (a) t h e s i m p l e r e l a t i o n , a n d (b) t h e r e f i n e d f o r m u l a .
SOLUTION

(a)

F r o m eq. (2.16),
E^=KEp

(b)

= 0.7(9.0) = 6.3 m m

Saturation vapor pressure at m a x i m u m temperature for lake ( f r o m A p p e n d i x C ) ,

e^L = 2 . 3 3 7 k P a
S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e a t m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e f o r p a n , e^^ = 3 . 7 8 1 k P a .
Saturation vapor pressure at m e a n airtemperature = 4.243 kPa.
Moisture i nair= 25%.
V a p o r pressure o f t h e air.
^ 2 5 "
67

(4.243) = 1.061 k P a

100
F r o m eq. (2.17),
^2.337-1.060
i=(1.5)

(9.0) = 6.33 m m

3.781-1.061

2.11.2 E v a p o r a t i o n b y t h e A e r o d y n a m i c M e t h o d
T h i s is a v e r y w i d e l y used m e t h o d t o d e t e r m i n e e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m lakes a n d reservoirs. T h e
m e t h o d is based o n a diffusion equation suggested b y J o h n D a l t o n i n 1802, according t o
w h i c h t h e e v a p o r a t i o n is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e difference between saturated vapor pressure
at t h e surface w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h ev a p o r pressure d u e t o t h e m o i s t u r e i nt h e air:
, = M ( e , - e 2 ) u z

64

[LJ-']

A v a i l a b i l i t y o fW a t e r

(2.18)

Chapter 2

where
E^=
M

evaporation by the aerodynamic

method

= m a s s - t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e d i m e n s i o n is t h e i n v e r s e o f pressure
= s a t u r a t i o n v a p o r pressure at w a t e r

temperature

= v a p o r p r e s s u r e o f t h e a i r a t l e v e l Z^e^e\
RH

RH^e^)

s a t u r a t i o n v a p o r pressure at air t e m p e r a t u r e at level Z

= relative h u m i d i t y (fraction)

^ 2 = w i n d v e l o c i t y at level Z
T h e m a s s - t r a n s f e r coefficient, M , is c o m m o n l y d e t e r m i n e d b y c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h refere n c e t o t h e e n e r g y b u d g e t e v a p o r a t i o n m e t h o d . I f a p l o t is m a d e o f t h e p r o d u c t (e^ - 62)112
a g a i n s t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t e s t i m a t e o f e v a p o r a t i o n , t h e s l o p e o f t h e l i n e is M .
T h o r n t h w a i t e and H o l z m a n i n 1939 developed a relation o f the f o r m o f equation
(2.18) f r o m mass and m o m e n t u m transfer o f water vapor that provided an expression to
represent M . Since t h e n research has been directed to m a n y f o r m s o f aerodynamic

equa-

tions a n d mass-transfer coefficients. A n expression for the mass-transfer coefficient, M , i n

t e r m s o f t h e b u l k e v a p o r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t is:

= 0 . 6 2 2 ^ ^ ^

[L^/F]

(2.19)

where
p^^, = d e n s i t y o f w a t e r ( A p p e n d i x C )
- density o f air (Appendix D )
P = a t m o s p h e r i c pressure at level Z
= b u l k evaporation coefficient, dimensionless
Extensive research has been conducted

for estimation o f C^. I f the

pressure-related

t e r m s , e^, 6 2 a n d P are m e a s u r e d i n k P a , t h e v e l o c i t y a n d e v a p o r a t i o n i n m / s , a n d t h e a i r
and water density i n k g / m ^ , t h e n the values o f

r a n g e f r o m 1.15 x 10~^ t o 1.4 x 1 0 " ^ a t

t h e 8 - m - h i g h l e v e l , a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s s t u d i e s . I t is a b o u t 1 0 % h i g h e r at t h e 4 - m h e i g h t .
W h e n t h e w i n d s p e e d is o b s e r v e d at a d i f f e r e n t e l e v a t i o n t h a n t h e l e v e l f o r c o m p u t i n g
evaporation, it can be adjusted

f r o m one level to another by the logarithmic law that

a c c o u n t s f o r r o u g h n e s s o f surface. A s i m p l i f i e d f o r m o f t h e a d j u s t m e n t is

in-^^
" 2 = " i ^ ^
In-

[L/T]

(2.20)

'

w h e r e Z j a n d Z 2 are m e a s u r e m e n t h e i g h t s f o r levels 1 a n d 2, respectively. Z Q is t h e reference

h e i g h t w h e r e v e l o c i t y is z e r o , as f o l l o w s :

S e c t i o n 2.11

Evaporation

from

Free-Water Bodies

65

Roughness class

Roughness length, Z Q , m

0.0002

Landscape

0.5

0.0024

0.03

1.5-2.5

0.055-0.2

3.0

0.4

3.5

0.8

Larger cities

4.0

1.6

Very large cities

Water surface
Open terrain
Open agricultural area
Agricultural land with houses
Village, small town, forests

E X A M P L E 2.8

S o l v e E x a m p l e 2 . 7 b y t h e a e r o d y n a m i c m e t h o d . C^ = 1 . 4 x 1 0 " ^ a t 4 m .
SOLUTION

1. N o h e i g h t a d j u s t m e n t i s n e e d e d a s a l l m e a s u r e m e n t s are a t 4 m .
2 . M e a n l a k e t e m p e r a t u r e = 1 9 C
S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e a t 1 9 C,

= 2.198 k P a ( A p p e n d i x C )

3 . M e a n a i r t e m p e r a t u r e = 3 0 C
S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e a t 3 0 C = 4 . 2 4 3 k P a
V a p o r pressure o f air a t2 5 % R H ,

( 0 . 2 5 ) ( 4 . 2 4 3 ) = 1.061 k P a

4 . A t 3 0 C, a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e = 1 0 1 . 3 k P a , a i r d e n s i t y = 1 . 1 6 k g / m ^ ( A p p e n d i x D )
5. F r o m e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 9 ) ,
^J0.622)(1.16)(1.4xlO-3)^^^^^^_3^^^_.
(1000)(101.3)
6. F r o m e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 8 ) ,
=(lxl0-)(2.198-1.061)(6.0) = 6 . 8 2 x l 0 ^ m / s
or
(6.82X10-^ m/s)

1000

m m

86,400 s
1

= 5.90

mm/day

2.11.3 E v a p o r a t i o n b y t h e E n e r g y B a l a n c e M e t h o d
T h e m e t h o d isbased o n accounting for all heat energy received a n d dissipated b ya water
body. T h e procedure ish i g h l y data intensive. It isaccurate i n application for daily o r longer
periods

w h e n energy

energy components

t e r m s t e n d t o stabilize. T h em a j o r i n c o m i n g a n do u t g o i n g

heat

i n a c o n t r o l l e d v o l u m e o f a water b o d y o r a c r o p p e d area t ojust b e l o w

the l a n d surface are s h o w n i n Figure 2.9.

E n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e a u n i t m a s s o f w a t e r i s c a l l e d t h e latent heat of

vaporiza-

tion o f w a t e r , / I , a s g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 9 . T h u s , t h e e n e r g y a b s o r b e d p e r u n i t a r e a t o e v a p o r a t e
E i s p^AE. T h e r a d i a n t e n e r g y o f t h e s u n c a p t u r e d a t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s a d o m i n a t i n g
factor o n e v a p o r a t i o n rates. A p o r t i o n o f t h e r a d i a n t e n e r g y i n p u t o n t o t h e e a r t h i s n o t

66

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

Figure 2.9

Energy inflow a n d outflow from a w a t e r body a n d a cropped area.

