Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Albareda-Sirvent, Merkoçi, Alegret - 2000 - Configurations Used in The Design of Screen-Printed Enzymatic Biosensors. A R
Albareda-Sirvent, Merkoçi, Alegret - 2000 - Configurations Used in The Design of Screen-Printed Enzymatic Biosensors. A R
Albareda-Sirvent, Merkoçi, Alegret - 2000 - Configurations Used in The Design of Screen-Printed Enzymatic Biosensors. A R
153163
www.elsevier.nlrlocatersensorb
`
Received 7 May 2000; accepted 19 May 2000
Abstract
Different thick-film biosensor configurations designed during the last decade are revised. These planar configurations are classified in
three groups: a. multiple-layer deposition biological deposition by hand or electrochemically., b. screen-printing of composite inks or
pastes using two or more steps biological deposition by screen-printing., c. one-step deposition layer or biocomposite strategy.
Different enzyme immobilisation procedures corresponding to these configurations are also revised. These procedures consist mainly
of enzyme adsorption onto transducer surface, biological immobilisation by cross-linking in a glutaraldehyde layer, and physical, electroor UV-polymerisation entrapment. Immobilisation into the bulk of different carbon-based inks or pastes is also presented. q 2000 Elsevier
Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Enzyme immobilisation; Thick-film biosensors; Screen-printed biosensors; Screen-printing ink; Screen-printing paste
1. Introduction
Over the past few years interest has been increasing in
the application of simple, rapid, inexpensive and disposable biosensors in fields such as clinical, environmental or
industrial analysis. The most common disposable biosensors are those produced by thick-film technology.
A thick-film biosensor configuration is normally considered to be one which comprises layers of special inks
or pastes. deposited sequentially onto an insulating support or substrate. One of the key factors which distinguishes a thick-film technique is the method of film deposition, namely screen printing, which is possibly one of the
oldest forms of graphic art reproduction.
Screen printing seems to be one of the most promising
technologies allowing biosensors to be placed large-scale
on the market in the near future because of advantages
such as miniaturisation, versatility and low cost and particularly the possibility of mass production.
The use of thick-film technology for the production of
sensors and biosensors is an emerging field. The most
critical point in manufacturing thick-film biosensors is the
)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q34-93-581-1017; fax: q34-93-5812477.
E-mail address: salegret@gsb.uab.es S. Alegret..
sensing or active membrane and its adhesion to the transducer layer. Technical details on these planar techniques
for sensor and biosensor development have been reviewed
in previous works w1,2x
The aim of the present work is to review various
challenges reported in the literature in the last decade
related with the thick-film biosensors configurations as
well as the different enzyme immobilisation techniques
used. The revised configurations are classified in three
groups see Fig. 1.. The first one includes configurations
based on multiple layer deposition and enzyme immobilisation by hand or electropolymerisation, the second one
presents combined configurations based on composite inks
or pastes with printed enzyme immobilisation, and the
third one is a configuration based on a one-step deposition
layer of biocomposite ink or paste.
Ideally a thick-film biosensor configuration can be developed beginning with a conducting pad T which consists of a carbon ink or paste C., platinum Pt. or other
metal pastes. mixed or not with a mediator or catalyst M.
or any other components applied on a substrate S.. After
that, the free enzyme E. or mixed with an entrapment
agent m. or cross-linker c. glutaraldehyde mainly. g.,
and a stabiliser or additive s., etc. is applied in one or
more layers. In some configurations, the enzyme is mixed
with the cofactor F. and in others an outer selector layer
0925-4005r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 5 - 4 0 0 5 0 0 . 0 0 5 3 6 - 0
154
Fig. 1. Typical configurations used in designing screen-printed biosensors. i. Multiple layers by manual deposition, ii. screen printing of
enzymatic inks or pastes using two or more steps, iii. one-step configurations based on biocomposites ink or pastes. In all of these configurations,
layers are applied on a substrate with conducting tracks previously
formed by planar technologies. BI: biocomposite ink printed; c: layer of
material used for immobilisation glutaraldehyde, etc. deposited by manual deposition; E: enzyme layer manual deposition.; EI: enzymatic ink or
paste deposited by screen printing; L: outer protective layer CA, Nafion,
etc.. by manual deposition; S: substrate PVC, ceramic, etc.. with conducting tracks formed previously; T: conductive paste deposited by
screen printing. The mediators, stabilisers and additives, depending on the
device, can be included in any ink or paste.
