Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

Continent
Asia
Europe
South America
Africa
North America
Oceania

DEMOGRAPHY:
Density person/sq. km
108
101
21
20
14
3

Urbanization by Continents:
SN
Continent
1.
South America
2.
Europe
3.
North America

S.no
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10.

Country
Russia
Canada
United States
China
Brazil
Australia
India
Argentina
Kazakhstan
Sudan

Urbanization
78
74
68

Top 20 Countries by Area

Area (lakh sq km) S. N
Country
170
11. Algeria
99
12. Dem. Rep of Congo
96
13. Mexico
95
14. Saudi Arabia
85
15. Indonesia
76
16. Libya
32
17. Iran
27
18. Mongolia
27
19. Peru
25
20. Chad

S.N

Country

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

China
India
United States
Indonesia
Brazil
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Russia
Nigeria
Japan
Mexico
Philippines
Vietnam

Worlds Most Populous Countries

Population
S.N
Country
in million
1,306
14 Germany
1,080
15 Egypt
295
16 Ethiopia
241
17 Turkey
186
18 Iran
162
19 Thailand
144
20 France
143
21 United Kingdom
128
22 Dem. Rep of Congo
127
23 Italy
106
24 Korea, South
87
25 Ukraine
83

Area (lakh sq km)

23
23
19
19
19
17
16
15
12
12

Population
In Million
82
77
73
69
68
65
60
60
60
58
48
47

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Geography Notes

Contributions of Important Geographers

Megalopolis concept
Jean Gottman
Conurbation Concept, Wrote Cities in Evolution
Patrick Geddes
Polar Front Theory
J. Bjerknes
Anticyclone term
Sir Francis Galton
Equilibrium Theory of tides
Issac Newton
Dynamic Theory of Tides
Laplace
Progressive Wave Theory
William Whewell
Canal Theory
G. B. Airy
Stationary Wave Theory of Tides
R. A. Harris
Process of Precipitation
Bergeron
First used the term Ecology
Tansley
Father of Ecology
Haeckel
First used the term plate
J. T Wilson
Coined the term Antecedent Stream
J. W. Powell
Classification of clouds
Luke Howard
Ice crystal Theory
Tor Bergeron
Collision-Coalesce Theory
George Simpson & Mason
Glacial Control Theory of Coral reef formation
Daly
Subsidence Theory of Coral reef formation
Darwin
Stand Still Theory of Coral reef
Murray
Concept of grade
G.K. Gilbert
Law of Stream number/Length
R. E. Horton
Location Allocation Models
P. Haggett
Law of Retail Gravitation
W.J. Reilly
Concept of Threshold & Range
B.J.L. Berry
Introduced the concept of Possibilism
Lucien Febvre
Coined Areal Differentiation
Hartshorne
General System Theory
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Developed Hythergraph
G. Taylor
Polyconic Projection
Ferdinand Hessler
Globular projection
S.J. Fournier

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Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Chromium
Diamond
Zinc
Uranium
Nickel
Coal
Steel
Iron Ore

Minerals & Their Largest Producers

Madagascar
South Africa, Australia
South Africa, Canada.
South Africa, Russia
South Africa, Republic of Congo & Australia
Canada, Australia
Canada, USA, Australia, Niger, France, South Africa
Canada, Russia, Australia, USA.
China, USA, India, Russia
China
China, Brazil, Australia.

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

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Cement
Manganese
Paper
Hydro Power
Tungsten
Asbestos
Natural Gas
Flax
Tantalum
Bauxite
Lead
Cadmium
Antimony
Uranium (Reser.)
Zirconium
Titanium (Rutile)
Iron
Copper
Tin
Silver
Mercury
Sulphur
Rock Phosphate

China
China, South Africa, Australia.
Canada
Canada, USA,
(Norway highest %age User)
China, Thailand, Korea
Canada Russia, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Russia, Canada, Algeria, Iran
Russia
Australia
Australia, Guinea, Jamaica & Brazil.
Australia, China, US
Canada
China
Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, South Africa
Australia Brazil
*Australia*
China, Brazil, Australia
Chile, United States, Canada, Armenia, Zambia, Zaire
China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, Malaysia
Mexico, Peru, Chile & Poland.
Spain, China, Italy.
Mexico, USA & Poland
USA, Peru (Guano).

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Agricultural Commodities & Their Largest Producer

Milk
India
Coffee
Brazil, Vietnam
Tobacco
China, turkey
Pork
China
Rice (export)
Thailand, Vietnam
Rice
China, India
Banana
India, Brazil
Banana (Export)
Costa Rica, Jamaica, Honduras, Columbia
Maize
USA, China
Wheat
China
Cork
Portugal
Palm Oil
Malaysia
Fresh Water Fish
Russia
Barley
Germany, Canada, Russia, France
Tea (Exporter)
Sri Lanka
Rubber
Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia
Paper
USA
Pulp (Export)
Canada
Paper (Export)
Canada
Sugar
India, Brazil, Cuba
Sugar (Export)
Cuba

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Oil Palm
Oil Palm (import)
Cotton
Cotton (export)
Mangoes
Manila Hemp (Abaca)
Raw Silk
Tobacco
Oranges
Oats
Millets
Rye
Sorghum
Pulses
Sugarcane
Tea
Dates
Olives
Wine (Exporter)
Wine (Producer)
Coconut
Grapes
Potato
Soyabeens

Geography Notes
Malaysia, Indonesia
India
China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan in that order.
USA
India
Philippines (75%)
China, Japan, India, Korea.
China, USA, India
USA, Brazil
Russia
India
Russia
USA
India
Brazil
India, China
Iran, Egypt
Spain
*Algeria*
Italy, France
Indonesia, Philippines,
Italy, France
China
U.S.A, Brazil
Sobriquets

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Island of Cloves
Land of Lilies
Land of Golden Fleece
Port of Five Seas
Island of Pearls
Hermit Kingdom
Land of Golden Pagoda
City of Canals
Holy Land
Herring Pond
City of Golden Gate
City of dreaming Spires
Land of Canals
Empire city
Land of Cakes
Land of Eskimos
Island of Pearls
Granite City
Garden of England
Cockpit of Europe

Zanzibar
Canada
Australia
Moscow
Bahrain
Korea
Yangoon (Myanmar)
Venice
Palestine
Atlantic
Sand Francisco
Oxford
Netherlands
New York
Scotland
Greenland
Bahrain
Aberdeen, Scotland
Kent
Belgium

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Geography Notes

City of brotherly Love

City of Magnificent Distances
Gateway of tears
Textile Capital of Russia
Manchester of Japan
Emerald City
The pearl of the Antilles

Philadelphia
Washington DC
Bab-el-Mandab
Ivanovo
Osaka (Textile)
Ireland
Cuba

Highest Peaks In Various Regions/ Mountain Chain

Africa
Mt. Kilimanjaro
North America
Mt. McKinley
Europe
Mt. Elbrus
Antarctica
Mt. Vinson
Asia
Mt. Everest
Oceania
Mt. Carstensz
South America
Mt. Aconcagua
Australia
Mt. Kosciusko
Urals
Mt. Gora Naradnaya
Alps
Mt. Mont Blanc
Andes
Mt. Aconcagua
Rockies
Mt. Elbert
Appalachians
Mt. Mitchell
South West Asia (Elbruz Chain)
Mt. Demavand

Important Places/Regions & Their Locations

Llanos
Tropical Grasslands of Venezuela
Campos
Tropical grasslands of Brazil
Iberian Peninsula
Spain
Katanga basin
Democratic republic of Congo
Canterbury Plain
Largest lowland area of New Zealand
Chaco / Gran Chaco
Low, flat, arid region covering Argentina Paraguay &
Bolivia.
Kra Peninsula
Malaysia
Parana region
Brazil Largest producer of wheat, corn cotton
Matto grosso
Thick jungle in west central brazil north of Bolivia.
Dogger bank
Shallow fishing area in north sea, 100km off UK
Grand bank
Shallow fishing area off new foundland, Canada
Georges bank
Near bay of fundy & Gulf of Maine
Nordic Countries
Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark.
Ob, Yenisey & Lena
Major rivers of Russia
Sarawak, Sabah, Labuan
These three states make up east Malaysia.
Yucatan Peninsula
Mexico
Ozark Plateau
heavily forested upland region, between the Missouri and
Arkansas rivers
Sinai Peninsula
In north eastern Egypt.

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Geography Notes

Miscellaneous Data of Various Nations

Country/
Urban
Hydro
Nuclear Thermal
Region
%
Elect %
%
%
Canada
75
60
USA
10
Britain
24
Italy
50
Norway
90
New Zealand
75
Switzerland
74
Japan
76
32
France
77
Lithuania
78
Germany
30
Australia
80
90
S. E. Asia
20
Russia
60

Forest
%
25

Tribes of the World

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Kalmuks
Kirghiz
Gauchos
Mestizos
Ostyaks
Pygmies
Boro
Semang
Papuans
Bushmen or San
Bedouins
Masai
Kirghiz
Saami or Lapps
Yuti
Chukchi
Yakuts
Aleut
Yuit
Inuit
Samoyed
Punan
Afrikaner/Boer

Inhabit the Altai mountains & nearby areas - pastoral

Occupy the Tien Shan & adjacent Pamirs
Cowboys of the pampas of Argentina & Uruguay.
People of mixed white & Indian parentage
West Siberian tribe
Congo basin Zaire, Congo, Gabon.
Amazon basin-sub group of red Indians.
Malaysia
New Guinea
Kalahari Namibia, Botswana, Angola
Nomadic Arabs in Africa & Middle-East
East Africa Kenya, Uganda
Central Asia. Muslim by faith
Norway, Sweden, Finland Also known as Laplanders
Siberia
Far Eastern Siberia
Tundra region of Russia
Aleutian Islands
Siberia
Greenland, Canada & Siberia
West Siberia
Borneo
Dutch race in S. Africa

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Geography Notes

Afridis
Veddas
Bantus
Berbers
Maori
Bindibu
Cossacks
Magyar
Croats
Flemish
Finns
Hamites
Hottentots/khoi khoi
Kaffris
Kikuyu
Masuds
Mestizos
Amerinds
Mulatto
Moors
Semites
Tartar
Zambas
Zulus
Akka
Oromo or Galla
Uygur
Kubu
Fulani/Fula
Buryat
Aeta
Ainu
Yanomamo

N. West Pakistan
Racial stock of Sri Lanka
Central & southern Africa Swahili is Bantu derived language.
Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia
New Zealand
Western Australia
Russia around black & Caspian Sea
Inhabitants of Hungary
Croatia
Belgium
European Tundra
N-W Africa Dark skinned muslims
Tropical Africa
S. Africa known as martial race
Kenyas most populous ethnic group
Waziristan region, Pakistan
People of mixed Indian & European blood in Latin America
N. America People of mixed European & Indian blood
Mixed European & black blood in South America
Mixed tribe of Arabs & Berber people of Morocco
Jews & Ethiopians
Turkic people of eastern Europe & central Asia
People of African & Native American Indian in S. America
People of Bantu family inhabiting South Africa
Democratic republic of Congo
African people of hamitic origin in Ethiopia & Kenya
Turkic people inhabiting N-W china & Kazakhstan.
Inhabitants of Sumatra
Cattle herders of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea or Chad
Largest ethnic minority in Siberia inhabiting buryat republic.
Mongoloid racial stock found in Philippines (indigenous)
Caucasoids of Japan.
Indigenous people of Brazil & Venezuela

Largest Producers of Fish in the World, 2001

S.no

Country

Prod in Million tons

1.

China

16.5

2.

Peru

3.

USA

4.9

4.

Japan

4.7

5.

Indonesia

4.2

6.

WORLD

92.4

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Worst deforestation rate of primary forests, 2000-2005

S.N
Country
Deforestation Rate %
1.

Nigeria

55.7

2.

Vietnam

54.5

3.

Cambodia

29.4

4.

Sri Lanka

15.2

5.

Malawi

14.9

6.

Indonesia

12.9

Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005 in hectares

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

- 3,466,000
- 1,447,800
- 532,200
- 395,000
- 250,200

Total forest cover in hectares - 2005

Russian Federation
808,790,000
Brazil
477,698,000
Canada
310,134,000
United States of America
303,089,000
China
197,290,000

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Brazil
Indonesia
Russian Federation
Mexico
Papua New Guinea

Highest total forest cover as a percentage of total land cover, 2005

Suriname
94.7
French Guiana
91.8
Micronesia (Federated States of)
90.6
American Samoa
89.4
Seychelles
88.9

Iron
Nickel
Manganese
Antimony
Titanium
Chromium
Uranium

Minerals & Their Ores

Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe304), limonite & Siderite
Millerite, Pentlandite
Pyrolusite, Braunite, Psilomelane
Stibnite
Rutile
Chromite
Pitchblende (UO2)
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Lead
Thorium
Zinc
Mercury
Beryllium
Cobalt
Lithium
Magnesium
Potassium
Silver
Sodium
Tin

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Geography Notes
Galena
Thorianite, Monazite, Allanite, Ilemnite
Calamine, Sphalerite
Cinnabar
Beryl, chrysoberyl
Smalitite, Cobaltite
Spodumene
Magnesite, Dolomite, Kieserite, Carnallite.
Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)
Argentite
Chile Saltpeter (NaNO3)
Cassiterite

Major Discontinuities within the earth

Conrad Discontinuity
Between outer & inner crust
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
Between crust & mantle
Repetti Discontinuity
Between outer & inner mantle
Weichart-Gutenberg Discontinuity
Between mantle & core
Lehmann Discontinuity
Between outer & inner core.

Important Mining Centers Of The World

Cleveland
Iron Ore (U. K.)
Ungava & Belle Island
Iron Ore (Canada)
Carajas
Iron Ore (Brazil)
Yampi Sound
Iron Ore (Australia)
Paraburdoo
Iron Ore (Australia)
Bilbao
Iron Ore (Spain)
Nikopol
Largest manganese mines of world (Ukraine)
Chuquicamata
copper (Chile)
Morenci
Copper (Arizona - largest in US)
El Chino
copper (New Mexico)
Katanga
copper, cobalt, uranium, cadmium, tin, gold, silver (DMC)
Mount Isa
Silver, lead, zinc & copper (Australia)
Broken Hill
Silver, Lead & Zinc
Witwatersrand
Gold (S. Africa)
Kalgoorlie
Gold (Australia)
Fushun
Manchuria (Coal)
Donetz
Coal (Ukraine)
Kuznetsk
Coal (Russia)
Karaganda
Coal (Kazakhstan)
Mesabi range
Iron ore (Northern Minnesota)
Pittsburg
iron & steel capital of the world (Pennsylvania)
Port Louis
Sugar industry (Mauritius)
Anshan
iron & Steel (China)
Lille
Textiles (France)
Yallourn
Coal (Australia)

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Ipoh
Tula
Chiatura
Chilean desert
Pilbara
Bomi Hill
Niger
Montana
Kra Peninsula
Iron Knob
Minas Gerais
Jos Plateau
Ozark
Bingham
Chihuahua

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Rum Jungle
Krivoi Rog
Sudbury
Kinta Valley
Weipa
Gippsland
Flin Flon
Catavi
Braden

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Isogones
Isohel
Isobront
Isocheim
Isothere
Isanomal
Isochrones
Isohypse
Isonif
Isophene
Isopotential
Isorymes
Isarithm
Isonephs
Co-seismal lines
Isohypse
Isopach
Isotach
Isotherombrose

Geography Notes
Tin (Kinta Valley, Malaysia)
Iron ore (near Moscow)
Manganese (Georgia)
Caliche (Chile Saltpeter-NaNO3)
Iron ore (Australia)
Liberia (Iron Ore
Uranium accounts for 75 per cent mineral export
Copper ( USA)
Tin (Narrowest point of Malaysia)
Iron ore (Australia- Now almost exhausted)
Iron Ore (Brazil)
Tin (Nigeria)
Lead-Zinc Ores (USA)
Copper (United States largest mine)
Important mining town of Mexico Iron, Lead, copper,
silver.
Uranium (Australia)
Iron Ore (Ukraine)
Nickel (Canada)
Tin (Malaysia)
Bauxite (Australia)
Lignite(Australia)
Mining centre in Manitoba, Canada
Bolivia
Chile (Copper)
Important Isopleths
Equal magnetic declination
Equal amount of sunlight.
Thunderstorm at the same time
Same mean winter temperature
Same mean summer temperature
Isopleth of Anomaly
Equal travel time from a common center.
Or Contour lines
Amount of Snow
Isopleths of seasonal phenomena
Surface to which artesian water can rise
Equal frost
A line representing continuous value on map
Equal cloudiness
Simultaneous seismic activity
Or contours
Equal thickness of geological strata
Same wind speed
Equal ratio of summer rainfall to annual rainfall

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

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Isochasm
Isodynamic
Isogen
Isokeraunic

Equal frequency of aurorae

Equal magnetic intensity
Equal birthrates
Equal occurrence of thunderstorms

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Places & Their Importance

Yorkshire
woollen textile
Lancashire
cotton textile
Glasgow
ship building
Sheffield
Cutlery & steel works
Lorraine
Iron ore (France)
Lyon
Silk Industry (France)
Silesia
Coal (Poland) high grade
Lodz
Manchester of Poland
Hamburg
Ship Building (Germany)
Stuttgart
Automobile (Germany)
Munich
Instruments (Germany)
Karl Marx Stadt
Textile (Germany)
Sambre-Meuse
Coal (Belgium)
Marseilles
Oil Refinery
Baku
Capital city of Azerbaijan & chief refining center.
Chicago
Biggest railway junction
Detroit
Automobile
Seattle
Aircraft
Cadiz
Cork (Spain)
Changchun
Automobile & machine tools (China)
Chelyabinsk
Iron & Steel (Russia)
Dresden
Optical, Photo & Graphic instruments (Germany)
Dusseldorf
Iron & Steel (Germany)
Essen
Iron & Steel (Germany)
Essex
Engineering works (England)
Kharkov
Machine building & Engineering (Ukraine)
Kiev
Engineering (Ukraine)
Magnitogorsk
Iron & Steel (Russia)
Nagoya
Cotton & Ship building (Japan)
Nizhny Tagil
Iron & Steel (Russia)
Venice
Glass Industry
Vienna
Glass Industry
Philadelphia
Locomotives (USA)
Plymouth
Shipbuilding (USA)
Yenang Yang
Oil Drilling (Myanmar)
Gorky / Nizhny Novogorod Engineering Industry.
Belfast
Ship building (Ireland)
Types of Delta
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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

1.

Arcuate Delta

2.
3.

Digitate or Bird-Foot Delta

Estuarine Delta

4.

Cuspate or Tooth-Shaped Delta

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17.

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Nile, Ganga, Rhine, Hwang Ho, Volga, Indus,

Mekong, Rhone, Danube.
Mississippi
Elb, Ob, Seine, Narmada, Tapti, Mackenzie,
Hudson, Amazon, Rhine
Tiber in Italy, Ebro of Spain.

Major Natural Regions

Equatorial Lowland
Equatorial Highland
Equatorial High Plateaus
Tropical Eastern Margin
Tropical Interiors
Tropical Western Deserts
Warm Temperate/Subtropical Western Margins
Warm Temperate/Subtropical Eastern Margin
Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Lowland
Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Plateau
Cool Temperate Western Margin
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin
Cool Temperate Interior Lowland
Cool Temperate Interior Highland
Cool Temperate High Plateau
Polar Lowland
Polar Highland

Desert
Sahara
Gobi
Patagonian
Rub Al Khali
Great Sandy
Great Victoria
Chihuahuan
Takla Makan
Sonoran
Kalahari
Kyzyl Kum
Thar
Simpson
Mohave
Nafud Desert
Dasht-I-Kavir

1. Mars

Amazon Type
Malay Type
Ecuador Type
Monsoon Type
Sudan Type
Sahara Type
Mediterranean Type
China Type
Turan Type
Iran Type
European Type
St. Lawrence Type
Prairie Type
Altai Type
Tibet Type
Tundra Type
Ice Cap Type

Major Deserts
Location
Northern Africa
Mongolia/Northeastern China
Argentina
Southern Arabian Peninsula
Northwestern Australia
Southwestern Australia
Mexico/Southwestern United States
Northern China
Mexico/Southwestern United States
Southwestern Africa
Uzbekistan
India/Pakistan
Australia
Southwestern United States
Arabian Peninsula
Iran
Planets & satellites
Deimos, Phobos
12

Ghanshyam Thori
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Geography Notes

Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto

Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Io

Titan, Tethys, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione
Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel
Triton
Charon

Gaseous Hypothesis
Nebular Hypothesis
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Tidal Hypothesis
Meteoric Hypothesis
Binary Star Hypothesis
Fission Hypothesis
Cepheid Hypothesis
Supernova Hypothesis
Interstellar Dust Hypothesis
Nebular Cloud Hypothesis
Protoplanet Hypothesis

Hypothesis of the origin of Earth

Kant
Laplace
T.C. Chamberlain & F. R. Moulten
James Jeans & Harold Jeffreys
Lockyer
H.N. Russel
Ross Gun
A.C. Banerji
F. Hoyle
Otto Schmidt
Von Weizsacker
Gerald Kuiper
Percentage Area of various bodies

1.
2.
3.
4.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

1.

1.

Pacific Ocean

2.
3.

Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean

Pacific Ocean
Tokyo Canyon
Bering Canyon
Columbia Canyon
Juan De Fucca Canyon
Monterey Canyon
Arguello Canyon
Scripps Canyon
Coronados Canyon

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Land

35.4 %
18.4 %
14.5 %
29.2 %

Major Trenches in the Ocean

Aleutian trench, Tonga trench, Philippine trench, Peru-Chile
trench, Mariana Trench (near Micronesia)
Puerto Rico trench, South sandwich trench, Romanche trench
Java trench
Submarine Canyons in various oceans
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
1. Oceanographer Canyon
1. Indus Canyon
2. Hudson Canyon
2. Ganges Canyon
3. Wilmington Canyon
3.
4. Norfolk Canyon
4.
5. Congo Canyon
5.
6. San Francisco Canyon
6.
7. Mississippi Canyon
7.
8.
8.
Basins of the Oceans
South Antilles basin, Cape basin, Agulhas basin
13

Ghanshyam Thori
2.
3.

Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean

Geography Notes
Mascarenes, Sulu, Celebes, Banda basin
Caroline, Solomon, New Hebrides, Guatemala basin

Major Ridges & Rises in various Oceans

Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
1. Catham rise
1. Rio Grande rise
1. Carlsberg ridge
2. Galapagos rise
2. Walvis ridge
2. Laccadive-Chagos ridge
3. Nazca ridge
3. Reykjanes ridge (Iceland)
3. Chagos-St Paul ridge
4. South Tasman rise
4. Sierra Leone rise
4. Kerguelen-Gausberg ridge
5. Louisville ridge
5. Para rise
6. Juan de fuca ridge (N-E P) 6. New foundland rise
7. Gorda ridge ( N-E P)
7. Wyville Thomson ridge
8. Explorer ridge
8. Dolphin rise
9. Austral Marshall Gilbert
9. Challenger rise
10. Carneige ridge
11. Cocos ridge
12. Norfolk Island ridge
13. Caroline-Solomon ridge
Lomonsov ridge & Gakkel ridge is in arctic ocean.
A
B
C
D
E
H

Koppens Classification
Tropical Climate
Steppe Climate
S
Dry Climate
W Desert Climate
Mild Humid (Mesothermal) Climate
Tundra climate
T
Snowy forest (Microthermal) climate
Ice Cap climate
F
Polar Climate
Precipitation in all months
f
Undifferentiated highland climate
m Monsoon type
Dry season in winter
w
Dry season in summer
s
Dry hot; mean ann. Temp >18 C (B only)
h
Dry cold; mean ann. temp < 18 C (B only)
k

1.

2.

3.

4.

Third Letter
Hot summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of above 22 C.
Used in C & D climate
Warm summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of below 22 C.
Used in C & D climates
Cool short summers with fewer than four months having a mean temperature above 10
C. Used in C & D climates
Very cold winters in which the mean temperature of the coldest month is below -38 C.
Used in D climate only.
Types of Climate Under Koppens Scheme
14

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Tropical Rainforest
Cs Mild humid climate with dry summer
Tropical monsoon
Df Snowy forest climate with on dry season
Tropical savanna
Dw Snowy forest climate with dry winter
Steppe climate
Ds Snowy forest climate with dry summer
Desert climate
ET Tundra climate.0<Warmest month< 10 C
Mild humid climate with no dry season
EF Perpetual frost. Less than 0 C throughout
Mild humid with a dry winter
Thornthwaite Scheme 1931
Thornthwaite identified 5 humidity zones on the basis of P/E (precipitation effectiveness or efficiency) index.
P/E index = 11.5 (r/T 10) ^9/10
where r is mean monthly rainfall in inches & t is mean monthly temperature in degree F. Similarly Thermal
efficiency or temperature effectiveness can be computed using
T/E ratio = (t 32)/4
Where t is the mean monthly temperature in degree F.
Af
Am
Aw
BS
BW
Cf
Cw

A
B
C
D
E

Humidity zones based on P/E index

Wet
127
Humid
64-127
Sub humid
32-63
Semi arid
16-31
arid
<16

r
s
w
d

Humidity Zones based on T/E index

Tropical
127
Mesothermal
64-127
Microthermal
32-63
Taiga
16-31
Tundra
1-15
Frost
0

A
B
C
D
E
F

Third letter
Rainfall adequate in all season
Rainfall deficient in summer
Rainfall deficient in winter
Rainfall deficient in all season

E.g. ABr mesothermal wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
Thornthwaite 1948 Classification
Moisture index (Im) = (100S- 60D)/PE
Where S represents monthly surplus of moisture & D represents monthly deficit of moisture. Thermal
efficiency index is simply the potential evapotranspiration expressed in centimeters.
Humidity zones based on moisture index
A
Perhumid
>100 cm
B1 B4
Humid
20 to100 cm
C2
Moist Subhumid
0 to 20 cm
C1
Dry subhumid
-33.3 to 0 cm
D
Semi arid
-67 to -33.3
E
Arid
-100 to -66.7

Thermal zone based on thermal efficiency

A
Megathermal
>114
B1 B4
Mesothermal
57 to 114
C2
Microthermal
42.7 to 57
C1
Microthermal
28.5 to 42.7
D
Tundra
14.2 to 28.5
E
Frost
< 14.2

15

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Composition of the Earth

Earths Crust
Whole Earth
Oxygen
46.6
Iron
35
Silicon
27.7
Oxygen
30
Aluminium
8
Silicon
15
Iron
5
Magnesium
13
Calcium
3.6
Nickel
2.4
Sodium
2.8
Sulphur
1.9
Potassium
2.6
Calcium
1.1
Magnesium
2.1
Aluminium
1.1
Mountains & Geological Periods
Feno-Scandian mountains, North west highlands

1.

Pre-Cambrian Mountains

2.

Caledonian Mountains

3.

Hercynian Mountains

4.

Alpine Mountains

1.

Block Mountain

2.

Fold Mountains

Mountain Types
Ruwenzori Mountain range in Central Africa, Black forest, Vosges,
bohemian massif and the Sierra Nevada in the south-western USA.
Himalayas, Aravalli, Appalachians, Alps, Rockies, Andes.

3.

Relict Mountains

Aravalli, Rajmahal, Nilgiris, Satpuras, Western Ghats.

4.

Dome Mountain

Henry mountain, USA

Waterfall
Angel Falls
Yosemite Falls
Mardalsfossen-South
Thukela (Tugela) Falls
Cuquenan
Sutherland

Formed during Silurian & Devonian period. E.g. Scottish

highlands, Appalachians, Aravallis
Formed during Permian period. E.g. Spanish Messeta, mountains of
Iberian peninsula, Brittany of France, Vosges, Black forest,
Mendips, Harz (Germany).
Formed during tertiary period. E.g. Rockies, Andes, alps,
Carpathians, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Balkans, Himalayas , Sierra
Nevada, Zagros & Elburz (Iran), Verkhoyansk mountains

Highest Waterfalls of the World

Location
Venezuela
United States
Norway
South Africa
Venezuela
New Zealand
16

Total drop (m)

979
739
655
614
610
580

Ghanshyam Thori

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Geography Notes

Caspian Sea,
Lake Superior
Lake Victoria
Lake Huron
Lake Michigan
Lake Tanganyika
Great Bear Lake
Lake Baikal
Aral Sea
Great Slave Lake

Worlds Largest Lakes

Asia
North America
Africa
North America
North America
Burundi (N), Zambia (S), DMC (W)
North America
Asia
Asia
North America

Lake Balkash
Lake Titicaca
Lake Nyasa
Lake Ladoga
Lake Onega
Lake Rudolf
Lake Torrens
Lake Vanern
Lake Urmia
Lake Mobutu

Other Important Lakes

Kazakhstan
Bolivia-Peru
Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania
Russia (N-W)
Russia (N-W)
Kenya
Just South of Lake Eyre in S. Australia
Sweden
Iran
Uganda

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Principal Gases in the atmosphere

Nitrogen
78.084
Oxygen
20.947
Argon
.934
Carbon Dioxide
.0314
Neon
.0018
Helium
.0005
Methane
.0002
Krypton
.00011
Hydrogen
.00005
Xenon
.0000087

1.
2.
3.
4.

Heterosphere
Molecular Nitrogen layer
Atomic Oxygen layer
Helium layer
Hydrogen layer

5.
6.
7.

Albedo of Some Surfaces

Fresh Snow Cover
80 %
Clouds
70-80%
Sand
20-30 %
17

90-120 km
200-1100 km
11000-3500 km
3500-10000 km

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Grass
15-30 %
Dry Ground
15-20%
Wet Ground
10 %
Forest
5-10%
Water (Solar Elevation > 60)
3-5%
Water (Solar Elevation
25-30 %
Various Measuring Instruments
Lysimeter
Evapo-Transpiration
Anemometer
Wind
Psychrometer
Humidity
Planimeter
Area on Maps
Pantograph
Enlargement & Reduction of Maps
Parallax Bar
Measuring elevations from topographical maps.
Abney level
Measuring angles in a vertical plane
Clinometer
Angles in vertical plane
Dumpy level
Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane
Theodolite
Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane
Spectroradiometer
Measures spectral reflectance at different wavelengths.
Stereoscope
View photos in 3D view. Channelises one image to one eye.
Opisometer/ Meilograph Measuring length of curved lines on a map.
Eidograph
Enlargement & Reduction of maps
Alidade
A sighting device or pointer for angular measurement used in
plane table survey.
Aneroid Barometer
Used for measuring altitude as pressure decreases with height
Sextant
Used to measure angle of objects located on the field

Mistral
Bora
Blizzard
Purga
Bise
Levanter
Pampero
Papagayo
Haboob
Friagem
Buran
Norther
Etesian
Surazo
Norte
Tehuantepecer

Important Local Winds of the World

Cold Winds
Blows in Spain & France from N-W to S-E. Common during winter
Blows along the shores of the Adriatic sea.
Snow laden wind in
Snow laden wind in Russian tundra. Much like Buran.
An extremely cold wind in France
Blows in strait of Gibraltar between Spain & Morocco.
Pampas of S. America
Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua.
Sudan
Amazon Valley
Eastern Russia & central Siberia
Texas, Gulf of Mexico & western carribean
Eastern Mediterranean.
Cold wind blowing from Argentinean pampas & Patagonia.
A strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in Mexico.
This is a violent, squally wind from north or north-east in S. Mexico.
Hot winds

18

Ghanshyam Thori
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Fohn
Chinook
Harmattan
Brickfielder
Black Roller
Shamal
Norwester
Sirocco

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

Simoom
Santa Ana
Yamo
Zonda
Tramontane
Samun
Karaburan
Berg
Shamal
Austru
Almwind

Geography Notes
Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Alps in Switzerland.
Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Rockies in USA
Blowing from east & northeast towards west in Sahara
Victoria province of Australia
Great plains of USA
Mesopotamia & Persian Gulf
New Zealand
From Sahara over Mediterranean. Known as khamsin in Egypt, Chili in
Tunisia, Gibli in Libya, Levech in Spain & Leste in Madiera & Morocco.
Warm & dry dusty wind in the Arabian desert
S. California blowing out of Santa Ana canyon
A warm & dry wind in Japan
A warm & dry wind of the Andean valleys in Argentina
A warm wind of central Europe.
Warm wind in Iran
Hot dusty wind in central Asia Tarim basin, Mongolia.
A hot dry wind blowing from interior in South Africa.
A hot wind of Iraq and the Persian gulf
Dry blows from the lee side of the mountains in Romania (much like fohn).
Local name of fohn that blows in Hungary & Poland over Tatra mountains.
Soil Classification

Soil
Name
Alfisol

Aridisols
Entisols

Common Characteristics

Fertility

Moderately weathered, having a medium to high base

saturation & have a subsoil accumulation of clay. Most
develop under forest
Desert soils with little or no organic content but
significant calcium. Affected by salinization.
Soil Type with little or no horizon development. Found
in young formations (lava, sand-dunes etc)

High

Inceptisols More significant horizon development than entisols but

less than others. Used for cultivation of sugarcane &
coffee
Histosols
Mollisols

Organic soils found in bogs, swamps & wetlands

Dark coloured with upper horizons rich in organic
matter. Geographically associated with aridisols

Oxisols

Infertile, acidic, deeply weathered soils with contain

clays of iron & aluminium oxide
Sandy soils which develop under forests particularly in
coniferous areas. They are acidic & have accumulation
of organic matter & iron & aluminium oxides.
These are acidic, deeply weathered soil of tropical &

Spodosols

Ultisols

19

Typical
Location
Parts of Canada,
U.S & Europe

Low

Deserts

Low to
Moderate

River valleys,
flood plains &
deltas
Mountain &
other
geologically
young formation
Swamps & bogs
Great American
plains. Pampas
& Steppes
Amazon basin &
Congo basin
Coniferous areas
in cool climate.

Moderate
to low

Very High

Low
Good

Poor,

Temperate

Ghanshyam Thori

Vertisols
Gelisols
Andisols

S
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

Geography Notes

subtropical areas with clay accumulation in the B

horizon. Not as intensely weathered as oxisols
Clay soils which expand when wet & crack when dry.
Soil where permafrost lies within 2 m of the surface
Contain ash & volcanic glass

require
fertilizers
Good
Poor
Poor

Changed Geographical Names

Old Name
New Name
Old Name
Abyssinia
Ethiopia
29. Angora
Aden
Yemen
24. Basutoland
Bechuanaland
Botswana
25. Batavia
British Honduras
Belize
26. Constantinople
Dahomey
Benin
27. Cape Canaveral
Formosa
Taiwan
28. Christina
Leningrad
St. Petersburg
29. Congo
Persia
Iran
30. Constantinople
Mesopotamia
Iraq
31. Dutch East Indies
Batavia
Jakarta
32. Dutch Guiana
South-West Africa
Namibia
33. Japan
Tanganyika/Zanzibar Tanzania
34. Malaya
Upper Volta
Burkina Faso
35. Manchukuo
Gold Coast
Ghana
36. Mesopotamia
Stalingrad
Volgograd
37. Nyasaland
Azrak
Azov
38. Rangoon
Ister
Danube
39. Rhodesia
Paulus Meotus
Volga
40. Salisbury
Raha
Blue Nile
41. Ascension
Albion
England
42. Bohemia
Euxine
Black Sea
43. Cilicia
Mare Internum
Mediterranean Sea 44. Ellice Islands
Taprobana
Sri Lanka
45. French Guinea
Northern Rhodesia
Zambia
46. Portuguese Guinea
Southern Rhodesia
Zimbabwe
47. British Guinea
Leopoldville
Kinshasa
48. French West Africa
New Hebrides
Vanuatu
49. West French Africa
Manchukuo
Manchuria
50. Dutch Guyana
Sea of Herkend
Indian Ocean
51.

City
Alexandria
Amsterdam
Antwerp
Ankara
Baghdad

River
Nile
Amsel
Scheldt
Kizil
Tigris

Cities Located on Rivers

Country
City
Egypt
Lahore
Netherlands Lisbon
Belgium
Liverpool
Turkey
London
Iraq
Montreal
20

River
Ravi
Tagus
Mersey
Thames
Ottawa

humid &
tropical regions.
Seasonally dry
Periglacial areas
Near volcanoes

New Name
Ankara
Lesotho
Djakarta
Istanbul
Cape Kennedy
Oslo
Zaire
Istanbul
Indonesia
Surinam
Nippon
Malaysia
Manchuria
Iraq
Malawi
Yongon
Zimbabwe
Harare
Saint Helena
Czech Republic
Turkey
Tuvalu
Guinea
Guinea Bissau
Guyana
Mali
Mauritania
Surinam

Country
Pakistan
Portugal
England
England
Canada

Ghanshyam Thori
Bangkok
Belgrade
Berlin
Bonn
Bristol
Budapest
Cairo
Canton
Chittagong
Chungking
Cologne
Glasgow
Hull
Hamburg
Karachi
Khartoum

Geography Notes
Menam
Danube
Spree
Rhine
Avon
Danube
Nile
Canton
Karnaphuli
Yang-tse-kiang
Rhine
Clyde
Humber
Elbe
Indus
Nile

Thailand
Yugoslavia
Germany
Germany
England
Hungary
Egypt
China
Bangladesh
China
Germany
Scotland
England
Germany
Pakistan
Sudan

Moscow
Nanking
New Orleans
New York
Paris
Philadelphia
Quebec
Rangoon
Rome
Shanghai
Tokyo
Vienna
Warsaw
Washington

21

Moskva
Yang-tse-kiang
Mississippi
Hudson
Seine
Delaware
St. Lawrence
Irawadi
Tiber
Yangtze-kiang
Sumida
Danube
Vistula
Potomac

Russia
China
USA
USA
France
USA
Canada
Burma
Italy
China
Japan
Austria
Poland
USA

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

MISCELLANEOUS FACTSI
1. Netherlands is the most densely populated country of western Europe.
2. France is the second largest nuclear energy producer after USA
3. World Average of Urbanization is 43%.
4. Portugal is one of the least urbanized European countries only 30 %.
5. Iceland, U.K., Belgium, Netherlands & Spain 90% Urbanization
6. Latifundia Europe, Haciendas Latin America, Ranches USA, Stations Australia, Entancias in
South America.
7. Primary sector red collar; secondary sector blue collar; tertiary sector pink collar; quaternary sector
white collar; quinary services gold collar.
18. Nigeria has the highest rate of deforestation in the world & brazil looses the maximum forest area.
19. Shifting cultivation is known as Ladang in Malaysia, Caingin in Philippines, Humah in Indonesia, Chena
in Srilanka, Milpa in Africa & Central America & Taungya in Myanmar.
20. Santos is the major coffee port of Brazil accounting for 3/4th of the export handling.
21. Mocha coffee is from Yemen.
22. India is a net importer of copper.
23. The only area in the world where zinc is mined without lead is the Franklin Furnace area in New Jersey
State of USA.
24. Republic of Congo is the largest producer of industrial diamonds.
25. Nearly three-fourths of the electric requirement needs of south American countries are met

through

hydroelectricity.
26. Benelux countries include Belgium, Netherlands & Luxembourg.
27. Atlanta is the busiest airport in the world, followed by Chicago airport.
28. Israel is the most urbanized country in the world with >90% urban population.
29. Orinoco river of Venezuela rises in the Guiana highlands & passes through llanos.
30. Shrublands chaparral in California, macques in Mediterranean region, the caatinga of northeastern
Brazil, and the mallee of Australia, which is dominated by low-growing eucalyptus.