Sensible
heat from
water to air, H

Energy
utilized by
evaporation

Net radiation, R

Net radiation, R^,

Sensible
heat from
plants to
air, H

used u p i n direct e v a p o r a t i o n . T h e a i ri n contact w i t h t h eg r o u n d o r w a t e r surface is

w a r m e d a n d t h e n m o v e s u p w a r d . T h e associated f l o w o f energy t h r o u g h the air is t e r m e d
t h e sensible heat flux s i n c e t h i s i n v o l v e s a c h a n g e o f a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , w h i c h i s a p r o p e r t y
that can b e sensed o rmeasured. Also, there isa sensible heat exchange (heat c o n d u c t i o n ) ,
G, f r o m the soil o rw a t e r surface t othe layer o f soil o rw a t e r below.
I n a d d i t i o n t o these, there are o t h e r s m a l l energy t e r m s such as the energy t e m p o r a r i l y
stored w i t h i n the c o n t r o l l e d v o l u m e , energy associated w i t h h o r i z o n t a l air m o v e m e n t i n t o
a n d o u t o f the controlled v o l u m e , energy possessed b ythe evaporated water, a n d energy
involved i n photosynthesis a n drespiration. H o w e v e r , these are generally insignificant.
E n e r g y balance for the controlled v o l u m e is
R-H-G-pXE^=0

[FL-iT-i]

(2.21)

where
R = n e t r a d i a t i o n f l u x a t t h e s u r f a c e , J m ~ ^ s~^
p^AE^

= latent heat flux ( +d u r i n g e v a p o r a t i o n )

H sensible heat flux t o air ( +w h e n air is w a r m i n g )
G = sensible heat flux t o soil o rw a t e r ( +i f soil o rw a t e r is w a r m i n g )
E^ E v a p o r a t i o n b y t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e

method

T h e r e are t w o a p p r o a c h e s t o represent t h e sensible heat flux. I t c a n b e expressed as a n

a e r o d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n i n t e r m s o f the difference o f the temperatures a tw a t e r surface a n d air
level above. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i tcan b e expressed as a r a t i o t othe latent heat, called the B o w e n
r a t i o , fi H/p^ XE. T h e B o w e n r a t i o c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d v a p o r p r e s sures a tt w o heights above t h e w a t e r surface:
T

P = y

6 2 - 6 1

S e c t i o n 2.11

[dimensionless]

Evaporation from Free-Water Bodies

(2.22)

67

Table 2.9 Specific Heat, S a t u r a t e d V a p o r Pressure, G r a d i e n t , Psychrometric Constant,

and Latent Heat of Vaporization at S t a n d a r d A t m o s p h e r i c Pressure

TemperatureC

Gradient of
saturated
vapor pressure
A,kPaC-^

0
1
2

4.218
4.215
4.211

0.611
0.657
0.706

0.047
0.051

3
4
5

4.208
4.205
4.202

0.758
0.814
0.873

0.054
0.057
0.061

0.935
1.002
1.073

0.065
0.069
0.073

1.148
1.228
1.313
1.403

6
7
8

4.200

4.198
4.196
4.194

10
11

4.192
4.191

12
13
14

4.190
4.188
4.187

15
16
17

4.186
4.185
4.184

1.706
1.819
1.938

18
19
20

4.184

2.065
2.198
2.337

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

68

Specific Heat
Cp,kJ/kg C

Saturated
vapor pressure
e^, kPa

4.183
4.182
4.182
4.181
4.181
4.180
4.180

1.498
1.599

2.488
2.645
2.810
2.985

4.180
4.179

3.169
3.363
3.567

4.179
4.178

3.781
4.007

4.178
4.178
4.178

4.243
4.494

4.178
4.178
4.178

38

4.178
4.178
4.178

39

4.178

4.756
5.032
5.321
5.625
5.943
6.277
6.627
6.994

0.044

Psychrometric
constant y, kPa
"Cr^

Latent heat of
vaporization^,
MJ/kg

0.0654
0.0655

2.501

0.0656
0.0656
0.0657

2.499
2.496
2.494

0.0658
0.0659

2.492
2.489
2.487

0.0659
0.0660

2.484
2.482

0.078
0.082

0.0660
0.0661

2.480

0.087

0.0661
0.0662

0.093
0.098
0.104
0.110
0.116
0.123
0.130
0.137

0.0663
0.0663
0.0664
0.0665
0.0665

0.145

0.0666
0.0666
0.0667

0.153
0.161

0.0668
0.0668

0.170
0.179
0.189
0.199

0.0669
0.0670
0.0670
0.0671

0.209
0.220

0.0672

0.232

0.0673
0.0674
0.0674

0.243
0.256
0.269
0.282

0.0672

0.296
0.311

0.0675
0.0676
0.0676
0.0677

0.326
0.342

0.0678
0.0678

0.358
0.375

0.0679
0.0680

Availability of Water

2.478
2.475
2.473
2.470
2.468
2.466
2.463
2.461
2.459
2.456
2.454
2.451
2.449
2.447
2.444
2.442
2.440
2.437
2.435
2.433
2.430
2.428
2.425
2.423
2.421
2.418
2.416
2.414
2.411
2.409

Cbapter 2

T h e p s y c h r o m e t r i c c o n s t a n t , y, r e p r e s e n t s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t o f m o i s t
a i r , Cp, a n d t h e l a t e n t h e a t o f v a p o r i z a t i o n , X. T h e v a l u e s o f Cp, X, a n d y a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 9 .
Incorporating the B o w e n ratio i n equation ( 2 . 2 1 ) and

rearranging:

I n s t r u m e n t s are available c o m m e r c i a l l y t h a t m e a s u r e air t e m p e r a t u r e a n d v a p o r press u r e a t t w o e l e v a t i o n s a b o v e t h e s u r f a c e i n a d d i t i o n t o JR a n d G t o d e t e r m i n e E^. b y e q .

( 2 . 2 3 ) . T h e s i g n o f Poften

changes i n m o r n i n g a n d evening since H i s positive

(upward)

d u r i n g t h e d a y a n d negative at n i g h t .
The

magnitude

o f soil ( w a t e r ) sensible heat

flux,

G , is u s u a l l y s m a l l o n a d a i l y o r

l o n g e r basis a n d c a n b e n e g l e c t e d since t h e h e a t g a i n e d e a r l y i n t h e d a y is l o s t at n i g h t .
H o w e v e r , for h o u r l y periods, G can be significant. O n e m e t h o d used to ascertain the value
o f G i s t o i n s t a l l h e a t flux m e a s u r i n g p l a t e s b e l o w t h e s o i l s u r f a c e o r i n s i d e t h e l a k e .
N e t r a d i a n t energy, jR^, is t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e s o l a r e n e r g y available at a n

evaporating

s u r f a c e . O f t h e t o t a l e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l r a d i a t i o n , JR^, r e c e i v e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e , a p o r t i o n , Rg, r e a c h e s t h e e a r t h i n s h o r t 0 . 3 t o 3 pm

short-wave

radiation

is r e f l e c t e d

wavelengths. A p o r t i o n o f the

b a c k t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e a s albedo, a,

s h o r t - w a v e r a d i a t i o n o f ( 1 - a)!?^ c a p t u r e d at t h e g r o u n d
Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) recommended

leaving a

net

surface.

the following empirical relation for net

short-wave radiation:
z

S = ( l - a )

A
R.