155
156
Table 1
Some details of most representative devices designed by manual or electro deposition of biological material multiple layer configuration.
Biological
moleculercofactor
Modifierr
applied potential
vs. AgrAgCl.
Immobilization methodr
material usedrmembrane
Printing materialr
components
Analyterdetection limit
Polyester
Polyester
PVC
PVC
PVC
Ceramic
support
Alumina
ceramic
PVC
COD
CODrAChE
LDHrNADq
LDHrNADq
ADH
AChE,
BChE
AChE,
BChE
AChE
Rur0.7 V SCE.
Rur0.7 V SCE.
MBry005 V
MBr0 V
MBr0 V
CoPCr0.350 V
Ad by epolr polyphenolr
Ad by epolrpolyphenolr
Ad by enrrCA
Ad by enrrWhatman Tissue
Ad by enrrCA
CLrglutaraldehyde
Co PCr0.4 V
CLrglutaraldehyde, BSA
CIrRu
CIrRu
CIrMB, C
CIrMB, C
CIrMB, C
Paste PtrCoPC,
AC.
PasterG, AC
0V
CLrglutaraldehyde
CI CoPC.
PVC
BChE
TCNQr0.1 V
CLrglutaraldehyde
PVC
AChE
CLrglutaraldehyde
Alumina
ceramics
Alumina
1. GOD
2. PuOD
1. GOD or AO
CoPCr0.1 V
SCE.
r0.520.6 V
r0.140.22 V
ry0.4 V
CI TCNQ, G,
HEC, To, EG.
CI CoPC.
Green tape
ceramics
Alumina
ceramics
2. GDH, ADHr
NADH
1. GOD
2. GOD, b-G
3. GOD, INV, MUT
GOD
Alumina
substrate
Au
Au
LDH, MDHr
NADH
GDHrNADH
CLrglutaraldehyde onto a
silaneted Pt
1. CLrglutaraldehyderCA
1. Paste PtrAg.
2. Adrr
2. Paste Ag.
1. 0.6 V Pt.,
0.35 V Pt-G.
-CLrglutaraldehyde onto
silaneted Ptr
Paste Pt.
r0.7 V
Paste RuO 2 .
r0.6 V SCE.
CLrglutaraldehyde, BSAr
PVB
EnrPVAPEr
Pesticidesr10y9 M
Pesticidesr2 mg ly1
Lactic acidr10y3 M
Lactic acidr10y3 M
Ethanolr10y3 M
Carbofuran or propoxurr
10 mgrl
Pesticides or heavy metalsr
- 0.3 nM
Dichlorvos or paraoxonr
6.0=10y9 or 7.0=10y9 M FIA.
PMSF or DIFPr
- 0.06
Paraoxan or dichlorvosr
6.5=10y7 or 1.7=10y6 M
1. Glucoser1 mM
2. Aminer0.06 mmolrl
Glucoser -10y3 mmolrl,
ethanolr - 0.05 mmolrl
Glucoser - 3=10y4 mmolrl,
ethanolr0.005 mmolrl
1. Glucoser - 0.001 mM
2. Lactoser - 0.5 mM
3. Sucroser
GlucosarFIA.
r0.2 V SCE.
-En by epolrMBrPVAc
Au thick film
Lactater2.8=10y5 M FIA.,
malater2.4=10y4 M FIA.
Glucoser1 mM FIA.
Pt conductor paste
Lifetime
37 weeks
340 days
) 2 weeks
Ref.