22

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

31. South of the Great European Plain, a band of dissimilar geological structures sweeps across Europe,
creating the most intricate landscapes of the continentthe Central European Uplands. Throughout this
region the forces of folding (the Jura range), faulting (the Vosges and Black Forest mountains), volcanism
(the Massif Central, or central highlands, of France), and uplift (the Meseta Central, or central plateau, of
Spain) have interacted to create alternating mountains, plateaus, and valleys.
32. Islamabad is situated on Potwar plateau.
33. Period of rotation is the longest for the planet Venus & shortest for Jupiter. Venus takes longer time to
complete one rotation on its axis than one revolution around the sun. Mercury & Venus do not have any
satellites. Mars has two satellites & Pluto has one.
34. Venus is closest planet to earth. Venus is also the hottest planet in the solar system perhaps due to its slow
rotation causing longer exposure of a particular area to sun.
35. The period of revolution of planets increases outwards without any exception. The linear distance of a
degree of latitude on an average is 69 miles. The length of longitudes outside tropics varies widely. Vernal
equinox is on March 22 & autumnal equinox on September 23.
36. Earth is the densest of all planets & Saturn has the least density. Earth is almost twice the radius of mars &
roughly equal to Venus. Uranus is slightly bigger than Neptune.
37. Caledonian movement (e.g. Scottish highlands) & Hercynian movement (Harz mountain range in central
Germany) took place during Devonian period & Permian period respectively.
38. Pleistocene epoch is best known for emergence of humans & Great Ice age.
39. Annual range of temperature is the difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the warmest &
the coldest months. The difference is not between highest & lowest temperature.
40. In absolute humidity the denominator is dry air while in specific humidity it is moist air. The temperature
at which an air parcel gets saturated at its present moisture level is called dew point.
41. Stratiform or layered clouds; Cumuliform or globular clouds. Cirrus or highest clouds & Alto or medium
clouds. Nimbus or rain bearing clouds. Stratus clouds are very close to ground surface.
42. Cirrocumulus clouds form mackerel clouds & cirrostratus clouds produce haloes. Alto-cumulus are
called sheep clouds. Rain falling from nimbo-stratus but not reaching ground is called virga. Low clouds
less than 2 km high are stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus & nimbostratus & these are the only ones which
give precipitation.
43. Slope of the warm front is much gentler (1:100 or less) than cold front (~1:50). In the warm front
precipitation is gradual but of long duration. In cold front precipitation is short but in the form of heavy
downpour.

23

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

44. One fathom = 1.84 meters. The width of the continental shelf on the western coast of India is broader than
the eastern coast as the former is coastline of submergence & latter is emergence.
45. Flat-topped seamounts are called guyots (pronounced gee-o).
46. Mariana trench, off the island of Guam, Emden Deep off Philippines, & kuril trench in which lies the
famous Tuscarora Deep & Mindanao deep (Mindanao, island of the Philippines, the second largest, after
Luzon and southernmost of the country's islands) are prominent in Pacific.
47. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge breaks the ocean's surface in several places, forming seven islands or groups of
islands. From north to south, these islands include Iceland, the Azores, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks,
Ascension, Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and Bouvet.
48. Strait of Hormuz, linking the Persian Gulf on the west, with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea on the
east. Bab el Mandeb connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden.
49. Salinity is equatorial areas is lower than in the tropical areas. Its lowest in polar areas. Great Salt lake in
Utah has a salinity of 220 %, Dead Sea has 240 %, & Lake Van in Asia Minor has 330 %.
50. Lake Laguna De Bay (Philippines), Lake Biwa (Japan), Lake Tiberias (Israel & Syria), Lake Asad (Syria),
Lake Sevan (Armenia)
51. From the equatorial region, water density tends to rise in the tropics. From the tropics to the middle
latitudes there is a decline & it increases again in polar areas due to temperature decline.
52. Kuril Island - small volcanic islands in far eastern Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific
Ocean. Faroe Island is under Denmark. Orkney Islands lie north of Scotland.
53. In 24 hours & 52 minutes every place will have two high tides & two low tides. Two successive high tides
are about 12 hours & 26 minutes apart & the time difference between the high tide & the following low
tide is about 6 hrs 13 minutes. The extra 52 minutes are caused due to revolution of the moon around the
earth in the same direction i.e. west to east. The tidal magnitude at a given meridian will be more in the
low latitudes & lesser in the higher latitudes due to the greater centrifugal force on the equator.
54. O, A, E, B & C & R are the soil horizons from top to bottom. The removal of soil minerals & colloids
from the upper horizons is called Eluviation & deposition in lower horizons is Illuviaton.
55. Rich, dark soils called Chernozems. They lack the leached E horizon. Soils in cooler continental climates
(coniferous forests) are known as Podzols, a soil type that is not very fertile but rich in humus due to cold
climate. The leaching action of heavy rain and water runoff removes many of the nutrients from podzols.
Lateritic soils, one of the least fertile soil types are found in wet & hot climate (Tropical Forests).
Gleization is the pedogenic regime of warm water-logged areas. Glei soils are rich in organic material &

24

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

the soil changes to blue colour due to reduction of iron minerals. Calcimorphic soil develop in areas of
seasonal drought.
56. Hydroponics, term applied to cultivation of plants in nutrient solutions without use of soil.
57. Pyramid of energy can never take an inverted form, the other two (biomass & number) can.
58. Boreal forest refers to the Taiga vegetation comprising coniferous trees. The Mediterranean type of
vegetation is also called Sclerophyll forest (e.g. Chaparral).
59. Serengeti National Park is located in northern Tanzania. Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay &
Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay. Paraguay is landlocked.
60. Elephant grass is found in Savanna & Buffalo grass is typical of Steppe grasslands.
61. The period of revolution & rotation of the moon is the same i.e. 27.3 days. The shortest route between two
places on the surface of the earth is along the great circles i.e. longitude.
62. Orogenetic forces producing mountains are horizontal & epeirogenetic forces are vertical.
63. Block mountain black forest, Old fold mountain Appalachian, young fold mountain rocky, relict
mountain Scottish highlands
64. Arenaceous rock (having sandy features) Sandstone, Argillaceous rock (having clayey features) Shale,
Plutonic rock (intrusive igneous rock) - Gabbros & dolerite, Volcanic rock (extrusive igneous rock)
Andesite, Rhyolite, Basalt. Sedimentary rock Ironstone. Slate results from the metamorphosis of shale or
clay. Basaltic magma is fluid & granitic is viscous.
65. A basin-shaped depression surrounded by mountains is called bolson. In a karstic region, a steep natural
shaft which emerges at the surface is called Ponor. A steep-sided hill, of roughly circular cross-section,
characteristic of karst topography is called hum.
66. A broad slope of alluvial material at the foot of an escarpment is called Bajada. From the eroded angular
peaks of more resistant rocks, alluvial fans lead away to deposit large slopes of debris, called bajadas, at
the base. These slopes level off to form low basins called playas. Salt covered playa beds are called
Salinas.
67. The deposition of sediment building up a sand bridge that connects the island to the mainland. The sand
bridge is called a tombolo.
68. The inclination of a fault from the vertical is called hade & it is complimentary to dip. The horizontal
displacement is called heave. Rake angle measures the slip.
69. Erosion of the ground beneath and at the sides of a snowbank, mainly as a result of alternate freezing and
thawing is called nivation.
70. An area of shifting desert sand-dunes, esp. in the Sahara is called erg.

25

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

71. The trades are strongest in winter season. The primary divisions of koppen classification are based on
mean monthly temperature & mean precipitation & evaporation. The secondary divisions are based on
seasonality of rainfall.
72. Temperate cyclones generally develop over land.
73. Ninety East Ridge is situated in Indian Ocean. The mid Atlantic ridge comprises the Dolphin rise on the
north & challenger rise to the south separated by Romanche deep. It is known as Wyville Thompson ridge
between Iceland & Scotland. The ridge becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland & Iceland & is
called Telegraphic plateau.
74. Globigerina ooze is the most abundant in Atlantic Ocean. Warm Agulhas current flows in the Indian
Ocean in southerly direction & Cold Falkland current in Atlantic Ocean towards north.
75. Azov Sea, inland sea, connected with the Black Sea by the Strait of Kerch.
76. Magnetic declination is the difference between true north (the axis around which the earth rotates) and
magnetic north (the direction the needle of a compass will point).
77. A traveler crossing the International Date Line from west to east gains a day & from east to west loses a
day.
78. Earth is the fifth largest planet & Pluto the smallest. Pulsars are sources of powerful, pulsating radio
waves in space which are rapidly rotating neutron stars. Quasar stands for quasi-stellar object & is a
compact object that looks like a point of light but emits more energy than a hundred super giant galaxies.
79. Earths history has two main divisions or eons: the Cryptozoic Eon & Phanerozoic Eon. The cryptozoic
eon is divided into Hadean, the Archean & the Proterozoic eras. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic eras.
80. Amphibolite is a metamorphic rock & is formed by metamorphosis of igneous rocks such as basalt &
gabbro. Chert & flint are sedimentary rocks. Clastic rocks are mechanically formed. Hornblende is
igneous while hornfel is metamorphic.
81. Cratons form the cores of most continents and consist of inactive geological areas more than 2 billion
years old with thick crust and deep roots extending into the mantle beneath.
82. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians form part of the same mountain
chain as the Atlas mountains in Morocco.
83. Inselbergs (bornhardts) eventually erode & degenerate into what are called Kopjes.
84. Isoclinal Fold is one in which both limbs are approximately parallel. Recumbent Fold: A fold with a
nearly horizontal axial plane. Monocline: When folding takes place in very small magnitude or at a very
small angle a monocline is formed. Here the limbs are almost horizontal producing simple flexure.

26

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

85. The Peru-Chile trench marks where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate.
The volcanic activity and uplift of the Andes are a result of the subduction.
86. There are 26 oceanic trenches in the world: 3 in the Atlantic Ocean, 1 in the Indian Ocean, and 22 in the
Pacific Ocean.
87. Examples of cinder or ash cones are Mt Jorullo of Mexico & Mt Izalco of San Salvador. Most of the
famous volcanoes have composite cone. Mt. Etna of Sicily is an example of parasitic cone. Caldera (Lake
Toba of Sumatra is most famous example). Maar is a broad, low relief crater that is caused by a phreatic
eruption or explosion caused by groundwater contact with magma.
88. Kilauea, the world's most active volcanic crater, located on central Hawaii Island.
89. Mt Etna of Sicily, Mt. Vesuvius of Naples & Mt Stromboli, the northernmost & Mt Vulcano the
southernmost of the seven Lipari Island are all located in Italy.
90. The classification of volcanoes in order of increasing intensity of explosion is: Hawaiian type, Stromblian
type, Vulcanian type, Vesuvian type, Pelean type.
91. Fluid basaltic lava forms pahoehoe lava flow & viscous forms blocky aa lava flow. Mt Hood & Mt Rainier
& Mt. Vesuvius are dormant volcanoes. Mt Meru (Tanzania) & Mt Elgon (Kenya-Uganda border) are
extinct volcanoes.
92. Laccolith is mushroom shaped causing the crust over it to form a dome. Lopoliths are saucer shaped with
concave side upwards & Phaccoliths are lens shaped deposits in anticlines & synclines.
93. Thawing of slopes in the summer may move soil downslope to produce solifluction, or flowing soil
terraces. Rockfalls produce a deposit called talus at the base of the cliff.
94. Sequent Streams are those which are well adjusted to the geological structures & follow the regional
slope. Insequent streams do not follow regional slopes.
95. Centrifugal drainage is also known as radial drainage (e.g. Sri Lanka). In barbed pattern the tributary
flows in opposite direction to the master stream & such pattern usually develops due to river capture.
Annular/Circular drainage pattern is different from centrifugal pattern.

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Consequent

Resequent

Annular Drainage pattern

Obsequent

Subsequent

96. Abrasion or Corrasion is with the help of erosional tools. Attrition refers to the wear & tear of erosional
tools in themselves.
97. Block disintegration is due to different material. Granular disintegration is due to different colour.
Shattering is due to rain shower over heated rocks. Sheeting & cambering refers to the development of
horizontal & vertical cracks due to unloading. Spalling is development of platy rock fragments due to
unloading. Flaking results from differential heating of outer & inner layers of a rock. After flaking the
wind peels off the layer & this is known as exfoliation.
98. Structural benches are formed due to differential erosion of soft & hard rocks while river terraces are
produced due to valley-in-valley topography by rejuvenation. Victoria fall on Zambezi river is a result of
faulting & Yosemite falls California is due to glaciated hanging valley.
99. Alluvial fans have a gentler slope as compared to cones. Sometimes neighboring cones & fans meet to
form Piedmont alluvial plain or Bajada.
100. Yazoo Channel meets the original river at deferred junction.

Miscellaneous Facts - II
1. Davisian cycle ends in peneplain, Pencks in endrumpf & kings in pediplain. Kings cycle basically deals
with the evolution of landforms in arid & savanna regions.

28

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

2. Penck cycle has three stages. Aufsteigende Entwickelung means a phase of waxing (accelerating) rate of
landform development where the slopes of the valley sides are convex in plan. Gleichformige
Entwickelung means uniform development of landforms. Absteigende Entwickelung means wanning
development & parallel retreat of slope continues
3. Boschungen is the upper steep part & haldenhang is the lower part with lesser inclination. Thus the
intersection of boschungen & haldenhang produce a sharp knick. Ultimately the boschungen are reduced
to inselbergs.
4. Monadnocks are also known as unakas & mosores.
5. Sinkholes < Swallow Holes < Dolines <Jamas < Uvala < Polje. All these karst landforms are
differentiated just on the basis of size. Uvala results from subsidence of large roof over underground
courses. Ponores are vertical pipelike passages that connect caves & swallow holes. Hums are residual
hills analogous to monadnocks in fully developed karst topography. Lappies are bare terra rosa having
crevasse like pinnacle structure formed where relief is considerable.
6. Speleothems is the term collectively used for all types of deposits in caverns. Dripstones growing
sidewards from stalactites & stalagmites are called helectites & helegmites. Helectites of globular
structure are called globulites & banded calcareous deposits are called tavernites.
7. Longshore Drift is movement of sand parallel to the shoreline, in the along-the-shore direction. The
process arises when waves approach the shore obliquely. The swash moves the sediment particles up the
beach at this angle, while the backwash brings them away fom the beach. This has the net effect of gradual
movement of the particles along the shore.
8. Notch is formed as a depression at the base of a cliff due to wave attack. Blowholes formed at roof tops
sometimes enlarge & cause the roof top to fall forming Geos or inlets.
9. Big sand bars usually parallel to the beach are called offshore or longshore bar. If the bars are formed such
that there one end is attached to the beach & the other end is projecting into the sea, they are called spits.
Hooks are curved spits & a bar connecting two land masses is a Tombolo.
10. Old man of Hoy is the most famous wave cut stack located in Orkney Islands, North Scotland.
11. Rias (ria coast) is form when sea levels rise or plate tectonics cause coastal levels to fall. When this
happens valleys which were previously at sea level become submerged. The result is often a very large
estuary at the mouth of a relatively insignificant river.
12. Dalmatian coast are found in Italy & Dalmatian area of Croatia where ranges are parallel to coast
13. Gulf of Aqaba, northeastern arm of the Red Sea, separating the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.
14. Negev Desert is in Israel.

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

15. Pedestal or Mushroom rock is also known as Gour in Sahara & pilzfelsen in Germany.
16. Inselbergs or Bornhardts are isolated hills rising abruptly from virtually level plain. Demoiselles have
resistant rock cap at the top. Zeugens have horizontal rock strata & yardangs have vertical. Ventifact with
a single face is called einkanter, zweikanter (2 faces) & driekanter (3 faces).
17. Areas of shifting sand-dunes is called erg. Barchans are also known as transverse dunes.
18. Glacial loess of N. America is called adobe & that of Europe is called limon
19. When a basin is more or less rimmed by mountain (inter-montane basin), it is called a bolson. The basin is
characterized by centripetal drainage which leads to formation of salty lakes called playas in N. America,
Shatts in Sahara, Mamlaha & Khabari in the Arabian desert.
20. The whole slope between the mountains to the playas is called pediment.
21. When two cirques converge cutting back it is called col. A cirque lake is called tarn. Paternoster lakes are
formed at the foot of glacial stairways. A nunatak is a mountain top that is not covered by land ice, and
protrudes out of a surrounding glacier. Roches moutonnees is a residual rock hummock whose upstream is
smoothened by abrasion & downstream is roughened by plucking. Riegel marks the outcrop of a highly
resistant rock layer. They have plucked downside.
22. Eskers or Osser or Oss is a stratified deposit. If the ice front halts at regular intervals, beaded eskers are
formed. Kames are small hills which are deposited by meltwater near or at the edge of the retreating ice
sheets.
23. Kettles are depressions in the outwash plain. Large kettles are clotted with numerous low mounds called
hummocks. Drumlins are elongated hummocks of boulder clay (basket of egg).
24. Protalus rampart is the accumulation of debris formed due to rockfall from the cliff.

25.
26. Varve is the yearly deposit of sediment forming distinctive layers. It is most frequently used to refer to
deposits formed in lakes on the margins of glaciers.
27. Pingos are ice mounds formed due freeze thaw action in periglacial environment. Palsas are low
permafrost mounds with cores of layered segregated ice and peat, similar to a pingo. Talik refers to an

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

unfrozen section of ground found above, below, or within a layer of discontinuous permafrost. Tors are
piles of rock on the top & clitters on the sides formed due to congelifraction
28. Borneo is the 3rd largest island in the world after Greenland & New Guinea.
Climatology:
1. Mother of pearl or nacreous clouds are found in stratosphere. Noctiluent clouds are found in
Mesosphere.
Division of Ionosphere (60-640 Km)
1.

D layer

60-. Km

2.

E layer

99-130 km

3.

Sporadic E Layer

110 km

4.

E2 layer

150 km

5.

F Layer

1550-380 km

6.

G layer

400 km &
above

Reflects signals of low frequency radio waves only.

Disappears with sunset.
Called Kenley- Heaviside layer. Reflects medium &
high frequency radio waves. Produced by ultraviolet
photons reacting with nitrogen. Disappears with sunset.
Associated with very high velocity winds & created
under special circumstances. Reflects VHF waves
Produced by reaction of UV photons with O2.
Disappears with night.
Consists of F1 & F2 layers collectively called Appleton
layer. Reflects medium & high frequency radio waves.
Persists day & night but not detectable as F layer reflects
all the waves reflected by this layer. Interaction of UV
photon with nitrogen produces free electrons here.

2. The auroras are maximum when the sun is very active. Hence they are opposite of sun spot cycle. Inside
the magnetosphere are the Van Allen radiation belts concentrated in two bands at about 3000 km & 16000
km.
3. According to Weins displacement law, hotter the object smaller the wavelength. According to Stefan
Boltzman law influx of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the
radiating body.
4. Heat Budget: Out of the 100 units of incoming solar radiation, 35 units (27-clouds, 2-snow, 6-atmosphere
top) are reflected back as albedo. Out of the remaining 65 units, 14 units are absorbed by atmosphere & 51
units by earth surface. The earth radiates back 17 units directly into space & remaining 34 units are
absorbed by atmosphere. The atmosphere than radiates back the 48 units absorbed by it.
5. Green house gases include CFCs, Nitrous oxide, water vapour & ozone. CFCs account for 25 % of green
house effect & methane for 15 %. Carbon dioxide leads with 55 %.
6. The greatest range of temperature occurs at latitude 60 N.
7. The major types of inversion are: radiation, air drainage, frontal, advection, subsidence. Advection
inversion generally occurs when a warm air passes over cold water surface.
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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

8. Highs are Siberian, Hawaiian & Siberian. Lows are Aleutian & Icelandic.
9. Anemometer is used for measuring the speed of wind. Beaufort scale deals with the wind speed & ranges
from calm wind to hurricane.
10. Jet streams are fastest during winter season. They blow from west to east.
11. A mist becomes a fog when visibility is reduced to less than a km. Dry adiabatic rate is 10 C per 1000m &
moist adiabatic rate is 6 C per 1000m. Stability occurs when the dry adiabatic rate is higher than the
normal lapse rate & instability occurs when normal lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If
normal lapse rate is lower than wet adiabatic rate it leads to absolute stability & vice versa.
12. Sleet is partially melted snowflakes while hail refers to small balls of ice. Rime refers to very small super
cooled droplets which strike ground & tend to freeze immediately on impact.
13. Four principal forms of airmasses are continental polar (cP), maritime polar (mP), continental tropical
(cT), and maritime tropical (mT). Thermodynamic modification results in airmasses becoming warm
represented by W or cold (K). Mechanical or dynamic modification causes it to become stable (s) or
unstable (u).
14. Baroclinic zone is where distinct air mass regions exist & where Fronts separate warmer from colder air.
Barotropic is region of uniform temperature distribution with lack of fronts. Temperate cyclones are
formed under baroclinic condition & tropical under barotropic condition.
15. Anticyclones are larger than cyclones. Airflow converges aloft in anticyclones & diverges in case of
cyclones. Katabatic wind blows from mountains to valley & anabatic vice versa.
Oceanography:
16. The Peru-Chile trench is the longest in the world. The only difference between ridge & rises is that ridges
are steep sided while rises are gently sloped.
17. Juan de Fuca Strait, is the arm of the Pacific Ocean between Washington & Vancouver.
18. Thermocline is the transition layer between the mixed layer at the surface and the deep water. The various
salts in the sea in order of decreasing quantity are NaCl, MgCl, MgSO4, CaSO4.
19. Danube, Dneiper, & Dneister all fall into black sea reducing it salinity.
20. Water moves from areas over which there is a low pressure to areas over which there is a high pressure.
21. The pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. It is divided into
neritic zone (having a depth of 200metres) & the oceanic province (separated from the neritic province by
the edge of the continental shelf). The benthic zone refers to the sea bottom itself & is divided into littoral
zone & deep sea zone. The two zones have their frontier at a depth of 200 meters. Benthos (plants such as

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

kelp, sponges) are organisms that live on the ocean floor while nektons are swimming animals such as
fishes & whales.
22. The east pacific rise is known as albatross plateau extending from north of New Zealand to the Californian
coast.
23. Oozes are pelagic deposit in the form of liquid mud. There are divided on the basis of content into
calcareous ooze (lime) & siliceous ooze (silica). Calcareous ooze is further divided into pteropod ooze &
globigerina (most widespread) ooze. Siliceous ooze is divided into radiolarian (formed of shells of
foraminifera) & diatom ooze.
24. Red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit & consists mainly of hydrated silicate of Aluminium &
oxides of iron. Neritic deposits consists of dead shells of plants & animals.
25. Atlantic Ocean: The warm North Atlantic Drift (NAD) gives rise to the Irminger Current south of Iceland
which travels along western and northwestern coasts of Iceland until it meets East Greenland Current.
Another branch of NAD flows along Norway coast forming Norwegian current. Falkland current brings
the cold waters of the Antarctic sea northward up to Argentina.
26. Pacific Ocean :Kuroshio (or Kuro Siwo) Current of Pacific is similar to the gulf stream of Atlantic. One
branch separates from Kuroshio current & enters the sea of Japan as Tsushima current. The Cold Oyashio
(or Oya Siwo) Current (similar to Labrador current) is also known as Kurile current & it flows through
the Bering Strait in a southerly direction. The cold Okhotsk current flows past Sakhalin to merge with Oya
Siwo current near Hokkaido Island & later mergers with the warm Kuro Siwo current producing dense
fogs. The north pacific drift continues later as Aleutian current which divides into two parts the northern
branch becomes Alaska current while the southern branch becomes California cold current (similar to
Canary cold current of Atlantic). Cromwell current also called pacific equatorial undercurrent is a
submarine river & flows towards east. Mindanao current is a southward flowing boundary current along
the Philippine coast.
27. Indian Ocean: One branch of the south equatorial current moves southward through the Mozambique
Channel to form the Mozambique Current. This current joins the Agulhas Current & moves to the
southern tip of Africa. During the northeast monsoon season the Somali Current flows southward &
During the southwest monsoon the current develops into an intense northward jet
28. La Nina is opposite of El Nino & intensifies the Humboldt Current. El Nino causes drought conditions in
India, Southern Africa, Australia & heavy rains in Chile, Colorado. The El Nino events of 1982 & 1997
were severe. The Southern Oscillation, a more recent discovery, refers to an oscillation in the surface

33

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

pressure (atmospheric mass) between the southeastern tropical Pacific and the Australian-Indonesian
regions
29. Tahiti is the largest and most important of the Society Islands, in the southern Pacific Ocean. The chief
town on the island is Papeete which is also the capital of French Polynesia.
30. In gravity waves (large waves) the restoring force is gravity while in capillary waves (ripples caused by
winds) the restoring force is surface tension. Swell refers to long crested waves with longer periods which
have traveled out of their source areas. Surf refers to a belt of nearly continuously breaking waves.
Internal waves are caused due to density differences. Seiches are standing waves (e.g. Lake Geneva).
Biogeography
31. Field capacity refers to 50 % water & 50 % air. Leaching produces increasingly acidic & mineral deficient
soil. Laterization (now called Ferralization) occurs in humid tropics where heavy rain & uninterrupted
warmth give rise to a deeply weathered layer. Melanization refers to darkening of soil profile while
Leuciniation refers to lightening of the colour both in A horizon. Induration refers to hardening of soil &
Audification refers to the accumulation of H ions mainly in surface horizons.
32. The surface horizon is usually referred to as the O layer; it consists of loose organic matter such as fallen
leaves and other biomass. O horizon is further divided into 3 sub horizons. The layer of plant material on
the soil surface is classified as: the L horizon (fresh litter); the F horizon (decomposing litter); the H
horizon (well decomposed litter)
33. Below that is the A horizon, containing a mixture of inorganic mineral materials and organic matter.
Next is the E horizon, a layer from which clay, iron, and aluminum oxides have been lost by a process
known as leaching (when water carries materials in solution down from one soil level to another).
Removal of materials in this manner is known as eluviation, the process that gives the E horizon its name.
Below E horizon is the B horizon, in which most of the iron, clays, and other leached materials have
accumulated. The influx of such materials is called illuviation. Under that layer is the C horizon,
consisting of partially weather bedrock, and last, the R horizon of hard bedrock. Hence the horizons are
L, F, H, A, E, B, C & R from top to bottom.
34. Aridisols (23 %), Inceptisols (16 %), Alfisols (13.5 %) & Entisols (11 %) Coverage.
35. Epiphytes are abundant in tropical rainforest (Selva) which have little undergrowth.
36. Gross primary productivity less that is used in respiration is net primary productivity. Only 1 % of the
suns energy reaching the earth is used by plants through photosynthesis. The mean productivity of the
world is around 300 gm/sq.m/year.

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

37. 15 lakh species of animals & 2.5 lakh plant species on earth. Out of which 75 thousand animal & 15
thousand plant species are found in India.
38. The most commonly used Freon is Freon-12, or dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2). Freon-11 is
Trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F).
39. Solonchak soils are defined by high soluble salt accumulation & formed from saline parent material under
conditions of high evaporation. Pedocals are soils of arid regions and are characterized by calcite (CaCO3)
cementation due to upward movement of water (evaporation). Pedalfers are soils of humid regions and are
characterized by highly leached clays due to downward movement of water. Extreme pedalfers are called
laterites.
40. Ferrous group includes iron, chromite, manganese, & nickel. Non-Ferrous group has copper, lead, zinc,
tungsten, aluminium, vanadium etc.
41. The largest number of sheeps & goats are both in China.
42. Coal, Petroleum & electricity are respectively known as black, liquid & white gold.
43. Czechoslovakia separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Yugoslavia was created by joining
various regions (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro), and then
split again
44. Intercropping refers to the growing of more than one crop on the same field while mixed cropping refers
to the growing of a variety of crops on different fields.
45. Weir canal connects Lake Erie & Ontario. Worldwide jet stream that occurs in winter is the sub-tropical
jet stream.
46. Port Said lies towards the red sea side on Suez Canal. Purus, Sao Francisco & Madeira are all large rivers
of Brazil.
47. Oder Niesse line is the boundary between Poland & Germany. 38th Parallel between North & South Korea.
49th Parallel between USA & Canada. Maginot line between France & Germany.
48. Micronesia includes the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, Guam, the Republic of Palau, the
Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, and the Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesia lies to the north of
Melanesia & to the North-West of Polynesia.
49. Melanesias westernmost island is New Guinea. Stretching east and south of New Guinea are the countries
of Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, the French territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies, and the nation
of Fiji Islands (commonly known as Fiji).

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

50. Polynesia consists of American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New
Zealand, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands, Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the
Wallis and Futuna Islands.

51. Apiculture refers to rearing of honey bees. Silviculture refers to growing & tending of trees as a branch of
forestry. Connate water (also called fossil water) refers to water trapped in the interstices of rocks during
their formation. Phenology is the study of seasonal changes upon animal & plant life.
52. Hall Herault process is used in the extraction of Aluminium from its ore.
53. South China sea is the largest sea.

Analysis of Mocks
1. Cuestas or Homoclinal Ridge,

physical feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on one side and a

gentle dip or back slope on the other. This landform occurs in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the
differential weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and the soft underlying cliff maker, which
erodes more rapidly. Cuestas with dip slopes of 4045 are usually called hogback ridges. A mesa is an
elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs.

36

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

2. A sandur (plural sandar) is a plain formed by meltwater from glaciers. Sandar are usually wider than their
length, and consist of soft sediments, which are criss-crossed by braided streams of meltwater.
3. Regolith

is a layer of loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock. Peridotite, igneous rock

composed of pyroxene, olivine, and hornblende. It is the rock that makes up the earth's mantle. Very
sudden cooling of volcanic magma results in formation of volcanic glass called obsidian. The extrusive
equivalent of granite is rhyolite & gabbro is the intrusive equivalent of basalt.
4. Entrenched & intrenched meanders are one & the same & it is ingrown meanders which grow on
assymetric valley.
5. Tephra & pyroclastic material are the same & refer collectively to volcanic materials.
6. A glacier with a negative budget is a receding glacier & that with positive budget is advancing.
7. Rectangular inselbergs are called koppie or kopje.
8. Gloup is a blow hole, where a chimney has developed behind the cliff face, often above a cave, and spray
is blasted out during high seas.
9. In a braided stream, the main channel divides into a number of smaller, interlocking or braided channels.
Streams with high sediment loads that encounter a sudden reduction in flow velocity generally have a
braided channel type.
10. Rise of land or fall of sea level is called negative movement & is connected with rejuvenation.
11. Jura mountains were formed during Mesozoic period.
12. Researchers now recognize five glaciations in the Quaternary period: Donau, Gunz, Mindel, Riss and
Wurm (in that order from old to new). Their names derive from water courses in the North Slope of the
Alps. These glaciations are included in the first period of the Quaternary: the Pleistocene. The second
period of the Quaternary, the Holocene, starts at the end of the last glaciation (Wurm), about 10 thousand
years ago. Mindel falls under middle Pleistocene.
13. Solifluction is the slow downslope flow of soil and sediment that is saturated with water
14. Both P waves & S waves (shear, transverse) are collectively called body waves. While Surface waves
include Rayleigh waves (vertical and longitudinal) & Love waves (transverse horizontal).
15. A strike slip fault is also known as wrench fault. The scientific study of rivers is called Potamology.
Colluvium is the loose deposits of rock, usually located at the foot of a slope or cliff, having been brought
there under the influence of gravity (mass wasting). Talus includes angular fragments of rock below cliffs
and steep slopes. Colluvium includes slope wash.
16. Evidences of earliest known life have been found to archaeozoic period.

37

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

17. Victoria fall is due to faulting. Livingstone fall is at the edge of a plateau. Yosemite fall is a hanging
valley & Niagara fall is due to alternate bands of resistant & soft rocks.
18. Reg is a surface covering of coarse gravel, pebbles from which all sand and dust have been removed by
wind and water.
19. Billow clouds are created when different layers of wind flow at different velocities resulting in unstable
turbulence between the layers. The common name for this instability is Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
Billow clouds provide a visible signal to pilots of potentially dangerous turbulence.

Essential Extra Reference

1. Koeppens & Thornthwaite classification of India (Geo Notes-Page 77,80 Vol-1)
2. World Population Data (K. Siddhartha Ensemble-Appendix Geo of India-page 13)
3. Isostasy, Map references.

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
1.

Gonds

2.
3.
4.

Bhils
Santhals
Minas

5.

Oraons

6.

Mundas

Tribal Groups of India

Largest tribe found in M.P., Jharkhand, A.P., Orissa &
Maharashtra.
M.P, Gujarat, Rajasthan, A.P., Karnataka, Tripura
West Bengal, Bihar-Jharkhand & Orissa
Rajasthan & MP. Account for 50% tribal population of
Rajasthan
Bihar-Jharkhand, M.P.-Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal &
Maharashtra. Speak Kurukh Language
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal & Tripura
38

Ghanshyam Thori
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

Khonds
Tharu
Chenchu
Todas
Lahaula
Adivasis
Badagas
Baiga
Bakkarwals
Bhotias
Bhuia
Birhors
Gaddis
Gujjars
Irula
Kanikar
Katkari
Kharia
Khasa
Lahualas
Moplahs
Sabra
Kol
Kolam
Kotas
Murias
Uralis
Varlis
Yurva

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Khasis
Mikirs
Kukis
Angami
Ao
Apatani
Chutra
Garos
Jaintia
Sema

Geography Notes
Orissa is mainland. Also found in Bihar, AP, MP, West Bengal.
Uttaranchal & MP
Andhra Pradesh
Nilgiri Hills. Classic example of polyandry.
Himachal Pradesh
Bastar district, Chattisgarh
Nilgiri region, Tamil Nadu
M.P.
J&K
Uttaranchal, Sikkim & West Bengal
M.P.
M.P., Chattisgarh, Jharkhand & Orissa
Himachal Pradesh
J&K & Himachal Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
M.P.
M.P.
Jaunsar region, Uttaranchal
Lahual region, Himachal Pradesh
Muslims of Malabar district, Kerala
M.P.
M.P. & Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh
Nilgiri Hills
Bastar District, Chattisgarh
Kerala
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Tamil Nadu

Tribes of the North East & Andaman Nicobar

Meghalaya & Tripura
Assam
Manipur, Assam, Nagaland & Tripura
Nagaland
Nagaland
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Meghalaya & Assam
Meghalaya & Assam
Nagaland
39

Ghanshyam Thori

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Geography Notes

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Lushai
Lepchas
Abors
Chakma
Chang
Gallong

Mizoram & Tripura

Original Tribals of Sikkim
Arunachal Pradesh
Tripura
A Naga tribe
Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh

17.
18.
19.

Jarawas
Onges
Shompens

20.
21.

Sentinelese
Great
Andamanese

Andaman & Nicobar. Negrito

Andaman & Nicobar. Negritos racial stock.
Andaman & Nicobar. Belong to mongoloid stock like nicobarese
& inhabit Great Nicobar.
Andaman & Nicobar. Inhabit sentinel island. Negrito
Negrito

Cenozoic

Mesozoic

Paleozoic

Pre-Cambrian

Major Formations & their Periods

Holocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Upper Siwalik
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Deccan Traps
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems

1.

Siwaliks

2.

Lesser Himalayas

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Important Ranges of the Himalayas

Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi (all in Arunachal), Dhang range,
Dundwa range, Churia ghat hills (Nepal), Jammu Hills
Pir Panjal range, Dhaula Dhar range, Nag Tibba range,
Mussorie range, Mahabharat range.

J&K
Himachal
Uttaranchal
Sikkim
Arunachal Pradesh

Mountain Passes
Burzil pass, Zozi La pass
Bara Lacha pass, Shipki La pass
Thagla pass, Niti pass & Lipu Lekh
Nathu La pass, Jelep La pass
Bomdila Pass.
40

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
Major Rock Systems
Primarily Gneiss & granites. Found in Peninsular India, M.P,
Jharkhand & Rajasthan.