0.25-1-0.5--

[ F L - i T - i ]

(2.24)

Ny
where
S = n e t s h o r t - w a v e r a d i a t i o n , M J / m ^ d a y
a = albedo, 0 . 2 3 f o r c r o p s a n d grass, a n d 0 . 0 8 f o r o p e n
R^

water

= e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l r a d i a t i o n , see T a b l e 2 . 1 0

n/N-

ratio o f actual measured bright sunshine hours and m a x i m u m

possible sunshine

Hargreaves

hours

a n d S a m a n i ( 1 9 8 2 ) p r o p o s e d a relation based o n air temperature

for net

short-wave radiation:
S

{l-^)K,s

fcax

-T^in

Pa

[FL-^T-M

(2.25)

where
^max

"m a x i m u m daily air temperature,

^min

~ m i n i m u m daily air temperature,

P-RS

~ coefficient, 0 . 1 6 for interior regions a n d 0 . 1 9 for coastal

regions

Both the ground and the atmosphere emit long 3 to 1 0 0 ^ m wavelength

characteristic

o f their temperatures,

radiation

i n accordance w i t h Stefan-Boltzmann's law o f back

b o d y r a d i a t i o n . T h e n e t l o n g - w a v e r a d i a t i o n , w h i c h is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l

S e c t i o n 2.11

Evaporation from Free-Water Bodies

69

radiation f r o m the ground

a n d emission f r o m atmosphere a n d clouds,

is g i v e n b y

an

empirical relation o f the form:

Rb=-

0.1 + 0 . 9 ( O . 3 4 - 0 . 1 4 7 ^ ) ( 7 T 4
N

[FL-iT-i]

(2.26)

where
Rfy-

net long-wave radiation, M J / m ^

e^=

v a p o r pressure at air t e m p e r a t u r e ,

day
kPa

o r ( s a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e at m e a n air t e m p e r a t u r e x relative h u m i d i t y )
a - Stefan-Boltzmann

constant 4.903x10

_9

MJ
m ^ K M a y

T = m e a n air temperature,

K = 2 7 3 . 2 +

T h e n e g a t i v e s i g n i n e q . ( 2 . 2 6 ) a p p e a r s s i n c e t h e r e i s a n e t l o s s o f e n e r g y from t h e g r o u n d .
N e t r a d i a t i o n , R^,

i n eq. (2.23) can be m e a s u r e d u s i n g i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n o r

data. O f t e n , however, it has t o be d e t e r m i n e d

satellite

f r o m t h e c l i m a t i c d a t a . T h e n R^ i s e q u a l

to

t h e s u m o f S a n d J?^, a s f o l l o w s :
R = e q . ( 2 . 2 4 ) o r e q . ( 2 . 2 5 ) + e q . ( 2 . 2 6 )

E X A M P L E

[FL-^T-i]

(2.27)

2.9

S o l v e E x a m p l e 2 . 7 b y t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e m e t h o d . D a i l y B o w e n r a t i o = 0 . 1 , n/N

- 0.7

and

t h e e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l r a d i a t i o n at t h e l o c a t i o n = 4 0 M J / m ^ day. D i s r e g a r d t h e soil h e a t f l u x .
SOLUTION

1. N e t s h o r t - w a v e r a d i a t i o n : F r o m eq. (2.24),
S = ( 1 - 0 . 0 8 ) [ 0 . 2 5 + 0 . 5 ( 0 . 7 ) ] ( 4 0 ) = 2 2 . 0 8 M J / m ^ d a y
2. N e t l o n g - w a v e

radiation:

S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r pressure at air t e m p e r a t u r e ,
V a p o r pressure at 2 5 % relative h u m i d i t y ,
T = 30 + 273.2 = 303.2

= 4.243 kPa
= 0 . 2 5 ( 4 . 2 4 3 ) = 1.061 k P a

F r o m eq. ( 2 . 2 6 ) ,
J?^ = - [ 0 . 1 + 0 . 9 ( 0 . 7 ) ] ( 0 . 3 4 - 0 . 1 4 V l . 0 6 l ) ( 4 . 9 0 3 x 1 0
= -5.92 M J / m 2

) (303.2) ^

day

3. N e t r a d i a t i o n : F r o m eq. (2.27),
R = 2 2 . 0 8 - 5 . 9 2 = 1 6 . 1 6 M J / m ^ d a y
4.

Evaporation:
A t 3 0 C, X = 2 . 4 3 M J / k g ( f r o m T a b l e 2 . 9 )
F r o m eq. (2.23),

=
'

70

16T6
_
( 1 0 0 0 ) (2.43) (1 + 0.1)

m/day or 6

mm/day

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

Table 2.10

Total Daily Solar Radiation Received on a Horizontal Surface at t h e Top of the A t m o s p h e r e

Approximate Date
Jan

Feb

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

May

13

26

21

13

29

Aug

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Nov

Dec

22

15

31

23

16

30

22

3.04

2.07

1.01

5.54

12.98

22.20

31.67

39.28

42.79

39.49

31.37

21.94

12.81

5.45

1.01

60

3.09

6.17

11.67

18.90

26.85

34.20

39.49

41.39

39.28

33.86

26.59

18.69

11.54

6.17

50

8.67

12.22

17.71

24.31

30.95

36.66

40.50

41.81

40.33

36.32

30.65

24.01

17.50

12.09

8.62

7.44

38.47

40.88

38.09

33.74

28.62

23.04

18.14

14.71

13.40

28.03

23.84

20.80

19.70

70

vt

July

{MJ m-- 2 d - n

Latitude
<u
s:
Q.

June

1
X

40

14.80

18.35

23.38

29.00

34.12

41.09

41.90

30

20.89

24.01

28.33

32.77

36.57

39.28

40.88

41.22

40.59

38.94

36.19

32.34

t:
o
z

20

26.64

29.21

32.51

35.56

37.80

39.02

39.53

39.53

39.32

38.73

37.37

35.13

32.13

28.96

26.51

25.58

10

31.79

33.61

35.73

37.29

37.92

37.75

37.25

36.91

37.08

37.46

37.50

36.82

35.30

33.36

31.62

30.99

36.15

37.12

37.88

37.84

36.91

35.39

33.99

33.40

33.82

35.09

36.49

37.42

37.46

36.78

35.98

35.64

<u
sz

-10

39.57

39.57

38.94

37.29

34.84

32.13

29.89

29.05

29.76

31.84

34.41

36.82

38.47

39.19

39.36

39.45

-20

41.98

40.93

38.81

35.56

31.71

27.90

25.07

23.97

24.94

27.65

31.33

35.13

38.35

40.54

41.77

42.24

u.

-30

43.34

41.14

37.54

32.77

27.65

22.96

19.66

18.43

19.57

22.75

27.31

32.34

37.08

40.76

43.12

44.01

-40

43.63

40.29

35.01

29.00

22.75

17.46

13.91

12.56

13.87

17.29

22.53

28.62

34.63

39.91

43.42

44.77

-50

43.04

38.43

31.79

24.31

17.25

11.67

8.16

6.98

8.12

11.58

17.08

24.01

31.41

38.09

42.87

44.65

-60

41.94

35.81

27.57

18.90

11.37

5.92

2.87

1.99

2.87

5.88

11.25

18.69

27.23

35.51

41.73

44.22

-70

42.19

33.19

22.79

12.98

5.37

0.97

0.97

5.33

12.81

22.49

32.89

41.98

45.70

JSZ

01
X
c
o3
o
en

Source: J e n s e n , Burman, and Alien (1990). Used with permission of A S C E .

2.11.4 C o m b i n a t i o n M e t h o d o f P e n m a n
P e n m a n (1948) c o m b i n e d evaporation c o m p u t e d b ythe aerodynamic m e t h o d and evaporation c o m p u t e d b ythe energy balance m e t h o d t o estimate a weighted evaporation. T h e
w e i g h i n g f a c t o r s u s e d w e r e y / C A + y ) , a n d A / ( A + y ) , w h e r e y is t h e p s y c h r o m e t r i c c o n s t a n t
a n d A i s t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e s a t u r a t e d v a p o r p r e s s u r e t o t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , de^dT. T h e v a l u e s o f b o t h o f t h e s e are l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 9 . T h e t o t a l h e a t c o n t e n t o f a n a i r m a s s is t h e s u m o f
t h e sensible heat a n d latent heat represented b ythe t e r m s y / ( A + y ) , a n d A / ( A + y ) , respectively. T h u s , t h e basic e q u a t i o n f o r w e i g h t e d e v a p o r a t i o n is

= 7 - ^ . + 7 - ^
(A + 7)
(A + 7)

[LT-i]

(2.28)

where
- e v a p o r a t i o n b yt h e energy balance m e t h o d , eq. (2.23)
E^

= e v a p o r a t i o n b yt h e a e r o d y n a m i c m e t h o d , eq. (2.18)
7 = p s y c h r o m e t r i c constant. T a b l e 2.9

A = gradient o f saturated v a p o r pressure. T a b l e 2.9

E X A M P L E

2.10

Use the c o m b i n a t i o n m e t h o d t o solve E x a m p l e 2.7.