Configuration
w3x
w4x
w5x
w6x
w7x
w10x
S-1TM-2E
S-1TM-2E
S-1TM-2E-3L
S-1TM-2E-3L
S-1TM-2E-3L
S-1T-2M 3Ecs
w11x
S-1TM-2Ecs-3L
w12x
S-1TM-2Ecs
w13x
S-1TM-2Ec-3L
w14x
S-1TM-2E-3cs
w17x
S-1T-2Ecs
w18x
S-1T-2Ecs-3L
S-1T-2EF
1. 1 month
3. 14 days
Several
weeks
2 months
w19x
S-1T-2Ecs-3L
w20x
S-1T-2E-3L
w25x
S-1T-2Em
w27x
S-1TM-2Ep
Biological molecule: GOD, glucose oxidase; AChE, acetylcholinesterase; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; COD, choline oxidase; ADH, alcohol dehydrogenase; INV, invertase; AAO, ascorbic acid oxidase;
MDH, malate dehydrogenase; GDH, glucose dehydrogenase; AO, alcohol oxidase; PuOD, putrescine oxidase; b-B, b-galactosidase; Inv, invertase; MUT, mutarotase; URE, urease.
Cofactor: NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
Mediatorrcatalyst: CoPC, cobaltphtalocyanine, TCNQ, tetracyanoquinodimethane; MB, methylene blue; FE, ferrocene, Ru, ruthenium.
Analyte: OP, organophosphorates; PMSF, phenylmethylsulphonylfluoride; DIFP, diisopropylfluorophosphate.
Immobilization method: Ad, adsorption; En, entrapment; Epol, electroplymerisation; cL, cross-linking.
Material components: Gl, glutaraldehyde; BSA, bovine serum albumin; CI, carbon ink; G, graphite; AC, acetone; TO, toluene; CH, cyclohexanone; CA, cellulose acetate; HEC, hydroxyethyl cellulose; PVB,
polyvinylbutyral; PVP, polyvinylpyrrolidine; PVAc, polyvinylacetate; PE, polyethylene; PU, polyurethane; PIB, polyisobutylene; UV paste, UV polymerizable paste; EG, ethylene glycol.
Substrate
Table 2
Some details of most representative devices designed by screen-printing of biocomposite pastes or biological inks
Biological
moleculercofactor
Modifierr
applied potential
vs. AgrAgCl.
Immobilization
methodrmembrane
Printing material
Analyterdetection limit
Lifetime
Ref.
Configuration
Polyester
PVC
LDHrNADq
AChE or BChE
ry0.35 V
CoPCr0.1 V
mM
Paraoxon or Dichlorvosr10y8 M
40 days
w29x
w30x
S-1T-2EFM
S-1TM-2Ecs-3L
AChE
CoPCr0.1 V
Pesticider
1 year
w31x
S-1TM-2Ecs-3L
Alumina
substrate
Polyamide
Alumina
ceramic
LDH
r0.35 V AgrPd.
70 h
w35x
S-1TEMs
GOD
Tyrosinase
FEr0.450.7 V
ry0.2V
Biocomposite or ink
Biocomposite or ink
L-Lactater -9.1
PVC
Biocomposite or ink
Biocomposite or inkr
PU
Biocomposite or inkr
PU
Entrapment
30 days
w36x
w37x
S-1TEMs
S-1TEMs
PVC
GOD
CoPCr0.3 V
Biocomposite or ink
w38x
S-1TEMs
Fired
alumina
ceramics
Fired
Alumina
ceramics
Glass fiber
GOD
TTFr0.22 V
Biocomposite or ink
GOD
TTFr0.22 V
Biocomposite or inkr
PC
GOD
r1.150 V
Biocomposite or ink
y7
L-Lactater2=10
M FIA.