1.

Archean System

2.
3.
4.

Dharwar System
Cuddapah System
Vindhyan System

5.
6.
7.
8.

Gondwana System
Deccan Traps
Tertiary Systems
Quarternary Formations

1.

Tropical Evergreen

2.

Tropical Dry
Evergreen
Tropical Dry
Deciduous
Swamp Forests
Himalaya Temperate
Alpine

3.
4.
5.
6.

Named after cuddapah district of AP.

Found & named after Vindhyas. Stand over Cuddapah rocks.
Contains limestones, sandstones, shale & slate
Formed in middle carboniferous period. Chhotanagpur is main.
Cretaceous period.
Important formations of this period are Rajasthan desert, Indo
Gangetic alluvium, Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir (flat
topped mound).
Forests & Their Species
Teak, Rosewood, Ebony, Ironwood, Bamboo, Canes, Champa, Sal,
Mahua, Sandal & Sheesham
Khirni, Jamun, Khokko, Ritha, Tamarind, Neem, Toddy Palm,
Cane.
Teak, Tendu, Sal, Amaltas, Palas, Rose-wood, Axlewood, Bijsal,
Khair, Satinwood, Ghant, Pepal & Semal
Sundari tree, Nipa Friticans (a Palm), Epiphytes.
Oak, Deodar, Celtis, Maple, Chestnut.
Rhododendron, Birch, Fir, Spruce, Plum
Various Revolutions in Indian Economy

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Yellow Revolution
White Revolution
Blue Revolution
Pink Revolution
Brown Revolution
Grey Revolution
Golden Revolution

S.
1.

River
Indus

Kms
2900

2.
3.

Jhelum
Chenab

400
1180

4.
5.

Ravi
Beas

725
470

6.

Sutlej

1050

Oil Seeds
Milk
Fish
Shrimp
Masaaley
Wool
Horticulture

Rivers: Origin & Length

Origin
Characteristics
Mansarovar
Shyok, Dras, Gartang, Nubra, Hunza, Zanskar,
Shigar. Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Viboa, Sangar.
Verinag
Flows through Wular lake & along Indo Pak border.
Bara-Lacha
Largest Indus tributary. Formed by Chandra &
Bhaga.
Rohtang Pass
Flows through Chamba valley.
Beas Kund
Flows through Kullu valley & joins Satluj near
Harike
Rakas Lake
Passes through Ship kila. Govind Sagar lake at

41

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

7.

Ganga

2525

Gangotri

8.

Yamuna

1300

Yamunotri

9.

Chambal

960

Mhow

10. Gandak
11. Kosi

730

12. Ramganga
13. Sarda (Saryu)

600

14. Mahananda
15. Son
16. Damodar
17. Ghaghara

Darjeeliing
Hills
Amarkantak
540
1180

18. Gomti
19. Brahmaputra

Everest &
Dhulagiri
Everest &
Kanchenjunga
Kumaon Hills
Milam Glacier

2900

20. Tista

Mapchachungo
glacier
Pilibhit Distt
Near
Mansarovar

Chitamu lake
(Tibet)

21. Surma

900

22. Mahanadi

850

23. Godavari

1465

24. Krishna

1400

25. Cauveri

800

26. Narmada

1300

27. Tapti
28. Sabarmati
29. Brahmani

724
320
800

30. Subarnarekha

400

Sihawa (near
Raipur)
Nashik

Bhakra
Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda at Devprayag. It splits
into Bhagirathi-Hugli & Padma below Farrakha in
Malda distt.
Tons, Giri, Asan, Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Enters
Ganga plain at Paonta Sahib.
Gandhisagar dam at Kota. Banas (left), Kali & Sind
(right)
Joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna
Its main stream is Arun. Joined by Sun kosi from the
west & Tamur Kosi from the east
Joins Ganga near Kanauj
Along Indo Nepal border it is called Kali. Joins
Ghaghara.
It is the last left bank tributary of the Ganga
Joins Ganga at Patna
Barakar is main tributary. Joins Hugli
Meets Ganga at Chapra.
Lucknow situated on its bank. Kathna & Sarayan
tributaries.
Receives Dibang & Lohit on left bank & then
known as Brahmaputra. Burhi Dihing, Dhansari &
Kalang (left) & Subansari, Kamang, Manas &
Sankosh.
Forms Sivok Gola Pass in Darjeeling.
Meghna is the name of Brahmaputra after its
confluence with Surma. Surma is distributary of
river Barak.
Tel, Ib, Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonking

Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga, Sabari, Idravati,

Manjra & Pranhita.
Mahabaleshwar Koyna, Yerla, Verna, Panchganga, Dudhgana, Musi,
Tungabhadra, Bhima
Brahmagiri
Amravati, Hemavati, Akravati, Herangi, Shimsa,
Hills (Coorg)
Lakshmantirtha, Lokpavani, Kabbani.
Amarkantak
Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa,
Hiran, Baran
Betul Distt
Parna, Veghar, Girna, Bori, Panhara, Betul
Mewar Hills
Formed by confluence of Koel & Sankh. Baitrani
joins later
S-W of Ranchi

42

Ghanshyam Thori
31. Luni

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Geography Notes
320

Arawallis

Ends in Sahni marshes. Sarsuti, Bundi, Sukri, Jawai

join it.

Various Central Institutes in India

Wildlife Institute of India
Salim Ali centre for Ornithology & Natural History
Central Sheep Breeding Farm
Central Tobacco Research Institute
National Ship Design & Research Centre
Civil Aviation Training College
National Institute of Aviation Management & Research
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Udan Academy
National Remote Sensing Agency
Postal Staff College of India
Central Poultry Training Institute
Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for fisheries
Central Institute of Fisheries education
Lal Bahadur shastri college of advanced maritime studies &
research
Hindustan Photo films
Survey of India

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Dehradun
Coimbatore
Haryana
Rajamundhry, A.P.
Vishakhapatnam
Hyderabad
Delhi
Fursatgunj (U.P.)
Hyderabad
Ghaziabad
Hessarghatta, Karnataka
Bangalore.
Mumbai
Mumbai
Ooty.
Dehradun

Various Policies & Programmes in India

Forest Policy
1894, 1952, 1988 (revised)
Indian Board for wildlife formed 1952
Wildlife Protection Act
1972
Project Tiger
1973
Operation Crocodile
1975
National Wildlife Action Plan
1983, Revised 2002-2016
Environment Protection Act
1986
Rhinoceros project
1987
Project Elephant
1992

Energy Resources of India

35. Coal

Jharkhand

36.
37.

Orissa
M.P (Former)

38.

West Bengal

Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,

Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal
Talcher, Rampur
Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria
Satupura Coalfields - Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera
North Chhattisgarh - Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,
Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola
South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
Raniganj, Darjeeling
43

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

39.
40.
41. Tetiary
coal
42.
43.
44.
45.
46. Petroleum

Andhra Pr.
Maharashtra
Meghalaya

47.

Gujarat

48.
49.
50.
51. Natural
52. Gas
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60. Uranium

Mumbai High
East Coast
Other
Mumbai
Gujarat
Assam
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Rajasthan
Arunachal Pr
Himachal Pr
West Bengal

Assam
Arunachal Pr
J&K
Rajasthan
North-East

61. Thorium

Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur

Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander
Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,
Longoi, Waimong
Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
Namchuk-Namphuk
Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka
Palana (lignite) & Khari
Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,
Borholla
Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,
Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island
Bombay high, Bassein
Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa
Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)
Bombay high, Bassein
Jagatia, Gogha
Nahorkatiya & Moran
Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam
Baranura, Atharnure
Barmer, Charaswala
Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung
Jwalamukhi, Kangra
Medinipur
Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium
Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present
Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa

Mineral Resources of India

50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

Iron Ore

Chhattisgarh 24 %
Goa (21%)
Karnataka (20%)
Jharkhand (17 %)
Orissa (15 %)
Maharashtra
Andhra Pr.

Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri

Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
Noamund, Gua
Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur district
44

Ghanshyam Thori
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.

Copper

Manganese

Bauxite

Chromite

Lead

Zinc
Gold

Silver

Nickel

Geography Notes
Tamil Nadu
M. P (46%)
Rajasthan (33%)
Jharkhand (21%)
Karnataka (38%)
Orissa (17%)
M.P. (10 %)
Maharashtra (8%)
Orissa (44 %)
Jharkhand (18 %)
Maharashtra (13%)
Chhattisgarh(11%)
M.P. (11 %)
Gujarat (8 %)
Tamil Nadu (4 %)
Orissa (97 %)
Karnataka (2.3 %)
Maharashtra (%)
Jharkhand (%)
Andhra Pr (%)
Rajasthan (80 %)
Orissa (11%)
Andhra Pr (8 %)
Rajasthan (99 %)
Sikkim
Karnataka (67 %)
Jharkhand (26 %)
Andhra Pr (7 %)
Andhra Pr (42 %)
Bihar Jharkhand32
Rajashtan (25 %)
Karnataka
Orissa

Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai

Balghat (Malanjkhand)
Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
Singhbum
Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
Balghat
Nagpur & Bhandara
Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
Kolhapur, Ratnagir
Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
Salem, Nilgiri
Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
Hassan
Chandrapur
Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
Khammam
Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura

Zawar a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria

Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)

Zawar
Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

Non Metallic Minerals

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Limestone
Dolomite
Phosphate
Kaolin
Mica
Gypsum
Steatite
Magnesite

M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan

Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
Kerala is largest producer.
Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
Rajasthan & J & K.
Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
Tamil Nadu
45

Ghanshyam Thori
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Pyrite
Graphite
Diamond
Beryllium
Salt (NaCl)
Marble
Zircon
Kyanite
Antimony
Asbestos
Beryllium
Sulphur
Tin

Geography Notes
Bihar is sole producer
Orissa, Rajasthan
M.P. (Panna)
Rajathan, Jharkhand
Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
Rajasthan
Beach Sand of Kerala
Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
Punjab
Karnataka & Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Bihar, Jharkhand
Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

56.

Project
Damodar Valley Project

57.
58.

Rihand Dam
Nagarjunasagar Project

59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.

Tungabhadra Project
Gandak Project
Kosi Project
Beas Project
Mayurkashi Project
Indira Gandhi Canal

65.

Narmada Valley Project

66.
67.

Pochampad Project
Tehri Dam

68.

Parambikulam Project

69.
70.
71.

Mata Tella Dam

Kangsbati Project
Rajasthan Canal Project

72.
73.
74.
75.

Kadana Project
Tata Hydroelectric Scheme
Koyna Hydroelectic Dam
Sivasamudram

River
Damodar

State
West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon
& Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar
Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).
Rihand
Uttar Pradesh
Krishna
Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals Lal
Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).
Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.
Gandak
JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal
Kosi
JV of Bihar & Nepal
Beas
Includes Pong Dam
Mayurkashi
Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.
It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off
from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined
masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445
Km)
Involves Sardar Sarovar dam in Gujarat &
Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.
Godavari
Andhra Pradesh.
Bhagirathi
Uttaranchal. Implemented with Soviet Aid.
Highest rock fall dam in the country.
JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala.
Hydro-Electric Projects
Betwa
Near Jhansi in U.P.
West Bengal
Sutlej, Beas
JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also
used.
Mahi
Gujarat
Indravati
Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.
Koyna
Maharashtra
Cauvery Falls Karnataka
46

Ghanshyam Thori
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
43.
105.

Pykara Hydro Elec Project

Mettur Project
Papansam Scheme
Sabargiri Hydel Project
Idukki Project
Sholayar Project
Machkund Power Project
Srisailam Power Project
Balimela Hydro Project
Umiam Project
Salal Hydro Project
Thein Dam Project
Banasagar Project
Jayakwadi Project
Kakrapara Project
Mahi Project
Malprabha Project
Pallivasal project
Poochampad
Rajghat Dam Project
Sarda Sahayak
Hansdev Bango Project
Tawa Project
Ukai Project
Purna Project
Rana Pratap Sagar
Jawahar Sagar Dam
Gandhi Sagar Dam
Chibro
Dool Hasti
Nathpa Jhakri

106. Panchet Dam

Geography Notes
Pykara
Cauvery
Tambraparni
Pampa
Periyar
Sholayar
Machkund
Krishna
Sileru river
Umiam
Chenab
Ravi
Son
Godavari
Tapi
Mahi
Malprabha
Mudirapujha
Godavari
Betwa
Ghagara
Hansdev
Tawa
Tapi
Purna
Chambal
Chambal
Chambal
Tons
Chenab
Satluj

Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)

Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
Andhra Pradesh
JV between A.P & Orissa
Meghalaya
J&K
Punjab
JV between MP, UP & Bihar
Maharashtra
Gujarat
Gujarat
Karnataka
Kerala
Andhra Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
M.P.
M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
Gujarat
Maharashtra
Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
Rajasthan (Kota)
Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
Uttar Pradesh
J & K.
Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project in
India
West Bengal

Damodar

Thermal Power Projects in India

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Kothagundam Project
Dhuraran Project
Satpura Power Station
Korba Project
Talcher Power Station
Obra Power Station
Bhusawal Power Station
Hardauganj Power Station

Singareni Coalfields
Kheda district

Talcher
Obra

47

Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat
M.P.
Chhattisgarh
Orissa
U.P.
Maharashtra
U.P.

Ghanshyam Thori
9.
10.
11.
12.

Geography Notes

Bandel Power Station

Chandrapura Power Station
Kolaghat Power Station
Bakreshwar (Birbhum) Station

West Bengal
Bihar
West Bengal
West Bengal

Soils & Their Properties

1.

Alluvial Soils

22

2.

Regur/Black Soils

30

3.

Red & Yellow Soils 28

4.

Laterite Soils

2.62

5.

Arid Soils

6.13

6.

Saline Soils

1.29

7.

Peaty & Organic

2.17

8.

Forest Soils

7.94

Most fertile, Sandy loam in texture,

Rich in Potash, Phosphoric Acid, Lime & Organic matter
Deficient in Nitrogen & Humus
Also classified as Chernozem. Clay content 50%
Rich in iron, lime & Aluminium
Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & organic content
Known as omnibus group.
Rich in oxides of iron
Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Humus
Not very fertile. Typical of tropical region with heavy rainfall
Rich in iron oxide & potash
Poor in nitrogen, phosphate & calcium
Rich in phosphate
Poor in Nitrogen & humus
Known as Usara, Reh or Kallar
Contain a large proportion of Sodium, Potassium & Magnesium
Poor in Nitrogen & Calcium
Normally heavy & black in colour. Highly acidic.
Rich in organic matter
Poor in phosphate & potash
Acidic with low humus content
Poor in potash, phosphorus & lime
Sobriquets

1.
2.
3.

Crop

Rice

Wheat

Bolton of the east

Manchester of South India
Granary of South India

State

W. Bengal
UP
Andhra Pr
Punjab
UP

Prod
%
15
14
13
11
35

Ahmedabad
Coimbatore
Thanjavur

Agricultural Crops of India

Prod
Yield
Rainfall
(Mil
Kg/Ha
cm
T)
87
1900
125-200 cm

74

2700

48

80 cm

Temp
Deg C
>23 C

10-25 C

Soil

Deep Fertile
Clayey or loamy
soil
Light loam

Ghanshyam Thori
Punjab
Haryana
M.P.
Jowar
Maharashtra
Karnataka
M.P.
Bajra
Rajasthan
UP
Gujarat
Maharashtra
Maize
U.P.
Karnataka
Rajasthan
Bihar/MP
Barley
UP
Rajasthan
MP
Ragi
Karnataka
TamilNadu
U.P.
Pulses
M.P.
U.P.
Rajasthan
Gram
M.P.
Rajasthan
U.P.
Tur/Arhar Maharashtra
U.P.
M.P./Gujar.
Sugarcane U.P.
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu
Karnataka

Crop

Cotton

Jute

Geography Notes
20
172
11
47
20
10
33
18
16
14
15
15
11
10
44
30
7
60
13
8
25
20
17
40
31
12
22
20
15
43
14
13
10

Sandy Loam
Clay Loam
7.7

770

30-65 cm

27-32 C

Black clayey soil

7.1

720

40-50 cm

25-30 C

Light sandy
Shallow black
Red upland soil

12.1

1850

50-75 cm

21-27 C

Well drained
alluvial or red
loamy soil

1.7

1750

70-90 cm

10-18 C

Light soil

2.3

1350

14

3.5

720

35-50 cm

20-25 C

Drained loamy
soil

2.3

620

40-80 cm

20-25 C

Range of soil

300

70 tonne

150 cm

20-25 C

Deep rich loamy

soil

Commercial & Plantation Crops of India

State
Prod Prod
Yield
Rainfall
Temp
%
(Mil
Kg/Ha
Cm
Deg C
T)
Gujarat
28
11.6
226
50-75 cm
21-30 C
Million
Maharashtra 15
Bales
Andhra Pr
11
170
Kg
Haryana
10
W. Bengal
75
10
1960
125-200 cm
25-35 C
49

Soil

Black Soil

Light sandy or

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Bihar
Assam
Orissa
Tobacco
Andhra Pr.
Gujarat
U.P.
Groundnut Gujarat
Andra Pr.
Tamil Nadu
Sunflower Karnataka
Maharashtra
Andhra Pr.
Soyabeen M.P.
Maharashtra
Rajasthan
Tea
Assam
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Coffee
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Rubber
Kerala
Tamil Nadu

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Ground Nut
Rapeseed &
Mustard
Seasum
Linseed
Castorseed
Soyabeen
Sunflower
Coconut

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

14
9
1
31
29
23
33
15
22
47
23
17
75
13
9
55
22
15
71
21
8
90

Million
Bales
180 kg
.65

Clayey Loams

1400

50 cm

15-38 C

9.2

1220

50-100 cm

20-30 C

1.3

620

50 cm

15-25 C

Loamy soils

1000

50 cm

14-24 C

Friable loamy
Acidic Soil

0.78

1900

150-250 cm

25-30 C

0.3

960

150-250 cm

15-28 C

Well drained deep

friable loams or
Acidic Forest soil
Well drained
friable forest loam

0.6

1600

300 cm

25-35 C

Well Drained
Friable sandy
loams
Sandy loam, red,
yellow, black soil

Deep, well
drained loams

Oilseeds
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan (45%), U.P, M.P.
Gujarat (28 %), W. Bengal
U.P, Maharashtra
Gujarat (82%)
Madhya Pradesh (75%), Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Karnataka (47%), Maharashtra (23%), Andhra Pradesh (17%)
Kerala (45%), Tamil Nadu (28 %)

Black Pepper
Chillies
Turmeric
Ginger
Cardamom
Arecanut

Spices
Kerala (97 %)
Andhra Pradesh (37%)
Andhra Pradesh (56%)
Kerala (22), Meghalaya (20%)
Karnataka (57%)
Karnataka (41%), Kerala (30%)
Horticultural Crops
50

Ghanshyam Thori
1.
2.

Mango
Banana

3.

Cashew

4.
5.

Orange
Grapes

6.
7.
8.
9.

Guava
Apple
Potato
Onion

Geography Notes
UP (32), Bihar (13) Andhra Pradesh. Accounts for 40 percent of all fruits
Maharashtra (28%), Gujarat (10%), Andhra Pradesh. Jalgaon district
alone supplies more than 80 % of Maharashtras Banana
Kerala (31%), Maharashtra (18%), Andhra Pradesh (14%). Cashew is a
genus of Brazil. Largest foreign exchange earner
Maharashtra, M.P, Karnataka. Genus from China
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra. Native plant of Armenia. Grapes are
imported in India.
U.P., Bihar. Native plant of Tropical America
J & K, Himachal Pr, Uttaranchal
U.P (35%), West Bengal (33%)
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh

Types of Crops
Rice, Maize, Jowar, Ragi, Bajra, Tur, Moong, Urad, Cotton,
Jute, Seasum, Groundnut, Soyabeen,
Rabi Crops
Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Rapeseed, Mustard, Linseed, Lentil,
Gram, Peas
Zaid Crops
Sown during march to June. E.g. Water Melon, Melon,
Cucumber, Vegetables, Moong, Urad.
Jowar is both a Kharif & Rabi Crop.
Kharif Crops

National Parks of India

1. Wandur National Park
Andaman & Nicobar
2. Kaziranga National Park
Assam
3. Manas National Park
Assam
4. Palamau National Park
Jharkhand
5. Hazaribagh National Park
Jharkhand (Rhinoceros)
6. Dachigam National Park
J & K Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
7. Hemis National Park
J&K
8. Kishtwar National Park
J&K
9. Silent Valley National Park
Kerala
10. Eravikulam National Park
Kerala
11. Bandhavgarh National Park
M.P.
12. Kanha National Park
M.P.
13. Madhav National Park
M.P.
14. Pench National Park
M.P.
15. Shivpuri National Park
M.P. - Birds
16. Indravati National Park
Chhattisgarh
17. Keoladeo National Park
Rajasthan
18. Ranthambore National Park
Rajasthan
19. Desert National Park
Rajasthan
20. Sariska National Park
Rajasthan
21. Namdapha National Park
Arunachal Pradesh
22. Marine National Park
Gujarat
23. Pin Valley National Park
Himachal Pradesh

51

Ghanshyam Thori
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

Geography Notes

Bandipur National Park

Nagarhole National Park
Bannerghatta National Park
Tadoba National Park
Boriveli National Park
Balpakram National Park
Nokrek National Park
Nandan Kanan National Park
Chandka Elephant Reserve
Simlipal Tiger Reserve
Corbett National Park
Rajaji National Park
Valley of Flower N. Park
Nandadevi National Park
Dudhwa National Park
Govind National Park

Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (or Sanjay Gandhi National Park)
Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Orissa
Orissa
Orissa
Uttaranchal
Uttaranchal
Uttaranchal
Uttaranchal
U.P.
U.P.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary
Andhra Pradesh
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
Tamil Nadu
Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary
Andhra Pradesh
Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary
Assam
Kaimur wildlife Sanctuary
Bihar (largest)
Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary
Karnataka
Periyar Wildlife sanctuary
Kerala
National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary M.P., U.P & Rajasthan
Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
Maharashtra (Ahmednagar)
Gomardha Wildlife Sanctuary
Chhattisgarh
Harike Headworks
Punjab
Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary
West Bengal
Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary
Haryana
Raganathittu Wildlife Sanctuary
Karnataka
Madumalai Sanctuary
Tamil Nadu
Pulicat Sanctuary
Andhra Pradesh
Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary
U.P (Varanasi)
Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctury
Karnataka
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary
Tamil Nadu

1.

Cow

2.
3.
4.

Buffalo
Sheep
Goats

Breeds of Cattle
Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Deoni (Andhra Pr.), Nagori, Rathi, Siri, Malvi,
Tharparkar. Exotic breeds Holstein, Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss.
Murrah, Bhadawari, Nagpuri, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi, Surti, Nali-Ravi.
Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kathiawari.
Jamnapuri, Barbari
High Yielding Varieties of Seed
52

Ghanshyam Thori
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Wheat
Rice
Maize
Jowar
Ragi
Cotton

National Highways
State Highways
District Roads
Village Roads
Border Roads
Total Roads
Total Waterways

1. National Waterways-1
2. National Waterways-2
3. National Waterways-3

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Geography Notes
Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Arjun, Lerma, Sharbati Sonora, WL series.
Padma, Jaya, IR-8, Hamsa, Krishna, Cauvery, Annapurna
Ganga-101, Deccan Hybrid
CSV-1 to CSV-7
Sharda
V-797, Hybrid 4,5, Digvijay, Varalaxmi, Sanjay, Deviraj, Virnar.
Roads, Railways & Waterways in India
67700 Km
Broad Guage
137000 Km
Meter Guage
12 Lakh Km
Narrow Guage
15 Lakh Km
Total Railway guage
30,000 Km
No of Trains
33 Lakh Km
No of Stations
14500 Km
Electrified route

46800 km
13000 km
3100 km
63200 km
13500
7100
28%

National Waterways
Allahabad-Haldia stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly system
Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra system
The west coast canal from Kottapuram to Kollam along with the
Udyogmandal & Champakar canals (All in Kerala).

Indian Railways, Headquarters

1. Nothern Raiway
Delhi
2. Southern Railway
Chennai
3. Eastern Raiway
Kolkata
4. Western Railway
Mumbai (Churchgate)
5. North-Western Railway
Jaipur
6. North-Central Railway
Allahabad
7. North-Eastern Railway
Gorakhpur
8. North-East Frontier Railway
Guwahati
9. East Coast Railway
Bhubaneshwar
10. East Central Railway
Hazipur
11. West Central Railway
Jabalpur
12. Central Railway
Mumbai (V.T)
13. South-Central Railway
Secundarabad
14. South Eastern Railway
Kolkata
15. South-Western Railway
Bangalore
16. South-East Central Railway
Bilaspur
India Pipelines
Naharkatiya Oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar via Noonmati First pipeline
Barauni-Kanpur pipeline for transport of refined petroleum
Haldia-Maurgram-Rajbandh pipeline
Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery in Gujarat
Mumbai High Koyali pipeline
Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline (1750 km). Extended from Bijapur to Dadri in U.P.

53

Ghanshyam Thori
7.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Geography Notes

Kandla to Luni in U.P via Delhi for LPG transport (1250 Km)

Mumbai
Delhi
Chennai
Kolkata
Ahmedabad
Amritsar
Bangalore
Goa
Guwahati
Hyderabad
Thiruvananthapuram
Kochi

Airways-Internatioanal Airports
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Sahar)
Indira Gandhi International Airport
Anna International Airport (Meenambakam)
Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport
Raja Sansi Airport
Needumbassery International Airport
Dabolim International Airport
Lokapriya Gopinat Bardoli International Airport
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
Trivandrum International Airport
Nedumbassery International Airport.

Indias Foreign Trade

27 %
1. Gems & Jewellery
1. Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL)
2. Pearls & Precious stones
9%
2. Readymade Garments
3. Gold & Silver
8.5 %
3. Chemicals
4. Capital goods
12 %
4. Cotton Textile
5. Electronic goods
9%
5. Machine & Transport
6. Chemicals
7%
6. Agricultural Exports
7. Edible Oils
3%
7.
8. Coke, Coal & briquettes
2%
8.
Fish & Fish products lead agricultural exports accounting for 3.1 % of the total value.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

City
Agra
Badrinath
Cuttack
Dibrugarh
Ferozpur

Indias major trading partners

USA
11.6 %
UAE
5.0 %
China
5 .0%
UK
4.4 %
Belgium
4.1 %
Germany
3.9 %
Japan
3.1 %
Switzerland
2.7 %
Hongkong
3.4 %
Singapore
3.0 %

Cities located on Rivers

River
Yamuna
Alaknanda
Mahanadi
Brahmaputra
Sutlej
54

State
UP
Uttranchal
Orissa
Assam
Punjab

17 %
13 %
11 %
8%
6%
13.5 %

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
Guwahati
Hyderabad
Jabalpur
Kanpur
Kota
Lucknow
Ludhiana
Nasik
Pandharpur
Patna
Sambalpur
Srinagar
Surat
Tiruchirapalli
Varanasi
Vijaywada

1.

Iron & Steel

2.
3.
4.

Cotton Textile
Sugar Industry
Aluminum
Industry

5.

Copper Smelting

6.

Jute Textile

7.
8.

Silk Textile
Woolen Textile

9.

Heavy Industry

10. Machine Tools

11. Automobiles
12. Pesticides
13. Cement Industry
14. Leather Industry

Brahmaputra
Musi
Narmada
Ganga
Chambal
Gomti
Sutlej
Godavari
Bhima
Ganga
Mahanadi
Jhelum
Tapti
Cauvery
Ganga
Krishna

Assam
AP
MP
UP
Rajasthan
UP
Punjab
Maharashtra
Maharashtra
Bihar
Orissa
J&K
Gujarat
Tamil Nadu
UP
AP

Industries of India
IISCO has 3 plants at Kulti, Hirapur & Burnpur. Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel
Co is located on the bank of Bhadravati river in Karnataka.
Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) at Bhilai, Durgapur & Bokaro.
4% of GDP. 3.5 Crore population employed.
HINDALCO (Renukoot), INDAL (Alupuram, Hirakud, Belgaum), Madras
Aluminium Company (MALCO, Mettur), BALCO (Korba), NALCO
(Koraput)
HCL is the main player & operates Khetri copper complex, Indian copper
complex (Ghatsila, Jharkhand), Malanjkhand copper project (Balghat,
M.P.), Taloja copper project (Raigad, Maharashtra).
Centers are Titagarh, budge-budge, Haora, Rishra, Serampore,
Bhadreshware, Shyamnagar.
Its varieties are Mulberry (88%), Eri (9%), Tassar (2%), Muga (1%)
Punjab, Maharashtra & U.P account for 75% production. Dhariwal is most
important centre. Others are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Kharar.
Heavy Engineering Corp Ltd (Ranchi), Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd
(Karnataka), Bharat heavy plates & Vessels (Vishakhapatnam)
Mining & allied machinery corporation (Durgapur).
HMT (Bangalore, Pinjore in Haryana, Kalamassery in Kerala, Hyderabad,
Ajmer & Sri Nagar), Heavy Machine Tools (Ranchi), Machine Tools Corp
of India (Ajmer), National Instruments Factory at Kolkata.
TELCO in Mumbai, Ashok Leyland in Chennai, Bajaj Tempo (Pune).
Defense vehicles are produced at Jabalpur.
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd (Delhi, Kerala & Rasayani, Maharashtra)
Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd (Rasayani, Raigad & Kochi)
Top manufacturing states are M.P, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pr & Raj. Jamul
is largest plant of M.P. & Sawai Madhopur leads in Rajasthan
India is 3rd largest player after Italy & U.S.
55

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

15. Glass Industry

16.
17.
18.
19.

20.
21.

22.
23.

24.

Bahjoi & Naini (Both in U.P.) are famous for glass sheets & Firozabad for
bangles.
Paper Industry
Rajmundhry (Andhra Pr), Ballarpur (Maharshtra), Titagarh (Bengal)
Bhadravati, Dandeli (Karnataka), Hoshangabad (M.P)
Liquor Industry
U.P. has more than 50% installed capacity. Maharashtra, A.P are others.
Aircraft industry Important centres are HAL-Bangalore, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Others are
Koraput (Orissa) & Nasik.
Railway
Chittaranjan Locomotive works (Electric engines) West Bengal
Equipments
Diesel Locomotive works Varanasi
Integral Coach Factory
Perambur, Tamil Nadu
Rail Coach Factory
Kapurthala, Punjab.
Diesel Componets Works - Patiala
Railway wheels & Axels - Yalahanka (Banalore) & Durgapur.
Ship Building
Hindustan Shipyard (Vishakhapatnam), Garden-Reach Shipbuilders
(Kolkata), Mazagaon Dock (Mumbai), Goa Shipyard (Vasco).
Pharmaceuticals IDPL Rhishikesh, Hyderabad, Gurgaon, Chennai, Muzzafarpur
Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd Pimpri, Pune first public sector undertaking
in this industry
Zinc & Lead
Hindustan Zinc Ltd at Debari, Rajasthan (both zinc & lead)
Fertilizers
FCI-Sindri
Industry
National Fertilizers Limited Nangal
Hindustan Fertilizer Corp Ltd- Namrup (Assam), Durgapur.
Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd Trombay, Thal
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, U.P & Maharashtra are the 4 largest in order.
Heavy Electricals BHEL (Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram in A.P, Jammu,
Bangalore, Hardwar). Ms ABL at Durgapur.
Hindustan Cables Factory (Rupnarainpur, Bengal), Indian Telephone
industries (Bangalore), Bharat Electronics (Bangalore),
Electronics corporation of India (Hyderabad)

4.

Mumbai-Pune rgion

5.

Hugli Industrial Belt

Industrial Regions of India

Tata hydel stations at Khopali, Bhivpuri, Bhira & koyna
Solapur, Satara, Sangli & Ahmednagar
From Naihati to Budge-Budge along left bank & Tribeni to
Nalpur along right bank. Other centres are Serampur, Rishra,
Shibpur, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Bansbaria,
Belgurriah, Triveni, Belur.
56

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

6.

Bangalore-Tamil Nadu

7.

Ahmedabad-Vadodara

8.

Chhotanagpur Region

9.

Gurgaon Delhi Meerut

Pykara project supplies electricity. Salem, Madurai,

Tiruchirapalli, Mettur, Mysore, Mandya.
Dhuvaran Thermal power station, Uttaran gas power station,
Ukai hydro project. Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
Rajkot, Surat, Valsad, Jamnagar
Chaibasa, Dhanbad, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Asansol, Durgapur,
Dalmianagar, Ranchi, Daltonganj.
Faridabad, Modinagar, Ambala, Agra, Mathura

Six Largest National Highways

National Highway
Route
NH 7
Varanasi-Kanyakumari
NH 6
Kolkata & Dhule via Raipur, Nagpur.
NH 5
Baharagora-Chennai
NH 2
Delhi-Kolkata
NH 8
Delhi-Mumbai
NH 17
Panvel-Edapally (Karnataka)
Important National Highways
Delhi to Amritsar via Ambala & Jallandhar
Jallandhar & Uri via Jammu, Srinagar & Baramula
Ambala to Shipkila on Indo china border
Pipra to Nepal border
Barasat-Bongaigaon-Indo Bangladesh border
Numaligarh-Indo Burma border.
Agra to Mumbai via Gwalior
Chennai with Thane

NH-1
NH-1A
NH 22
NH 28 A
NH 35
NH 39
NH 3
NH 4

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Lengh Km
2369
1932
1533
1490
1428
1270

456
460
68
61
436

Important Industrial Centers of India

Ferozabad
Glass Bangles
Mirzapur
Pottery
Jaipur
Gems Industry
Trivandrum
Wood Carving
Kadi
Mineral Oil
Korba
Aluminium
Bhatinda
Fertilizers

Racial Profile of India

1.
2.

Negritos
Proto-Australoid

3.
4.

Mongoloids
Mediterranean

Only on Andamans & Nicobar

Includes Tribal group of central & southern India. Veddahs,
Maleveddahs, Irulas, Sholgas considere true representative.
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Murmis, Naga & Dafla
Divided into: Palaeo-Mediterranean (or Dravidians) inhabiting
57

Ghanshyam Thori

5.

Brachycephals

6.

Nordics/Indo-Aryans

Geography Notes
southern parts of India & True Mediterranean inhabiting northern &
western part of the country.
Characterized by broad heads. Coorgis & Parsis are representative.
They are divided into Alpinoids, Dinarics & Armenoids
Inhabit parts of north India. They are mostly represented among the
upper castes in northern India esp in Punjab
Demographic Profile of India

S.
Parameter
1. Population
(1027 million)
2. Population Density
(324 per/Sq km)
3. Popln Growth
4. Growth Urban population
5. Growth rural population
6. Proportion of Urban Populn

Top in Parameter
U.P, Maharasthra, Bihar, W.
Bengal & Andhra Pr.
Delhi (UTs)
West Bengal (904), Bihar (880),
Kerala, U.P, Punjab.
Delhi
Nagaland (64%), Sikkim
Arunachal Pradesh
Dadra & Nagar haveli
Nagaland
Goa (50%)

7. Average size of Villages

8. Sex Ratio (933)

Kerala (~15000 people)

Kerala (1058)
Pondicherry

9. Death Rate
10. Infant Mortality Rate
11. Literacy

Orissa
Orissa
Kerala (91%), Mizoram, Goa,
Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh
Lakshadweep (UT)

Bottom in Parameter
Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal
Pradesh & Goa
Lakshadweep (UT)
Arunachal Pr (13), Mizoram,
Sikkim
Andaman & Nicobar.
Kerala (9.4%)
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Arunachal Pradesh (5%)
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Arunachal (~200)
Haryana (861), Punjab &
Sikkim
Daman & Diu
Kerala (6 per thousand)
Kerala
Bihar (47%), Jharkhand,
J&K, Arunachal Pr, U.P.
Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT)

Miscellaneous Facts
A. Physiography:
1. India is the seventh largest country in the world. The north south extent is 3214km & E-W 2933 Km. The
mainland coastline is 6100 km long & including islands it is 7516 km long. Its geographical area is around

58

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

33 lakh sq km (or 328.72 million hectares). The southernmost point (Indira Point) is 6 degree 30 minutes
north latitude.
2. Narcondam & Barren Island are volcanic islands of India. Most of the sandalwood of India comes from
Karnataka.
3. The northernmost Himalayan ranges are called central Himalayas or Himadri. Beyond this range lies the
Tibetan or Tethys Himalayas beyond with lies the Indus Tsangpo suture zone. To the south of the central
or the Inner Himalayas lies the lesser or lower Himalayas or Middle Himalayas & is separated from the
Greater Himalayas by a structural zone called Main Central Thrust. In between the Lower Himalayas
(Middle Himalayas) & the Shivaliks lies the Main Boundary Thrust.
4. The Indus Suture Zone, ISZ (or Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) defines the zone of collision
between the Indian Plate and the Ladakh Batholith to the north. Between the Pir Panjal & the Zaskar range
lies the valley of kashmir. Karakoram range, Ladakh range, Zaskar range from north to south. Important
peaks of the Zaskar range are Kamet (highest), Nanda Devi & Gurla Mandhata.
5. The peaks above 8000 m in the himalayas in descending order are Mt Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu,
Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, Cho Oyu, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna. Raman Peak is situated in Arabian Sea
6. The transhimalayas include the Karakoram & the Laddakh range. Karakoram range has its highest in peak
K2 (or Qagir named after Chinese occupation). The highest peak of Kailash range is Mt. Kailash & that of
Ladakh range is Mt. Rakaposhi.
7. The purvanchal (NE Himalayas) are divided into Purvu-NEFA (composed of Mishmi Hills & Patkai
Bum), Naga hills (Saramati is highest peak), Manipur Hills, North Cachar hills, Mizo hills (earlier known
as Lushai hills) & the Tripura hills.
8. The Garo, Khasi, Jaintia & the outlying Mikir & Rengma hills are structurally parts of peninsular plateau
separated from the Indian peninsula by the Malda gap.
9. Bhabhar (in Punjab or Duars in Assam) lies to the north of Terai & is a pebble studded region which
causes many steams to get lost underneath which re-emerge in the Terai belt. Khadar is known as bet in
punjab & Bhangar comprises of Kankars. The northern part of the punjab plains adjoinin the shivaliks
have witnesses intense erosion throgh boulder clanned streams called Chos.
10. In the pujab plain the area between rivers is called Doab & the river bluffs are called Dhayas. The thar
desert has numerous features like dhrian (shifting sand dunes), sar (saline playa lakes), rohi (fertile tracts
formed by rivers west of Aravallis) & dhands (alkaline lakes).
11. The east coast (or Coromandel coast) also known as Utkal ghat in orisssa & Payant ghat in Andhra &
Tamil Nadu has two lagoon lakes (Pulicat lake north of Chennai & Chilka lake). The eastern ghats are

59

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

broader whant the western ghats. Western ghat is divided into kathiawar, konkan & Malabar coast. It
consists of Kayals (lagoons & backwaters largest being Vembnad lake). In karnataka the ghats are known
as Kanara plain.
Physiographic divisions of the Peninsular Upland
1.
2.