SOLUTION

1 . A t 3 0 C a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , y = 0 . 0 6 7 4 k P a / C , A = 0 . 2 4 3 k P a / C f r o m T a b l e 2 . 9
2 . ^ = 6 m m / d a y f r o m E x a m p l e 2 . 9
3 . E^ = 5 . 9 m m / d a y f r o m E x a m p l e 2 . 8
4. F r o m e q . ( 2 . 2 8 ) ,
0.243(6)
E

(0.243 + 0.0674)

0.0674(5.9)
+
(0.243 + 0.0674)

= 0 . 7 8 ( 6 ) + 0.22(5.9) = 5.98

2.12

mm/day

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION FROM ADRAINAGE BASIN

E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n considers e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m n a t u r a l surfaces w h e t h e r t h e w a t e r source
i s i n t h e s o i l , p l a n t s , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h . A s d e f i n e d i n C h a p t e r 1 , consumptive use i s
the a m o u n t o f water required t osupport the o p t i m u m g r o w t h o f a particular crop under
field c o n d i t i o n s . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c r o p p e d a r e a , t h e c o n s u m p t i v e u s e d e n o t e s t h e t o t a l
e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m a narea i n c l u d i n g t h e w a t e r used b yp l a n t tissues. T h u s , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s t h e s a m e as c o n s u m p t i v e u s eexcept t h e latter includes w a t e r i nt h ep l a n t tissue,
which is a m i n o r quantity. T h e t e r m "evapotranspiration" is m o r e c o m m o n than "cons u m p t i v e use." T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e v a p o r a t i o n a n d t r a n s p i r a t i o n as separate e l e m e n t s
for a drainage basin isunreliable. M o r e o v e r , their separate evaluation isn o t required for
m o s t studies.

72

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s u b j e c t s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e field o f
hydrology and irrigation. N u m e r o u s procedures have been developed t o estimate evapot r a n s p i r a t i o n . T h e s e fall i n t h e categories o f( 1 ) w a t e r balance m e t h o d s , s u c h as e v a p o t r a n s p i r o m e t e r s , h y d r a u l i c b u d g e t o n field p l o t s , a n d s o i l m o i s t u r e d e p l e t i o n ; ( 2 ) e n e r g y
balance m e t h o d s ; (3) mass-transfer m e t h o d s , such asw i n d speed f u n c t i o n , eddy flux, a n d
use o f enclosures; ( 4 ) a c o m b i n a t i o n o f e n e r g y a n d m a s s - t r a n s f e r m e t h o d s , such as t h e
P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h m e t h o d ; (5) p r e d i c t i o n m e t h o d s , such as e m p i r i c a l equations a n d the
indices applied t o p a n - e v a p o r a t i o n data; a n d (6) m e t h o d s f o r specific crops. C u r r e n t l y ,
the m o s t preferred approach t o evapotranspiration study is based o nthe P e n m a n - M o n teith method.
I n t h e context o f evapotranspiration, T h o r n t h w a i t e i n 1948 introduced t h e t e r m
potential evapotranspiration t o d e f i n e t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n t h a t w i l l o c c u r w h e n t h e s o i l
c o n t a i n s a na d e q u a t e m o i s t u r e s u p p l y a t a l l t i m e s (i.e., w h e n m o i s t u r e is n o t a l i m i t i n g fact o r i n e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n ) . F o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a c r o p p e d a r e a , t h e reference crop evapotranspiration c o n c e p t w a s i n t r o d u c e d w h e r e b y t h e p o t e n t i a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d
o n the basis o f a n idealized crop o f a u n i f o r m height, c o m p l e t e l y covering the g r o u n d ,
g r o w i n g actively, a n dn o t experiencing a n y shortage o fwater. F o r t h e reference crop,
c l i p p e d grass o f 0.12 m h e i g h t is u s e d as a s t a n d a r d . A l f a l f a o f 0.5 m h e i g h t is u s e d as a s t a n dard crop specifically for arid regions. Evapotranspiration f r o m any crop is determined
f r o m the reference crop evapotranspiration b y applying a crop coefficient that simulates
the c o n d i t i o n o f the specific crop.

2.12.1 E v a p o t r a n s p i r o m e t e r s
A p r o p e r l y constructed a n d installed evapotranspirometer provides the m o s t accurate estimates o f evapotranspiration and is a reliable means o f calibrating other methods. I t is a n
i n s t r u m e n t consisting o f a block o f soil w i t h s o m e planted vegetation enclosed i n a cont a i n e r . I f t h e r e i s a p r o v i s i o n f o r d r a i n a g e o f t h e s o i l w a t e r , i t i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a lysimeter.
E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n is a s c e r t a i n e d b y m a i n t a i n i n g a w a t e r b u d g e t f o r t h e c o n t a i n e r ; t h a t is,
accounting for the water applied, the water drained f r o m the b o t t o m , and the change i n
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o fthe soil i n t h elysimeter. H o w e v e r , these i n s t r u m e n t s a r e rare a n d
expensive a n d are applicable t o a p a r t i c u l a r place, soil type, a n d vegetation.

2.12.2 P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h M e t h o d
T h e aerodynamic process for d e t e r m i n i n g evaporation considers the transport o f water
v a p o r b y t h e t u r b u l e n c e o f t h e w i n d b l o w i n g o v e r a n a t u r a l surface. I n t h e a e r o d y n a m i c eq.
( 2 . 1 8 ) , w i t h M d e f i n e d b y e q . ( 2 . 1 9 ) , t h e f a c t o r C^u^is r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e transport function.
I t s i n v e r s e v a l u e i s r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e aerodynamic resistance t o w a t e r v a p o r t r a n s f e r , r ^ . B y
substituting
= 1 / C ^ u^ i n e q s . ( 2 . 1 8 ) a n d ( 2 . 1 9 ) , t h e a e r o d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n t a k e s t h e
form

E^=0.622-^-{e^-ez)
Since

S e c t i o n 2.12

[LT-i]

(2.29)

= 3 . 4 8 6 P / ( 2 7 3 + T ) , w i t h T i n C, e q . ( 2 . 2 9 ) b e c o m e s

Evapotranspirationfrom aDrainage Basin

73

A n o t h e r resistance f u n c t i o n relevant t o plants a n d vegetation is associated w i t h t h e

m o v e m e n t o f w a t e r v a p o r f r o m inside p l a n t leaves t o t h e air outside t h r o u g h s m a l l apert u r e s i n t h e l e a v e s c a l l e d stomata. T h i s s t o m a t a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h e e n t i r e p l a n t c a n o p y i s
c a l l e d t h e surface resistance, r^. M o n t e i t h ( 1 9 6 5 ) c o m b i n e d t h e a e r o d y n a m i c r e s i s t a n c e a n d
s u r f a c e r e s i s t a n c e i n t o a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f o r m ( 1 + r^/ rj a n d a p p l i e d i t t o t h e P e n m a n
c o m b i n a t i o n e q u a t i o n (2.28). T h e result is w h a t i s recognized as t h e P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h
equation, w h i c h currently is t h e m o s t widely used relationship i n evapotranspiration
study. T h e full expanded f o r m o f the equation w i t h o u t the B o w e n ratio is