Glucosar2 mgrml
Pesticidesrfrom 2 to 9 mM e.g.
diethyldithiocarbamate 2 mM; 2,4dinitro-o-cresol 9 mM. FIA
Glucosar0.4 mM
Glucosar -1 mM
20 days
w17x
S-1TEMs
)6 months
w19x
S-1TEMs
Glucosar - 0.05 mM
60 days
w41x
S-1TEMs
Biological molecule: GOD, glucose oxidase; AChE, acetylcholinesterase; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase.
Cofactor: NAD, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
Mediatorrcatalyst: CoPC, cobaltphtalocyanine; FE, ferrocene; TTF, tetrathiafulvalene.
Material components: CH, cyclohexanone; HEC, hydroxyethyl cellulose; UV paste, UV polymerizable paste; PVP, polyvinylpyrrolidine; EG, ethylene glycol; PEI, polyethyleneimine; DEAE,
diethalaminoethyl; PVB, polyvinylbutyral.
Substrate
157
158
and ethanol biosensors using commercial thick-film electrodes. To avoid interference from oxidisable substrates
such as ascorbic acid, the biosensor was covered with a
membrane by dipping in a solution of cellulose acetate
CA. with acetone and cyclohexanone. A three-layer configuration sensor, S-1TPt.-2EGOD or AO.cg.-3LCA.
class VIIX was the result.
On a layer of enzyme immobilised by glutaraldehyde
on a platinum electrode previously modified with 3aminopropyltriethoxysilane, APTS., the same authors w19x
studied the effect of additional polycarbonate membranes
with different thickness, pore size and pore densities. It is
used for the determination of carbohydrates in food glucose, lactose and sucrose detection.. These sensors are
based on GOD, co-immobilized b-galactosidase and GOD,
and invertase, mutarotase and GOD, respectively.
The increase of the linear range when a membrane is
added can be observed from the reported works of
Bilitewski et al. w17,19x and Ruger
et al. w18x, but at the
159
160
charge transferred during the electrochemical polymerisation process. However, most authors have their individual
way of electrode surface pretreatment, choose specific
concentrations for the enzyme and the monomer, and use
different electrolyte salts and hence counter-anions incorporated in the growing polymer film.
The main advantages of entrapment of enzymes into
conducting polymer films during the electrochemical polymerisation process are the extremely simple one-step procedure and the control of the spatial distribution of the
immobilised enzyme.
However, poor adherence resulted in some electropolymer based membranes and incompatibilities with some
enzyme immobilisation methods have appeared, presenting
difficulties for it applications.
Although electropolymerisation is not a manual process,
biosensors based on this technique have been classified in
this section. This is due to the fact that this technique is
different from the screen-printed one and is related to an
entrapment polymer layer.
Usual configurations for devices based on electropolymers p. are: X. S-1T-2Ep M p M means an electropolymer acting as a mediator. and XI. S-1TM-2Ep.
2.4.1. (X) S-1T-2EpM
Silber and Hammp w27x immobilised the enzyme glucose dehydrogenase GDH. by electropolymerisation of
methylene blue MB. in the presence of GDH in a buffered
solution. MB acts at the same time as electropolymer
matrix and mediator p M .. The thick-film biosensors produced, S-1TAu.-2EGDH.p M MB., were used for
electro-catalytic oxidation of NADH in solution during
glucose determination.
2.4.2. (XI) S-1TM-2Ep
Wang et al. w28x used this kind of configuration for
screen-printed amperometric biosensors for glucose and
alcohol based on ruthenium-dispersed carbon inks. Firstly,
a ruthenium-containing carbon ink was printed on a rectangular alumina ceramics substrate. Then GODrpolyphenol
films pph. were grown over it electrochemically from a
solution containing phenol and GOD in phosphate buffer,
resulting in the configuration S-1TC.MRu.-2EGOD.ppph. with two applied layers yielded.
Cagnini et al. w3x used a similar procedure for immobilising AChE.
Four typical configurations have been reported: XII. S1T-2EFm, XIIIX . S-1TM-2Ecs-3L, XIVX . S-1T-2M-3E4L and XV. S-1T-2M-3E-4s-5c.