North Central Uplands

South Cental Highlands

3.

Eastern Plateau

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Western plateau
South Deccan
Meghalaya Mikir Uplands
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats

Aravalli Range, Rajasthan Uplands, Madhya Bharat Pathar

Malwa plateau, Vindhyan Scarplands, Vindhyan range,
Narmada valley
Chotanagpur Plateau, Baghelkand plateau, Mahanadi basin,
Dandakaranya, Garhjat Hills
Maharashtra plateau, Satpura range
Karnataka plateau, Telangana plateau
Meghalaya plateau, Mikir Hills

12. Madhya Bharat pathar is made of ancient vindhyan sediments through which the Chambal river has
formed badland. To the further east lies Bundelkhand upland.
13. North of Mahanadi lies the Baghelkhand plateau which is drained by tributaries of Son river. The
Chotanagpur plateau composed of granites & gneisses forms Jharkhand & is drained by Damodar. It has
three lava hills of the Dalma, Porahat & Rajmahal. South of Chattisgarh basin (also called Mahanadi
basin) lies a region of rugged topography called Dandakaranya plateau. Garhjat hills are also called Orissa
highlands & have their highest peak in Mehendragiri.
14. The Satpura range has three parts: Rajpipla hills in the western part, Mahadeo hills (highest peak
Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi) in the central part & Maikala range (highest peak Amarkantak) in the eastern
reaches. Dhupgarh is the highest peak in entire Satpuras.
15. The Telangana or Andhra plateau has two parts: the Telangana & Rayalseema upland.
16. The highest peak of Anaimudi is the central point from which the three ranges radiate: Cardamom hills to
the south, the Anamalai to the north & the Palni to the northeast. Thalghat (Kasara to Igatpuri), Bhorghat
(between kalian & lonavala) & Palghat are the gaps in Sahyadris. Western ghats are block mountains
formed by the downwarping of a part of the land into the Arabian sea & are steeper towards west. Cochin
is connected to interior through the Palghat gap.
17. The Eastern Ghats are also known as Mehendragiri in Orissa. The Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu are the meeting
point of the Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats & southern hills. Its highest peak is Dodabeta & it also includes
Ooty hill station. Southwards of Nilgiri & separated from them by the Palghat gap are the Annamalail
Hills.

60

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

18. The islands & passages from north to south are Coco Channel, North, middle & south Andamans, Duncan
passage, little Andamans, Ten degree Channel, Car Nicobar, & Great Nicobar. In Lakshwadeep the
sequence from north to south is Amindivi Island, Nine degree channel & Minicoy.
B. Drainage:
19. Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, & Indus (Sri Ram called Jubiliant Indra) from south to north. Gomati,
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi & Mahananda are from west to east. Chambal, Sind, Betwa, ken & Son are in
that order from west to east.
20. Sanskrit names Indus (Sindu), Jhelum (Vitasta), Ravi (Parushini), Beas (Vipasa) & Satluj (Satadru).
21. In Bangladesh Tista joins Brahmaputra on the right bank from where it is known as Jamuna.
22. Subernarekha & Brahmani both arise in the Chhotanagpur plateau & lie to the north of Mahanadi. The
Baitrani is another stream of this system & its source lies in the Keonjhar plateau.
23. Bharatuzha (or Ponnani) is the longest river of Kerala. Periyar is second largest & Pamba falls into the
Vembanad Lake. The penner originates in Karnataka (Kolar) & flows through Andhra Pradesh. The
Vaigai rises in kerala & receives diverted waters of the Periyar & ultimately joins Palk bay.
24. The dendritic pattern is best developed in the Indo Gangetic plains. Narmada flows between vidhyas &
Satupura while Tapti lies to the south of Satpura. Dhuandhar falls (or marble falls) near Jabalpur on
Narmada is famous. Pinnate pattern is found in Narmada & Tapti valleys. Naini Tal, Bhim Tal & Khewan
Tal are Lakes of Kumaon. Kolleru lake is located in east Godavari district (A.P.). Loktak lake is in
Manipur. Chitrakote falls is located on river Indravati in Bastar.
25. Cauveri is the least seasonal of all the rivers of the peninsular plateau. Karewas are lacustrine deposits of
Kashmir. The Cardamom hills are part of Annamalai hills.
26. Lonar lake (Crater lake) is situated in Maharashtra. It is the largest crater in basaltic rock. Adams Bridge,
is a narrow ridge of sand, mostly dry, which connects Mannar Island with Pamban Island
C: Climate, Vegetation & Soil
27. Jet Steams are of two types: Westerly jet streams which blow from west to east at a height of 12 km &
easterly jet steams which blow from east to west at 13 km above. The tropical easterly jet exists over India
during summer & disintegrates during winter.
28. Kalbaisakhi in West Bengal, Bordoichilla in Assam & Mango Showers in Peninsula. Tropical Cyclones
occur in India during monsoon period. The average annual rainfall in India is 125 cm & most of it is
orographic in nature.
29. Tropic of Cancer passes through Mizoram, Tripura, W. Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, M.P. Rajasthan
& Gujarat. Gulf of Mannar lies on the east coast of Tamil Nadu.

61

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

30. Other classifications of the climate of India were given by Subramanyam & Sivaramakrishnaiah
(discomfortable to most comfortable), Kendrew & Stamp (18 C isotherm basis), BLC Johnson.
31. Jowar & Ragi are very popular on red soils.
32. Tropical Deciduous is the most widely distributed vegetation in India. Lakshwadeep has zero percent
forest area & Andamans & Nicobar Islands have 87 percent. Mizoram, Arunachal & Nagaland have more
than 80 percent forest cover. J & k has around one percent. Maximum Teak & Sal come from the forests
of M.P & Chhattisgarh.
33. The term social forestry was first used by National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 & involves
planting trees on farms among other things.
34. Kaziranga National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve, Sundarbans Biosphere
Reserve are identified as having outstanding universal value.
35. The biosphere reserves of India in order of their establishment from oldest to recent are Nilgiri, Nanda
Devi, Nokrek (Meghalaya), Great Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans, Simlipal
(Orissa), Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam), Dehang-Debang (Arunachal), Pachmarhi, Khangchendzonga,
Agasthyamalai
36. Magnetite occurs at Daltonganj in palamau district (Jharkhand).
37. Net sown area is around 46 % of total land in area. In India net sown area is 142 million hectares & total
cropped area is 187 million hectares. Ludhiana has highest yields of wheat & west Godavari is most
important for rice cultivation in Andhra Pr. Pearl fishing is done at Tuticorin.
38. The contributors to petroleum production are Mumbai (65 %), Gujarat (18 %), Assam (16 %) & Tamil
Nadu (1.37 %). Same trend of states is there in case of gas production with a little different %ages.
39. Petroleum Refining is done at Guwahati, Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura, Digboi, Panipat, Chennai,
Narimanam, Bongaigaon, Mumbai (HPCL, BPCL), Vishakhapatnam, Kochi, Numaligarh (Assam) &
Tatipaka (ONGC-Andhra Pr). Tertiary coal is better than Gondwana coal.
40. Jharia coalfield (Dhanbad district, Jharkhand) alone accounts for 35 % of Indian production.
41. Only a few non-metallic minerals are significant in the mining economy. Limestone accounts alone for
two-thirds of the total value under the group.
42. Nuclear power plants in India are at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora (UP), Kaiga (Karnataka) &
Kakarapara (Gujarat). Requirements for these reactors are fulfilled by the Nuclear Fuel complex located at
Hyderabad & Heavy water plant at Vadodara. Eight heavy water plants are operational in India at
Vadodara, Thal, Nangal, Tuticorin, Kota, Talcher, Hazira, Manuguro. A number of research reactors have

62

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

been built to carry R&D in this field which include Apsara, Cirus, Zerlina, Purnima (I, II, & III), Dhruva
& Kamini.
43. India is fifth in wind energy after Germany, USA, Denmark & Spain. Asias largest wind farm is located
at Lamba in Gujarat. Tamil Nadu has highest installation of wind turbines.
44. Geothermal energy Tattapani field (Chhattisgarh), Puga Valley (J & K), Manikaran Area (H.P.)
45. The farourable sites for ocean energy are Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kachchh & estuary of Hugli. Indias
first tidal power plant is at Kandla. The fist solar energy plant & solar plant both are at Bhuj.
46. Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline transports liquid gas from the South Bassein offshore field off
Mumbai to Jagdishpur and Aonla, deep in the mainland in Uttar Pradesh.
47. Cropped area in a year under consideration is known as net sown area. The gross cultivated area includes
the net sown area used more than once a year. Cropping intensity is given by total cropped area divided by
net sown area.
48. West Bengal produces three crops of rice every year viz Aus, Aaman & Boro. Arabica coffee is grown at
an altitude of around 750-1500 metres & Robusta around 300-600 metres.
49. The largest producing state for silk is Karnataka (60%), Andhra Pradesh (17%), Assam & Bihar. The
fertilizer consumption is highest for Punjab (185 kg/ha), followed by Tamil Nadu & Andra Pradesh.
Orissa has the lowest consumption.
50. Irrigation in India Wells & Tubewell (56%), Canal (32%), Tank (6%) , Others (6.5%). Uttar Pradesh
leads in Canal irrigation as well as Tubewell irrigation. Andhra Pradesh leads in Tank Irrigation. Tamil
Nadu has developed highest proportion of its irrigation potential (95%).
51. The fish production in India during 2004-05 was around 6.4 Million Tonnes. Inland fisheries account for
around 50 % of the total fish cash. Kerala leads in marine fish catch.
52. India with 18.5 crore cattle and 10 crore buffaloes ranks first in cattle and buffalo population in the world.
India accounts for 15 % of worlds cattle & 57% of worlds buffalo population.
53. Mulching (ploughing in of crops), retting (fresh water treatment of Jute) & ratooning (using the same root
for crop growth as in sugarcane) are some of the practices of agriculture.
54. Eutrophication is a process where water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant
growth choking weaker species & altering species composition.
55. The scientific name of Teak (Tectona Grandis) & Sal (Shorea Robusta). Sal is used for railway sleepers &
Deodar for pencils
56. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which
provides for the conservation and wise use of wetlands

63

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

57. During the second five year plan, Iron & Steel plants were set up at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela
(Orisaa), & Durgapur (W. Bengal) & two aluminium plants were established at Hirakud (INDAL) &
Renukoot (Hinalco). During the fourth plan a steel plant was set up at Bokaro (Jharkhand). The
Vishakhapatnam steel project is the first on-shore steel project built during 6th plan. The Bhilai & Bokaro
steel plants were built with Russian collaboration & they are the two biggest in that order.
58. M/s Jessops, Kolkata & Bharat Earth Movers Limited, Bangalore also manufacture rail coaches &
electrical multiple units.
59. India imports 40 % of its copper requirement from abroad. Most of the gold in India occurs in the form of
veins in Dharwar schists.
60. Currency paper comed from Hoshangabad in M.P & defense vehicles from Jabalpur. Cochin shipyard is
the largest in India & built with Japanese assistance.
61. The east-west corridor extends from Silcher in Assam to Porbander in Gujarat. Kerala has the highest
density of roads & J&K has the least. Goa has the highest density of surfaced roads. Maharasthra is the
state with highest road length followed by Tamil Nadu, M.P & U.P.
62. Konkan railway runs from Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka (760 Km long). It has Asias
longest rail tunnel. Rail route per unit area is highest in Punjab and least for J&K. Rail route per unit
population is highest for Gujarat & lowest for Tripura.
63. Buckingham Canal in Andhra Pradesh & Cumberjua Canal in Goa were once very important. Grand
Anicut canal is in Thanjuvar, Tamil Nadu. India has over two million square km of EEZ. Overall share of
Indian Vessels in overseas trade is 32 % only. Maharashtra (53) has the maximum no of minor ports (184
in all), followed by Gujarat (40).
64. The ports are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Sheva, Mormugao, Mangalore, Kochi, Tuticorin, Chennai, Ennore
(newest), Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Haldia, Kolkata. Jawaharlal Nehru port has been developed at Nhava
Sheva off the Mumbai port. Haldia decongests Kolkata & Ennore (25 Km north of Chennai & newest
port) helps Chennai (Artificial shallow port) tackling its cargo. Paradip (Orissa) has the deepest harbour.
65. The New Mangalore port is used to export iron ore from Kudremukh & iron ore from Bailadila
(Chhattisgarh) is exported through Vishakhapatnam port. Marmagao port is situated at the entrance of the
estuary of river Zuari in Goa. Dandakarnya is known for iron-ore deposits.
66. Prasar Bharati was created by merging Door-Darshan & All India radio in 1997. Indian postal system is
the largest in the world with more than 1.5 lakh post offices. Rajdani channel (yellow boxes) for letters
emanating from Delhi for state capitals. Metro Channel (light blue box). QMS was introduced in 1975 &
works on the basis of PIN numbers.

64

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

67. Indias imports stand at around 36000 crores & exports at 29300 crores. Trade deficit is around 6500
crores. Exports are around 10.7 % of GDP. It is just 0.6 % of world trade. Foreign Debt is around 18% of
GDP. It is 8th largest debted country in the world.
68. India produces around 90 million tonnes of milk every year (Buffalo 50%, Cow 46%, Goats 4%). M.P has
the largest number of cattle followed by U.P & Bihar & West Bengal.
69. Indias Diesel power stations are located at Naharkatiya (Assam), Barauni (Bihar), Dhuvaran (Gujarat) &
Trombay. The first Fertilizer-manufacturing unit was set up in 1906 at Ranipet near Chennai.
70. General Fertility ratio is the number of live births in a year per thousand of women of normal reproductive
age group. Replacement or reproduction ratio is the number of female babies born per thousand of female
population in the reproductive age group. The infant mortality rate is expressed as the number of deaths of
children below one year per thousand of live births. Maternal mortality rate refers to the number of female
deaths due to maternity causes per ten thousand of live births.
71. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary sex ratio refers to the sex ratio at conception, Birth & Enumeration
respectively. There is no doubt that more males are born than the females in case of all mammals
including humans all over the world.
72. Percentage of Urban population in India is 27.78% & rural 72.22 %. Surat has the distinction of
experiencing the highest growth rate among the 35 metropolitan cities during 1991-2001. Madurai grew
with the slowest pace. Haryana experienced an increase in the population growth rate during the period
1991-2001.
73. Tamil Nadu has the highest urbanization among the top ten populous states.
74. Indias age composition is 0-15 years (36.5%), 15-59 years (56.7%) & above 60 (6.8 %). The dependency
ratio is higher in rural areas than urban.
75. The sex ratio of the country is 933. Rural areas have more favourable sex ratio (946) compared to 901 of
urban areas. Sex ratio registered sharpest decline during 1961-71.
76. In India the workers are: main workers (30.5 %), Marginal workers (8.7%) & non-workers (60.8%).
Proportion of main workers (>183 days employment a year) is lowest in Kerala (26%) & highest in
Arunachal Pradesh (38%).
77. Scheduled caste highest population in U.P followed by West Bengal. Punjab has the highest proportion
of scheduled caste. There is no scheduled caste population in Nagaland & Andamans. Among UTs highest
SC population is in Delhi. Madhya Pradesh has the highest tribal population followed by Maharashtra &
Orissa. Goa (376 people only) has the least ST population. Punjab, Haryana have no ST population.
Mizoram (95%) & Lakshadweep (93%) have the highest percentage of tribal population.

65

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

78. The scheduled languages arranged in descending order of the number of speakers is Hindi, Bengali,
Teulgu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Konkani,
Manipuri, Kashmiri & Sanskrit.
79. North Indian languages including Gujrati, Marathi, Oriya, Bengali, & Assamese belong to Aryan group.
Dravidian group includes Tamil, Kannada, Telugu & Malayalam. Austric languages are spoken by tribal
groups of Meghalaya, Jharkhand & Western Satpura. Sino Tibetan languages prevalent in North eastern
states: Tibeto Himalayan (Bhutia, Kinnauri), Arunachal (Aka, Dafla, Miri & Abor) & Naga-Myanmari
(Bodo, Naga & Kuku group).
80. According to 2001 census: Hindu (80.5%), Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%) & Sikh (1.8%). Hindu
population proportion is highest in Himachal, Muslim in J&K, Christians in Kerala, Buddhist & Jain in
Maharashtra
81. Overall literacy of India is 65.38 %. Male literacy is 75.85 % & Female 54.16 %. Lowest literacy levels
are 47.53 % in Bihar to 90.92 % in Kerala. The proportion of children of eligible age group enrolled in
primary schools is lowest in Uttar Pradesh & highest in Sikkim. Literacy is 80 % in Urban areas & 60 %
in rural areas.
82. Environmental Imact I = PAT (population * Affluence * Harmful technology used in production). Poverty
is higher in rural areas.
Urban Population Distribution in Different Cities & Towns
I
II
III

100,000 & More

50,000-99,000
20,000-49,999

61.48
12.3
15

IV
V
VI

10,000-19,999
5,000-9,999
Less than 5000

8.08
2.85
.29

83. For whole India, the average distance among villages is 2.52 km. Average density of villages is highest in
West Bengal, Bihar & U.P in that order. The maximum proportion of no of villages fall in the 500-999
category (25%), followed by 200-499 (24.3%) & less than 200 (18%). However the maximum population
percentage is in 2000-5000 (30%) & 1000-2000 (26%).
84. The 35 million cities of India support more around 38 % of the total urban population. Chhattisgarh &
Orissa do not have million cities.
85. The proportion of slums population to total population is highest in Meghalaya (41%) & lowest in Kerala
(1.8%). Among the million plus cities highest proportion of slum population is in Mumbai & least in
Patna. Maharashtra has highest slum population.
86. India grew at a rate of 1.93 % during the period 1991-2001. The population of the country rose by 21.34
% during 1991 - 2001.

66

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

87. Human activities are allowed in Sanctuary but not in National parks. Moreover sanctuaries are species
specific while National parks are habitat oriented.
88. Badrinath is situated on the banks of river Alaknanda.
89. Rabaris are pastoralists in Gujarat. The highest Christian population is in Nagaland. Largest number of
villages is in U.P.
Essential Extra Reference

List of National highways (page 15.82 Indian Geograhphy TMH-Surendra Singh)

Pratyogita Darpan page 287.

Million cities of India (Geography Notes)

Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.

Refer TMH guide for tables to be pasted

Important Works of Geographers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Illiad, Odyssey
Ges-Periodos Description of the earth
Ekumene
Geographica
Almagest or Syntaxis (on astronomy)
The outline of geography (consisted of Graticule for place location)
Historia Naturalis
De Chorographica
A book of routes & realms
Kitab-al-Ashkal
Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab, Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf, Kitab-Akhbaral-Zaman & Kitab-al-Ausat
Kitab-al-Hind, Al-Qanum-al-Masudi, Tarik-ul-Hind, Kitab-alJamakhir, Ahal-al-Bagiya, Kitab-al-Saydna, Rashikat-al-Hind
Amusement for Him who desires to travel around the world
Rogers Book
Rihlah
Muqaddimah Introduction to world history
Panch Siddhantika
Siddhant Tatwavivek
Introduction to Universal Geography
Geography delineated forth in two bookes

19. Histoire naturelle (compendium about earth & living things)

20. Geographia Generalis
21. Description regni Lapaniate et Siam

67

Homer
Hecataeus
Eratosthenes.
Strabo
Ptolemy
Pliny
Pomponius Mela
Ibn Huakal
Al Balkhi
Al-Masudi
Al-Biruni
Al-Idrisi
Ibn Batuta
Ibn-Khaldun
Varahmihira
Kamlakar
Cluvarius
Nathaneal
Carpenter
Comte de Buffon
Varenius
Varenius

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

22. Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Judgement & Anthropology

from pragmatic point of view
23. Ankundingung
24. General Natural history & theory of Heavens
25. Kosmos & Relation Historique
26. Erdkunde, 6 maps of Europe, Essays on Methodology
Europe: A Geographical, Historical & Statistical Painting
27. Anthropogeographie, Political Geography
28. Das Ausland (editor) & Geschichte der Erdkunde.
29. Travel in the Columbian Andes,
Geography: Its history character & methods ,
A geography of man , Transport geography, Economic Geography
30. Foundations of Regional Geography
31. Principles de Geographie Humaine
32. Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive
33. La Terra
34. Les Sciences Geographiques
35. Problems de Geographie Humaine
36. American history & its geographical conditions, Influences of
Geographical Environment.
37. The pulse of Asia, Civilization & Climate, Principles of Human
Geography.
38. The geography of the central Andes
39. Morphology of the landscape
40. Physiography
41. Heartland Theory , Britain & the British Seas & Democratic Ideals
& Reality
42. The geographical pivot of history
43. Americas strategy in worlds politics
Geography of the peace.
44. Geographic perspective on Urban systems
45. The quantitative revolution & theoretical geography
46. The makers of modern geography
47. Models in human geography, Locational Analysis in Human
Geography & Frontiers of geographical teaching.
48. Geography: A modern synthesis
49. Handbook of commercial geography
50. Cities in Evolution
51. History of Civilization of England
52. Geographical introduction to history
53. Tableau de la geographie de la France
54. A Handbook of Physical Geography, Guiding principles of General
Political Geography
55. Traite de Geographique Physique.
56. Atlas de France
57. Geography made easy, American Universal Geography
68

Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Humboldt
Carl Ritter
Friedrich Ratzel
Oscar Peschel
Alfred Hettner

Hettner
Vidal Blache
Jean Brunhes
Elisee Reclus
Camille Vallaux
Albert Demangeon
Ellen C. Semple
Huntington.
Isaiah Bowman
Carl O Sauer.
Rollin D. Salisbury
Mackinder
Mackinder
Nicholas Spykman
B.J.L. Berry
Ian Burton
R.E. Dickinson
Hagget & Chorley
Hagget
Chisholm
Partrick Geddes
Buckle
Lucien Febvre
Blache
A. Supan (German)
De Martonne
Margarie & De
Martonne
Jedidiah Morse

Ghanshyam Thori
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.

The American Geography

Nature of Geography
Hartshorne
Perspectives on the nature of geography
Hartshorne
The decision process in spatial context
Julian Wolpert
Regional geography of India
R.L. Singh
The geography of Puranas
S. M. Ali
The nature of Cities
Harris & Ullman
Explanations in Geography (b) Social justice & the city
David Harvey
All possible worlds
Preston .E James
The structure of scientific revolution
Thomas Kuhn
The economics of location
August Losch
Limits to growth
Dennis Meadows
The city in history
Lewis Mumford
Spatial Organization of society
R. Morill
(A) Some aspects of Medical Geography (B) Asia
L.D. Stamp
The development of social physics
John Q. Stewart
Intervening Oppurtunities
S. Stouffer
The isolated state
Von Thunen
Space & Place in human geography
Yi-Fu Tuan
The spirit & purpose of geography
S. Woolridge
Famous quotations
Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly & rational Hartshorne
description & interpretation of the variable character of earth suface.
Man is the product of the earths surface.
Ellen Semple
Man is a geographical agent & not the least.
Lucien Febvre
There are no necessities but everywhere possibilities.
Lucien Febvre.
Mutually coordinated & not subordinated in space on Possibilism
Hettner
Climatic influences are persistent, often obdurate in their control
Semple
Routes through which people have migrated have impressed upon their Demolins.
social characteristics
Supreme achievements of civilization were bounded by climate
Huntington.
Everywhere man contributes in inverting the physiognomy of earth
Brunhes
Geography is the mirror & reveals essence of human existence & striving
Yi Fu Tuan
Humanism is a conviction that men & women can best improve their lives Ralph
by thinking & acting for themselves & especially by excercising their
capacity for reason.
We should study the earth as if we were sitting in a balloon & looking Brunhes
down upon it.

1.

Homer

2.

Thales
(624-548 B.C.)
Anaximander

3.

Geography Notes

Contributions of Greeks
Father of Geography in Greek period. Wrote Illiad & Odyssey.
Believed earth to be a circular floor surrounded by oceans on all sides.
Boreas (N), Eurus(E), Notus (S), Zephyrus (W) winds
Six Geometric Theorems. Earth disc floating in water. Water essence
of all matter. Reported magnetism of a loadstone.
Disciple of Thales. Introduction of Gnomon today called sundial.
First to draw a map of the world to scale with Greece at center. Thales
69

Ghanshyam Thori
4.
5.
6.

Democritus
Pythagoras
Hecataeus

7.

Herodotus

8.

Plato
(428-348 BC)

9.

Aristotle
(384-322 BC)

10. Alexander
11. Theophrastus
12. Eratosthenes
(276-194 BC)

13. Polybius
14. Hipparachus

15. Posidonius

1.

Strabo
(64 BC-20 AD)

2.

Ptolemy
(90-168 AD)

3.

Pomponius Mela

Geography Notes
& Anaximander founded mathematical geography.
Introduced a theory of origin of universe based on atoms in the void.
Rotation of earth on its axis.
Originated literary tradition in geography. First writer in Greek prose.
Wrote Ges-Periodos. Laid the foundation of regional geography.
Opposed Hecataeus. First great historian. Nile mud causes delta &
winds blow from colder places to warmer places. Regarded Caspian
sea as an inland sea. Considered earth as circular plate in water. First
to draw a meridian on the world map. First to divide the world into
three land masses- Europe, Asia & Libya
Master of deductive reasoning. First to announce the concept of round
earth located in the centre of the universe with celestial bodies
revolving around it.
Master of inductive thought. Accepted Platos concept of spherical
earth & sought explanation for it (eclipse, pole star). Interested in
mathematical geography
Studied with Aristotle for only 3 years.
Special interest was in meteorology.
Father of Geography & coined the term Geography. Calculation of
the circumference of the earth. Wrote Ekumene in which he accepted
two torrid zone, two temperate & two frizid zones. He improved on
Aristotle by giving mathematical boundaries to these zones.
Interested mainly in physical geography.
Succeeded Eratosthenes as chief Librarian. First to divide a circle into
360 degrees. Defined grid of latitude & longitude. Pointed equator as
a great circle & longitude too. Wrested with the problem of showing
curved surface area on a flat surface. Designed orthographic &
stereographic projections. Invented Astrolabe to determine latitude
using pole star. Discovered the precision of the equinoxes.
Refuted the idea that equator region was uninhabitable. Wrote a book
the Ocean & was considered an authority on oceanography.
Roman Geographers
Most of the earlier scholars works disappeared. Defended Homers
work & discarded Herodotus. First correct explanation of Niles
flood. 8 books on Europe, 6 books on Asia & one on Africa.
Considered earth as oblong. Interested in political geography. He
divided geography into physical, mathematical, political &
historical. He was basically a regional geographer.
Mathematical geographer & Astronomer. Earth was a sphere that
remained stationery in the center while the celestial bodies moved
around it (remained accepted till 17th century-Copernicus). Far
ahead in map projections & map improvements. Considered India
ocean to be enclosed on the south by unknown land (Terra
Incognita). First to draw Bay of Bengal & Volga (Rha) on his map.
Equatorial land was considered uninhabitable.
Periplus of Scylax-shores of Mediterranean & Periplus of Arrian-

70

Ghanshyam Thori

4.
5.
6.

Marcus Tarantius
Varro
Pliny
Solinus

1.

Ibn Haukal
(943-978 AD)

2.
3.

Al Balkhi
Al-Masudi

4.

Al-Maqdisi

5.

Al- Biruni
(973-1039 AD)

6.

Ibn Sina or
Avicenna

7.

Al Idrisi at Palermo

8.

Ibn-Batuta

9.

Ibn-Khaldun

Geography Notes
Black Sea (guidelines to ship captains). Widely quoted in works of
Pliny the elder.
Compedium of geography that dealt with a theory of culture. Food
form virgin earth-Pastralism-Agriculture-Contemporary culture.
Wrote Historia Naturalis
General geographical account of the world.
Contribution of Arabs
Traveled extensively in last 30 years. Noted people in considerable
numbers in equatorial regions. A book of routes & realms. Said
that the Caspian is not connected to the Northern Sea by channel.
First climatic Atlas of the world. Kitab-al-Ashkal
Monsoon description. Described evaporation & condensation.
Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab, Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf, Kitab-Akhbar-alZaman & Kitab-al-Ausat. Divided the world into 7 regions based on
languges.
Division of world into 14 climatic regions. Noticed that meridians
also affect climate. Southern hemisphere was open ocean
Kitab-al-Hind- Geography of India in which he described
significance of rounded stone. Tides caused by moons. Towards the
south pole night ceases to exist. Himalayas source of perennial river
Knowledge of Landforms Mountain streams cutting down the
valley in Central Asia. Mountains are raised & immediately
exposed to erosional process. Fossils- Nature efforts to create life
ending in Failure
Extensive correction of erroneous ideas handed down from Ptolemy
Corrects idea of enclosed Indian ocean & Caspian sea as gulf.
Position of Danube, Niger-Correction of several mountain ranges
Confirmed Ibn Haukal that equatorial region was habitable. Served
Mongol emperor at Delhi. Visited China, Ceylon, Sumatra,
Maldives. Covered 75000 miles a world record. Descried the
house types & building materials in deserts.
Emphasized & wrote on man-environment relationship. Repeated
the mistake of uninhabitable equatorial zone.

10.
Contribution of Indian Geographers
1. The first reference to Bhogol in Indian Literature is found in Suryasiddhanta & in the Padma Puranas a
distinction has been made between Bhogol (Geography), Khogol (the space science) & Jyotishastra.
2. The ancient Indian literature has a reference of seven dwipas or continents. The southern dwipa was named
Jambu. The Meru (Pamir knot) lying in the center of the Jambu was heaven. River Sita (Hwang Ho) lies on
the eastern side of Meru. Other dwipas were kusu dwipa (Iran, Arabia), Plaska dwipa (Mediterranean),
Puskara dwipa (Russia-east of Urals), Kraunca dwipa (area above black sea), Saka dwipa (Burma, Thailand,
Vietnam, and Indonesia) & Salmali dwipa.
71

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

3. The spherical shape of the earth was visualized by the Aitareya Brahmana who stated that the sun neither sets
nor rises. Akshansa (latitudes) & Deshantara (longitude) were known.
4. Vasanta (spring), prourit (rainy season), sarad (autumn) & hemanta (severe winter). The chapters of
geography in Puranas have been called Bhuvankosh.
Pre-Modern Period
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

German geographer of 17th century. Wrote introduction to universal

geography. Emphasized & wrote on regional geog.
Varenius or
German. Wrote Geographia Generalis. Laid down the foundation of the
Bernhard Varen dichotomy of Systematic Vs Regional Geography. Divided general or
(1622-1650)
systematic geography into Absolute (terrestrial), Relative (Planetary-earth
relationship with other parts) & the Comparative (location, navigation) parts.
Advocated highest temperatures in tropics rather than equator. Believed in
heliocentric concept of Copernicus, Kepler & Galileo.
J.R. Forster & J. Father & son in that order. Accompanied Captain Cook on his voyage. Visited
G. Forster
Volga steppe on invitation of the Russian government. There method of
working has been often named comparative method.
Immanuel Kant German. Professor of Geography at the university of Konigsberg. Gave
(1724-1804)
philosophical dimension to geography. Gave logical classification (similar
origin) & physical classification (same time). Physical classification gives the
basis for geography & history. Identified physical geography as including not
only natural features but also man. World as perceived by inner senses is soul
& by outer senses is nature.
Laid down the foundation of Exceptionalism in Geography i.e. geography
& history are methodologically distinct from other sciences. Said that
generalization in the form of laws is useless in geography & regarded it as as
Idiographic. Geography was chorological & history chronological.
Alexander Von
Father of Modern Geography. Coined the term Cosmography & divided it
Humboldt
into Uranography (astronomy), geography (physical feature) & Concept of
(1769-1859 AD) whole (visualized earth as inseparable whole).
Affect of altitude, Temperature variation at same latitude with distance from
sun, Map showing isotherms (invention), concept of Continentality, Coined
the term Permafrost
Extensive studies of Ecuadorian volcanoes, Concluded that graphite, gneiss
are of volcanic origin, description of vertical zones of Andes, Humboldt or
Peruvian current.
Exact longitude calculation for Lima, established correlation between forest &
rainfall. Lake Valenica in Venezuela was shrinking due to deforestation.
Explored Orinoco & established its connection with Amazon. Explored virgin
lands of Siberia.
In his Relation Historique he laid down the foundation of plant geography.
Divided regions of Latin America into botanical provinces. His Kosmos
talked about universe & geographical thought since Egyptians.
Believed in empirical, comparative & inductive method.
Carl Ritter
Was a teleologist. Gave the concept of Unity in Diversity. Stressed on land
(1779-1859 AD) & water hemispheres, distinction between the rates of cooling of land &
Cluvarius

72

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
water. Defined geography as empirical science rather than deductive.
Was a professor at university of Frankfurt & Berlin & founded the Berlin
Geographical Society. He rejected the idea of Pure Geography(Reine
Geography) & said that history & geography must always remain inseparable.
Chiefly concerned with the studies of human geography. Identified each
continent with a different race. He was an armchair geographer.
Wrote Erdkunde meaning science of the earth. Asia & Africa covered but
not Europe.

German School of Thought

Worked at university of Munich & Leipzig. Application of Darwins
concept to human species called Social Darwinism. Studied modes of
life of Germans outside Germany. Published two books on N. America.
Anthropogeographie talked about the effects of different physical
features on the life of people. Coined the term Anthropogeography
Protagonist of Determinism. Wrote Political Geography where he
compared state to an organism & persuaded Germany to expand. It was
his policy of Lebensraum or living space that urged to expand-Organic
theory of State. It earned him the title of founder of political geography.
He also gave the stages through which human society passes.
2. Oscar Peschel
First professor at university of Leipzig after Ritters death. Editor of Das
Ausland & wrote Geschichte der Erdkunde. Contributed very much to
the development of geomorphology through a study of relief types.
3. Ferdinand Von
First to identify Loess in China. His studies of China were published in
Richthofen
five volumes.
4. Alfred Hettner
Disciple of Ratzel & Richthofen. Revived the concept of geography as
chorology. Published Geography: Its history character & methods.
Supported Possibilism. Geography as Landshatskunde (landscape
science) became popular during his period.
5. Otto Schluter
Hettner-Schluter controversy. It was Schluter who applied the term
Landshaftskunde to describe the concept of geography. He objected to
chorological definition of geography.
6. Albrecht Penck
First use of the term geomorphology. Pencks ideas inspired Koppen.
Other German geographers were Obst, Waibel, Sapper, Gustav Brown, Andree, Karl Haushofer &
Walther Christaller.

1.

Friedrich Ratzel
(1844-1904 AD)

1.

Vidal de la Blache
(1848-1918 AD)

2.

Jean Brunhes

3.
4.

Elise Reclus
De Martonne

French School of Thought

Founder of Human Geography. Pays as basic homogenous region to
study as opposed to drainage basins. He developed the idea of Terrestrial
Unity. Wrote, Principles de Geographie Humaine. Founded a journal
called, Annals de Geographie.
Gave the concept of Terrestrial Harmonies Man & his environment.
Wrote Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive. He
divided human geography into unproductive occupation of the soil,
Plants & animal conquest & destructive exploitation.
Disciple of Carl Ritter & a determinist. Wrote La Terra.
Major work in physical geography. Son in law of Blache. Wrote Traite
73

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

de Geographique Physique.
Camille Vallaux
Wrote Les Sciences Geographiques.
Albert Demangeon Devoted most of the time to editing Annals. Wrote Problems de
Geographie Humaine. Interested in rural settlements.
Other geographers were Gallois, Blanchard, Bauling, Jean Gottmann, A. Siegfried, J. Ancel
5.
6.

1.
2.

Jedidiah Morse
W. Morris Davis
(1850-1934 AD)

3.

Mark Jefferson

4.

Ellen Churchill
Semple
(1863-1932)

5.

Ellsworth
Huntington

6.

Isaiah Bowman

7.
8.

Albert Parry
Birmingham
Rollin D. Salisbury

9.