'to

f
\
PwZ
A +y 1+ s

A + 7 1+

- T ^
7-(4-^z)(86,400)
^ ( r +2 7 3 ) r / ^
^P
J

[LT-i]
t
J

(2.31)

where
= potential o rreference crop evapotranspiration
e2-

m e a n saturation vapor pressure atair temperature t o w h i c h

vegetation is exposed
= vapor pressure atair temperature for given relative h u m i d i t y

A l l o t h e r t e r m s w e r e defined earlier. T h e factor (86,400) converts the second t e r m t o p e r

day i n line w i t h the first t e r m .
There are t w o approaches f o rapplying t h e P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h equation (2.31) t o
d e t e r m i n e the actual e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f r o m a n y specific crop u n d e r a l i m i t e d soil m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n . Because o f its simplicity, the first m e t h o d ism o r e c o m m o n l y applied.
1. T h e reference c r o p a p p r o a c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e p o t e n t i a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f o r a reference
c r o p t h a t i s e i t h e r c l i p p e d g r a s s o r a l f a l f a o f a s t a n d a r d h e i g h t . A c r o p c o e f f i c i e n t , K^, a n d
a s o i l m o i s t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , K^, a r e a p p l i e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e a c t u a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
2 . I n t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s a r e e s t i m a t e d f r o m k n o w n field o b s e r v a t i o n s
t o directly represent t h e characteristics o f t h e surface a n d vegetation t y p e i n question.

2.12.3 R e f e r e n c e C r o p E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n b y t h e P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h
Method
F o r a w a t e r b o d y o r a fully w e t t e d surface,
= 0 .T h e n eq. (2.31) b e c o m e s identical t o the
P e n m a n c o m b i n a t i o n e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 2 8 ) . F o r vegetated surfaces,
i s r e l a t e d t o t h e leaf area
index ( L A I ) , w h i c h i s t h e a r e a o f ( o n e s i d e o f ) l e a v e s o f a c r o p g r o w i n g o n e a c h u n i t a r e a o f
g r o u n d surface. A l l e n e t al. ( 1 9 8 9 ) a p p r o x i m a t e d t h e L A I t o t h e h e i g h t o f grass a n d alfalfa
reference crops, thus leading to the f o l l o w i n g relations:
F o r grass reference crop:

= 69

F o r alfalfa reference crop:

= 45

s/m
s/m

Availability of Water

(2.32a)

Chapter 2

T h o u g h t h e a e r o d y n a m i c resistance, r^, has a n i n v o l v e d f o r m o f r e l a t i o n , i t is s i m p l i f i e d f o r r e f e r e n c e c r o p s f o r w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s a t a s t a n d a r d i z e d h e i g h t o f 2 m as

follows:
F o r grass reference crop:

= 208/uj

s/m

F o r alfalfa reference crop:

=110/u2

s/m

(2.32b)

I f t h e w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s are m a d e at heights o t h e r t h a n 2 m above the g r o u n d surface, t h e y s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o 2 m b y eq. ( 2 . 2 0 ) f o r use i n eq. ( 2 . 3 2 b ) .

Using the values o f
c r o p s r e d u c e s as f o l l o w s :

and

as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e r e s i s t a n c e f u n c t i o n f o r r e f e r e n c e

A
= ( l + 0.33 W2)

F o r grass reference crop:

(2.33)
F o r a l f a l f a r e f e r e n c e c r o p :\ a P

E X A M P L E

= (1 + 0.40 U 2 )

2.11

E s t i m a t e t h e d a i l y reference c r o p (alfalfa) e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f o r July at K i m b e r l y , I d a h o ;

l a t i t u d e 42.4N; e l e v a t i o n 3 9 2 2 f t . T h e m e a n v a l u e s o f t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r J u l y
from
1 9 6 6 t o 1 9 8 5 a r e as f o l l o w s :
1.

M e a n a i r t e m p e r a t u r e = 2 0 . 7 C

2.

Relative h u m i d i t y= 4 9 %

3.

W i n d v e l o c i t yat 3.66 m height = 2.48 m / s

4.

M e a n percentage sunshine = 82.5%

SOLUTION

N e t radiation estimate:

1 . E x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l r a d i a t i o n f o r J u l y a t 4 2 . 4 N,

= 40.8 M J / m ^ day (from Table 2.10)

2. F r o m eq. ( 2 . 2 4 ) ,
S = ( 1 - 0 . 2 3 ) 0 . 2 5 + 0 . 5

^ 82.5 V

40.8 = 20.8 M J / m 2 day

100
3.

S a t u r a t i o n v a p o r p r e s s u r e a t 2 0 . 7 C,

= 2.44 k P a

R H X 2 . 4 4 = ( 0 . 4 9 ) ( 2 . 4 4 ) = 1.2 k P a
4. F r o m e q . ( 2 . 2 6 ) ,
7 = 273.2 + 20.7 = 293.90

0.1 + 0.9 82.5^ (0.34 - O . I 4 V L 2 ) (4.903 X 1 0 - ^ )(293.9)'^

llOOz
= -5.75 M J / m 2 day
5. F r o m e q . ( 2 . 2 7 ) ,
R = 2 0 . 8 - 5 . 7 5 = 1 5 . 0 5 M J / m ^ d a y
S e c t i o n 2.12

Evapotranspiration

from

a Drainage Basin

75

6. V a p o r p r e s s u r e d e f i c i t
(e^ -

) = 2.44 - 1 . 2 0 +1.24 k P a

7. C o m m o n p a r a m e t e r s
A t 2 0 . 7 C f r o m T a b l e 2 . 9 , A = 2 . 4 5 M J / k g
7 = 0 . 0 6 6 8 kPa/C
A = 0.151kPa/C
8 . F r o m e q . ( 2 . 2 0 ) , f o r Zq = . 0 3 m

W i n d v e l o c i t y a t 2 m , ^ 2 = W3 66
In

0.03
3.66

= 2.2 m / s

0.03
9. F r o m e q . ( 2 . 3 2 b ) :
r ^ = 110/2.2 = 5 0 s/m
F r o m eq. ( 2 . 3 3 ) :
= [ 1 + 0 . 4 ( 2 . 2 ) ] = 1.1
V

10.

''ay

Ratio
0.151

= 0.55

r ^
A + 7 1+
V
''a J

0.151 + 0.0668(1.88)

0.0668

r.^

a y

= 0.24

0.151 + 0.0668(1.88)

A + 7
11. F r o m e q . (2.31):
=o.55

,0,2,
(1000)(2.45)

o-"W.24mAm
(1000)(20.7 + 273)(50)

= 3.38x10-3 +3.80x10-3 = 7.18x10-3 m/day

2,12A

Actual Evapotranspiration f r o m A n y Surface

T h e reference crop evapotranspiration d e t e r m i n e d i n the previous section ism u l t i p l i e d b y

the coefficients t o determine actual evapotranspiration; thus
E=K^K^E^^

[LT-i]

(2.34)

where
= actual evapotranspiration f r o m a surface
Efg = r e f e r e n c e c r o p e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
= cover o rc r o p coefficient a t a specified g r o w t h stage
= coefficient d e p e n d e n t o navailable soil water