The abbreviated configuration presented as S-1T-2M3E-4s-5c, for example, means that a first layer of conducting paste e.g. graphite carbon 1TC.. is applied and then
the process is ended by a successive screen-printed layers
with mediator M., enzyme E., stabilisers s. and crosslinker c.. In other configurations we can observe other
components like polymer or binder m., cofactor F. and
selector layer L..
Some technical characteristics and analytical parameters
related to the usual device configuration are given in Table
2.
3.1. (XII) S-1T-2TEFm
Yoon and Kim w29x fabricated thick-film electrodes on a
polyester sheet using a conventional screen-printing process. Three silver conducting tracks were first applied to a
polyester sheet and then graphite ink was printed on the
end of two conducting tracks for the counter and the
working electrodes. The nonmodified part of the conducting tracks was then covered by UV-polymerisation insulation ink. Finally, ink containing activated carbon, enzyme
LDH, cofactor NADq, PVP and silicone oil was printed on
the working electrode pad. The resulting configuration was
S-1TC.-2TC.ELDH.FNADH. mPVP..
3.2. (XIII X ) S-1TM-2Ecs-3L
S-1TM-2Ecs-3L configuration has also been developed,
where the mediator is mixed with graphite and a protective
layer is added. All the layers are printed except for the last
one 3L.. Using this configuration, Hart et al. w30x screenprinted electrodes onto clear PVC. The conducting track
consisted of a graphite ink. A graphite ink pad was printed
over the nonterminal end of the track. Over this, a further
graphite pad consisting of graphite ink containing cobalt
phthalocyanine CoPC. was then printed. An insulation
shroud of vinyl ink was then screen-printed to the electrodes, apart from the terminals and the pads. The enzyme
ink was prepared by mixing in a proper buffer acetyl
cholinesterase, hydroxyethyl cellulose HEC., bovine
serum albumin BSA., glutaraldehyde g. and graphite
powder to improve the viscosity. A thin outer membrane
of polyurethane was then applied to prevent the enzyme
layer from being washed off in the stirred aqueous sample.
The prepared screen-printed biosensors S-1TC.MCoPC.2EAChE.cg.sBSA.mHEC.-3L were used to determine
pesticides through inhibition of cholinesterase.
Recently, Hart and Collier w31x designed thick-film
biosensors by printing enzyme acetyl cholinesterase in inks
similar to those used in a previously commented work w30x,
but adding a copolymer of vinyl pyrrolidone and dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate, and polyethyleneimine. The
161
we consider that more than one step has been added, and
this will be included in Section 3.
Khan w21x designed three printed electrodes on a ceramic chip based on this configuration. The chip surface
was coated with an insulating glass layer except for the Pt
coated working part of the chip. A printable pasterink of
GOD previously enzyme was adsorbed on to TTFTCNQ
crystals. was prepared by thorough mixing with a polyester
binder poly isobutylene PIB. and N-butyl carbital acetate
NBC.. in adequate solvent heptane. and printed over the
working electrode.
Rohm et al. w35x developed a UV-polymerizable enzyme paste to be used in screen-printed L-lactate sensors
based on this configuration. Firstly, thick-film transducers
printed with platinum conducting paste on fired aluminium oxide ceramics. were produced. After that a UVpolymerizable and water-soluble paste p UV . was mixed
with a proper buffer, different amounts of a porous SiO 2
material, graphite andror solutions of diethanolaminoethyl
DEAE.-dextran and lactitol in potassium phosphate buffer
were added, and the resulting enzyme paste was screen
printed on the surface of a platinum working electrode of
each electrode system. Polymerisation was performed by
UV irradiation.