Carl O Sauer

American School of Thought

Father of American Geography.
One of the founders of the Association of American Geographers estd
in 1904. Jefferson, Bowman, Huntington, Semple & Birmingham were
some of his students. Coined the term Ontography to denote the organic
half of geography. He added subsequent, obsequent & resequent to
Powells 3 types of rivers. Advocate of Darwinism
Professor at the Michigan State normal college in Ypsilanti for 38 years.
Never accepted the concept of determinism. Concept of central place,
primate city & civilizing rails.
Disciple of Ratzel at Leipzig. Her first book was, American history & its
geographical conditions. Her version of Ratzels Anthropogeographie
was, Influences of Geographical Environment
Worked on Mediterranean region for about 20 years.
Published, The pulse of Asia. Wrote, Civilization & Climate in which
he said that mans civilization could develop only in regions of
stimulating climate. His book, Principles of Human Geography was a
college textbook. Determinist in approach.
Thesis on The geography of central Andes. Pioneered boundary studies
Guatemala-Honduras dispute. Earlier determinist later possibilist.
Wrote Geographic influences on American history. He was critical of
people making generalizations about climatic influences on humans.
Recognized as best teacher in the university. He published his ideas in
Physiography.
Activist of the possibilistic movement. Protagonist of Chorological
Theme. Published, The morphology of the landscape in which he
explained the concept of Landschaft. Did not deny determinism.

1.

Malford Mackinder

2.
3.

P. Hagget &
Richard Chorley
Patrick Geddes

4.
5.
6.

J. Herbertson
Chisholm
Robert Mill

Determinists

British School of Thought

Heartland Theory , Britain & the British Seas & Democratic Ideals
& Reality
They have authored Models in human geography, Locational Analysis
in Human Geography & Frontiers of geographical teaching.
Founder of Le Play society. Wrote City in Evolution. Gave the concept
of urban conurbation.
Assistant of Geddes at Oxford
Wrote, Handbook of commercial geography.
Wrote, General Geography.

Determinists & Possibilists

Hippocrates, Aristotle, Strabo, Al Masudi, Ibn Haukal, Al-Idrisi,

74

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

(Ancient period)
(Pre-Modern Period)
Modern Period
Possibilists

1.

Quantitative
Revolution

2.

Radicalism

3.

Behaviorism

4.

Humanism

5.

Positivism

6.

Pragmatism

Ibn-Khaldun,
J. Biodim, Motesquieu, Humboldt, Ritter, Haeckel, Buckle, Demolins
Ratzel, Semple, Elise Reclus, Darwin, Huntingon, Taylor
Lucien Febvre, Durkheim, Blache, Jean Brunhes, Hettner, Mark Jefferson
Carl O Sauer, Isaiah Bowman, Barrow, Fleure (genre de vie).

Various Paradigm Shifts & Approaches in Geography

1950s-1960s. Make precise statements about locational order. Use
mathematical language (Cwg). No place for normative questions. Great
emphasis on locational analysis.
Developed as a reaction to quantitative revolution & positivism. Concerned with
issues of social relevance like racism, poverty, inequality etc. In 1969,
Antipode, a journal of radical geography was launched at Clark university.
Marxism provided a firm theoretical base for the radical movement. Fall of
USSR gave radicalism a blow.
Cognition is the key. It treats man as a responder to stimuli. It has maintained
strong positive ties with the positivist tradition & is still widely accepted within
the positivist orientation.
Julian Wolpert in Decision process in spatial context landuse in Sweden
Pred devised a behavioral matrix on the basis of information availability & skill
Huff developed the idea of understanding the consumer spatial behaviour.
Haggerstand developed the idea of spatial diffusion of innovation.
Lowenthal tried to study the goal motivations of a person & how he acts.
K.R. Cox was the first to introduce behavioral concept in political geography.
Peter Gould gave the concept of mental maps. W. Tobbler (Geometry of mind).
Conceptual framework was given by downs (See fig)
A conventional model of man-environment relationship was give by boulding.
Sonnenfield proposed 4 levels at which the environment should be studied viz
Geographical, Operational, Perceptual & Behavioural from outside to inside.
Poteus recognized existence of (a) phenomenal environment (physical objects)
(b) the personal environment (perceived images of real environment) (c) the
contextual environment (culture, religion, beliefs).
Developed as dissatisfaction from models of spatial science. The important
proponents were Kirk, Tuan, Sauer, Vidal, Lowenthal, Wright.
Woolridge claimed that historical geography must see countryside through the
eyes of the farmer. Later John Wright introduced the term Geosophy as a part
of his contention that geographical knowledge is part of mental stock of all
humans.
Lowenthal tried to study goal motivations of a person & how he acts. Kirk
became popular later. However the term Humanistic geography was coined by
Yi Fu Tuan in 1976. Tuan explored 5 themes of general interest to geographers
viz (a) Geographical knowledge (b) Territory & place (c) Crowding & Privacy
(d) Livelihood & Economics (e) Religion.
Also called Empericism. It is anti-idealism. It excludes normative questions. It
has been criticized by realists, Marxists, existentialists, behaviouralists.
Proponents: Auguste comte , BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge.
It is an action oriented approach & led to the development of applied
geography. It is modified form of Positivism.
75

Ghanshyam Thori
7.
8.

9.

10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

15.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Geography Notes

Proponents: Pierce
Functionalism Used by Jean Brunhes. Very popular these days e.g. Mumbai, Tatanagar can be
explained on the basis of the functions they perform
Existentialism Emphasizes that man is responsible for making his own nature. It emerges to
challenge & even abandon purely objective, quantitative & deterministic
analysis. It is the study of biography of landscape.
Idealism
It is in opposition to naturalism & materialism. According to this, it is possible
to reconstruct logical sequence of thought of another person.
Proponent: Leonard Guelke
Realism
It says reality exists independent of the mind. It is opposite to idealism. Close to
positivism but different methodology. Positivists ask how & realists - why.
Proponent: Gibson, Cook Wilson (Nave Realism), T.P. Nunn (New/Critical
realism).
Probabilism
Postulated by Spate. It said that although physical environment does not
determine human actions, it does make some responses more likely than others.
Marxism
Developed against capitalism. Main concern is social issues.
Proponent: David Harvey.
Historicism
Chronological description. Ignores spatiality
Post
Recent movement in humanities, philosophy, arts & social sciences. It
Modernism
developed in reaction to historicism in modern geographical thought. Its
distinguishing characteristics are: Skepticism towards the grand claims & grand
theory of the modern era & their claim to intellectual superiority.
Welfare
Issue like poverty, regional imbalances, slums etc are its focus
Approach
Proponents: David Harvey, D. M. Smith.
Other Geographical Paradigms
Areal
Coined by Hartshorne in his Nature of Geography. It is concerned with areal
Differentiation variation of human & physical phenomena. It helped in the reconstruction of
regional geography. It is also known as Chorology or Chorography.
Locational
Focuses on spatial arrangement of phenomena. Its purpose is to build accurate
Analysis
generalizations, models & theories. It is based on positivism.
Proponents: Bunge, Mc Carty, Hagget, Morril, Chorley, Cox, Harvey, Johnston
Regional
The whittlesey committee on regional geography which drafted the document
Synthesis
on regional geography published in James & Jones (1954) defined region as
Any segment or portion of the earths surface which is homogeneous in terms
of such an areal grouping.
System
Framework for investigating the structure & function of a system.
Analysis
Environmental Perception & Behaviour (After Downs)

76

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
Value
System

Perceptual
Filters

Perceptual
Receptors

Image

Information

Real
World

Decision

Behaviour

Conventional Model of Man-Environment Relationship (Boulding)

Environment

Image

Behaviour

Miscellaneous Facts
1. Ritter & Humboldt both died in the year 1859, the same year in which Darwin published his Origin of
Species.
2. Greeks are often given credit for their monopoly in speculation. Mathematical geography attracted most of
the Arab geographers. Ibn Batuta described Morocco as having best climate.
3. Busching belonged to the Political Statistical School. Leyer suggested the natural boundaries for regional
studies. The idea of German-centered Europe was given by Nauman. Kjellen was one the most famous
Swedish political geographer.
4. The use of natural geography rather than political boundaries for the description of regional geography is
known as Reine Geography. Bauche initiated this approach, Getterer divided the whole world into natural

77

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

regions. Hommeyer implemented this approach & Zeune brought more sophistication in it in that he
delimited regions even on the basis of climate, vegetation, etc.
5. Peter Kropotkin & V.V. Dokuchaiev were important geographers of the Russian school of thought.
6. The Cultural or social determinism popular among American geographers. Edward Ullman is a strong
proponent of this theory.
7. Schaefer (1953) in his paper titled, Exceptionalism in Geography in which he criticized exceptionalists
& asked geographers to adopt methodology of scientific positivism. Hartshorne met this criticism by
writing, Perspectives on the nature of Geography in which he stuck to his chorological concept of
Geography. The result was adoption of nomothetic approach in geography.
8. Areal Differentiation is also known as Chorology or Chorography.
9. Voluntarism is one of the latest approaches in geography which states that human mode of life depends
upon his interaction with his environment. It considers man as a modifier of nature.
10. The heartland (or Pivot Area) theory was given by Mackinder. Heartland referred to Eastern Europe.
Mackinder considered the eastern & western side of the Atlantic to be complimentary to each other.
11. The Rimland theory was given by Nicholas Spykman. Rimland referred to the rimland of Eurasia. This
theory considered that the key to the supremacy of the world lies in a combination of land power & sea
power.
12. Froebel was a staunch opponent of the Comparative method. He said that no one place or mountain can be
compared with others as they are not alike. He also rejected teleological view.
13. Marco Polo was an Italian. Bartholomew Diaz, was a Portuguese navigator who discovered Cape of good
hope. Columbus was Italian & Vasco de Gama was Portuguese. Balboa (Spanish) crossed the Isthmus of
Panama & became the first European to see the Pacific. James Cook (England) made three Pacific
Voyages: First to Tahiti, second to New Zealand & third to Hawaii. Francis Champlain established
Quebec City as the first French colony in Canada. Magellan & Francis Drake took the journey of the
whole world.
14. The term Compage was use by Whittlesey means a total region is distinguished by a community of
feeling among its inhabitants as well as by all features of the physical & biotic environment.
15. L.D. Stamp carried out the land utilization survey in Great Britain. Torsten Haggerstand developed the
stochastic model apart from spatial diffusion of innovation & migration studies (Sweden).
16. Genre de vie means genre of living i.e. same pattern of living. Regional synthesis is associated with B.J.L.
Berry who wrote Approaches to regional analysis: A synthesis. Teleology is opposite to causal
explanation.

78

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Geography Notes

17. Topophilia was coined by Yi-Fu Tuan to denote all the effective ties & love of a human being for his
material environment.
18. Edward Ackerman was an American geographer who encouraged his students to take up quantitative
approach wrote, Where is the research frontier.

Various Types of Maps

1.
2.

Chorochromatic
Choroschematic

3.

Isopleth

4.

Choropleth

5.
6.

Dot Maps
Flow Map

Maps in which different colours are used to show distribution

Maps where pictures of various phenomena or commodities are used. E.g.
a car depicts automobile production.
Also called isarithmic maps. Used for representing rainfall, temperature &
pressure data.
Technique of representing quantitative data by means of varying densities
of shades in single colour. In it administrative area gets primary
importance unlike isopleth where distribution is primary. Used for
population density distribution, cropping intensity etc.
Representing absolute numbers on map.
Flow line used to represent migration, trade, traffic etc.

Accuracy of Size
Accuracy of Shape
Accuracy of Direction
Accuracy of Distance/ Scale
Accuracy of Area

Map Projections
Equal area or orthographic projection
Orthomorphic or true shape projection
Azimuthal or Zenithal projection
Equidistant
Homolographic

On the basis of nature of developable surface

Zenithal Projections
Obtained with the help of a plain developable surface
Conical Projections
Obtained with the help of a conical developable surface
Cylindrical Projections
Obtained with the help of a cylindrical developable surface
Conventional Projections Obtained without developable surface mathematically

Equatorial Case
Polar Case
Oblique Case

Gnomonic
Stereographic
Orthographic

On the basis of point of tangent

Developable surface touches the globe at equator
Developable surface touches the globe at poles
Developable surface touches the globe anywhere between the poles
& the equator.
On the basis of source of light
When the source of light is at the center of the globe
Source of light at the antipode to the point of contact of
developable surface
Source of light at infinity
Azimuthal or Zenithal Projections

79

Ghanshyam Thori
1.

Zenithal Gnomonic
Polar case

2.

Stereographic or
Azimuthal orhomorphic
Projection (polar case)

3.

Zenithal orthographic
Projection (polar case)

4.

Zenithal Equidistant
Projection

5.

Zenithal Equal Area

projection (polar case)

Geography Notes
Plain developable surface acting as tangent at the poles when
source of light. The distance between parallels increases away from
the poles. Equator cannot be shown.
Application: small areas around the poles
Source light at antipode. Distance between parallels of latitude
increase away from the centre but the increase is less in comparison
to gnomonic projection. Hence exaggeration away from pole is
lesser. Entire hemisphere can be shown.
The scale away from the center increases along both parallels &
meridians but the proportion of increase in case of both is almost
equal & this results in maintaining correct shape (orthomorphic)
Application: Navigational & political maps of high latitudes
Light at infinity. Distance between parallels decrease away from
the pole. Directions from centre are correct as in all azimuthal
projections. Scale along parallels is correct in Zenithal
orthomorphic projection but along the meridians it is distorted.
Both shape & size distorted away from centre.
Application: Distribution Map in high latitude, Astronomical maps
Non Perspective projection. Parallels are equispaced. Areas away
from centre are exaggerated
Application: Maps between 50 & 90 degree latitude.
Also known as Lamberts Azimuthal Equal-Area projection.
Distances between parallels decrease away from the equator.
Distance along the parallels increases rapidly moving away from
the centre but the exaggeration is compensated by shortening of
distance along the meridians. The area therefore remains correct.
Application: Distribution maps.

Conical Projections
The circle along which the cone touches the globe is known as the standard parallel. The source of
light is supposed to be at the centre of the globe. In all the pole is represented by an arc of circle.
1. Simple conical with one The standard parallel is divided to draw the lines of meridian. Scale
standard parallel
is true only along the standard parallel the other parallels being
incorrect along their length. Scale is true along central meridian by
construction & other meridians by being radii of same concentric
curves. Area is true in a narrow zone on both sides of the standard
parallel. Pole is different from centre of parallels.
Application: boundary between USA & Canada.
2. Conical with two
It is not a perspective projection as a cone can touch a globe only
standard parallels or
along one standard parallel. Parallels are equispaced. Scale is true
Lamberts conformal
along meridians. Between the standard parallels the distances are
conical projection
represented shorter than the actual distances & outside greater.
Application: Trans-Siberian railway, area with great east to west
but relatively smaller latitudinal distance
3. Bonnes Projection or
In this all parallels are standard parallels as all are true to scale but
Conical Equal Area
for the purpose of construction, one standard parallel is selected
Projection
(usually centre). The central meridian is a straight line while others
are smooth curves. The scale is correct only along the central
80

Ghanshyam Thori

4.

Polyconic Projection

5.

Conical Equal Area with

one standard parallel

Geography Notes
meridian & along others it is exaggerated. The degree of
exaggeration increases from the central meridian. It is an equal area
projection but it is not orthomorphic.
Application: Europe, North America, Australia. Not good for Asia
because of large east west extent. Not used for Africa.
Assumption of a number of cones, placed over the globe in such a
manner that each one of these cones is tangent at a different parallel
All parallels are drawn as standard parallels & representation is
correct along them. The parallels are arcs of non-concentric circles
& each of the parallels is drawn from a different centre. All
meridians except for central are smooth curves.
Application: Basis of International projection (World Toposheets)
Countries with large north south but small east west extent
Also called Lamberts conical equal-area projection. It is similar to
simple conical with one standard parallel but the scale along the
meridians in this projection is not correct. The exaggeration of the
scale along the scale along the meridians is made good by
proportional minimization of scale along the meridians. The
parallels are all concentric circles but unequally spaced from each
other. Meridians are all straight lines. Scale is correct along the
standard parallel but exaggerated along the rest.
Application: Distribution Maps in middle latitudes (as Equal
Area). Can be used for a relatively large country like India.

Cylindrical Projections
While both conical & Azimuthal projections can be drawn for a single hemisphere, the cylindrical
projections are drawn for both the hemispheres.
1.
Simple Cylindrical or
Non perspective. Meridians are drawn true to scale. All the
Cylindrical Equidistant
meridians are straight lines & their length is equal to half that of
the equator. Both parallels & meridians are equally spaced. The
equator & the meridians are true to scale. Scale along the
parallels is increasingly exaggerated going away from equator
Application: Narrow strip along the equator
2.
Cylindrical Equal Area
Non Perspective. Orthographic projection. Equator is true to
Projection
scale but none of the parallels & meridians is true to scale. It is
based on the principle of reduction of scale along the meridians
in proportion to the exaggeration along the parallels. Meridians
are equispaced but the distance between parallels decreases
away from the equator. The scale obviously increases more &
more along the parallels away from equator.
Application: Distribution maps because of equal area.
3.
Mercators projection or
Developed by Gerhard Kramer or Mercator. Meridians are
cylindrical orthomorphic
equispaced. The distance between parallels increases towards
projection
the poles. It is based on the principle of exaggerating the scale
along the meridians in the same proportion as it increases along
the parallels. It maintains the accuracy of shape of areas. Poles
lie at infinite distance from the equator & so cannot be shown.
Application: shows European countries larger than their actual
81

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Geography Notes

size & hence popular among British cartographers. Making

charts of sailing routes by use of great circle & loxodrome.
A loxodrome is a line of constant bearing that intersects all meridians at the same angle. A
loxodrome is also called a rhumb line. Such a line is represented by a straight line on Mercators
projection. Therefore the great circles are represented by straight line on mercators projection.
Transverse Mercator projection is also known as Gauss Conformal Projection.

1.

Sinusoidal or Mercator
Samson-Flamsteed
projection

2.

Mollweides Projection or
Babinets Equal surface
projection

3.

Galls Projection

4.

Globular Projection

Conventional Projections
The projection is an equal area one. It might be considered as a
special case of Bonnes projection with equator as the standard
parallel. Equator & parallels are shown as straight lines. The
central meridian is a straight line while others are sine curves.
Parallels are equispaced. The scale is true along the equator &
the parallels but in case of other meridians there is an
increasing exaggeration away from the central meridian.
Application: Showing continents extending in the equatorial
regions & also in middle lat. Not suited much for whole world.
Equal area projection. Parallels are straight lines & meridians
are elliptical in shape. Parallels are not equidistant & the
distance between them decreases towards the poles. The
meridians 90 degree E or W of the central meridian form a
circle. The scale is not true along the equator. The maximum
distortion of scale occurs at equator & polar areas.
Application: Distribution map, Whole world represented better
than sinusoidal projection.
It is a stereographic cylindrical projection quite akin to
Mercators but it is different in that it is not orthomorphic. The
distance between the parallels is reduced to avoid too much
exaggeration of areas towards the poles. The cylinder is
thought to cut the sphere along the 45 degree N & S. Therefore
45 N & S are true to scale. So from these two latitudes, scale
along the parallels decreases towards the equator & increases
towards the poles.
Application: General purpose world maps on single sheet.
Meridians are drawn at equal distance along the equator. One
degree of longitude along the equator & one degree of latitude
along the central meridian are the same. It just depicts one
hemisphere i.e. 90 E or W & not complete globe. The area of
the central part is slightly lesser than real & vice versa.

82

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Geography Notes

Miscellaneous Facts
1. Maps are more accurate than plans. Comparative scale has two scales with different units with their zeros
aligned. Diagonal scale facilitates reading fractional distance.
2. Maps drawn with a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000 are small scale maps & with greater scale large scale
maps. Most of the wall maps & atlas maps are small scale maps. Topographical maps of India are
published by the f, Dehradun at scales like 1:50,000 & 1:25,000. The topographical maps are based on
International Sheets (4 degree lat. x 4 degree long.) that are prepared at a scale 1:1,000,000. Cadastral
maps have a scale around 1:5000.
3. Maps can be enlarged or reduced using grid method, triangle method (for linear feature) or using
Pantograph (works on the principle of parallelogram). The most accurate is photographic method.
4. A thematic map shows the spatial distribution of one or more specific data themes for standard geographic
areas. The map may be qualitative in nature (e.g., predominant farm types) or quantitative (e.g.,
percentage population change).
5. In case of an overhanging cliff contour lines intersect. In case of a waterfall or vertical cliff the contour of
different values might meet. Contours drawn on the basis of estimation are shown in the form of broken
lines called form lines.
6. Hachures are broken lines drawn in the direction of slope & they are less accurate than contours. Higher
the intensity higher the slope & vice versa.
7. Hythergraph is a type of climograph showing mean monthly wet bulb temperature & relative humidity.
Developed by G. Taylor. NE (scorching-low humidity & high temperature), NW (Muggy -temperature &
humidity both high), S.W (Raw-low temperature & high humidity) SE (Keen humidity & Temperature
both high).
Hythergraph

83

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Geography Notes
Scorching

Temperature

Muggy

Raw

Keen

Humidity

8. Wind rose is a diagram to show the frequency & direction of wind where frequency is proportional to
radii.
9. Block piling refers to piling of cubes to represent desired numbers. Pictographs represent the data by
drawing symbolic pictures (e.g. drawing car for automobile production).
10. If a portion of the ground is cut vertically along a certain straight line, the side view of the cut forms a
profile. When a number of profiles are drawn separately & arranged in a column representing a series
from one end of the map to other, it is known as serial profiles. If all the profiles of a series of profile can
be traced to a single frame it is called superimposed profile. In projected profile, the superimposed profile
is modified in such a way that the portion of each profile which comes below the succeeding one is
omitted (or rubbed off), Projected profiles thus show only those features which are not obstructed by
higher intervening forms. Composite profiles only depict the ruggedness of the skyline. It is constructed to
represent the surface as viewed in the horizontal plane of the summit-levels from an infinite distance.
(Refer p-22 ensemble for diagram).The areas obstructed in a profile are known as dead ground.
11. In triangulation once the base line is determined, its end are used to measure the angle to a distant point
using theodolite. Then using trigonometry the lengths of the two unknown sides can be determined as
length of baseline & angles are known.
12. The bearing is the angular distance of an object from the magnetic north measured in a clockwise
direction. The prismatic compass is used for measuring the bearing.
13. Spherical surface is undevolopable while cylindrical, conical, & a plane surface are developable.
14. Molleweids projection is based on the principle that a circle drawn with the minor radius of an ellipse
occupies half the area of the ellipse with the same minor radius & the major radius twice the size of the
minor radius.
Aerial Photography, Remote Sensing & GIS
84

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Geography Notes

1. Gaspard Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photograph. Wilbur Wright took the first aerial motion
pictures over Centocelli, Italy.
2. Radar is an example of active remote sensing sensor. Passive remote sensing sensors include photographic
camera, Return Beam Vidicon, Electro-optical scanner, Imaging spectrometer. A photographic film can
record over wavelength range about twice as broad as that of human eye (.3 to .9 microns).
3. The diaphragm determines the size of the opening for exposure & shutter determines the exposure time. In
most of the aerial cameras the distance between their film plane (v) & the lens is precisely equal to the
focal length (f) of the camera as 1/u in the lens formula becomes almost negligible because of large
distance between the lens & the object on the ground.
4. The factors affecting the exposure measurements (extraneous effects) are divided into two types,
geometric & atmospheric. Exposure falloff is an effect due to which a ground scene of spatially uniform
reflectance does not produce spatially uniform exposure in the focal plane. Instead exposure is maximum
at the centre & decreases towards the edges. Vignetting refers to internal shadowing resulting from the
lens mounts & other aperture surfaces within the camera. Relief displacement is directly proportional to
the height of the object & inversely proportional to the flying height above the ground.
5. A fast film requires lesser exposure time but it consists of large film grains which limit spatial resolution.
Radiometric resolution refers to the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected on a given film
analysis. Radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast in an image. Due to this a higher
contrast film is capable of resolving smaller differences in exposure.
6. The term remote sensing originated at the Willow Run laboratories of the University of Michigan, USA.
TIROS (Television infra-red observation satellite) from which the first satellite TV image was taken.
7. Cosmic rays, Gamma rays & X rays cannot be registered with remote sensing methods. Most of the
remote sensing methods work with visible, infra-red & micro-wave region. The non-blocked spectral
regions are called atmospheric windows (.4 3.0 micron, 3 5 micron, 8 14 micron).

Specular

Diffuse or Lambertian

8. Most of the earths features are neither perfectly specular nor diffuse. The specular reflections do not
contain spectral information, while spectral information is obtained in case of diffuse reflections. Hence in
remote sensing diffuse reflectance properties are more important.

85

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Geography Notes

9. The reference data is called ground truth. GPS system consists of 24 satellites each of which revisit the
same track & configuration at an interval of approximately 24 hours. Master control facility is located in
Colorado Springs, Colorado.
10. Spectral reflectance is a measure of the portion of the incident energy that is reflected. A graph of spectral
reflectance of an object as a function of the wavelength is known as spectral reflectance curve.
Spectral Reflectance Curve

11. Aerial photographs give 3D view. Photogrammetry refers to the art & science of obtaining reliable
measurements from photographs. Aerial photographs are of following types: Vertical (less than +3 degree
tilt), Oblique (> +3 tilt in low oblique horizon does not appear & vice versa), Convergent (low oblique
photograph taken from two cameras such that they form stereopair), Trimetragon (3 cameras one
vertical & other two at 60 degree from vertical).
12. The point of intersection of the optical axis of the camera with the photo plane & the ground plane are
photo principal point (p) & ground principal point (P) respectively. Point vertically below the perspective
centre (camera lens) on the ground is called the ground nadir point or plumb point (N). The point of
intersection of the bisector of the angle between the camera axis & the vertical with the photoplane is
called as the photo isocentre (i). In case of vertical photograph all these points coincide.
13. Fiducial or collimating marks are located at the corner or in the middle of the edges of a photograph so
that by joining them one cant locate the principal point. The scale of a photograph is given by the
relationship f/H (f is focal length & H is flying height). Aerial photographs are small scale (< 1: 50,000),
medium scale (1:50,000 to 1:12,0000 & large scale (> 1:12,000).

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Geography Notes

14. Parallax is the apparent change in the positions of stationary objects solely due to change in the point of
observation.
15. Indian Air Force, Air Survey Co of India Ltd., Kolkata, NRSA, Hyderabad are the only authorized
organizations to carry out aerial photography. Normally vertical aerial photography is carried out with 6080 % forward overlap & 25-40 % lateral overlap.
16. The first GIS was built by Canada. Most GISs use either a raster (grid cell) or vector (polygon) format to
represent location. A coarse cell size needs less data storage space but is less accurate & vice versa. The
raster data provides a greater computational efficiency particularly in overlay analysis. But the spatial
resolution is limited to the size of the cells comprising the raster. Most commercial programs allow
introversion. Vector data formats have relatively small data volumes. Most of the digital remote sensing
data is collected in raster format.
17. A geostationary satellite remains stationary with respect to earth (36000 km altitude). A sun synchronous
or polar orbit is such that the satellite passes over the same ground track at the same local time each day.
A near polar retrograde orbit with altitude between 300 & 1000 km satisfies this condition. The advantage
is global coverage but disadvantage is missing of diurnal effects. Most of the remote sensing satellites are
sun synchronous.
18. The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched in 1975. Bhaskara I & Bhaskara II in 1979 & 1981
respectively. APPLE was also launched in 1981.
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites
S
1.
2.

Year
1988
1991

3.

1995

Satellite Launched
IRS-1A launched. LISS-linear imaging self scanning device.
IRS-1B launched. Carried into space by SLV-3 an Indian
rocket
IRS-1C. WiFS wide field sensor.

4.

1997

IRS-1D using Indian rocket PSLV-C1.

5.

1999

6.
7.

2003
2005

Oceansat (IRS-P4). Carries Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) &

a multi-frequency scanning microwave radiometer (MSMR)
used to measure chlorophyll concentration, turbid water.
Resourcesat-1
Cartosat-1 (IRS-P5). It has stereo-imagery which can be used
for digital terrain model (DEM) & digital elevation model.

Sensor
LISS I & LISS II
LISS I & LISS II
LISS III, PAN,
WiFS
LISS III, PAN,
WiFS
OCM
MSMR
LISS IV, AWiFS
PAN-F, PAN-A

19. NRSA is the only agency which acquires & archives data for sale & distribution. Management of Indian
resources is under National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS).
20. APPLE was Indias first geostationary satellite used for conducting communication experiments.
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Geography Notes

21. LANDSAT-1 was launched in 1972. LANDSAT series have orbits between 705 km & 920 km. The
sensors used are MSS (multispectral scanner), RBV (return beam vidicon), and ETM (Enhanced thematic
mapper).
22. SPOT (France) has HRV (high resolution visible) & VMI (vegetation monitoring instrument) sensor
23. ERS (European remote sensing satellite), JERS (Japanese earth observation satellite), Radarsat (Canadian
remote sensing satellite) are other programmes.
24. Multispectral imaging means simultaneous imaging using more than one wavelength. Light waves are
scattered by particles in the atmosphere whose sizes are similar to the wavelength of light.
25. Theodolite uses a vernier scale for measurement. Geodetic surveys measure large regions of the earths
surface & therefore take into consideration the curvature of the earth. They are used for establishing lines
of latitude & longitude.
26. Ergograph shows temperature, humidity, rainfall, acreage of crops & their growing season.
27. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the brightest & the darkest parts of the image.
28. Digital image processing consists of image restoration (removal of data errors, noise etc), image
enhancement (alter the visual impact) & information extraction
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Region
Gamma Rays
X-Rays
Ultraviolet
Visible
Infrared
Microwave
Radio

Wavelength in centimeters
< 10

-9

Frequency in Hz
> 3 x 1019

10-7 - 10-9

3 x 1017 - 3 x 1019

4 x 10-5 - 10-7

7.5 x 1014 - 3 x 1017

7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5

4.3 x 1014 - 7.5 x 1014

0.01 - 7 x 10-5

3 x 1012 - 4.3 x 1014

10 - 0.01

3 x 109 - 3 x 1012

> 10

< 3 x 109

88

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

1.

Cape York Peninsula

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Kanto/Kwanto Plain
Ungava Peninsula
Odessa
Far East
Indo-China

7.

South East Asia

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

Middle East
Deepest Lake
Largest manmade lake
Irrawady river
Mekong river
Red River
Salween River
Macao
Isle of Man (U.K.)
Harbin
Bandung
Sapporo
Kra Isthmus
Larut Plain
Bangka

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Miscellaneous Geographical Features

Northern Australia to the east of Gulf of Carpentra. Weipa (Bauxite)
also lies in the same peninsula on the Carpen
The largest area of flat land in Japan comprising Tokyo & other cities.
Canada East of Hudson Bay & south of Baffin Island.
Leading port of Ukraine in North Black Sea
Japan, Korea, China & Taiwan
India, China, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam &
Laos
Myanmar, Malaysia, Thialand, Singapore, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos,
Indonesia, Philipinnes.
South west Asia & North Eastern Egypt.
Lake Baikal
Lake Volga
Flows into bay of Bengal
Drains into South China Sea
Gulf of Tonkin
Gulf of Martaban.
Administrative region of China, on Chinas southeastern coast
Midway between the coasts of Northern Ireland and England
Capital of Heilongjiang province
Java (Indonesia).
Hokkaido
Narrowest point on the Malay Peninsula, in Thailand
Malaysia
Island lying east of Sumatra, Indonesia. Famous for Tin mining &
separated from Sumatra by Bangka strait.

Population by Continents (in millions)

Asia
3879
Africa
877
Europe
727
North America
501
South America
379
Australia
32

.5 billion
1 billion
2 billion
3 billion
4 billion
5 billion
6 billion

World Population Milestones

1650
1820
1927
1960
1974
1987
1999

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
Tribes

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Yorubas
Tauregs
Karen
Hmong
Arawaks

Nigeria
Sahara
Myanmar
Known in China as Miao and in Southeast Asia as Meo.
Native people of the Greater Antilles.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Lumbabshi
Wankee
Kasia
Rustenberg
Mt. Tom Price
Ipswich
Hubei
Kansu (or Gansu)
Daqing
Dakang
Chauk

Famous Mining Regions

Copper
Zaire
Coal
Zimbabwe
Diamond
Zaire
Platinum
S.Africa
Iron Ore
Australia (Hamersley Ranges)
Coal & Lignite
Australia (Near Brisbane)
Coal
China
Bauxite
China
Crude Oil
China (Heilongjiang province)
Crude Oil
China
Crude Oil
Burma

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Aswan Dam
Kariba Dam
Kainji Dam
Boyoma Dam
Aksombo Dam (Volta Dam)
Victoria Falls
Owen Falls
Stanley Falls

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Muroran
Birmingham
Houston
Windsor
Westphalia
Shenyang
Kyoto
Milan
Turin
Leipzig
Sarnia
Akron
Chelyabinsk

Famous Dams/Falls
Nile
Zambezi
Niger
Zaire
Volta
Zambezi
Lake Alberta (White Nile)
Zaire

Egypt
Zambia & Zimbabwe
Nigeria
Congo
Ghana
Zambia & Zimbabwe
Uganda
Congo

Important Industrial Centres

Iron & Steel
Hokaido, Japan
Iron & Steel
U.K.
Oil Refinery
USA
Automobile
Canada (on Detroit river)
Iron & Steel
Germany
Iron & Steel
China (Pittsburg of China)
Handicrafts & Toys
Japan
Textile
Italy
Automobile
Italy
Optical Insruments
Germany
Oil Refinery
Canada (East of Michigan)
Synthetic Rubber
South of Lake Erie (Ohio)
Iron & Steel
North of Magnitogorsk

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Geography Notes

Nagoya
Multan

14.
15.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Ship Building
Japan
Pottery
Pakistan (E of Ganganagar)
Important Lakes
Ethiopia. Source of Blue Nile. Not formed by rift valley
Border of Uganda, DRC
Sudan Ethiopia border. Lowest point of Africa
Japans Largest lake near Nagoya
Kazhakstan
Cambodia
Sumatra (Crater)

Lake Tana
Lake Alberta
Lake Assal
Lake Biwa
Lake Zaysan
Lake Tonle Sab
Lake Toba

Pindhos Mountains
Dinaric Alps
Carpathians
Balkan Mountains
Rhodopi Mountains
Matopo Hills

Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Italy
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom

Nelson
Kolyma
Olenek
Don
Pechora
Liao
Fraser
Loire
Daugava
Tagus
Neman River

Mountain Chains
Greece
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia Herz., Serbia & Montenegro
Slovakia & Romania
North of Rhodopi Mountains in Bulgaria
Bulgaria
South western Zimbabwe

Islands & the Controlling Nation

Bornholm, Faeroe Islands, Greenland
Hiiuma, Saarema
Aland Islands
Corsica, Martinique, Reunion, Kerguelen (North of Antactica)
Helgoland
Crete,
Sardinia, Sicily
Svalbard
Azores, Madeira
Balearic Islands, Canary islands
Gotland
Isle of Man, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Western Isles, South
Sandwich , Falkland Island, Ascension Island, Bermuda.
Rivers & Countries
Issuing from NE of Lake Winnipeg & flowing to Hudson Bay.
N-E Siberia
Nothern Siberian region
Fourth largest in Europe. Rises near Tula & flows to Sea of Azov
Rises in Urals & flows into Arctic
Liaoning province of China
British Columbia (Canada).
The longest river in France
Rises in Russia, Belarus, Latvia & then into Gulf of Riga
Spain
Belarus & flows into Baltic Sea

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Ghanshyam Thori
Ebro
Garonne
James River
Waikato
Merrimack

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

Bass Strait
Torres Strait
Cook Strait
Dardanelles Strait
Davis Strait
Juan de Fuca Strait
Kerch Strait
Mackinac Strait
Magellan Strait
Makassar Strait
Messina Strait
Sunda Strait
Bonifacio Strait
Dover strait
Soya Strait
Tsushima Strait
Tsugaru Strait
Kii Strait
Strait of Otranto
Strait of Hormuz
Strait of Tiran
Tsugaru Strait
Johor Strait
Gulf of Carpentera
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Martaban
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Tonkin
Gulf of Mannar

31.
32.

Spencer Gulf
Gulf of Bo Hai

Geography Notes
Spain
Spain
Virginia, United States
New Zealands longest river
N. E. United States.
Some Important Straits & Gulfs
Australia & Tasmania
Australia & New Guinea
North Island & South Island in New Zealand
Aegean Sea & Sea of Marmara
North Atlantic Ocean and Baffin Bay, NE Canada
Washington and southern Vancouver, Canada
Sea of Azov & Black Sea
Lake Michigan & Lake Huron
South American mainland & island of Tierra del Fuego
Borneo & Sulawesi.
Italy & Sicily
Java & Sumatra
Corsica Island (France) & Italian island of Sardinia (south).
England & France. Connecting English Channel & North Sea.
Sakhalin to the North & Hokkaido to the south.
Korea & Kyushu
Hokkaido & Honshu
Honshu & Shikoku
Connecting the Adriatic with the Ionian Sea. Italy & Greece.
Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea.
Between Hokkaido & Honshu.
Singapore & Malay Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula & Arnhem Land
Arm of Baltic Sea between Finland & Sweden.
Arm of Mediterranean Sea in Southern France
South of Myanmar. Salween flows into it.
North of Libya. Inlet of Mediterranean.
South of China & East of Vietnam
India & Srilanka. Tambraparni from India & Aruvi Aru from
Srilanka flows into it.
East of Adeilade.
West of Korea.

Imaginary Lines & the countries through which they pass

Tropic of Cancer
Hawaii, Mexico, Bahamas, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria,
Niger, Libya, Chad (northern most point), Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE,
Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan
Equator
Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Congo, DR of
Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, and Kiribati.
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Geography Notes

Tropic of Capricorn

Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, French Polynesia, Australia,

Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia
Rivers of Africa

Changed Geographical Names

Aurgangabad
Sambhaji Nagar
Dutch East Indies
Indonesia
East Timor
Loro Sae
Quilon
Kollam
Saigon
Ho Chi Minh City
Sandwich Islands
Hawaii Islands
Tanjore
Thanjavur
Greenland
Kalaallit Nanaat

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Geography Notes

Sorbiquets
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.