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

T h e t e r m " c r o p coefficient" applies t o n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n a n d b a r e soil as w e l l . I t

is a c o m p l e x coefficient t o describe since i t has t o e n c o m p a s s d i f f e r e n t stages o f c r o p g r o w t h ,
m a n y climatic factors, a n d a variety o f crops. Extensive research has b e e n conducted o n crop
coefficients (Jensen, 1974; D o o r e n b o s a n d P r u i t t , 1977; W r i g h t , 1982; Synder et al., 1989;
A l l e n et al., 1 9 9 1 ; Slack et al., 1996; Snyder, 2 0 0 0 ) . Because o f the t w o reference crop definit i o n s w i t h grass a n d alfalfa, t w o families o f curves exist for v a r i o u s crops. T h e coefficients
s h o u l d b e clearly associated w i t h their reference crop. A s a n a p p r o x i m a t e conversion, t h e
alfalfa-based
values c a nb e c h a n g e d t o grass reference values b y m u l t i p l y i n g b y a factor
r a n g i n g from 1 . 1 ( f o r h u m i d c o n d i t i o n s ) t o 1 . 2 5 ( f o r a r i d c o n d i t i o n s ) .
Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) presented a relatively simple procedure for constructing
t h e g r a s s r e f e r e n c e c r o p c o e f f i c i e n t s , K^. A
curve, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.10, is constructed
as f o l l o w s :
1. F r o m l o c a l i n f o r m a t i o n d e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l g r o w i n g s e a s o n a n d d i v i d e t h i s i n t o f o u r
g r o w i n g s t a g e s i n i t i a l stage, c r o p d e v e l o p m e n t stage, m i d - s e a s o n stage, a n d lateseason stage. I f this i n f o r m a t i o n is n o t k n o w n , u s e Table 2 . 1 1 . M a r k the e n d p o i n t o f
each stage as D j , D 2 ,D 3 ,a n d D 4 o n F i g u r e 2.10.
2. T h e coefficient f o r stage 1 ,K ^ p is a f u n c t i o n o f the reference e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n a t the
t i m e o fp l a n t i n g a n d t h ep e r i o d b e t w e e n occurrence o fi r r i g a t i o n o r significant rain.
D e t e r m i n e t h i s f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 1 1 . D r a w a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a t t h i s JC^j v a l u e f r o m t h e
b e g i n n i n g t o the e n d o f stage 1 ( D j ) .
Figure 2 . 1 0
Schematic diagram
of the crop
coefficient curve.

Planting
date

Section 2.12

Evapotranspiration

from

aDrainage Basin

77

Table 2.11

G r o w i n g S e a s o n , Distribution a m o n g Stages, a n d Mid- a n d Late-Season

C r o p Coefficients for S e l e c t e d Crops

Fraction of stage time at growth stage

Crop

Typical growing
season, days

Artichokes (perennial)

310--360

0.09

0.12

0.70

0.09

'^cl
1.00

R'c3
0.95

Barley

120--150

0.12

0.20

0.44

0.24

1.15

0.25

Beans (dry)/Pulses

9 5 - 110

0.16

0.25

0.40

0.19

1.15

0.35

Carrots

100--150

0.18

0.27

0.39

0.16

1.05

0.80

Celery

125--180

0.16

0.27

0.46

0.11

1.05

1.00

Corn (sweet)

80- 110

0.23

0.29

0.37

0.11

1.15

1.05

Corn (grain)

125--180

0.17

0.28

0.33

0.22

1.15

0.55!^

Cotton

180-195

0.16

0.27

0.31

0.26

1.20

0.70

Cucumber

105--130

0.19

0.28

0.38

0.15

1.00

0.75

1.05

0.90

Eggplant

130--140

0.21

0.32

0.30

0.17

Grain (small)

150--165

0.14

0.20

0.40

0.26

Lentil

150--170

0.14

0.20

0.41

0.25

1.15

0.30

Lettuce

75- 140

0.26

0.37

0.27

0.10

1.05

0.95

Melons

120--160

0.20

0.28

0.37

0.15

1.05

0.75

Millet

105--140

0.14

0.23

0.39

0.24

1.10

0.30

Oats

120--150

0.12

0.20

0.44

0.24

1.15

0.25

Onion (dry)

150--210

0.10

0.17

0.49

0.24

1.05

0.85

Groundnuts (peanuts)

130--140

0.22

0.30

0.30

0.18

1.05

0.60

Peas

90-100

0.21

0.26

0.37

0.16

1.15

1.10"=

Peppers (fresh)

120--125

0.22

0.29

0.33

0.16

1.05

0.90

Potato

105--145

0.21

0.25

0.33

0.21

1.15

0.75

35-40

0.20

0.27

0.40

0.13

0.90

0.85

Rice

150--180

0.20

0.20

0.40

0.20

1.20

0.90

Safflower

125--190

0.17

0.27

0.35

0.21

1.15

0.25

Sorghum

120--130

0.16

0.27

0.33

0.24

1.00

0.55

Soybeans

135--150

0.14

0.21

0.46

0.19

1.15

0.50

Spinach

60- 100

0.27

0.31

0.34

0.08

1.00

0.95

Squash

90- 100

0.24

0.34

0.26

0.16

0.95

0.75

Sugar beet

160--230

0.18

0.27

0.33

0.22

1.20

0.95

Sunflower

125--130

0.17

0.28

0.36

0.19

1.15

0.35

Tomato

135--180

0.20

0.28

0.33

0.19

1.20

0.65

Wheat

120--150

0.12

0.20

0.44

0.24

1.15

0.25

Radishes

^ K^2 a n d K^^ values are for a s u b h u m i d climate ( m i n i m u m daytime humidity 4 5 % ) a n d moderate w i n d s p e e d (averaging 2 m/s). For a d j u s t m e n t s to other conditions refer to A S C E ( 1 9 9 6 ) .
(high moist), 0.35 (dry)
(fresh), 0.3 (dry)
Source: Derived from D o o r e n b o s and Pruitt ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

78

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

Figure 2.11

Crop coefficient during initial stage (derived from Doorenbos and Pruitt,

1977).

3. D e t e r m i n e
K^^ f^om T a b l e 2 . 1 1 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e f o r a m i n i m u m d a y t i m e
h u m i d i t y o f about 4 5 % and a w i n d speed o f 2 m / s at 2 m above the crop level. Refer t o
A S C E (1996) t o m a k e corrections for a different climate. D r a w a horizontal line at
f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t o t h e e n d o f s t a g e 3 ( f r o m D2 t o D 3 ) . M a r k a p o i n t a t K^^ at t h e e n d
o f stage 4 ( 0 4 ) .
4. Place straight line segments t h r o u g h e n d points t o complete t h e d i a g r a m similar t o
Eigure 2.10. T h e crop coefficients a r eread f r o m this
crop

figure

and applied t othe

reference

evapotranspiration.

F o r w e l l - w a t e r e d c r o p s , t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K^is 1 . I t i s l e s s t h a n 1 w h e n a v a i l able soil m o i s t u r e l i m i t s transpiration; i t t h e n depends o n the percentage o f available soil

w a t e r c o m p a r e d t o t h e field c a p a c i t y ( J e n s e n e t a l . , 1 9 9 0 ) .
E X A M P L E

2.12

Prepare t h e c r o p coefficient curve (grass reference) f o r sugar beets. T h e c r o p is p l a n t e d

A p r i l 1 1 . T h e g r a s s r e f e r e n c e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f o r A p r i l , E^^, i s 3 . 5 m m / d a y . T h e s o i l i s
w e t t e d i n 10-day i n t e r v a l s d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l stage. T h e c r o p isw e l l w a t e r e d .
SOLUTION

1 . F r o m T a b l e 2 . 1 1 , f o r s u g a r b e e t s , D j = 1 8 % , D2 = 2 7 % , D 3 = 3 3 % ,

= 22%

2 . F r o m F i g u r e 2 . 1 1 , f o r s u g a r b e e t s , E^^ - 3 . 5 a n d 1 0 - d a y w e t t i n g , K ^ j = 0 . 4
3 . F r o m T a b l e 2 . 1 1 , f o r s u g a r b e e t s , K^2 = 1 - 2 a n d ^ ^ 3 = 0 . 9 5
4 . T h e c u r v e i s d r a w n i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 . D r a w a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e A B a t K^y - 0 . 4 f o r t h e

first

1 8 % ( D j ) , a n o t h e r h o r i z o n t a l l i n e C D a t K^2 ^ 1 - 2 s t a r t i n g a t D j + D 2 o r 4 5 % a n d
e n d i n g a t D j + D 2 + D 3 o r 7 8 % . M a r k a p o i n t , F , a t K^g ^ ^-^^
e n d o f s t a g e D^. J o i n B C a n d D F a s s h o w n i n t h e

S e c t i o n 2.12

Evapotranspiration

from

aDrainage Basin

100% growth at the

figure.