The application of this kind of configuration by Nagata
et al. w36x in the fabrication of a glucose sensor by the
screen printing technique was assayed in three types of
ferrocene-modified GOD. The ink used consisted of only
four components: modified GOD, two kinds of polymer
resin as binder, and organic solvent. Polyvinylpyrrolidine
PVP. and polyvinylbutyral PVB. were used. Therefore a
mixture of water-soluble and nonsoluble polymers was
used to provide a proper environment for ferrocene-GOD.
The polymers were dissolved in n-pentanol for printing.
The ink was printed onto the polymide film previous
patterned with thin cooper foil and dried immediately.
Wang et al. w37x modified inks by thoroughly mixing a
commercial carbon ink with the enzyme tyrosinase. Typical preparation was 0.6% enzymerink wrw.. The prepared amperometric biosensors were used to test various
pesticides and herbicides through the decrease in the substrate catechol. steady-state current, caused by the inhibition of enzyme.
Solgel graphite composites were also prepared for
developing screen-printable biosensors for surfactants w38x.
The solgel graphite mixture was prepared by mixing
sulfosuccinate AOT., tetramethylorthosilicate TMOS.
and water, with graphite powder mixed previously with
ferrocene, GOD, buffer solution and diphenylthiocarbazone DPT.. The paste prepared was printed onto the
pretreated PVC substrate.
Bilitewski et al. w17,19x prepared enzyme ink by mixing
graphite powder with saturated solution of TTF in toluene
until the latter was evaporated. Meanwhile they dissolved
GOD in polyvinylpyrrolidine solution and then added the
TTF-coated graphite powder. The same developed biosen-
162
sors have been tested by changing TTF-graphite by Pt-graphite. After thorough mixing, the ink prepared was applied
to the working electrodes by screen-printing. The devices
prepared were applied to carbohydrate determination.
Not only can enzymatic pastes be produced, we have
also encountered inmunosensors made by screen printing.
An example is a solgel derived thick-film amperometric
immunosensor by Wang and Pamidi w39x. The solgel
solution was prepared by mixing tetraethoxysilane TEOS.,
ethanol, water and HCl. Hydroxyproyl cellulose and RIgG
rabbit IgG. were added to the solgel solution and mixed
thoroughly. Subsequently, a mixture of the above solgel
solution was mixed with graphite and screen-printed onto
ceramic substrates.
A screen-printed glucose biosensor was reported recently by Wang and Zhang w40x. An ink with enzyme GOD
as well as mediator cupric hexacyanoferrate. was printed.
Finally, Galan-Vidal
et al. w41x designed a glucose
biosensor based on a graphiteepoxy screen-printable biocomposite. The GOD graphiteepoxy pastes were prepared
by dispersing GOD and graphite powder in an epoxy resin.
The composite viscosity was adjusted with cyclohexanone.
The paste prepared was printed onto a glass fibre circuit
board patterned with copper tracks by a conventional
photolithography process. The same procedure was implemented in a three-electrode configuration w42x.
From observations of different configurations that used
biocomposite ink or paste strategies, it can be concluded
that the technology used was approximately the same, the
only difference being the reagents employed.
5. Final remarks
The major advantages of the thick-film process are the
versatility in material preparation and the simplicity in film
formation, which generally results in lowering manufacturing cost. Research in the field of thick-film biosensors is
continually improving and its evolution is focused on ways
of producing biosensors strips for small portable devices
by allowing the monitoring of different species of interest
such as glucose and other clinical parameters or pollutants
pesticides etc..
The limiting step for commercialisation is mainly due to
the immobilisation procedure of the biological molecule,
mediators and other additives that are not suitable, in most
cases, to mass production, low manufacturing costs or
reproducibility.
The developed planar biosensors described in this review can be used in a wide range of analytical procedures
from Adrop on assayB, which can be useful for simple field
analysis, to automated systems such as flow injection
analysis.
The modification of commercially available or homemade inks for electrode printing, and the wide range of
possibilities with respect to the substrate material, allow
the development of low-cost and high-performance biosensors, which can be applied large-scale in any field.