Britain of the South

City of Eternal Springs
Great White way
Island of Fire
Land of Marble
Land of Morning Calm
Land of Perpetual Greenery
Never Never Land
Pearl of the Orient
Power Keg of Europe
Quaker City
Queen of the Adriatic
Queen of the Arabian Sea
Venice of the East
Venice of the North
White City
White Mans Grave
Worlds Loneliest Island
Spice Garden of India
The Sea of Mountains
The Spice Island of the West
George Cross Island
Pillars of Hercules
Garden Province of South Africa

New Zealand
Quito
Broadway, New York
Iceland
Italy
Korea
Natal
Prairies of North America
Hong Kong
Balkans
Philadelphia, USA
Venice
Kochi
Alappuzha, India
Stockholm
Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Guinea Coast
Tristan da Cunha
Kerala
British Columbia
Grenada
Malta
Gibraltar
Natal

Miscellaneous Facts:
1. Congo River is also known as River Zaire.
2. Altai Mountains extend from the headwaters of the Ob and Irtysh rivers in southern Siberia in Russia,
into Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China and into Mongolia. The mountain range extending
from northern California to British Columbia is called Cascades. Mt. Rainier near Seattle is its highest
point. The loftiest mountain range in USA is Sierra Nevada. The Cambrian mountains are located in
Wales.
3. Giants Causeway is located on the coast of northern Ireland. It is thought by geologists to have formed
when an ancient lava flow cooled and solidified.
4. The major peninsulas of Russia starting from west to east are Kola peninsula, Kanin peninsula, Yamal
peninsula, Gyda peninsula & Taymyr peninsula.

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Geography Notes

5. Buryat Republic lies north of central Monglia. It is the homeland of buryats.

6. The deserts of Western Australia from North to South are Tanami Desert, Great Sandy desert, Gibson
desert & Great Victoria desert. Simpson desert lies in the central region north of L. Eyre.
7. San Diego city lies in the extreme southwest corner of California just above Mexico. Las Vegas lies in
Nevada state & near Mojave Desert. Wellington, Capital of New Zealand comes under West European
type of climate. In New Zealand the southern island is more developed compared to the northern. In china
type of climate precipitation is around 100 cm & well distributed throughout the year. Marine west
European climate experiences rainier winters than summers.
8. The climate of steppes can be summarized by hot summers and cold winters, averaging 30 cm of rain
every year. The world's largest zone of steppes is found in central Russia and neighbouring republics of
Central Asia
9. Langley is a unit equal to one gram calorie per square centimeter of irradiated surface, used to measure
solar radiation
10. Baotou is in inner Mongolia, China & is known for iron & steel complex. Caracas, Capital of Venezuela
comes under monsoon type of climate. Sao Paulo has China type of Climate. Adelaide has Mediterranean
type of climate.
11. Khyber pass in Pakistan is located in the Hindu Kush range. It links Peshawar in Pakistan with Jalalabad
in Afghanistan, where it connects to a route leading to the Afghan capital of Kabul. The route of the Bolan
Pass links Quetta in Baluchistan Province with Kandahar in Afghanistan. Peshawar, Islamabad,
Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Gujranwala & Lahore are from north to south in N. Pakistan.
12. Peurto Rico Trench is the deepest in Atlantic.
13. Liechtenstein, independent principality in central Europe; bounded on the east by Austria, and on the
south, west, and north by Switzerland. Malta is an independent republic, south of Sicily. San Marino,
republic in southern Europe, an enclave in northern Italy
14. Irtish River is the 9th longest in the world & has its source in Altai Mountains Russia.
15. Montego Bay is in Jamaica where the Sea Law Treaty was signed.
16. Rio de la Plata is the estuary formed from the combination of Uruguay River & the Parana River.
17. Andesite line marks the boundary between continental shelf & continental slope. Indian Ocean was
known to the Greeks as Erythraean sea.
18. Zambia is an important producer of Copper & Zimbabwe is known for gold. Qeshm is the only island of
Iran & lies in the strait of Hormuz. It is the biggest island in the Persian Gulf.

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Geography Notes

19. A person born in Puerto Rico is a US citizen. Atlantic Ocean is the roughest of all oceans. Its coastline is
larger than those of Pacific & Indian Ocean put together. It receives more fresh water than any other
ocean.
20. Prague is situated on the bank of river Vltava. Madrid (Manzarenes), Dublin (Liffey) & Rotterdam (Rhine,
Maas & Scheldt).
21. Tuaregs are the tribal people of the Sahara. They speak a Berber language called Tamarshak.
22. California (Sunkist), Spain (Seviue), Tangier (Tangerine), China & Japan (Mandarin) are the various
varieties of oranges.
23. Pustaz are temperate grasslands of Hungary. The cattle kept by the Masai are the zebu cattle.
24. Big Inch (Gulf of Mexico to NE US), Tap Line (Gulf & Arabian Peninsula to Mediterranean) &
COMECOM (Urals & Volga to East Europe) are some of the important pipelines.
25. Birmingham is the second largest city in Britain. Aztecs & Mayas were flourished both in Mexico &
surrounding regions. Incas were in Peru & the Andes. Polygon of Drought in Brazil is the NE region.
26. Oil is found in Venezuela (Lake Marcaibo), Iraq (kirkuk, Mosul, Basra), S. Arabia (Ghawar, Dharan,
Abaqaiq), Chechnya (Grozny), Russia (Sakhalin), Nigeria (Port Harcourt). Yadavaran is the largest is
Irans largest on shore oilfield.
27. Mt. Logan is the highest peak of Canada. Mt. Toubkal is the highest peak of Atlas mountains.
28. Antwerp is the chief port and second largest city of Belgium. Kaohsiung (Southern Taiwan) is among the
top five busiest sea ports of the world.
29. Mexico is the leading producer of silver, sulphur & fluorite. Denver is the capital of Colorado. Hudson
Bay is the worlds largest inland sea.
30. Brazil shares its boundary with all except Chile & Ecuador. The highest active volcano in the world Mt.
Ojas del Salado (Argentina Chile is in the Andes).
31. Trans Andean Railways connect Buenos Aires & Valpariso. European transcontinental railway runs from
Paris to Warsaw. Orient express runs from Paris to Istanbul. The Canadian Pacific railway runs from Saint
John in New Brunswick to Vancouver on the pacific coast. Canadian National Railway runs from
Vancouver to Halifax
32. Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopian Island & White Nile From Lake Victoria. White Nile &
Blue Nile meet at Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.
33. Port Said (Mediterranean) is towards North & Port Suez towards south (Red Sea).
34. The northwest countries of Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia are together called the Maghreb which in Arabic
means west. Oil Palm is an important agricultural product of Nigeria.

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Geography Notes

35. Botswana is the worlds largest producer of gem quality diamonds (jewellery diamonds).
36. Liberia is the largest producer of coffee & rubber in Africa.
37. Scandinavia applies to Norway, Sweden, Denmark & sometimes Iceland. Baltic states include Estonia,
Latvia & Lithuania. Mont Blanc is situated on the French-Italian border.
38. Bavaria is the largest state of Germany & Munich is its capital. Kalinangrad is a part of Russia but
separated from it by Lithuania.
39. The Baltic is connected with the North Sea by the Nord-Ostsee-Kanal (the Kiel or Kaiser Wilhelm Canal).
Murmansk is the only ice free port along the arctic ocean route to Vladivostok.
40. Two important varieties of Eucalyptus in Australia are Jarrah & Karri.
41. New Zeland generates 7 % of its energy from geysers. The highest peak of the country is Mt. Cook.
42. Amu Darya forms a part of the border between Afghanistan & Turkmenistan. The enormous desert that
covers Turkmenistan is Karakum.
43. The Euphrates originates in Turkey & flows past Syria & Iraq before meeting the Tigris. The joint waters
of Tigris & Euphrates are called Shat-al-Arab. The Tigris also originates from Turkey.
44. Hokkaido is connected to Honshu across Tsugaru strait by an under sea tunnel. Kurile Islands lie to the
NE of Hokkaido & separate the sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific.
45. The top 5 countries in terms of Hydro power potential are China, Brazil, CIS, Canada & India. While the
top 5 in installed capacity are USA, Canada, China, Brazil & Norway.
46. Chimborazo is the highest extinct volcano & lies in Ecuador.
47. Botswana has the highest prevalence rate of AIDs while South Africa has highest absolute number of
AIDS patients followed by India.
48. The great channel separates the Andaman & Nicobar Island from Sumatra.
49. Hammerfest, town in Northern Norway is the northernmost town of Europe. Stromboli is known as the
light house of the Mediterranean. Le Havre is a city in Normandy, northern France, on the English
Channel, at the mouth of the Seine.
50. Granite rock is metamorphosed into schist rock.
51. Grand Coulee dam (USA) is on Columbia river & Cobora Basa Dam (Mozambique) is on Oragnbe river.
Hoover Dam (USA) is on Colorado river.
52. Mixed farming refers to sowing two or more crops in mixture in the same field. Multiple cropping means
the planting of two or more different crops on the same acreage for harvest within the same crop year.
53. Liverpool, city in northwestern England, on the Mersey River, near its mouth on the Irish Sea.

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Geography Notes

54. The following features are arranged in increasing geological age East African rift, Gulf of Aden, Atlantic
Sea & Mediterranean sea.
55. The Pantanal is the worlds largest freshwater wetland in Brazil. Pripet marshes are large wetlands along
Pripet river in Belarus. The Great Okefenokee Swamp is the largest swamp found in all of North America.
56. The Bie Plateau occupies most of central Angola & the Okavango river rises here. Huila plateau lies to its
south.
57. The top 5 wind power generating countries are Germany, Spain, USA, India & Denmark.
58. A geyser erupts intermittently. Hot springs are more common than geysers & the former are not explosive
in general.
59. Tibet is enclosed between Kunlun to the North & Himalayas to the south. Takla Makan desert, Tarim
basin & Turfan basin all lie between Tien Shan range to the north & Kunlun to the south.
60. Strato Cones (Cotopaxi), Dormant Volcano (Vesuvius), Shield Volcano (Mt. Kilavea, Mt. Etna),
Composite cone. Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA)
and Mount Pinatubo (Philippines).
61. Cayman Trench, also called Bartlett Deep is a spreading ridge on the floor of the western Caribbean Sea
between Jamaica and the Cayman Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
62. The Russian cities from NW to SE are St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky near Kazan),
Magnitogorsk. Later from west to east Omsk, Novosibirsk, Novokuznetsk, Irkutsk, & Vladivostok.
63. Rostov (Gateway to Caucasus), St. Petersburg (largest port of Russia), Ivanovo (Machester of Russia) &
Nizhny Novgorod (Detroit of Russia).
64. Mt. Rainier, Mt. Hood, Mt. Shasta are from North to South in NW USA. Polland is the world most
polluted country.
65. The Cocos plate lies to the west of Panama in the Pacific north of Nazca plate. Caribbean plate lies east of
Panama in the Carribean region. Scotia plate lies to the south of South America.
66. Dead Sea, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyasa are all rift valley lakes but Lake Victoria is not. Mangala dam is
in Pakistan over river Jhelum. Tarelad Dam, the earths larges earthern dam is in Pakistan. Columbia
plateau is volcanic in origin. Ozark plateau is domed. Tibetan plateau is intermontane. The Finger Lakes
are glacially formed lakes in upstate New York. Cayuga is the longest of the finger lakes.
67. Azores, Bermuda, Canary Island & Cape Verde Island is the sequence from North to South.
68. White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian sea lie in that order from west to east.
69. In Bangladesh when Tista joins Brahmaputra it is known as Jamuna. When later Ganga joins the
combined river is called Padma first & Meghna further downstream.

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Geography Notes

70. The mountain peaks in the Himalayas of Nepal going from west to east is Mt Api (W. Nepal), Mt
Dhaulagiri, Mt Annapurna, Mt Manaslu (Central Nepal) & Mt Gaurishankar, Mt Everest, Mt Makalu &
Mt Kanchenjunga (E. Nepal). Mt Pidurutalagala, the highest point in Sri Lanka.
71. Albania, Macedonia & Bulgaria lie to the North of Greece. Biskra depression is in Algeria.
72. Fremantle Doctor is a cooling afternoon sea breeze which occurs during summer months in coastal areas
of Western Australia. The Guba wind occurs along the Papua coast (South of Papua New Guinea).
73. Forests cover 64 percent of Japans land area & it is one of the worlds largest importers of wood. The
most densely populated province of Canada is Prince Edward Island. Klamath mountains are in California.
74. The lakes in Canada from North to south are Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Wollaston, Reindeer &
Winnipeg. The cities of Canada along the St. Lawrence from North to South are Montreal, Ottawa,
Toronto, Hamilton & Windsor. Sudbury lies to the north of Lake Huron.
75. Halifax (Nova Scotia), St. John (New Foundland) & Saint John (New Brunswick) are in Canada. The
centre for steel industry in Canada is Hamilton. The city of Toronto is the largest in Canada followed by
Montreal & Vancouver.
76. Basque people live along the Pyrenees in Spain. The Gap between the Pyrenees & the Central Massif is
called the Belfort gap. The physical feature of France from North to south are Ardennes, Vosges, Jura &
the Alps. Bohemian Forest is a highland region, rising mainly along the border between the Czech
Republic and Germany, and also in Austria.
77. The southernmost of Japanese islands is Ryuku which lies to the south of Kyushu & North of Taiwan.
Nagoya is the Detroit of Japan. Kitakyushu (Northern tip of Kyushu) is a conurbation of five cities. The
most populous province of China is Sichuan.
78. Fushun, Shenyang (Formerly Mukden Main industrial cluster of Manchuria) & Anshan are in that order
from North to South all in Liaoning province. Lop Nor is famous for nuclear activity. Qaidam basin is to
the north of Tibet plateau & to the south of Kunlun Mountains.
79. The Sea of Galilee is Israel's largest freshwater lake & lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the secondlowest lake in the world after the Dead Sea. It is to the north of Dead Sea.
80. Ahaggar Mountains, also Hoggar Mountains, plateau region, southern Algeria, in the center of the Sahara.
The major basin of Africa is El Djouf, now occupied by the Niger River Basin in West Africa. Karoo is a
semidesert plateau regions in southern South Africa. Adamawa Plateau region, west central Africa, is in
central Cameroon, extending into southeastern Nigeria and western Central African Republic. Futa Jallon,
highland region in west central Guinea. Tibesti mountainous region of the central Sahara, in northern
Chad, extending into northeastern Niger and southern Libya.

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Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
Landscape of Africa

Saudi Arabia

Rivers of South America

100

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Geography Notes

Natural Landscape of South America

China Provinces
101

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Geography Notes

United States Provinces

Iraq
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Geography Notes

Physical Geography
1.
2.
3.
4.

Various Geographical Institutes

Hydrographic Biological Commission
Marine Biological Association
Research Institute of Marine Fisheries
Coast & Geodetic Survey

Scandinavia
United Kingdom
Canada
United States

Geographers & Contribution

1.
2.
3.
4.

Tetrahedral Hypothesis
Pear Shaped earth deformation
Concept of succession, climatic climax, mono climax
Concept of Poly climax

S
1.
2.
3.
4.

Zone of Ocean
Continental Shelf
Continental Slopes
Continental Rises
Deep Ocean Floor

1.
2.
3.
4.

Continental Margins
Shallow Sea
Bathyl Region
Abyssal Plain

Lowthian Green
Jeans & Sollas
Clements
Whittaker

Marine Sediments
Percentage of Total Marine Deposits
15 %
41 %
31 %
13 %

Oceanic Zones & Types of Deposits

Organic Matter
Sands, Silts
Blue mud, Green mud
Ooze

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Ghanshyam Thori

1.
2.
3.

Geography Notes

Deposits & Percentage Area Occupied

Littoral & Shallow water Deposit
9%
Deep Sea (Terrigenous) deposits
15 %
Pelagic Ooze & Red Clay
75 %

Hamada
Reg
Serir
Debba
Erg
Playa
Salina
Chott

Terms used for Deserts

Bare rock or rock with a thin veneer of pebble (Arabic)
Desert pavement of loose stones (N. Africa)
Desert pavement of loose stones, coarser and older than reg (N. Africa)
Extensive sandy plain (N. Africa)
Vast region deeply covered with sand and topped by sand dunes (N. Africa)
Extremely flat, vegetation free area of silt or clay in the lowest part of a
closed basin
Playa with saline water or kept moist by rising groundwater
Closed basin containing a dry lake or playa (N. African)

Cirro Cumulus
Cirrus
Cumulus
Altostratus
Megatherms
Mesotherms
Microtherms
Heskitotherms

First order
Second order
Third order
Fourth order
Fifth order
Sixth order

Clouds & Characteristics

Mackerel Sky
Mares Tail (As they resemble horses tail)
Cauliflower Heads
Watery Look
Terms
Equatorial and tropical, tropical rain forests
Tropical and sub tropical, tropical deciduous forests
Temperate and high altitude
Arctic and alpine regions
Landforms Classification
Oceans, continents
Mountain systems, physiographic. Provinces
Mountain ranges, major valleys
Volcanoes, fault blocks, valleys
Cinder cones, deltas, playa lakes
Sand dunes, terraces

Miscellaneous Facts:
1. The eastern regions of humid subtropical areas receive rainfall throughout the year like equatorial regions.
Isotherms are irregular but closely spaced in Northern Hemishpere.
2. Alpha centauri is also known as Proxima Centauri. Asthenosphere lies above mesosphere. Ox Bow lake is
a characteristic of the river in its old age.
3. Steam fog occurs when cold air blows over warmer waters & Advection fog occurs when moist air blows
over cold surface. The only gas, not uniformly distributed over the entire atmosphere is ozone.

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Geography Notes

4. One nautical mile is equal to 1.85 kilometers & one mile is equal to 1.6 kms. Albatross Cordillera is in
Pacific ocean.
5. Prince Edward Crozet ridge & Amsterdam St. Paul Plateau are located in the Indian ocean.
Lakshadweep-Chagos ridge, St. Paul ridge, Amsterdam-St. Paul plateau divide the Indian ocean into
almost two basins.
6. Emperor Seamount chain is in the Pacific Ocean. The maximum width of the continental shelf is off the
arctic coast of Siberia. The deepest continental shelves surround Antarctica. In most of the areas the
continental shelf is formed by constructive ocean.
7. The evolution of mid-Atlantic ridge can be dated back to Pliocene age.
8. Continental shelf has maximum depth of 200m. Continental slope has a depth of about 3600 m. Abyssal
hills have height of 1000 m & guyots are 1100 m high.
9. Zaire canyon is riverine, Canyons of south California are dendritic, Canyons of Bering Sea are the largest
& Oceanographer canyon is small gorge.
10. Atlantic Ocean has the maximum percentage of continental shelf area followed by Pacific & Indian.
11. Red clay deposit is widely found in Pacific Ocean. Pteropod is found mainly only in the Atlantic ocean.
Radiolarian & Diatom ooze can be found at greater depth than Pteropod & globigerina ooze because
siliceous ooze are less soluble while calcareous oozes are easily soluble.
12. A zone in which the density of water increase with increasing depth is called Pycnocline zone.
13. Silt is smaller in size than sand but larger than clay. Pebble is smaller than cobble.
14. Salinity of ocean is a function of latitude. Gulf of Bothnia records the lowest salinity of less than 2 %.
15. Lower the salinity higher is the freezing point.
16. Kiel Canal shortens the distance between London & Kaliningrad.
17. C horizon is not a part of mineral horizon. The dominant species of an ecosystem are more prone to
climatic changes. Trasnfromation process of pedogenic regime includes humification & mineralization.
Entisols are also highly productive in some regions. Chelating agents are associated with the process of
podzolization.
18. Climate & biotic factors are active soil forming factors whereas time, topography & parent rock are
passive. The transition zone between two ecosystems is called ecotone. Allelopathy is a phenomenon in
which toxins produced by one species inhibit the growth of other.
19. USDA soils & their zonal equivalents are: Vertisols (grumusols), Mollisols (Chernozem), Spodosols
(Podzols) & Alfisols (Degraded chernozems). The loess serves as an ideal parent material for chernozem
soils.

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Geography Notes

20. Soils & the vegetation supported are: brown earths (deciduous forests), podzol (heath forest), chernozem
(steppe grasses), grumusol (savanna grasses). Tropical heath forest, also known as Kerangas forest, is a
type of forest found on the island of Borneo, especially in Brunei.
21. The types of humus in terrestrial environment are: mor, moder & mull. Mor is a type of humus, which
occur largely in coniferous forest soils and the moorlands soils. This humus arise under conditions of lowbiological activity in soil. Moder is a transitional form of humus between mull and moder, characteristic
for sod-podzolic soils, loesses and mountain grassland soils. Mull is a type of humus characteristic for
chestnut soils & arises under grassland conditions. Mull is well humified organic matter. The favourable
pH for the growth of cereal crops is 6.5.
22. Climax (community) which is the hypothetical optimal community that would eventually develop under
ideal conditions and without human interference. If climate dictates the nature of this community we
describe this as a climactic climax whereas if the soil conditions limit the type of climax that develops we
speak of an edaphic climax (E.g. Savannah). Where there has been some interference that degrades the
climax we say that secondary succession has occurred and if we now view this secondary community as
on its way back to the climax we can refer to this as a sub-climax.
23. Aestivation refers to the state of inactivity adopted by desert animals during the hottest & driest season.
The oldest animal fossil has been found in Zambia.
24. Devonian period is the age of fishes. Ambhibians & reptiles evolved during carboniferous period.
25. Sun Spots are cooler areas of the sun. The dark lines in corona are called Fraunhofer lines.
26. For an earthquake at a particular spot the shadow zone of P-waves invariably exist between 103 & 143
degree form the earthquake focus.
27. The variation of wind with elevation through the friction layer is represented by an equi angular spiral
known as the Ekman spiral. Beaufort scale ranges from 0 to 12.
28. Saturn is known as Jewel Planet & Venus as veiled planet.
29. Primary waves can change into secondary waves under certain conditions due to refraction. Surface waves
or long period waves cover the longest distance of all seismic waves. Focus is also known as hypo centre.

Essential Extra Reference:

How to Calculate the suns latitude at solstice for various latitudes.

World Population Data (K. Siddhartha Ensemble-Appendix Geo of India-page 13)

Isostasy, Map references.

106

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Geography of India
Top States by Area & Population
S
Area
Population
Uttar Pradesh
1. Rajasthan
Maharashtra
2. Madhya Pradesh
Bihar
3. Maharashtra
West Bengal
4. Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
5. Uttar Pradesh
6. J & K
7. Gujarat
8. Karnataka
9. Orissa
10. Chattisgarh
Goa is the smallest state by area & Sikkim is the smallest in Population.
Andamans & Nicobar is the biggest UT by area & Delhi by population.
Lakshwadeep is the smallest UT both in population & area

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Indias World Rank in Various Commodities

I rank
II rank
III rank
Banana
Oil Seeds
Coconuts
Buffalo Milk
Garlic
Tobacco Leaves
Castor Beans
Cauliflower
Potatoes
Fresh Fruit
Cashew Nuts
Cotton seed
Ginger
Lemons & Lime
Rape Seed
Goat Milk
Rice
Sorghum
Jute
Wheat
Lentils
Cow Milk
Mangoes
Fresh Vegetables
Tea
Sugar Cane
Spices
Dry Onions
Pulses
Groundnuts in shell
Seaseme Seed
Pigeon Peas

Kudremukh
Aliabet
Bailadila
Gurumahisani
Balghat
Koraput
Kolihan
Kodarma

Famous Ores of India

Iron Ore
Offshore oil field
Iron Ore
Iron Ore
Copper, Manganese
Bauxite
Copper
Mica
107

Karnataka
Gulf of Kambhat
Chattisgarh
Mayubhanj, Orissa
M.P (Malanjkhand)
Orissa
Rajasthan
Jharkhand

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

9. Lohardaga
10. Gumla
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Bauxite
Jharkhand
Bauxite
Jharkhand
Various Geographical Features
New Moore
Deltaic Island & disputed site between Bangladesh
& India
Kacchativu
Fishing area leased to Sri Lanka
Mandav Hills
Gujarat. North of Gir Hills.
Rarh Plains
West Bengal.
Mikir & Rengma Hills
Assam
Dudma Falls
Machkund river, Orissa.
Thekkadi Sanctuary
Kerala
Cambarjua Canal
Goa
Sirhind Canal
Sutlej
Upper Bari Doab Canal Ravi
Hampi
Karnataka
Keibul Lamjao
Only floating national park in Manipur Loktak lake.
Pulicat Lake
Barred by long sandpit Sri Harikota Island.
Gohana Lake
Situated near Devprayag in Garhwal
Wular & Dal Lake
Formed by tectonic forces of faulting.
Wetlands of India
Harike
Punjab
Ashtamudi
Kerala
Bhoj
Madhya Pradesh
Kabar
Bihar
Kanji
Punjab
Kolleru
Andhra Pradesh
Nalsarovar
Gujarat
Pichola
Rajasthan
Renuka
Himachal Pradesh
Sasthamkotta
Kerala
Sukhana
Chandigarh
Ujni
Maharashtra

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sind Sagar Doab

Jech/Chej Doab
Bari Doab
Rachna Doab
Jalandhar/Bist Doab

1.
2.
3.
4.

Doabs of India
Indus & Jhelum
Chenab & Jhelum
Beas, Ravi & Satluj
Ravi & Chenab
Sutlej & Beas

Famous Beaches of India

Gopalpur & Chandipur beach
Orissa
Bheemunipatnam beach
Andhra Pradesh
Anjuna, Calangute & Baga beach
Goa
Ahmedpur Mandvi Beach
Gujarat

108

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes
5.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Karwar, Maple beach

Agri-Imports
Vegetables Oil
Pulses
Cashew Nuts
Fruits & Other Nuts
Milk & Cream

Batura glacier
Hispar glacier
Skamri glacier
Biafo glacier
Baltora glacier
Siachen glacier
Sonapani glacier
Gangotri glacier
Milam glacier
Pindari glacier
Rambang glacier
Khumbu glacier
Zemu glacier

Karnataka

72 %
14 %
9%
4%
.6 %

Agri Exports
Marine Product
Rice
Wheat
Fruits & Vegetables
Tea

Glaciers
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
Pirpanjal region
Kumaon-Garhwal region (Uttaranchal)
Uttaranchal
Uttaranchal
Kanchenjunga-Everst region
Mt. Everest region
Kanchenjunga-Everest region (Sikkim)

Forestry Research Institutions

Institute of Rain & Moist Deciduous Forests
Institute of wood science & Technology
Tropical Forestry Research Institute
Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding
Temperate Forest Research Institute
Centre for Forest Productivity
Centre for Social Forestry & Environment
CAZRI

1.
2.
3.
4.

18 %
12 %
7%
6%
5%

Jorhat
Bangalore
Jabalpur
Coimbatore
Shimla
Ranchi
Allahabad
Jodhpur

Natural Gas Based Projects

Dahej Power Project
Gujarat
Pata Petrochemical Project
U.P.
Usar LPG project
Maharashtra
Lakwa LPG project
Assam
Miscellaneous Facts:

1. Largest SC community is chamar. The rainiest period for Tamil Nadu is October-November & not
December-January. Shola is a type of high-altitude stunted evergreen forest found in southern India
mainly in Karnataka, Kerala & Tamil Nadu. India has monopoly in the production of Lac.

109

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Geography Notes

2. Rama's Bridge, Nala's Bridge or Adam's Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals, between the islands of
Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rameswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The Pamban
Bridge also called Indira Gandhi Bridge lies on the Indian end of the Palk Strait that connects
Rameswaram island to mainland India.
3. Banbasa wild life sanctuary is in U.P. The largest tiger reserve in India is Nagarjuna Sagar Sri Sailam
tiger reserve.
4. Rivers of East India from North to south are Damodar, Subarnarekha, Brahmani-Baitrani & Mahanadi.
5. The rivers of Peninsular India from North to south are Krishna, Penneru, Palar, Cauvery & Vaigai.
6. The major tribes who inhabit the mountains of Kerala are Kanis, Uralis, Kadar, Kanikkar, Paniyar etc..
They are considered to be the descendants of the Negrito race. Even the Angami Nagas & the Badgis of
the Rajmahal Hills in Bihar belong to the Negrito race.
7. The largest permanent migration of the Indian outside the country in the last century was associated with
the sugarcane plantations.
8. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest port. Kolkata is riverine port. Kandla is tidal port. Mumbai is biggest port.
Nava-Sheva (JLNP) is the busiest port.
9. Kadam project is in Andhra Pradesh & Gurusoppa project in Karnataka.
10. Bheraghat falls (Narmada), Sivasamudram falls (Cauvery) & Hundru falls (Subarnarekha)
11. Tungabhadra water dispute (A.P. & Karnataka), Krishna Water dispute (Maharashtra, Karnataka &
Andhra Pradesh).
12. The major fishing harbours of India are Cochin, Madras & Vishakhapatnam
13. The following steel plants are in order of decreasing capacity: Bhilai, Durgapur & Burnpur.
14. Kerala coast is an example of emergent coast. Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Sasthamkotta Lake in
Kerala are important.
15. In 2001 census, the proportion of children population to total population was the least among jains & the
sex ratio was the least among sikhs.
16. The correct sequence of ranges/hills in peninsular plateau region from north to south is Garhjat Hills,
Balaghat range, Palkonda range, Cardamom hills.
17. Valmiki Tiger reserve & Kabar Lake bird sanctary are in Bihar. Ujni wetlands is in Maharashtra & Deeper
Beel wetlands in Assam. Shahpur Kandi irrigation project is in Punjab & Teesta Barrage in West Bengal.
Kanheri National Park (Maharashtra) & Chandaka National Park (Orissa)
18. India is divided into five seismic zones. Zone I is most secure & Zone V being most vulenerable.
Aluminium plants are located near source of power & not near raw material.

110

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Geography Notes

19. Uttar Pradesh has the largest area under ravines. Aliabet is the largest island in the estuary of the
Narmada.
20. Kanthi coastal plain is in West Bengal & Nadhra plain is in Eastern Ghat.
21. Saddle Peak (North Andaman), Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar), Mount Diavolo (Little Nicobar) & Mount
Ford (Rutland Island).
22. Amarkantak plateau has radial drainage pattern. Garland canal project connects the rivers of east & west
India.
23. Assam shares its boundary with seven other Indian states, Mizoram with three states & Tripura with 2
states. Both M.P touches 5 states & Chattisgarh touches 6 states. UP touches 8 states.
24. Total number of India states that form international border with the neighbouring countries is 17. Five
Indian states have common border with Bangladesh.
25. In India the international boundary shared with different countries is Bangladesh (4096 km), Pakistan
(3310 km), Myanmar (1458 Km).
26. Tso-morari is a huge mountain lake in Southeast Ladakh. Kolleru Lake is a large freshwater lake in India's
Andhra Pradesh state. Ashtamudi Lake (Ashtamudi Kayal) is in Kollam district of Kerala state in south
India. Ashtamudi Lake is designated a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
27. Highest point is Singapore is Timah Hill. Lake Wular is the largest freshwater lake of India. Loktak lake
is formed due to faulting. Vembanad Lake due to offshore bar formation in backwaters of Kerala.
28. Brahmaputra River has maximum surface run off while Ganga has maximum catchment area.
29. The name of Pench National Park, M.P. was changed to "Indira Priyadarshini Pench National Park".
Orissa coast is mainly depositional in character.
30. Zojila pass is from Srinagar to Ladakh. Western ghats were uplifted in the Cenozoic period.
31. Tropic of Cancer passes through the following 8 states - Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura & Mizoram. It does not pass through Orissa.
32. The most prominent India-Bangladesh border issues are the Tin Bigha Corridor, Muhuri Char and New
Moore ( or South Talpatty/ Purbasha island).
33. Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) comprised 16.2 percent and 8.1 percent respectively of
the total population, according to Census of India 2001.
34. Indian board of wildlife is headed by Prime Minister of India. Gulf of Kutchh is a coral reef area.
35. Ragi, Bajra & Jowar are the three most important millets produced in India. Groundnut, rapeseed &
mustard are the most important oil seeds produced in India. India imports 40 % of its oilseeds needed.

111

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

36. U.P, Punjab & Rajasthan are the top 3 milk producing states in India. In terms of sheep population
Rajasthan ranks number one.
37. India is divided into 35 meterological sub divisions. IMD defines normal monsoon year as the rainfall
between june-september is within plus/minus 10 per cent of the normal figure of 88 cm for the whole
country.
38. The Pangong Tso (largest in Himalayas) & Tso Moriri lakes are in J & K region. Gurudogmar in Northern
Sikkim is the highest lake.
39. Port Blair is located on South Andaman. Biggest island on Andaman & Nicobar island is Middel
Andaman. Highest point in the whole island is Saddle Peak on North Andaman Island. Narcondam island
lies to the north of Barren Island, both being to the east of Andamans. Mallamalai hills, Palakonda range
(both in A.P), Javadi Hills & Shevaroy Hills, Panchamalai hills, Sirumalai hills, Varushnad Hills in the
eastern ghats (all 5 in Tamil Nadu) are in that order from north to south. Nilgiris (Extreme west TN),
Annamalai hills & Cardamom hills from north to south in western ghats.
40. Moran river drains into Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar in Uttar Pradesh. Chandor Hills lie to the west of
Ajanta range in Maharasthra. To the south of Ajanta range lies Balaghat. Rajmahal Hills lie in NE
Jharkhand, forming the NE edge of Chhotanagpur plateu. Ramgarh hills lie in North Chhattisgarh &
Bastar plateau in south Chhattisgarh. Dandakranya overlaps Bastar plateau. To the south of Satpura range
lies Mahadeo hills & Gawilgarh hills. Rayalseema uplands lie to the south of Telangana plateau.
41. Pondicherry consists of four small unconnected districts: Pondicherry, Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and Yanam
(A.P) on the Bay of Bengal and Mah (Kerala) on the Arabian Sea.
42. Zoji La (J&K) Bara Lacha, Shipki La (H.P) Thag La, Niti & Lipu lekh (Uttaranchal) in that order form
NW to SE.
43. Mountains (11 %), Hilly region (18.6 %), Plateau (27 %) & Plain area (43 %) of total indias area.
Sectoral Consumption of electricity is Industrial (35%), Agriculture (31%), Domestic (21%) &
Commercial (6%)
44. The east coastal plain is known as Northern Circars between Mahanadi & Krishna & Carnatic between
Krishna & the Cauvery rivers.
45. Rectangular drainage pattern (Kosi & its tributaries), Superimposed pattern (Damodar & Chambal),
Radial pattern (Amarkantak & Kathiawar region).
46. The maximum number of National Parks is in M.P & maximum sanctuaries in Andaman & Nicobar
47. Peaty & organic soils are found in Kottayam & Alappuzha districts of Kerala where they are called Kari.
Tidal or Littoral forests occur around the deltas, estuaries.

112

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

48. Bananas, Mango & Citrus are the top three fruits by production. Potato, tomato, onion & cabbage top in
vegetable production.
49. Tamil Nadu & Gujarat (Lamba, Okha, Mandvi) lead in the production of wind power. A tidal power plant
is located at Durgaduani creek in Sundarbans, West Bengal.
50. The Isobar of 1018 millibars runs through the Indo-Gangetic plains during January & it becomes 1000
millibars in July. Dharwar (Archaean), Cuddapah (Proterozoic) & Vindhyan (Paleozoic) rocks are in that
order from old to new.
51. Some important minor ports of India are: Okha, Porbander, Veraval (from north to south in Gujarat),
Talasseri (Kerala), Naganipattnam (Tamil Nadu), Kakinada & Machilipatnam (N to S in A.P.).
52. In religious communities, Christians have the highest sex ratio (1009) & Sikh the least (893). Sex ratio in
Muslims is (936) higher than that of Hindu (931).
53. Talpatty Island and Purbasha Island is disputed territory between Bangladesh and India. Kalipani region
between India & Nepal. Quatern Island is disputed among India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Sir Creek
between Pakistan & India.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Million Cities of India, 2001

Greater Mumbai 19 Ludhiana
Kolkata
20 Kochi
Delhi
21 Visakhapatnam
Chennai
22 Agra
Bangalore
23 Varanasi
Hyderabad
24 Madurai
Ahmadabad
25 Meerut
Pune
26 Nashik
Surat
27 Jabalpur
Kanpur
28 Jamshedpur
Jaipur
29 Asansol
Lucknow
30 Dhanbad
Nagpur
31 Faridabad
Patna
32 Allahabad
Indore
33 Amritsar
Vadodara
34 Vijayawada
Bhopal
35 Rajkot
Coimbatore

Essential Extra Reference:

1. Map of India for various important cities location important. Just refer political & physical map given at
the beginning of oxford atlas. See Mineral Maps of India too.

113

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

2. Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.