79

E X A M P L E

2.13

T h e sugar beet crop i n E x a m p l e 2.12 is p l a n t e d o nA p r i l 1 1a n d harvested o nO c t . 15. Estimate m o n t h l y evapotranspiration. Compare with t h eBlaney-Criddle M e t h o d (Example
1.9). T h e e s t i m a t e d grass reference e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n is
Month
ffg, mm/day
SOLUTION

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.0

3.0

2.0

T h e c o m p u t a t i o n s are arranged i n the table below.

(2)

(1)

Period

April

Number
ofdays

(3)
Midperiod^

(4)

percent of
total
season

K,. value
from Fig.
2.12

(5)

(6)

(7)
(J from Example 1.9

Ref. Crop
Etc
mm/day

mm/day

in./
month

mm/day
0.75

Apr. 11-30

20

3.5

1.4

0.89

31

5
19b

0.4

May

0.42

4.0

1.68

2.15

1.76

June

30

35

0.90

4.5

4.05

4.01

3.40

July

31

51

1.2

5.0

6.0

7.06

5.78

Aug.

31

68

1.2

5.0

6.0

7.13

5.84

Sept.

30

84

1.13

3.0

3.39

3.96

3.35

15

96

1.0

2.0

2.0

2.03

1.66

Oct.
Total

1-15

188

Number of days to middle of period

tl

Total days In growing season

xlOO

b ^ ^ 1 2 ^ ^ = 190/0
188

column 4 x column 5

2.12.5 B l a n e y - C r i d d l e M e t h o d
T h e r e is a n o t h e r category o f m e t h o d s suitable f o r t h e c r o p p e d area. T h e B l a n e y - C r i d d l e
m e t h o d , d e v e l o p e d f o r c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a r i d w e s t e r n r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d States, is
described i n s e c t i o n 1.13.2. T h e m e t h o d d i r e c t l y p r o v i d e s t h e m o n t h l y e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
for a specific crop. T h e crop coefficients used i nthe B l a n e y - C r i d d l e m e t h o d a r e different
from
t h e reference c r o p coefficients. T h e c l i m a t i c effects a n d c r o p p a r a m e t e r s are n o t separated i nt h eBlaney-Criddle relations. Application o f the m e t h o d is provided i n Example
1.9 a n d a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h m e t h o d i s s h o w n i n E x a m p l e 2 . 1 3 .

2.13

DIRECT RUNOFF FROM RAINFALL ORRAIN EXCESS

I n f o r m a t i o n o n r a i n f a l l excess is necessary i n h y d r o g r a p h analysis, discussed i n C h a p t e r 7.
A s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e w a t e r b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n (2.5), t h e d i r e c t r u n o f f o r r a i n f a l l excess
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i m m e d i a t e s t r e a m f l o w is assessed b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n f r o m t h e
total rainfall. A simple m o d e l , a h o m o g e n e o u s soil c o l u m n w i t h a u n i f o r m initial water
c o n t e n t , i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e are t h r e e d i s t i n c t cases o f i n f i l t r a t i o n .

80

Availability of Water

Chapter 2

0.2

0 H

20

40
60
Growing season, %

1
80

100

1 . W h e n a r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y , z, i s l e s s t h a n t h e s a t u r a t e d h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , K^A a l l t h e
rainfall infiltrates, as s h o w n b yline I i n Figure 2.13.
2. T h e effect o f t h e r a i n f a l l r a t e , w h i c h i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s a t u r a t e d c o n d u c t i v i t y (z>
is
s h o w n b y c u r v e 1 1 . I n i t i a l l y , w a t e r i n f i l t r a t e s a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e . A f t e r a t i m e t^, t h e
c a p a c i t y o f soil t o infiltrate w a t e r falls b e l o w t h er a i n f a l l rate. Surface p o n d i n g begins,
w h i c h results i n depression storage and runoff.
3. F o r a r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y t h a t e x c e e d s t h e c a p a c i t y o f s o i l t o i n f i l t r a t e w a t e r f r o m t h e
b e g i n n i n g , w a t e r i s a l w a y s p o n d e d o n t h e surface. I n t h i s case, t h e r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n i s
c o n t r o l l e d o n l y b y s o i l - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . T h i s r a t e , s h o w n b y c u r v e 111 i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 , i s
c a l l e d t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f a g i v e n s o i l , f^.
T h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y , fp, d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e , d u e p r i m a r i l y t o r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t b e t w e e n t h e s u r f a c e a n d t h e wetting front, w h i c h i s t h e l i m i t o f w a t e r
p e n e t r a t i o n into the soil. T h e front separates the wet soil f r o m the d r y soil. T h e infiltration
c a p a c i t y e v e n t u a l l y a p p r o a c h e s a c o n s t a n t r a t e , f, w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e q u a l t o t h e
apparent saturated hydraulic conductivity,
.
A f t e r t h e s u r f a c e p o n d i n g ( b e y o n d t i m e tp f o r c a s e 2 a n d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g f o r c a s e
3 ) , f o r a c o n t i n u o u s u n i f o r m r a i n o f i n t e n s i t y z, t h e s u r f a c e r u n o f f h y d r o g r a p h h a s a s h a p e
indicated b y q i n Figure 2.14. T h e difference b e t w e e n rainfall a n d r u n o f f appears as t h e
c u r v e m a r k e d (i- q). T h e c u r v e fp r e l a t e s t o t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
* N a t u r a l soils are u s u a l l y n o t completely saturated, even b e l o w the water table, d u e t oair e n t r a p m e n t d u r i n g the
w e t t i n g p r o c e s s . T h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , K^, i s t a k e n t o b e t h e r e s i d u a l a i r s a t u r a t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d i s
s o m e t i m e s referred to as the a p p a r e n t s a t u r a t e d conductivity. F o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c conductivity, refer t o
C h a p t e r 3.

S e c t i o n 2.13

Direct Runoff f r o m Rainfall or R a i n Excess

81

Figure 2.14
Water balance
c o m p o n e n t s of

overland flow.

z^

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

Time (min)

Availability of Water

Cbapter 2

t h e d o t t e d (i-q) c u r v e a n d t h e
c u r v e signifies i n t e r c e p t i o n a n d o t h e r m i n o r losses (stora g e s ) a t t h e b e g i n n i n g . A f t e r t h e s u r f a c e s t o r a g e i s filled i n , t h e t w o c u r v e s c o i n c i d e ( i . e . ,
d i r e c t r u n o f f r e s u l t s f r o m s u b t r a c t i n g t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n f r o m t h e r a i n f a l l ) . I f t h e r e is k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m i n o r l o s s e s , * t h e s e a r e d e d u c t e d f r o m t h e first p a r t o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n a f t e r
p o n d i n g . O r d i n a r i l y , these are i g n o r e d because t h e y are relatively m i n o r a n d c a n n o t b e
assessed reliably. T h e basic p r o b l e m t h u s relates t o d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n loss
rate u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s is k n o w n as t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n a p p r o a c h t o surface r u n o f f assessment, as c o m p a r e d t o the direct rainfall-runoff correlation (Section 7.15) a n d
m u l t i v a r i a t e r u n o f f r e l a t i o n ( L i n s l e y et al., 1982, pp. 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 ) .
T h e r e are f o u r a p p r o a c h e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a i n f a l l excess u s i n g t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c o n cept. T w o o f these, t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n capacity c u r v e a n d t h e n o n l i n e a r loss rate f u n c t i o n , are
detailed m e t h o d s t h a t consider t h e t i m e - v a r y i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n rates. I n t h e s i m p l i f i e d i n d e x
a p p r o a c h , t h e average rate o f i n f i l t r a t i o n f o r t h e s t o r m p e r i o d is used. T h e N R C S ( f o r m e r l y
S C S ) m e t h o d uses the time-averaged parameters a n d indirectly considers the infiltration
rate t h r o u g h the soil characteristics.