Currently there is a tendency towards Aone step depositionB configuration due to its simplicity and applicability
in mass biosensor production. The use of biocomposite
inks and the absence of outer coatings greatly simplify the
fabrication of screen-printed biosensors Nevertheless multiple-layer technology is still used with the aim of improving the analytical characteristics of the biosensor devices.
Some authors began firstly with a simple configuration and
then continued their work by adding additional membranes, which means increasing fabrication steps. Both
trends make the tendency of two important issues clear:
simple configuration and good analytical performance.
Maybe at the present state of knowledge, these two factors
seem to be practically contradictory, and as a result, some
authors are directing their research towards one-step configuration, with others moving towards more-than-one-step,
in the search for higher analytical performance. In addition, we can observe better results in manual enzymatic
immobilisation biosensors than in devices with a screenprinted biological layer. At the present stage of this technology, manual cross-linking immobilisation using glutaraldehyde is the technique most used, and shows the best
results.
Whatever the case may be, the development of new
pastes and inks that incorporate as much bioelectrocomponents and as few steps as possible is clearly the most
adequate strategy in the design of new screen-printed
biosensor devices. The so-called biological inks, or
biofilms, compatible with automatic process are a new and
interesting field of research, directly related with the improvement of biosensor thick-film technology.
Acknowledgements
A. Merkoci and M. Albareda-Sirvent acknowledge
grants from Direccio General de Recerca Generalitat de
Catalunya., Barcelona DOGC no 3050, 5r1r00. and
Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologia
CICYT., Madrid PN 9634750905., respectively. The authors also acknowledge CICYT for its financial support.
References
w1x M. Prudenziati Ed.., Thick Film Sensors ElsevierLocation Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1994.
w2x C. Galan-Vidal,
J. Munoz,
S. Alegret, Trends Anal.
C. Domnguez,
267271.
w19x U. Bilitewski, A. Jager,
P. Ruger,
W. Weise, Sens. Actuators, B
235239.
w26x N.C. Foulds, C. Loewe, J. Chem. Soc., Faradays Trans. 82 1986.
12591264.
w27x A. Silber, N. Hampp, Biosens. Bioelectron. 11 1996. 215223.
w28x J. Wang, Q. Chen, M. Pedrero, J.M. Pingarron,
Anal. Chim. Acta
300 1995. 111116.
w29x H.C. Yoon, H.-S. Kim, Anal. Chim. Acta 336 1996. 5765.
w30x A.L. Hart, W.A. Collier, D. Janssen, Biosens. Bioelectron. 1997.
1264512654.
w31x A.L. Hart, W.A. Collier, Sens. Actuators, B 53 1998. 111115.
w32x A.L. Hart, A.P.F. Turner, D. Hopcroft, Biosens. Bioelectron. 11
1996. 263270.
163
Biographies
Miquel Albareda-Sirent graduated in 1996 from the Autonomous University of Barcelona. He is a PhD student at the Sensor and Biosensor
Group of the Department of Chemistry of this university and is currently
developing analytical instrumentation such as enzyme-based electrochemical biosensors.
Arben Merkoci graduated in 1986 from the University of Tirana, Albania,
and obtained his PhD in chemistry from the same university in 1991.
Since 1997 he has been working as invited professor at the Sensor and
Biosensor Group of Autonomous University of Barcelona. His main
research interests concern the design of composite and biocomposite
materials for chemo- and biosensors using amperometric, potentiometric
and stripping techniques.
Salador Alegret became professor of analytical chemistry at the Autonomous University of Barcelona in 1991. He is the head of the Sensor
and Biosensor Group of the Department of Chemistry of the UAB. He is
currently devoted to the development of electrochemical chemo- and
biosensors based on amperometric, potentiometric and ISFET transducers
in chemical, enzymatic, immunological and DNA systems. The resulting
sensor devices have been applied in automated analytical systems based
on bioinstrumentations and biomimetic instrumentation concepts for monitoring and process control in different fields, such as biomedicine,
environment and chemical industry.