River Basins of India

114

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Physical Geography
Geological Period
Holocene
10,000
Cultivated plants
Cenozoic
Pleistocene
1.6 million Human beings. Indo-Gangetic plain, Thar desert,
Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir
5 million
Horses, Ape like man, Upper Siwaliks
Tertiary Period Pliocene
Miocene
24 million Apes developed
Oligocene
38 million Early horses, first Apes & Monkeys. Uplift of
Central Himalayan Axis (First Phase)
Eocene
55 million Grasses
Paleocene
65 million Small Mamals
Cretaceous
138 million Flowering plants increased, Deccan Traps
Mesozoic
Jurassic
205 million Birds (Archaeopteryx), flowering plant-angiosperms
first appeared. Named after Jura Mountains
Triassic
240 million Dinosaurs
Permian
290 million Seed Plants, Hercynian Orogeny
Paleozoic
Carboniferous 360 million Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish (in order)
Devonian
410 million Corals, First fish, Caledonian Orogeny,
Silurian
435 million First fish with Jaws, First Terrestrial Insects.
Ordovician
500 million Graptolites
Cambrian
570 million Tribolites
Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems,
Pre-Cambrian
Aravallis
Rocks
Intrusive Igneous rocks
Diorite, Granite, Gabbro (intrusive basalt) Pegmatite1 & Periodotite.
Extrusive Igneous rocks
Andesite, Rhyolite (extrusive granite), Basalt
Felsic rocks
Quartz, Feldspar
Metamorphic rocks
Hornfels, Greenstone, Greenschist, Amphibolite, Granulite, And Eclogite
Facies, Marble, Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Gneiss
Foliated Metamorphic
Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Formed by Regional Metamorphism)
Non Foliated Metamorphic Marble, Quartzite, Hornfel (Formed by Contact Metamorphism)
Sedimentary rocks
Oolite (type of limestone) Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate, Ironstone,
Travertine (light-coloured concretionary limestone), Evaporite, Coal
1- Pegmatite has composition of granite & has very large crystals indicating very slow cooling.
2- The most common metamorphic rocks are gneiss & schist.
Metamorphic rocks
Original rock
Metamorphic rock
Limestone
Marble
Sandstone
Quartzite
Shales
Schist
Shales or Clay
Slate
Granites or conglomerates
Gneiss

115

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Geography Notes
Shale
Gabro

Phyllite
Serpentine

Volcanic Cones
Cinder/Ash Cones Mt. Jorullo & Mt. Paricutin (both in Mexico), Mt. Izalco (San Salvador)
Composite Cones
Most of famous volcanoes. Eg Vesuvius, Cotopaxi, Mt. Mayon (S.E Luzon Is.)
Parasite Cone
Mt. Etna (Sicily)
Basalt Cone
Rangitoto
Effusive Eruption
Kilauea (most active volcanic crater, Hawaii)
Explosive Volcano Mt. Pinatubo (Central Luzon, Philippines)
Nue Ardentes is a characteristic feature of Mt. Pelee & Mt. Katmai (valley of ten thousand smokes)
Jet Streams
Located above the polar fronts between latitudes 30o & 70o N with core
between 6 to 9 Km. Not continuous but found in both hemispheres.
Present throughout the year
Westerly Sub-Tropical Jet Located above subtropical highs between 20 & 50 N with core between 9
& 12 Km.
Easterly Tropical Jet
Located above the Asiatic summer monsoon between the equator & the
20o N with core between 14 & 16 Km. Found only in Northern hemisphere
& confined to the Indian Ocean.

Westerly Polar Jet Stream

Softwoods/Hardwoods
Softwood/Conifers (Gymnosperms)
Pines, cedars, spruces, larches, and firs
Hardwood/Broad Leaved (Angiospersm) Oak, maple, beech, walnut, mahogany, teak, and balsa.

Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Arctic Ocean

Oceans
Av. Depth Deepest point
4280 m
Mariana trench (11000 m)
3600 m
Puerto Rico Trench (8600 m)
3900 m
Java trench (7700 m)
1300 m

Relief of the Ocean Basins

Width % area Specific % Area
65 Km 8.6 %
Atlantic Ocean (13%), Pacific Ocean (6%)
Indian Ocean (4%)
Continental Slope
8.5 %
Atlantic Ocean (12%), Pacific Ocean (7%)
Indian Ocean (6.5%)
Deep Sea Plains
3000-6000 m
76 %
Pacific (80.3%) Indian (80.1%) Atlantic (55%)
The Arctic continental shelf is widest. The average slope of the continental slope is about 4o.

Feature
Continental Shelf

Clint
Grike
Fetch

Depth range
100 fathoms
Or 180 m
200-2000 m

Physical Geography Terms

Any of the masses of rock left standing between fissures (grikes) in a limestone region
A fissure enlarged by rainwater dissolution between limestone clints.
Continuous distance that winds blow over a water surface

116

Ghanshyam Thori
Coulee
Bolson
Calving
Butte

Geography Notes

Steep sided valley carved by water from the melting glacier

Term used for Playas mainly in Mexico & SW USA.
The formation of icebergs from a glacier.
Isolated hill with steep sides and flat top, similar to but narrower than a mesa.
Various Mediterranean Vegetation/Shrub-Lands
Chaparral
California
Tomillares
Spain
Macchia
Mediterranean countries and South Africa
Phrygana
Balkans
Brigalow shrub & Mallee Australia
Caatinga
Brazil
Maquis
Europe
Matorral
Chile
Garrigue
France

Desert Climate
Mid latitude broad leaf
Temperate rain forest
Conifers
Tropical Monsoon
Tropical Savannah
Mediterranean

Vienna Convention
Montreal Protocol
Basel Convention
Kyoto Protocol
Rio de Janeiro
Stockholm Convention
Rotterdam Convention
Cartagena Protocol

Forests/Biomes & their Species

Saguaro (spectacular cactus tree - Arizona)
Elm
Redwood (or Sequoia)
Arborvitae; Cedar; Cypress; Douglas Fir; Fir; Hemlock; Juniper;
Larch; Pine; Sequoia; Spruce; Yew
Teak, Sal
Trees with flattened crowns. E.g. Baobab
Cork,
Various Protocols
Ozone Layer
Ozone Depleting Substances
Trans boundary movement of Hazardous Wastes
Global Warming
Convention on climate change & biological diversity
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Prior Informed Consent procedure for certain hazardous material
Bio Safety
Mean Elevation of Continents
Antarctica
1830 m
Asia
910 m
North America
610 m
Africa
580 m
South America
550 m
Europe
300 m
Australia
300 m

117

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Miscellaneous Facts
1. Astronomers estimate that about half of all stars in the sky belong to either a binary or multiple star
system. The planet Mars has a conspicuous river valley. The earth gets heavier each year because it picks
up some dust from space.
2. Longitudes unlike latitudes are not used for measuring distance because the latitudes are almost equally
spaced. Slight flattening at the poles causes the length of a degree of latitude to vary from 110.57 km at
the equator to 111.70 km at the poles. At equator, meridians of longitude 1 degree apart are separated by a
distance of 111.32 km but at the poles, meridians converge reducing the distance drastically.
3. The percentage of land surface in the northern hemisphere is maximum between 40 & 50 degree North.
4. In the Earth the divisions are Crust (30-100 km thick), Upper mantle (100-700 km deep), Lower mantle
(700-2900 km), Outer Core (2900-5150 km) & inner core (5150-6400 Km)
5. The temperature at various depths is 1100o C (100 km), 1900o C (700 km), 3700o C (2900 km) & 4300o C
(5100 Km).
6.

The Earths mantle comprises 66 % of its mass & 83% of its volume. The core forms 33 % of the mass &
16 % volume. The asthenosphere is made up of peridotite. The pre Cambrian shields are composed of
granites & gneisses. The Ethiopian plateau is volcanic in origin & is largely composed of basalt.

7. Patagonian Plateau (Piedmont plateau), South African Plateau (Continental plateau) & Bolivian plateau
(Intermontane plateau). Shields are convex in shape.
8. Lake Victoria Basin, Great Basin of Nevada & Tarim Basin are all rimmed by mountains.
9. Feldspars are the most abundant of all minerals and account for nearly half of the volume of the earth's
crust. Soapstone is also known as Steatite & is a massive variety of talc. Clay is porous but is
impermeable. The capacity to transmit water is permeability & not porosity.
10. Gondwanaland, ancient landmass that consisted of the present continents of South America, Africa,
Australia, and Antarctica as well as the Indian subcontinent. Bentley Subglacial Trench is the deepest
point in Antarctic.
11. .Earthquakes with negative Richter scale magnitudes occur every day, but are so small that they are
difficult to detect. The energy released by an earthquake increases 32 fold & the ground motion increases
by 10 times for each increase of one magnitude on the Richter scale. It is estimated that a magnitude 12

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Geography Notes

earthquake would release enough energy to split the earth in half. The qualitative assessment of the
damage done by an earthquake is expressed by intensity.
12. Folding cannot occur due to tension. However, faulting though primarily a result of tension may also
occur due to compression.
13. Magnetic materials made of iron compounds lose their magnetic properties if heated beyond a certain
temperature called Curie point. Submarine fans constitute a large part of the continental rises. Outgassing
is the process which probably accounted for the surface waters.
14. An area of vegetation having uniformity of life form is called a biochore. Evergreen trees shed their leaves
but not simultaneously. The succession may begin in an area where some natural disaster has caused
removal of existing vegetation. Such a succession is called secondary succession. Where the succession
starts in an area where the physical conditions required for plant growth are already present is called
allogenic succession. When the succession starts in highly unfavourable conditions & the plants
themselves have to create a suitable physical environment for themselves it is called autogenic succession.
15. Before the climatic climax vegetation evolves there are some stages of short term equilibrium between
plants & the environment called Edaphic Climax. The profile of podzol soils is best developed.
16. An aquiclude is a body of relatively impermeable rock. An aquifer is called confined when it is bounded
above and below by aquicludes or unconfined when there is no aquiclude above it.
17. The blue mud occupies the greatest area among the various types of mud. Green colour of green mud is
because of mineral gluconite. Deep Sea regions are supposed to be more stable than tropical rainforests.
18. Conifers are named after cone shaped fruit bearing seeds.
19. When a succession starts at a dry place it is known as Xerosere; in case of wet place (Hydrosere).
Vegetation succession resulting from mans interference is called Plagioseres.
20. Trees & their uses: Kapok (or Silk cotton tree Pillows, Mattresses), Abaca/Manila hemp (ropes),
Toquilla (Hats) & Balata (Marine cables).
21. Earth is a geoid. The period of twilight (diffused light that occurs before sunrise & sunset) increases as
one goes towards the poles. The concept of primordial matter was given by Kant & the concept of
intruding star was given by James & Jeans.
22. Lithosphere is around 65-100 Km thick. The granitic continental curst is lighter than the basaltic oceanic
crust. P waves do reach the antipode & can pass through gas. S waves travel faster than surface waves.
Basalt is one of the finest grained extrusive rocks. Basaltic magma is hotter than silicate magma.
23. Igneous rocks generally do not show layers. Among Igneous rocks crystals in intrusive rocks are larger
than those in extrusive rocks. In some cases, the magma cools so rapidly that crystals have no time to

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Geography Notes

form, and the magma hardens in an amorphous glass, such as obsidian. Felsic rocks (more viscous) are
light in colour & mafic rocks are usually dark.
24. In addition to lava flows, basalt is also found in the form of dikes and sills. Columnar jointing, as
exhibited by Devils Tower in Wyoming and the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, is a common feature of these
shallow intrusive bodies.
25. Surface currents in the Oceans are primarily caused by wind action.
26. Deposits of high-grade chromite ore found along the Great Dyke (largest dyke in the world) contribute
significantly to Zimbabwe's reserves of the minerals. Stock is an intrusive mass of plutonic rock with an
outcrop.
27. Anthracite is formed by metamorphism of bituminous coal. Marble is least affected by variations in
temperature. Exfoliation is more pronounced in granite. The process of oxidation is most effective in hot
& humid regions. The main cause of mass movement is gravity.
28. The term cataract, usually designating a series of rapids in a large river, is often applied to waterfalls of
large volume. The term coulee lake is associated with glaciers. A lake in the course of a river is termed
as a transient lake. The part of the pediplain reduced in height due to erosion is called pediment.
29. The maximum load of a river moves in suspension. A river erodes its convex slope more than its concave
slope. The presence of salt in the sea plays a vital role in delta formaton. The deposition of silt & sand in
the course of a river is called diaras.
30. A dendritic drainage pattern tends to develop where a whole drainage basin is made up of the same type of
rock (uniform lithology). Annular drainage pattern (Henry mountain), Parallel drainage (Norway coast),
Trellis drainage (Appalachian) & deranged drainage (Canadian shield).
31. Yardangs have been called cockscombe by Holmes. The Scottish lands are very close to the stage of
peneplain. The largest number of lakes are in the Scandinavian region.
32. Metamorphic rocks are more compact than the original rocks & are more resistant to weathering.
Lithification is the process of formation of sedimentary rocks through compression & cementation.
33. The largest division of geologic time is called an eon. Eons are divided into eras, which are divided into
periods. An epoch, the next division, is further divided into stages.
34. The degree of inclination of a stream is known as its gradient. A stream gradient usually forms a convex
shaped slope. The study of meteors helped in ascertaining the existence of ionosphere. The value of solar
constant is 2 calories/cm2/minute. The equatorial forests have one of the lowest albedo.
35. The warmest month in the northern hemisphere is july & the highest temperature is recorded at 20o N. The
position of thermal equator is normally at 5o N. The highest annual range of temperature is recorded in the

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Taiga region & the highest diurnal range of temperature is found in hot deserts (hot during day & cold
during night). Strong centrifugal force contributes to the low pressure at equator.
36. The percentage cloud cover at any time in the world is around 50%. The standard air pressure at the sea
level is 1013.25 mb which is equivalent to 760 mm of Hg.
37. The effect of Coriolis force is proportion to the speed of the moving object. Coriolis force causes the
maximum deflection at the poles & decrease toward the equator where there is zero deflection. The wind
blowing parallel to the isobars generally at a height of 600 m is known as geostrophic winds. Carribean
sea experiences one of the strongest land & sea breeze. Stratus clouds create more problems for
aeroplanes.
38. The southern oscillation index (SOI) is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia
representing the pacific ocean & port Darwin in North Australia representing Indian Ocean. Positive SOI
means higher Tahitis pressure than Port Darwin pressure. It signifies good monsoon for India.
39. SaffirSimpson Scale is used to measure hurricane intensity based on wind speed. Tropical cyclones do
not occur in South Atlantic because during the summer season (January) its temperature is always below
25o C between 10o & 20o S. The ideal conditions for the development of tropical cyclone are western
margins of tropical oceans. The correct sequence of clouds in a temperate cyclone would be cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, altocumulus & nimbostratus.
40. The Atlantic Ocean has an average depth of 3,600 m (11,810 ft). At its deepest point, in the Puerto Rico
Trench, the bottom is 8,605 m (28,231 ft) below the surface. The average depth of the Indian Ocean is
3,900 m (12,800 ft), or slightly greater than that of the Atlantic, and the deepest known point is 7,725 m
(25,344 ft), off the southern coast of the Indonesian island of Java. Its average depth is 4,280 m
41. The passage of the cold front is often accompanied by the heaviest precipitation and the strongest and
gustiest winds. Occasionally, however, a line of thunderstorms may develop, out ahead of a cold front.
This line is called a squall line and it produces heavy rain and strong, gusty winds. Squall refers to a
violent gusty wind which lasts a few minutes usually accompanied by rain or hail & then subsides.
42. Cold front is marked with triangular spikes & warm front by semi-circles. The isobars of a temperate
cyclone are broad, shallow & weak.
43. Territorial waters extend up to 12 miles from shore. The EEZ extends offshore upto a distance of 200
nautical miles. The ocean outside EEZ is called high sea which is about 60 % of total oceans.
44. . Ninety-nine percent of the water in the oceans has a salinity of between 33 and 37 g/kg (Average is 35
gm/Kg). The halocline is the depth at which the salinity changes rapidly; it forms the boundary between
the two layers. From 100 m to approximately 1,000 m the temperature drops rapidly to about 5 C, and

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below this it drops gradually about another 4 to barely above freezing. The region of rapid change is
known as the thermocline or Pycnocline. The highest temperature of oceans is recorded in the West
Pacific ocean north of equator.
45. Spring tides occur twice a month (every 14.6 days) at New Moon & Full Moon when moon & sun are in
conjunction & opposition respectively. Gibbous moon is one when 75 % of the moon is illuminated.
46. The series of moon cycle is New Moon, Crescent, First Quarter, Gibbous, Full Moon, Gibbous, Last
Quarter, Crescent.
47. Seamount, is an undersea volcanic mountain that is at least 1000 m tall. Flat topped seamounts are called
guyots. The Telegraph plateau extends from Ireland to Labrador.
48. The proportion of gases dissolved in water is Nitrogen (46%), Oxygen (36%) & Carbon dioxide (15%).
The primary source of oceans dissolved oxygen is its photosynthetic plants. Oxygen & Nitrogen are
abundant near the surface & there is more carbon dioxide in deep water.
49. Quartz is a dominant mineral in ocean deposits. The sea water is slightly alkaline with it pH being 7.8.
50. Prop roots are associated with mangrove forests. The largest & longest algae (Kelps) is found along the
Peru coast. Herbs do not have woody stem but shrubs have woody stem.
51. Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans (temp around 20-21o C). They do not live in deeper waters
(more than 80 m deep). Both sediment water & fresh water is injurious to them. Hence they are not found
near river mouth. Salinity between 27-30 gm/Kg is suitable. Ocean currents & waves are suitable as they
bring food supply for the polyps. El Nino is associated with coral bleaching (coral death). The south
Atlantic has least coral formations.
52. The upper part of a soil profile, in which the soil-forming processes (illuviation & eluviation) mainly
occur is called Solum. The arrangement of soil particles is called soil structure. The size & organization of
particles in the soil in known as soil texture. The cohesion in soil is known as soil consistency.
53. As weathering forms soil in the humid tropics, iron and aluminum oxides filter downward, often resulting
in a well-defined, cementlike layer of ferricrete or plinthite meters below the Earths surface. When
overlying sediments are eroded away, these layers form a rock-hard crust.
54. . The northern needle leaf forest is known as boreal forest. Temperate forests have one of the least number
of species (lesser than Mediterranean & Monsoon forests).
55. Almost all known geysers are located in three countries of the worldNew Zealand, Iceland, and the
United States. The cause of Iceland having geysers is its situation on mid Atlantic ridge.
56. The number of tributaries decrease downstream & the river widens here. The size of the valley increases
downstream. Ox bow lakes are more in the lower course than the middle course. A Barchan has an

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asymmetrical profile concave on the leeward side & convex on the side of the wind. A Parabolic dune is
opposite with concave side facing the wind.
57. Most of the jet steams blow parallel to latitudes & isobar as they are geostrophic. The wet adiabatic lapse
rate is lower than dry adiabatic rate as condensation releases latent heat. In cirrus clouds water vapour is in
solid form. Africa has the largest Savannah biome. Lateritic soils are porous in structure. Coniferous
forests are evergreen.
58. Bajada is the Spanish world for slope of alluvial material at the foot of the escarpment. Scleractinian
corals are the main contributors to a reef, but other organisms also add to it, such as hydrozoan corals,
calcareous algae, mollusks, and sponges. Hence Corals are not the only participants in coral formation.
59. Over 80 percent of the worlds fisheries are located in the coastal and ocean environment, and nearly 20
percent are found in inland freshwater fisheries. The largest fisheries group is made up of small, pelagic
(open ocean) fishes such as herring, sardine, anchovy, and related species
60. In Fisheries, Japan is the largest importer & Thailand is the largest exporter. USA is both the second
largest importer & exporter as it prefers certain varieties over others.
61. The 0 to 10 degree north receives more rainfall than corresponding southern latitudes due to ITCZ being
more extensive in north. The temperate latitudes of southern hemisphere receive more rainfall than that of
the northern hemisphere due to preponderance of Oceans in the former & deserts in the latter. Hails are
opaque due to trapped air bubbles. Lower pressure on open surface of water leads to higher rate of
evaporation.
62. Point bars develop where stream flow is locally reduced because of friction and reduced water depth. It is
a depositional feature. Deposits of braided stream mainly consists of sand & gravel
63. A cone shaped depression is formed when water is withdrawn faster than it can be replaced. Ozark Upland
(between Missouri & Arkansas) in United States is full of Karst features. Karst landscape is well
developed in Yucatan peninsula.
64. The coastal features are formed in the following order Headland, Cave, Arch & Stack. Carlberg ridge
divides the Arabian Sea into two parts. In northern Pacific Icebergs are rare.
65. Crevasses extend down in glaciers to the zone of plastic flow. Ice scoured plain is the subdued landscape
resulting from erosion by continental glacier. If a glacier has a balanced budget it remains stationary.
66. Longitudinal dunes (called seifs in Egypt) generally occur in areas of limited sand supply. The angle of
repose of dry sand controls the slope of the leeward side of the sand dune.
67. Dixie Alley & Tornado Alley refers to the high frequency areas of tornadoes in USA. Bog burst is term
used in Ireland for flowing of soil downslope.

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68. Lopoliths are saucer-shaped concordant intrusions. Well-known examples are the Bushveld complex in
South Africa and the Muskox intrusion in the Northwest Territories, Canada.
69. Laccoliths have a flat base and a domed ceiling, and are concordant with the neighboring rocks; they are
usually small. The classic area from which they were first described is the Henry Mountains in the state of
Utah.
70. Deep batholiths are often concordant, while shallow batholiths are usually discordant. Deep batholiths can
be extremely large; the Coast Range batholith of North America is 100 to 200 km wide and extends 600
km through Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.
71. The seismograph records first P waves followed by S waves, L waves & R waves in that order because of
differential speeds of these waves. Shallow focus earthquakes are usually the most damaging.
72. Rejuvenation can take place during any stage of river development. The correct sequence of deserts of
Australia in descending order is Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Gibson & Simpson.
73. The longest day at 66.5 degree N/S can be of 24 hours beyond which there is a sharp increase. For eg the
longest day is of 1 month at 67.4 degree & 2 months at 69.8 degree.
74. Tropical cyclones have a warm core. Over polar areas temperature inversion is normal throughout the
year. Wave refraction is the phenomenon of waves bending so that they move nearly parallel to the
shoreline.
75. Two second order stream meet to form a third order stream. The principle of Catastrophism fits the
vastness of the Earths age & the complexity of its rocks in a shortened time span (Eg. biblical flood). The
premise that present day processes have operated throughout geological time is called uniformitarianism.
76. The oldest surface rock yet discovered called Acasta Gneiss lies in Northwestern Canada. Barysphere is
the term used for the core of the earth.
77. Marshall Islands, Bermuda & Lakshwadeep are coral in origin.
78. Sounds usually occur along submerged coast. The grasses of temperate grasslands are shorter but more
nutritious than those of tropical grasslands.
79. In Maldives the most populous atolls are Male, the capital and principal commercial center; Suvadiva; and
Tiladummati. Belize has the biggest barrier reef in the Northern Hemisphere.
80. Highest life expectancy is for Andorra (83.5 years) followed by Japan (83.5).
81. The water hemisphere accounts for as much as 80 % of southern hemisphere. The average height of land
on the earth is approximately 900 m. The average depth of all the oceans is about 3800 m.
82. In Newfoundland the chief fish caught is Cod. St. John is the capital of Newfoundland & is the
headquarter of the Grand Banks fishing industry.

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83. In Karstic region the only mineral of importance is Lead. The thin warm layer on the ocean surface is
called Epilimnion. The lower cooler layer of water, below the thermocline is called hypolimnion.
84. Metamorphic facies are formed according to one of three processes: contact metamorphism, subductionzone metamorphism, and regional metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are considered generally as more
resistant to erosion than sedimentary & igneous rocks.
85. Regional metamorphism often produces a fabric quality called foliation. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss
are foliated rocks. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism are generally nonfoliated. Quartzite, hornfels
& marble are non foliated.
86. Exfoliation (peeling off) is caused by the release of confining pressure. The point at which the sea wave
breaks is called the plunge line. It is where the depth of water & height of the wave are actually the same.
87. Terra Rossa are formed mainly in Mediterranean region. Lithosol is an azonal soil. Muskegs are bogs &
swamps which have leathery bushes & stunted trees in the Norhtern Coniferous biome.
88. C.F. Marbuts first level of division of all middle latitude soils is into: Pedocals & Pedalfers. An epipedon
is a horizon that forms the sub soil portion.
89. V.V. Dokuchaiev is considered the pioneer of soil genesis & soil classification. Nuciform soil structure
refers to formless ped. The smalledst distinctive division of the soil of a given are to which the unique
single set of properties apply is called polypedon.
90. An iron pan is a common feature of the Gley type of soil formed in the water logged areas of tundra
region. Gleization is the process of formation of a gley soil by waterlogging and chemical reduction of
iron.
91. In Australia where reg (desert pavement of loose stones) are widespread, they are called Gibber plains.
92. Isotherms on the globe are more tightly packed in winter. Commensalism is an association between two
species in which one benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
93. The correct sequence of distribution of fresh water on earth from maximum to minimum is Glaciers,
Ground water, Inland Seas & Atmosphere.
94. Acid rain is the major problem in Norway & Sweden. Ecologists often call the few common species the
ecological dominants & the rare species as incidentals.
95. Guano forms a significant player of phosphate cycle. A sciophilous plant (called sciophyte) is shade
loving. Thermoperiodism is the rhythmic response of plants to fluctuations in temperature.
96. One of the reasons behind choosing 0 degree meridian at Greenwhich is that the IDL at 180 degree mostly
passes through water thereby least disrupting the timezones in a country. The world is divided into 24 time
zones each with a longitudinal extent of 15 degrees or one hour duration.

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97. Russia has 11 time zones, USA has 7 time zones (including 2 time zones in territorial water), Canada has
5 time zones, Australia has 3 & China has a single time zone.
98. Horizontal movement of air is wind & vertical movement is currents.
99. Factors affecting ocean currents: As a rule water on the Ocean surface would tend to move form low
salinity to high salinity area. The earths rotation also affects ocean currents as its rotation form west to
east leads to the current being generated from east to west. Temperature also affects ocean currents as
warm water rises & cold water sinks. Water also moves from low atmospheric pressure areas to high
pressure areas.

Miscellaneous Facts II
1. A polished and frequently striated surface that results from friction along a fault or bedding plane is called
slickensides.
2. Shallow focus earthquakes (<70 Km), Intermediate focus earthquakes (70< 250 km) & deep focus
earthquakes (250-700 Km). John Mitchell was the first to recognize that earthquake spreads in waves &
destruction reduces outwards. The damage is not maximum at the epicenter but around it. Deep focus
earthquakes are found to be practically restricted to the circum pacific belt. Mid oceanic ridges have
shallow focus earthquakes. 90 % of the earthquakes have a focus less than 100 km deep. Areas that are
quiet & overdue for an earthquake are called seismic gaps. It is a place that possesses accumulated stress.
3. Tsunami in Japan means Harbour waves. Their wavelength runs into hundreds of kilometers.
Seismograph was invented by Fillipo Cecchi.
4. S waves are called shear waves because they move perpendicular to the direction of material through
which they travel producing shear stress in the material. As liquids & gases dont have shear strength they
cannot pass through them.
5. About 75 % of all volcanoes are on the sea floor. Popa mountains of Burma are extinct volcano.
6. The Giant geyser in Iceland, the old faithful in Yellowstone National Park of USA & the Wiamangu
geyser in New Zealand are famous.
7. If the relative humidity is less than 70 % the air is dry. Between 70-90 % R.H. the air is moist. Cumulus
cloud is a fair weather cloud. It indicates bright, brisk & fair weather.
8. The collision coalescence theory of Simpson & Mason was modified by Longmuer. This theory happens
to be more valid for tropical areas.
9. The saturation vapour pressure is lower over ice crystals as compared to that over liquid droplets (Ice
Crystal theory). Solid carbondioxide (dry ice) & Silver Iodide smoke are used for cloud seeding.

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Geography Notes

10. Subsolar point is that point on the earths surface where the sun is directly overhead. Suns declination is
the latitude of the sub solar point.
11. Peridotite makes up the earths mantle. Epeirogentic movements cause Emergence & subsidence.
Orogenetic movements cause folding, mountain building, faulting.
12. The west wind drift is the greatest ocean current of the world. Nappe is a French word meaning table
cover. Competent rocks are those which are very rigid compared to the layers of rock above or below this
layer. They tend to crack rather than distort as they fold. Harmonic folding occurs when the rocks have the
same degree of competence & disharmonic vice versa.
13. On 21st June what is going to be the suns rays at a place along
Altitude of Sun at a place = 90o (distance in latitude of the place from the overhead suns place)
a. 10 N :

90 (23.5 10) = 76.5 degrees

b. 23.5 S:

90 (23.5 + 23.5) = 43 degrees

c. 80 N:

90 (80 23.5) = 33.5

14. To find the antipode in case of latitude just reverse the N/S symbol & in case of Longitude (180 given
longitude & change sign from E to W or W to E).
15. In general normal faults are steeper than reverse faults. A tear or wrench fault is one in which the blocks
of rocks slip sideways past each other. Bigger wrench faults are called transcurrent faults. A wrench fault
is also called strike-slip fault.

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Geography Notes

World & Human Geography

Liberia
Sierra Leone
Mali
East Timor
Yamalia
Sao Paulo
Green Bay
Dallas
Austin
San Diego
Houston
Texas
Minnesota
James Bay
Waikiki Beach
Badwater
Seville
Khyber Pass
Bolan Pass
Golden Triangle
Socotra
Adana
Aceh
Kharg Island
Kalimantan
Mt. Cotopaxi
Mt. Chimborazo
River Thames
Ordos desert
Mt. Goldsworthy
Sudd
Siciliy
Flanders
Uluru
Blue Mountains

Assorted Miscellaneous Facts

Fastest growth of population
Least educated country
Poorest country by GDP
Lowest rank in HDI
Autonomous area in northwestern Siberia, Russia, south of Kara Sea.
Is not a coastal city. Santos (main port) is very close.
An extension of Lake Michingan.
City in Texas (8th largest in US)
Capital of Texas
City in South west corner of California (7th largest). Harbor & Ship building
Petroleum Hub of USA. City in southeastern Texas (4th largest city)
Highest producer of oil & natural gas in USA
Largest supplier of iron-ore in USA
Southern extension of Hudson bay.
Honolulu, Hawaii
Death Valley, lowest point in western hemisphere
Hottest place of Europe (Spain).
Located in the Safed Koh range.
Located in Brahui range (which lies between Sulaiman (N) & Kirthar range (S)
Area where Burma, Laos & Thailand meet. 2/3rd of worlds heroin production
Island, southeastern Yemen (belongs to Yemen)
City in Turkey on Mediterranean Coast
Special region of Indonesia, located on the northwestern tip of the island of
Sumatra. Capital is Banda Aceh.
Small island of southwestern Iran, in the Persian Gulf (Petroleum reserves)
Region of the Republic of Indonesia, occupying the southern portion of the
island of Borneo Rich in oil & Gas.
Ecuador (one of the highest active volcanoes)
Ecaudor (Inactive Volcano)
Makes London a port.
Eastern extension of Gobi desert in China through which Hwang Ho flows.
Iron ore mine in NW Australia in Pilbara region (near Hamersley ranges)
Swampy lands of river White Nile in Sudan.
Largest Island in Mediterranean Sea.
Plains of western Belgium
Or Ayers rock is an inselberg & a sacred place of Aboriginals
Rugged plateau region on the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range, in the
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Ghanshyam Thori
Mount St. Helens
Cairo
Koum
Teff
Pearl Harbour
Kwajalein
Bikni Atoll
Funafuti atoll
Quebracho
Balata
Naval Stores
Chickle
Carnuaba Palm
Douglas Fir
Sucre
Yerba Mate
Madeira
Kjolen Mountains
Brooks Range
Alaska Range
Favela
Ranchos
Kavettits
Tahiti
Gold Coast City
Brest
Bergen
Anchorage
Arnhem Land
Lagos dos Patos
Pico da Neblina
Mount Kinabalu
Puerto Montt
Easter Islands
Ogaden
Oporto
Betsiboka river
Tanezroufts

Geography Notes
state of New South Wales, Australia
Active volcano, southwestern Washington, in the Cascade Range
Largest city in Africa & capital of Egypt.
Term for sandy desert in Turkmenistan.
A highly nutritious crop of Ethiopian Highlands
Located in Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii.
Largest atoll in the world (Marshall Island)
Major atoll in Marshall Island.
In Ellice Island (Tuvalu)
Axe-breaker. Found in Gran Chaco. It yields tannin
Produces latex. Abundant in Amazon forest
Trade name of turpentine & rosin.
Yields gum. Abundant in Central American forest.
Yeilds wax.
Leading timber of North America.
Legal Capital of Bolivia
Tea like beverage extensively used in South America esp. in Brazil
Largest tributary of Amazon
Run along the Norway Atlantic Coast.
Northern Boundary of Alaska (Continuation of Rockies)
Southern Boundary of Alaska (Mt. McKinley lies here)
Slums in Brazil
Slums in Venezuela
Slums in Myanmar.
Largest island of French Polynesia.
City in southeastern Queensland. Second largest in Queensland after Brisbane
One of the major fishing port of France
City & Seaport in Norway
City & Seaport in Southern Alaska
Historical region and Aboriginal reserve in Australia, in the northeastern part of
the Northern Territory
Largest Lagoon in the world in South-East Brazil
Highest peak of Brazil in Guiana Highlands
Highest peak of Malaysia.
One of the principal ports in Chile.
Lie in Pacific & is the farthest South American (Chile) possession (3700 km)
Arid Upland desert region in South eastern Ethiopia.
A leading port of Portugal & a chief economic centre
Major river of Madagascar.
Very dry areas in Sahara where no form of life is possible.
Regional Terms for Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation in Venezuela
Konuko
Malaysia
Ladang
Philippines
Caingin
Indonesia
Humah

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Geography Notes
Sri Lanka
Central America & Mexico
Myanmar
Congo
Brazil
Orissa
Chhattisgarh
M.P.
Laos, Vietnam
Mining Centers
Copper mining centre in Montana (USA).
Iron ore region of Brazil
Mining Centre of Bolivia (Tin major, copper & lead)
Petrochemical complex in Kuwait
Oil filed of Kuwait
Oil filed of Saudi Arabia
Oil filed of Mexico
Oil filed of Iran
Oil field of Russia
Worlds largest natural gas field in Algeria
Mineral rich Island near Arnhem Land in Australias Northern territory.
Supplies 20 percent of the world's high-grade manganese ore.
Iron ore region in Venezuela
Copper mining region of Yugoslavia
Copper mining region of Peru
Copper ore area of Peru

Chena
Milpa
Taungya
Masole
Roka
Podu
Penda
Deppa
Ray
Butte
Itabira
Potosi
Mina-el-Ahmadi
Burgan
Dhahran
Tampico & Tuxpam
Masjid-e-Sulaiman
Maikop
Hassi RMel
Groote Eylandt
Cerro Bolivar
Bor
Cerro de Pasco
Morococha

Fort Worth
Hamilton
Toledo
Saar
Coventry
Limoges
Leipzig
Munich
Arkangelsk

Miscellaneous Industrial Centres

Aircraft & Aerospace Industry (Texas)
Canadas Largest producer of steel. Known as Birmingham of Canada.
Centre of Glass Industry in USA (Ohio)
Imporant Industrial centre of Germany on Saar river.
Automobile centre of England. First automobile manufactured here.
Pottery centre in France
Musical & precision Instruments in Germany
Optical Instruments & Lenses (Germany)
Timber centre & seaport near white sea & Lake Onega in Russia

Welland Canal
Soo Canal
Trent Canal
Rideau Canal
Ludwig Canal
Mittelland Canal

Important Canals in the Great Lakes Region, USA

Connects Erie & Ontario
Connect Lake Superior & Lake Huron. Also called Sault Sainte Marie Canal
Links Lake Huron with Ontario lake.
Links lake Ontario with river Ottawa
Connects the Danube and Main rivers in Germany
Joins Ems, Wiser & Elbe
Types of Languages
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Monosyllabic
Agglutinative
Inflexional

Geography Notes
Words have various meanings depending on the position in sentence
Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai & Tibetan
Words altered by prefixes & suffixes
Malay, Japanese, Swahili & most of the African languages.
Flexible, modified to give required meaning
English, French, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu Bengali & other Indo-European language

Top 25 Cities of USA

1. New York City
New York
2. Los Angeles
California
3. Chicago
Illinois
4. Houston
Texas
5. Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
6. Phoenix
Arizona*
7. San Diego
California
8. Dallas
Texas
9. San Antonio
Texas
10. Detroit
Michigan
11. San Jose
California
12. Indianapolis
Indiana*
13. San Francisco
California
14. Jacksonville
Florida
15. Columbus
Ohio*
16. Austin
Texas*
17. Baltimore
Maryland
18. Memphis
Tennesse
19. Milwaukee
Wisconsin
20. Boston
Massachusetts*
21. Washington
Washington DC
22. Nashville
Tennesse*
23. El Paso
Texas
24. Seattle
Washington
25. Denver
Colorado*
* - Captial cities of respective states
Some Important Land Locked Countries (Not Exhaustive)
Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Malawi, Swaziland
Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Laos,
Armenia, Azerbaijan
Europe
Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Hungary, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein,
Macedonia, Moldova.
South America
Bolivia & Paraguay.
Andorra, parliamentary principality, southwestern Europe, situated in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains,
bordered on the north and east by France, and on the south and west by Spain.

Africa
Asia

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Geography Notes

Georgia is not landlocked because it lies on the Black Sea side.

Important Breeds of Cattle
Holstein Friesian
Netherlands
Ayrshire/Ireshire
Scotland
Jersey
Channel Island
Brown Swiss
Switzerland
Guernsey
Channel Island

Principal Languages of the World

Language
Branch
Mandarin
Chinese
English
Germanic
Russian
Slavic
Hindi
Indic
Spanish
Romance
Arabic
Semitic
Bengali
Indic
Portuguese
Romance/Latino
Malay-Indonesian
Austro
Japanese
Japanese-Korean
German
Germanic
French
Romance
Tribes
Tutsi
Burundi & Rwanda. Killed in masses by Hutu a rival group
Hutu
Rwanda & Burundi
Creole
A descendant of European settlers or of Black slaves, in the
W. Indies or Central or S. America
Yoruba
Nigeria & Benin
Dinka
Native people of Sudan
Twa
Original Inhabitants of Burundi
Hazara
Central Agfhanistan (Main). Also in Pakistan & Iran
Tehuelche
Collective name for the tribe of Patagonia
Aka
Another name for Pygmies (Congo)
Pueblo
Southwest USA. Known for Adobe buildings
Minhasa
Indigenous people of Sulawesi (Celebes)
Filipinos are originally Malay people.