2.13.1 I n f i l t r a t i o n C a p a c i t y C u r v e A p p r o a c h
Green a n d A m p t proposed i n 1911 a relation for infiltration capacity based o n Darcy's law
o f soil w a t e r m o v e m e n t . Extensive research o nthe t h e o r y o f infiltration was carried o u t
d u r i n g the 1930s a n d mid-1940s. K o s t i a k o v a n d H o r t o n suggested empirical relations for
the infiltration capacity that became quite popular because o f their simplicity. Subsequent
empirical equations were formulated by Philip i n 1957 and H o l t o n i n 1961.
F o r u n s a t u r a t e d soil, the e q u a t i o n f o r flux ( v o l u m e o f w a t e r m o v i n g per u n i t area per
unit t i m e ) is given b yDarcy's law, i n w h i c h the hydraulic conductivity is a function o f
water content. W h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h the equation o f conservation o f mass, this relation
yields the following:

de

a ^

dt

dz

dhdd^

dK

[T-i]

(2.35)

dOdz

where
6 = water content o f soil
K =hydraulic conductivity
h = pressure head o n soil m e d i u m
z = distance m e a s u r e d positively d o w n w a r d f r o m the surface
E q u a t i o n (2.35), k n o w n as the Richards equation, isthe g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n o f infilt r a t i o n t h r o u g h saturated a n d unsaturated soil. Exact analytical solutions t othe Richards
e q u a t i o n are l i m i t e d t o a f e w cases. N u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r v a r i o u s
initial a n d b o u n d a r y conditions o f interest.
T h e elaborate procedures o f the n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d have been o f limited value i n practice because o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l cost, t i m e , a n d soil p r o p e r t i e s data r e q u i r e m e n t s . O n t h e
other h a n d , the simple e q u a tio n o f G r e e n a n d A m p t has been a focus o f renewed interest
b y m a n y researchers.
* T h e m i n o r l o s s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n : (1) o n l y i n t e r c e p t i o n
i s e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n ; (2) s u r f a c e r e t e n t i o n i s e x c l u d e d , c o m p r i s i n g i n t e r c e p t i o n , d e p r e s s i o n s t o r a g e , a n d e v a p o r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e s t o r m ; o r (3) i n i t i a l s t o r m l o s s i s s u b t r a c t e d , w h i c h i s t h e i n t e r c e p t i o n a n d o n l y
a small fraction o f t h e depression storage. O t h e r depressions are c o n s i d e r e d as a part o f the drainage.

S e c t i o n 2.13

Direct Runoff from Rainfall or Rain Excess

83

In addition, there are empirical models

f o r t h e infiltration capacity

curve.

These

e m p i r i c a l m o d e l s a r eo f t w o types. I nt h e K o s t i a k o v , H o r t o n , a n d P h i l i p m o d e l s , the infilt r a t i o n c a p a c i t y is e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e ; i tdecreases r a p i d l y w i t h t i m e d u r i n g t h e

early part o f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n process i frainfall intensity is greater t h a n t h e infiltration
capacity. H o w e v e r , i f t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y is less t h a n t h e capacity, t h e d e c a y i n t h e c u r v e is
less i n t h e r a t i o o f a c t u a l i n f i l t r a t i o n t o p o t e n t i a l (capacity) i n f i l t r a t i o n . T h i s necessitates a n
adjustment

o f t h e capacity curve. T h e H o l t o n m o d e l removes t h e p r o b l e m o f capacity

curve adjustment for the rainfall application rate b yrelating the infiltration capacity to the
soil m o i s t u r e deficiency. T h e m o i s t u r e deficiency (available storage) is reduced w i t h t i m e
d u e t o i n f i l t r a t e d water, a n d s o isthe i n f i l t r a t i o n capacity. T h e G r e e n - A m p t m o d e l , t h o u g h
h a v i n g a theoretical basis, is also based o nthe storage concept.

2.13.2 H o r t o n M o d e l
H o r t o n (1939) presented a three-parameter

e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s e d as

fp=(fo-fc)^-''

+ fc

[LT-1]

(2.36)

where
/ Q = initial infiltration capacity, i n . / h r
=

final

constant infiltration capacity (equal t o apparent saturated conductivity), in./hr

k = factor representing the rate o f decrease i n the capacity,

1/time

T h e p a r a m e t e r s /Q a n d k have n o p h y s i c a l b a s i s ; t h a t i s , t h e y c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d
f r o m soil water properties a n d m u s t b e ascertained f r o m experimental data.
T h e p l o t o feq. (2.36) is a n a s y m p t o t i c curve t h a t starts a t
value o f f

a n d attains a constant

as s h o w n b y A B D i n F i g u r e 2.15. T h e p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t e n s i t y

a b o v e t h i s fp-t

curve d u r i n g different t i m e intervals designates the r u n o f f and the depres-

s i o n storage, i f any.
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f a s t o r m , i f the precipitation for a certain d u r a t i o n occurs at a rate
less t h a n t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n capacity, a s o i l m o i s t u r e d e f i c i e n c y exists a n d t h e capacity f o r
infiltration r e m a i n s higher t oa p o i n t C i n Figure 2.15 rather t h a n falling t op o i n t B accordi n g t o eq. ( 2 . 3 6 ) . T h i s is illustrated i n E x a m p l e 2.14.
F o r c a l c u l a t i n g r u n o f f , i f t h e r e i s a n y d e p r e s s i o n s t o r a g e capacity, S, d e p r e s s i o n

storage

i s a c c o u n t e d f o r first u n t i l S i s c o m p l e t e l y f u l l . F o r e a c h t i m e i n t e r v a l , t h e d e p r e s s i o n

stor-

a g e , A S , i s t h e minimum o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o v a l u e s :
AS^iAt-AF

[L]

(2.37a)

or
A S =

S
depression^

I A S
f cumulated

[L]

(2.37b)

storage

storage f r o m

capacity

p r e v i o u s step^

A f t e r A S is c o m p u t e d , t h e r u n o f f is c a l c u l a t e d b y
RO = iAt-A-AS

[L]

Availability of Water

(2.38)

Chapter 2

Figure 2.15
Rainfall
intensity and infiltration
capacity curves.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Time, min
where
R O = rainfall excess o r r u n o f f d u r i n g t i m e A t
AF = d i f f e r e n c e i n c u m u l a t e d i n f i l t r a t i o n F d u r i n g At
AS - c h a n g e i n d e p r e s s i o n s t o r a g e d u r i n g A t
W h e n t h e r e i s n o d e p r e s s i o n s t o r a g e capacity, A S is zero.
A f t e r r u n o f f ensues, i f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t e n s i t y i n a c e r t a i n p e r i o d falls b e l o w t h e
infiltration capacity curve, the m o i s t u r e deficiency for this period h a st o b e m e t f r o m t h e
s u b s e q u e n t excessive p r e c i p i t a t i o n as e x p l a i n e d i n t h e e x a m p l e .
E X A M P L E

2,14

T h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y c u r v e f o r a w a t e r s h e d i s g i v e n b y ^ = (11.66 - 0.83) e^-^^^ + 0.83

w h e r e t is i n m i n a n d f , i n i n . / h r . T h e s t o r m p a t t e r n is:
t, min

Intensity, in./hr

0-10

3.5

10-20

3.0

20-30

8.0

30-40

5.0

40-50

1.5

50-60

2.4

60-70

1.5

D e t e r m i n e t h e r a i n f a l l excess f o r t h e successive 1 0 - m i n p e r i o d .
SOLUTION

1 . T h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y ^ i s c o m p u t e d i n c o l . 2 o f T a b l e 2.12 a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b y t h e g i v e n
formula.

S e c t i o n 2.13

Direct Runoff

from

Rainfall or Rain Excess

85