Lake Superior
Lake Michigan
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario

The Great Lakes & Important Cites Around

Duluth
Milwaukee, Chicago & Gary
Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo
Toronto, Hamilton

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Geography Notes

Major Airports of the World

Dulles International Airport
George Bush International Airport
Hartsfield International Airport
John F. Kennedy International Airport
O Hare International Airport
Roissy Charles de Gaulle International Airport
McCarran International Airport
Gatwick International Airport
Haneda International Airport
Kimpo International Airport

Bedouins
Masai
Bushman
Kirghiz
Lapps

Washington D.C.
Houston
Atlanta
New York
Chicago
France
Las Vegas
London
Japan
Seoul

Tribal Shelters
Khaimas
Kraals
Scheoms (thatched hut)
Kstau
Sijda (Sida)

Changed Geographical Names

Peltoratsk
Ashkabad (Turkmenistan)
Hashemite Kingdom
Jordan
Konigsberg
Kaliningrad
Lanxang
Laos
Andalas
Sumatra
Trucial States
UAE

Rice
Wheat
Maize or Corn
Oats
Rubber
Barley
Tea
Grapes
Soyabeans

Scientific Names of Common Plants

Jute
Oriza Sativa
Mustard
Triticum Aestivum
Silk Worm
Zea Diploperennis
Abaca (Menila Hemp)
Avena Sativa
Banana
Hevea Brasiliensis
Oil Palm
Hordeum Vulgare
Teak
Camellia Sinensis
Sal
Vitis vinifera
Glycine Max

Oroville Dam
Grand Coulee Dam
Hoover & Boulder Dam
Rogun Dam
Owen Falls Dam
Itaipu Dam
Bratsk Dam

Important Dams
Feather river
Columbia river
Colorado river
White Nile
Parana river
Angara river
133

Corchorus capsularis
Brassica nigra
Bombyx Mori
Musa Textilis
Musa Sapientum
Elaeis Guineesis
Tectona Grandis
Shorea Robusta

U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Tajikistan
Uganda
Brazil/Paraguay
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Geography Notes

Guri Dam
Caroni river*
Inga Dam
Zaire/Congo river
Boyoma/Stanley Falls
Zaire
Dnepropetrovsk Dam
Dneiper
Kitimat Scheme
Nechako River
St. Anthony Falls
Mississippi
Snowy Mountain Scheme
Snowy & Eucumbene rivers
Ord River Scheme
Ord river
* - Angel Falls is located on Rio Churn (Caroni) river.

Venezuela (Countrys major)

Dem. Republic of Congo
Congo
Ukraine
British Columbia, Canada
USA
New South Wales, Australia
Western Australia

Extemities
Cape Horn
Southernmost tip of S. America
Cape Agulhas
Southermost tip of Africa
Ellesmere Island
Northernmost part of Canada
Pelee Island
Southernmost part of Canada
Key West
Southermost town of USA
Cape of Good Hope is erroneously regarded as the extremity of Africa.
Types of Fishes
Salt Water Fish
Demersal
Cod
Halibut
Hake
Haddock
Pollock
Flounder

Other Fishes
Fresh Water Fishes
Anadromous Fish
Sturgeon
Salmon
Trout
Chinook
Perch
Carp

Pelagic
Sardines
Herring
Swordfish
Anchovies
Tuna
Mackerel
Pilchards
Pelagic Fish live near the surface of water & demersal fish near the ocean bottom
Anadromous fish live in Saline water but return in fresh water to spawn.
Catadromous fish live in fresh water but breed in Saline water
Ichthyology is the study of fish
Anchovies, Capelin & Menhaden are known as trash fish used for non human consumption
Areas & Largest fish Catch
Coast of Peru
Anchovies
Caspian Sea
Sturgeon
USAs East Coast
Menhaden
West Coast of Canada
Salmon
Key west, Florida
Sponges
Chesapeake Bay
Oyster
Southern Europe & Mediterranean Sea Sardine & Anchovy

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Miscellaneous Facts:
1. Continents in descending order of area are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica,
Europe and Australia.
2. Calgary is the largest city in the province of Alberta & is also known as the energy capital of the country.
Tar Sands deposits are found in Alberta & Venezuela. Uranium City is on the northern shores of Lake
Athabasca. Canada has the longest coastline (~60,000 miles) of any country in the world.
3. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river is in northwest Arizona. Allegheny Mountains is a complex of
ranges and uplands of the Appalachian system. The name is usually applied to the ranges west of the Blue
Ridge in Pennsylvania & neighboring states. In the eastern United States a fall line forms the border
between the Piedmont Plateau and the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
4. The mountain ranges of USA from west to East is Coast Mountains, Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada & The
Rockies.
5. The term Antilles applies to the whole of West Indies except the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles
includes Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico.
6. Australian provinces & their capitals are Northern Territory (Darwin), Queensland (Brisbane), New South
Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne), South Australia (Adelaide), Tasmania (Hobart), West Australia
(Perth).
7. The bottled trees (related to Baobab trees) are found in NW Australia especially in the Kimberley plateau
region. Murrumbidgee, river is the longest tributary of Murray Darling. Freemantle is the outport of Perth.
The most populated province of Australia is New South Wales.
8. The transcontinental Stuart Highway of Australia runs between Adelaide and Alice Springs near
Macdonnell ranges in Northern Territory. Between 1980-90 corals on large scale in the Great Barrier reef
were destroyed by the Crown of Thorns starfish.

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9. Taranaki plains of New Zealand is famous for dairy industry. The biggest city of New Zealand is
Auckland.
10. The Trans Amazon highway connects Rio Branco to Sao Louis
11. The Orentes river rises in Northern Lebanon, flows in a northerly direction parallel to Mediterranean in
Syria & enters Turkey & finally Mediterranean. Zaire is the only river to cross the equator twice.
12. The Grand Canal (Da Yunhe) of China is the worlds largest canal system & connects Yangtze Kiang &
Hwang Ho.
13. European countries in descending order of density are Netherlands, Belgium, U.K., Germany & Italy. In
ascending order the countries are Iceland, Russian Federation, Norway & Finland.
14. The evolution order of humans is Apes Dyropithecus Ramapithecus Australopithecus (Pliocene age)
Hamo Habilis Homo Erectus (Fossils of Java Man & Peking man belong to Homo Erectus appeared
during Pleistocene) Neanderthal Man Cro Magnon Man Homo Sapiens.
15. A progressive age structure is one in which both birth & death rates are high. A regressive age structure is
one in which birth rates are low & declining.
16. A Mega city according to UNO is any city with a population of over 8 millions. In India the population
criteria for mega city is 5 million. A perforated state is one whose territory is completely surrounded by
another. Eg. Lesotho, Swaziland.
17. Trans Arabian Pipeline links the oil fields of Persian Gulf to Saida Lebanon.
18. According to Malthus Preventive (or negative) checks are celibacy and abstinence. Positive checks
included famine, war, disease etc. Zelinsky in his Mobility Transition theory basically incorporated impact
of migration on the Demographic transition theory.
19. Currently 50 % of the worlds fish comes from Pacific Ocean & 25 % are from North Pacific alone.
Horticulture includes pomology (growing of fruits), Olericulture (production of vegetable crops),
floriculture & Ornamental Horticulture (Landscape gardening).
20. In Brazil Sertao refers to semi-arid regions. It consists mainly of low uplands that from Brazilian
highlands. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia. Potato is native to Andean Highlands.
21. Forward Capital: When a state relocates its capital to a sensitive area, perhaps near a zone of dispute with
an unfriendly neighbour in part to confirm its determination to sustain its position in that zone.
22. Von Thunen model has the following zones central city, market gardening & milk production, Firewood
& lumber production, crop farming without fallow, crop farming fallow & pasture, three field system &
livestock farming. The margin between two zones of landuse is called margin of transference.

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23. The five stages of Rostows Model of Development are the Traditional Society, Preconditions for Take
off, Take off, Drive to Maturity & The Stage of Mass Consumption.
24. The Gatun lake, Panama forms the key to Panama canal system. Mittelland Canal joins the three major
rivers Ems, Weser & Elbe & continues eastwords to Berlin & into Poland. The Ludwig canal links a main
tributary of Rhine to the Danube & allows waterborne traffic from the Black sea to reach Atlantic via the
Rhine.
25. Lardarello, Italy was the first to produce geothermal energy. U.S.A is the largest producer of geothermal
energy. Iceland has highest percentage contribution of geothermal energy.
26. Tidal energy is produced at Rance river in Northwest France & Bay of Fundy in Canada. Bay of Fundy is
a large tidal inlet separating the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
27. The top countries in solar energy production are Japan, USA, Germany & India.
28. Kharkov is the second largest city in Ukraine & Duluth is in N.E Minnesota. Entreport is a port where
goods are stored & deposited for further distribution.
29. The first five zones in Concentric zone, Sector & Multiple Nuclei model are all same:- Zone I CBD,
Zone II wholesale (or Transition), Zone III low income houses, Zone IV Medium class houses, Zone
V high class housing (See Models).
30. In Christallers model K=3 (Marketing Principle), K=4 (Transport Principle) & K=7 (Administration). The
rank size rule was first noticed by F. Auerbach in 1913 but developed by G.K. Zipf in 1949 in his book
Human Behaviour & Principle of Least Effort.
31. The age of town scheme in the form of infantile, juvenile, adolescent, early mature & mature was given by
Griffith Taylor. A dynamic explanation of urban development based on centrifugal & centripetal forces is
known as Colbys Hypothesis.
32. Kibbutz (cooperative farming in Israel), Kung-She (China), Sovkhoz (state owned farms in Russia),
Kolkhoz (collective farms in Russia), Ejido (Communal farm in Mexico) & Volksguter (Germany)
33. Many of Israels rural Jews live in two types of cooperative communities, the kibbutz and the moshav. In
a kibbutz, residents own all property collectively and contribute work in exchange for basic necessities. In
a moshav, families own separate farms but cooperate in some aspects.
34. Lewis Mumford classified cities on the basis of technology into Eotechnic, Palaeotechnic, Neotechnic &
Biotechnic. He also divided cities on the basis of cultural rise & fall into Eopolis, Polis, Metropolis,
Megalopolis, Megalopolis, Tyrannopolis & Necropolis (City of the dead).
35. Weight loosing industry (Mineral Smelting), Weight Gaining industry (Bread Manufacturing), Bulk
loosing industry (Cotton Textile), Bulk Gaining Industry (glassware).

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36. The correct sequence of European river from North to South is Elbe, Weser (End in Germanys Atlantic
region) Rhine, Meuse (Netherlands) Seine, Loire, Dordogne (France) Ebro, Duero, Tagus & Guadiana &
Guadalquivir (Spain).
37. Hebrides or Western Isles is an archipelago of about 500 islands, western Scotland, in the Atlantic Ocean.
New Hebrides is Vanuatu.
38. The correct chronological order of the arrival of various racial groups in India is as follows Negroids,
Palaeomediterraneans, Mediterraneans & Nordics.
39. In Malaysia & Indonesia an irrigated rice field is known as Sawah. Rubber plantation is concentrated on
the western coast of Malaysian peninsula. The underground channels slightly inclined used to bring water
for irrigation from aquifers near the base of a mountain to neighbouring lowland areas esp. in Sahara are
called Foggra. Population per unit of cultivable land is known as physiological density. Mongolia is the
least densely populated country & Monaco the most.
40. Hispaniola is the second largest island in West Indies & is divided into the separate countries of Haiti,
which occupies the western third of the island, and the Dominican Republic. Patagonia is a cold desert.
41. The rivers arranged in descending order of discharge volume are Amazon, Congo, Mississippi-Missouri,
Rio de la Plata-Parana, Congo & Ganga. The Parana river is formed by the confluence of Rio Grande and
Paranaba River. Andes is the longest mountain chain in the world.
42. Norway has virtually no illiteracy. India has longer railway network than Australia & Germany. The
countries in descending order of road networks are U.S.A, India, Brazil & China.
43. The largest islands are Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Baffin & Sumatra. The following
four lakes are arranged in descending order Superior, Victoria, Huron & Michigan. The Yangtze river is
the third largest in the world & is longer than Mississippi-Missouri combined. Yenisey-Angara, Ob-Irtysh
& Lena are all longer than Volga. Volga is the longest in Europe.
44. South America has the highest percentage forest area in the world. Large mammals are rare in Brazil as
the dense Amazon forest does not support free movement.
45. Asal lake, a salt lake located in Djibouti is the lowest point in Africa & Valdes peninsula is the lowest
point in S. America. The river by length in Africa are Nile, Zaire (Congo), Niger river & Zambezi. In
Africa most of the cities are primate cities.
46. Lake Nasser (Behind Aswan dam) in Southern Egypt & Northern Sudan is the larges artificial lake in
Africa. The Great Man Made River, an ambitious irrigation scheme is in Libya. Jabal al Akhdar (Green
Mountains) also lies in Libya.

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47. The people of Madagascar originated from Indonesia. Benguela seaport lies in Angola. Orange Free State
is a part of South Africa. In Africa the heaviest rainfall is recorded in Cameroon.
48. Suez canal (built by French engineer Ferdinand De Lesseps) utilizes three bodies of waterLake
Manzilah, Lake Tims h, and the Bitter Lakes. It is a sea level canal without locks.
49. Tea plantations in India, China & Sri Lanka are carried out on acidic soils. In New Zealand sheep
outnumber people by 20 is to 1.
50. Bush fallowing is a form of shifting cultivation in West Africa where only the clearings are shifted & the
settlement is permanent.
51. Africa is known as plateau continent & Australia is topographically the lowest continent. Antarctica has
the maximum mean elevation. A series of nearly parallel faults produced by compressional forces when
the crust is horizontally shortened is referred to as Echelon fault.
52. Mount Fujiyama & Mt. Krakatau are dormant. In Philippines, two well-known volcanoes that have been
active in recent years, Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano, are each about 80 km from Manila. Solfatara is
small volcano on the outskirts of Naples. It takes it name form the sulphur gases which escape from it.
53. Paricutin Volcano is in Mexico. It is the youngest mountain in the world & was created from an eruption
of lava and ash through a fissure in 1943 growing to more than 400 m in year. Mount Kelut & Tambora
are one of the major volcanoes of Indonesia.
54. Laki & Surtsey volcanic island are major volcanoes of Iceland. Mount Taupo is one of the greatest
volcanoes of New Zealand which created the Taupo crater lake (largest lake of New Zealand).
55. The largest active shield volcano in the world is Mt. Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Kilauea, the most active
volcanic crater in the world, is located on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa.
56. The stretch between the rock of Gibraltar (Spain) & Cape Ceuta (Morocco) is called the Pillar of the
Hercules. The Atlas Mountains are an extension of the Alpine system of Europe. The Tell or Maritime
Atlas are lower slopes of the Atlas Mountains. The coastal belt of Mediterranean climate if referred to as
Tell in Algeria.
57. Alberta is coal & petroleum rich in Canada. Labrador & Newfoundland are iron mining regions of
Canada. Texas, Alaska & Gulf of Mexico are rich in petroleum deposits in USA. California is the most
populous state of USA. Florida is the largest producer of orange. Kansas is the largest producer of wheat.
Badlands of the Dakota are famous in USA.
58. The Hudson river flows between the Taconic range & the Catskill Mountains (both belonging to the
Appalachians).

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59. The US NE region cities from North to South are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore &
Washington DC. The coca cola company is based in Atlanta (Capital of Georgia).
60. The major sources of revenue of Monaco is Casino (mainly in Monte Carlo). The countries/regions with
decreasing number of islands are Oceania (25000), Indonesia (14000), Philippines (7100), Japan (3000).
61. Australia is an exporter of wheat. Australia boasts the worlds largest known recoverable resources of
lead, mineral sands, tantalum, uranium, silver, and zinc. The southwest coast of the south island in New
Zealand is characterized by deep fiords (Fiordland National Park, largest in the country lies here).
62. In Lebanon 90 % of the population is Urban. In Turkey literacy rate is around 87 %. Pyongyang & Seoul
are both coastal cities. Jordan is not land locked because of Gulf of Aqaba.
63. Malaysia is not the leading producer of tin in the world (China & Indonesia lead). Copper is the leading
mineral of Philippines. Iran also has one of the world's largest reserves of copper
64. With a mean elevation of approximately 650 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, Africa is high compared to
other continents.. Gold is Ghanas principal mineral resource. More than 90 % of Burundis population is
rural. River Niger has two deltasan inland delta in central Mali and a coastal delta along the Gulf of
Guinea
65. South East Asian countries in descending order of population density are Philippines (290), Indonesia
(132) Thailand (125) Malaysia (70) & Brunei (62). Area wise the descending order is Indonesia, Thailand,
Malaysia & Philippines.
66. Europe has longer coastline than North America Rhine is connected to Rhone & hence the Mediterranean.
About 50 % of Netherlands landmass lies below sea level.
67. The ten highest peaks of USA are in Alaska. The Great Lakes were formed during the ice age. The largest
single cause of the decline in the Amu Daryas water level is the Garagum Canal, the longest canal in the
former Soviet Union and one of the longest in the world. The Aral Sea is a remnant of Tethys Sea.
68. France has a major tidal power plant on the Rance River in Brittany. France produces more electricity than
it uses and is a major exporter of electricity to neighboring countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy,
and Switzerland.
69. Kuwaiti Oilfields are located at Fao, Burgan, Wafra. The largest lakes of Brazil are are Sobradinho, on the
So Francisco; Tucuru, on the Tocantins; Balbina, on the Amazon; and Furnas, on the Paran.
70. The worlds top waterfalls in a descending order of discharge of volume of water are Niagara falls,
Victoria falls, Iguazu falls (On Parana river in Argentina-Brazil border) & Kaieteur Falls (on river Potaro
in Guyana, S. America).

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71. In Africa the leading states for various commodities are: Tea (Kenya), Oil Palm (Nigeria), Cocoa (Ghana),
Coconuts (Tanzania), Cotton (Egypt). S. Africa leads in wheat, maize, fruits & wool.
72. Kalahari means the great thirst & a major part of it is in Botswana. Khartoum is located at the
confluence of Blue Nile (Lake Tana) & White Nile (Lake Victoria). White Nile (longer) lies to the west of
Blue Nile & contains sudds (the swampy land). A region of inland drainage in Africa is Lake Chad.
73. South Africa has 3 capitals: Cape Town (legislative capital); Pretoria (Executive/Administrative capital);
and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital.
74. The four most populous countries of Africa are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia & Zaire. Countries comprising
the horn of Africa are Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia & Somalia.
75. River Limpopo forms the boundary between S. Africa & Botswana. River Orange forms the boundary
between S. Africa & Namibia.
76. Ethiopia & Liberia were never colonized. Eritrea was carved out of Ethiopia during 1990s. Djibouti faces
the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Countries bordering lake Victoria are Tanzania, Kenya & Uganda
77. Panama city is the only capital city of the Central American Country having a coastal location. The cities
on the edges of Panama canal are Balboa (Pacific side) & Colon (Atlantic side). Chagres Locks, Pedro
Miguel Lock & Mira Flores lock are on the Panama Canal.
78. Central American Countries: Puerto Rico is the largest exporter of Chemicals. El Salvador is the only
country on having an Atlantic Coastline. Belize is the only country not having a Pacific coastline. El
Salvador is the smallest in area & has the highest density. Guatemala the most populous in the region.
Trinidad is the only Carribean Island with large oil reserves.
79. Jura (mountains), mountain range, is located along the border between France and Switzerland (& not
Germany). Vosges are in Germany.
80. Rhode Island is the smallest state of USA. California is the most populated state of USA. The confluence
of Mississippi & Missouri is at St. Louis. Niagara falls lie between Lakes Erie & Ontario. Big Apple
describes the city of New York.
81. The number of provinces & federal territories in Canada is 10 & 3 respectively (total 13). Quebec is the
largest province of Canada & Ontario is the most populous. The capital of various provinces of Canada
are Quebec (Quebec city), Ontario (Toronto), Manitoba (Winnipeg), Saskatchewan (Regina), Alberta
(Edmonton), British Columbia (Victoria).
82. Mahaweli Ganga is the longest river of Sri Lanka. Hawaii is known as crossroads of the Pacific. At Basel,
Rhine River turns north and enters the Rhine rift valley, a flat-floored rift valley lying between the Vosges
on the west and the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) on the east.

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83. Lake Albert, Lake Edward, Lake Kivu, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi is the correct sequence of the
Lakes form north to south in Middle Africa.
84. English is the official language of Nigeria. Copenhagen (Entreport), Honolulu (port of call) are different
types of ports. New York is known as a city that never sleeps. Minnesota is known as land of 10,000
lakes, which is an understatement as it has more than 15000 lakes. Colorado accounts for the largest
production of Uranium in USA. Missouri & Tennessee share borders with the maximum number of other
states in USA (each borders 8 states).
85. Mackinder termed British & Japanese islands as offshore islands. Extensive agriculture is characterized by
high per capita production but poor per acre production.
86. Shannon river is the longest in the British Isles. Guano (mainly Peru) is a source of phosphatic fertilizer.
Nitrate fertilizers are prepared form Caliche (Chile Chile saltpeter or NaNO3)
87. Shinano river is the longest river of Japan.
88. Belem is the biggest cocoa exporting port of Brazil. Hudson Bay is the worlds largest bay & Davis Strait
is the worlds broadest strait. British Columbia accounts for half of Canadas timber.
89. The coasts of Canada are highly indented as eustatic changes in the past have led to the submergence of
low lying land.
90. Queensland is the largest producer of Sugarcane & leads in cattle (40% of total) in Australia. Australia is
the worlds largest producer of both gem/near-gem and industrial-grade diamonds, producing about twofifths of the global total. Tasmania is the leading producer of apples in Australia.
91. Western Australia is the largest province in terms of Area . Dongara in south west Australia is known for
Natural gas. Whyalla is a city and port in southern Australia near Adeilade & is important for ship
building. Located on the northwest shore of Spencer Gulf, an arm of the Indian Ocean, Whyalla is a center
of heavy industry, with gas refineries and chemical industries.
92. Danube crosses through the maximum countries of the world. The capital cities of Vienna, Budapest,
Bratislava (Slovakia) & Belgrade (Serbia & Montenegro) lie on its bank. Icelands economy mainly
depends on exports of fish.
93. Kuwait is the most urbanized Arab State (virtually entire population is urban). Turkey has virtually no
desert & is quite unlike middle east. The Anatolian plateau (Asian Turkey) is bounded by Pontine
mountains to the north & Taurus mountains to the south.
94. Maldives has a density of 1100 persons/sq km. The top four most dense countries of south Asia are
Maldives, Bangladesh, India & Sri Lanka. In Pakistan 33 % of the population is urban & Sri Lanka has 23
% urbanization. Western Sahara is the most urbanized in Africa. Djibouti also has one of the highest

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Geography Notes

urbanization (85%). South Africa has 60 percent urbanization. Uruguay is the most urbanized nation in
South America.
95. Ferro-nickel is one of the prominent exports of Dominican Republic.
96. Christchurch is the main urban centre of the Canterbury plains in New Zealand. Kruger National Park, is
in northeastern South Africa, adjacent to the Mozambique border & is among the ten largest national parks
in the world.
97. Texas is known for the maximum number of tornadoes in USA. Greenland is more sparsely populated
than Mongolia. Canada produces the maximum hydroelectricity in the world.
98. The correct sequence of Chinese cities in descending order of population is Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin &
Nanjing. Within China Chernozem soils are only found in Manchuria.
99. The Chinese cities form North to South are: Fushun, Shenyang, Anshan, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai &
Wuhan. Nanjing is almost at the same latitude as Shanghai & is close to it.
100.

The correct decreasing order of population concentration in various Japanese provinces is Honshu,

Kyushu, Hokkaido & Shikoku. The population of following Japanese cities in descending order is Osaka,
Nagoya, Kobe & Kyoto.

Miscellaneous Facts II:

1. Muroran is an important industrial centre in Hokkaido. Chiba is another industrial centre near Tokyo.
2. River Mekong is called the Danube of SE Asia. A fragmented strip of Malaysia (Sarawak) separates
Brunei into two divisions. Brunei is a member of Commonwealth of Nations.
3. Borneo is an ancient stable crust pushed above the sea level by tectonic forces & is not subject to
volcanism. Indonesia is the worlds largest archipelago. The Indonesian Islands in decreasing order of area
is Kalimantan (Borneo Island), Sumatra, Irian Jaya (or Papua), Java & Bali. Java is the most populous
island.
4. Jakarta is the largest city of SE Asia followed by Manila. Borneo is the least developed part of Indonesia.
Indonesia is the largest producer of Liquefied Natural Gas in the world.
5. Palembang (Sumatra), Bogor (Java), Balikpapan (Kalimantan), Manado (Sulawesi) are some of the
principal cities of Indonesia. Makassar is the largest city and chief port of Sulawesi
6. Hmong is a minority ethnic group that lives primarily in China and Southeast Asia. About 2 million
Hmong live in Southeast Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. Another 10
million Hmong live in the southern provinces of China.

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Geography Notes

7. The correct sequence of cities north to south in SE Asia is Hanoi, Vientiane, Yangon & Bangkok. Ferries
on Bangkoks extensive system of canals (khlongs) serve thousands of commuters every day. Bangkok
has in the recent years faced the problem of sinking ground due to excessive withdrawal of water. In the
eastern part of Thailand lies the Khorat plateau which comprises of sandstone & is a region of cassava
production.
8. Sjlland, also Zealand, island of eastern Denmark is the largest and most important island of Denmark
9. Pennine chain of Mountains is in England & Pyrenees is in Spain. Cantabrian Mountain chain is also in
Spain lying west from the Pyrenees to the Atlantic Ocean
10. Prut (also Pruth or Prutul river) flows through southwestern Ukraine, western Moldova, and eastern
Romania & is a major tributary of the Danube River. The northern Dvina flows into the White Sea. The
port of Arkhangelsk lies on its bank. The western dvina called Daugava rises in Belarus & flows
northwest through Latvia, emptying into the Gulf of R ga. The Duero river lies in Spain & Portuagal.
11. Russia, Ukraine & France are the top 3 countries in Europe by Area.
12. Australia is the driest & the hottest continent of the world. Gulf of Joseph Bonaparte lies to the west of
Arnhem land in Australia. Sharks Bay lies to the west of Hammersley ranges. Gulf of Spencer is near
Adeliade & Flinders range. Significant petroleum deposits have been exploited in Barrow Island, Bass
Strait and southern Queensland.
13. In Russia the various ports are Murmansk (Barents Sea), Magadan (Sea of Okhotsk), St. Petersburg (Gulf
of Finland) & Arkhangelsk (White Sea). The various cities are Nizhny Novogorod (Central region),
Magnitogorsk (Ural region), Kazan (Volga region) & Novosibirsk (Kuzbas).
14. The largest proportion of world electricity comes from thermal power. The Ruwenzori mountain range in
Africa is a block mountain produced by faulting.
15. In Pakistan Baluchistan lies to the west of Kirthar ranges & Sind lies to the east. Pakistan has higher
percentage of irrigated land than India, Bangladesh & Nepal. Mardan has the largest sugar factory in
Pakistan. Sylhet is the most important teas cultivation area of Bangladesh.
England & Ireland

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Kalakot Coalfields
Indira Col
Walong Town
Rajheera Creek
Kukrail Project
Goran Ghat
Char
Bils/bhils
Teris/Theris
Bhur

Geography Notes

Geography of India
Various Geographical regions/terms
Located in J & K.
Northern most point of India
Eastern Most point of India in Arunachal Pradesh
Western most point of India in Kachhch
Protection of crocodiles
Located in Rajasthan.
Uplands in the Ganga Delta
Marshy lands / Ox Bow lakes in Assam
Coastal sand dunes in Kerala (Malabar Coast)
Elevated piece of land situated along the bank of Ganga

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Ghanshyam Thori
Barind
Pats
Chalkas
Thali
Konda
Pensi La
Dahej
Saharanpur
Pancham Island
Osam & Barda
Dapha Bum
Blue Mountain
Barail Range
Jelep La
Karbi Analong
Nakki Lake
Mulshi Lake

Geography Notes
Bhangar in deltaic region of Bengal having extensive laterite formations
Lateritic plain (High level)
Name for red soils in Telengana district.
Sandy plain
Residual Hillocks on the Telengana Plateau
Connects Himachal Pradesh with Kargil
Centre of Chemical industry in Gujarat
Famous for Paper Industry
Lies near Gujarat
Volcanic hills in Kathiawar.
Highest peak in Eastern Himalayas (Mishmi Hills).
Highest peak of Mizo hills
Separates Naga hills from Manipur Hills
Connects Kalimpong with Lhasa. Located in Sikkim
Another name for Mikir Hills (Assam)
Rajasthan
Maharashtra

Important Institutes
Central Soil & Materials Research Station
Central Water & Power Research Station
National Institute of Hydrology
Wool Research Association
National Ship Design & Research Centre
National Mangrove Genetic Association
Forest Resource & Human Resource Development

New Delhi
Pune
Roorkee
Thane
Vishakhapatnam
Orissa
Chhindwara

Indian Boundaries
Bangladesh
4096 Km
China
3917 Km
Pakistan
3310 Km
Nepal
1752 Km
Myanmar
1458 Km
Bhutan
578 Km

Guntur
Vijaywada
Rajmundhury
Machilipatnam
Porvorim
Palem
Mangalore
Trichur
Punaloor

Important Industrial Centers of India

Tobacco
Pharmaceuticals & Toy Making
Paper Mill
Imitation Jewellery, Hand-woven clothes
Computer Floppy Disk
Pig Iron Plant
Roofing Tiles
Diamond cutting & Polishing
Paper Industry

146

Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh

Karnataka

Ghanshyam Thori
Dhuravani
Hubli
Karimnagar
Kurnool
Warangal
Baleshwar
Modinagar
Patna
Rai Bareli
Greater Noida
Jind
Pithampur
Naini
Bhopal
Kota
Ludhiana
Saharanpur
Panki

Geography Notes
Indias First telephone manufacturing facility
Cotton Textile
Silver Filigree Articles
Hydrogenated Oil
Woolen Carpets
Automobiles Tyres & Tubes
Synthetic Fiber
Aluminium Foils
Passenger Car
Telephone
Tannery
Automobile (Scooter)
Compressors & Pumps
Heavy Electric Machinery
Precision Instruments
Bicycle parts
Sugar Industry
Automobile

Bangalore
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Orissa
U.P.
Bihar
U.P
U.P
Haryana
M.P.
M.P
Rajasthan
Punjab
U.P.

Important Agricultural Districts

Nagpur
Orange
Jalgaon
Banana
Nasik
Onion
Bijapur & Dhule
Grapes
Kolar
Silk
Alleppey
Cotton
Rayapuram
Synthetic Fibre.

Manikaran
Tatapani
Jwalamukhi
Rajgir
Puga Valley
Shahastradhara
Uni
Tapovan
Naraini
Foot Sachu
Nimboli

Geyser/Springs Sites of India

Kulu, Himachal Pradesh
Shimla, Himachal Pradesh*
Kangra, Himachal Pradesh
Patna
J&K
Uttaranchal
Gujarat
Bihar
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Maharashtra
Mineral sites

Koh Dariba
Malanjkhand (Balaghat)
Aridongri
Kendujhar

Copper
Copper
Iron Ore
Manganese, Chromite

147

Rajasthan (Alwar)
M.P.
Chhatisgarh
Orissa

Ghanshyam Thori
Lota Pahar
Kolihan
Jamar Kotra
Kalol
Naomundi
Ghatsila
Chalk Hills
Nagaur
Agnigundala
Babaduan Hills

Geography Notes
Copper
Copper
Rock Phosphate
Oil
Iron Ore
Copper
Magnesite
Gypsum
Copper
Iron Ore

Rajasthan (South of Khetri)

Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Jharkhand
Bihar
Salem
Rajasthan
Karnataka

Newly Created States:

Area
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand & Uttaranchal.
Population
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh & Uttaranchal
Population density
Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Chhattisgarh.
Sex Ratio
Chattisgarh has highest
Highest Decadal Growth
Jharkhand
Miscellaneous Facts:
1. The correct chronological scale of the Indian time scale is Archaean (Dharwar Early Precambrian),
Purana (covers Cuddapah & Vindhyan systems Late Pre Cambrian), Dravidian (400-600 million years
ago) & Aryan (400 million till date).
2. The peninsular plateau cover around 70 % of the Indias land area. Most of the peninsular rivers have
reached their base level of erosion.
3. The major syntaxial bends of Himalayas are near Pamir (where the Karakoram meets Hindukush) & in
Arunachal Pradesh where there is a sharp change from East-west to Southerly trend.
4. The Karakoram range & the Laddakh plateau lie to the north of Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone & originally
formed a part of the Eurasian plate.
5. Tectonic earthquakes cause maximum damage. The north-western Himalayas are more prone to
earthquakes than the eastern Himalayas. Dharwar system has the most important mineralized rocks of
India which are the earliest formed sedimentary rocks found today in metamorphic forms. The major
rocks of the Dharwar system include Schist, Quartzite, Slates, Dolomites etc. Vindhyan mountains exhibit
the oldest glaciation. The recent rocks are Aryan rocks. Quartzite & cement grade limestone is obtained
from the Cuddapah System.
6. Awadh plains lie to the east of Rohilkhand plains in U.P. Bhabar (8-16 km wide) extends from Indus to
Teesta & is not suitable for cultivation. Ajodhya hills lie in West Bengal. The Great Boundary Fault lies
along the Aravallis

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Geography Notes

7. The length of the regional division of the Himalayas in descending order is: Nepal Himalayas, Assam
Himalayas, Punjab Himalayas & Kumaon Himalayas.
8. The submarine canyons along the Indian coasts are found only in a small portion in Kutch coastal region.
9. The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It rises in the lower slopes of the Himalayas &
forms boundary between Haryana & Punjab & is lost in dry sand near Hanumangarh. Purvanchal hills
have trellis drainage pattern.
10. Reserved forests (54 % of total) are under direct supervision of government. In protected forests local
people are allowed to collect timber. About one percent of Indias forest is Private Forest.
11. The Sambhar, Degana, Didwana lakes are the proof of the recession of the Arabian Sea. Parts of the
Indian deserts also resulted due to the recession. The western part of Thar has longitudinal dunes &
eastern part is characterized by Barkhans. The 25 cm Isohyet form the limit of Thar desert.
12. Jhelum & Beas are not antecedent but Satluj, Saryu (Kali), Ghagara, Kosi, Teesta & Manas River are
antecedent. River Son, Damodar, Chambal & Banas are fine examples of superimposed drainage. The
following states are arranged in descending order of area: Assam, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Himachal
Pradesh. Lakshadweep has the smallest area among UTs. Gujarat has the longest coastline in India
followed by Andhra Pradesh.
13. The south-west monsoons of India represent equatorial westerlies. Mizoram is the least irrigated states of
India. Shivsamudram is the oldest hydro electricity project.
14. Ganga river has the maximum flow in August & September. Jhelum has the maximum flow in May &
June. The Ganga Cauveri link is likely to connect Thanjavur to Patna.
15. In India the top river basins are Ganga (26.2%), Indus (9.8%), Godavari (9.5%), Krishna, Brahmaputra &
Mahanadi. Brahmaputra leads in terms of annual water yield & rate of flow. Storage capacity is highest
for Ganga.
16. Black soils are suitable for citrus & leguminous crops. Red soils are suitable for Tapioca & cashewnuts.
Gangetic soil can be described as azonal. Rock Cover is the most important factor of soil formation.
Fallow land in India is about 10 %. The highest area under maize is in the state of M.P. Highest yield of
wheat is found in Punjab.
17. M.P & U.P are the top two states in number of cattle & U.P & Punjab are top two in milk production.
Cattle density if highest in Manipur.
18. Coal in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Kerala, J & K & Tamil Nadu
belongs to Tertiary Era. The States with highest coal reserves - Jharkhand, West Bengal Orissa & M.P.

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Geography Notes

19. In fish production the top 4 states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal. West Bengal is the
leading producer of inland fish.
20. The states in order of electricity installed capacity are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.
21. Bauxite is associated with Lateritic soil. The Rourkela plant was built with German collaboration.
22. BARC centers are at Trombay, Kalpakkam, Indore & Thiruvananthapuram. Centre for Wind Power &
Energy is located in Chennai. The Kayathar & Muphandal wind farms are located in Tamil Nadu.
23. Mundas are the most underdeveloped tribe of India. The period 1971-81 recorded the highest growth rate
of population. Agricultural density is highest in West Bengal followed by Kerala & U.P.
24. The widest continental shelf of India is off Mumbai & narrowest off the Godawari Delta. The total
number of river basins in India is 113 (14 major, 44 medium & 55 minor). Of the panchnad rivers Beas
river basin is completely in India.
25. The Bhagirathi originates from Gaumukh glacier & Alaknanda from Satopanth glacier. Shifting
cultivation is known as Podu in Orissa, Penda in Chhattisgarh & Deppa in M.P. Vishnu Prayag is the
confluence of Alaknanda & Dhauli Ganga. Nand Prayag is the confluence of Alaknanda & Mandakni.
26. All INSATs were launched from Kourou French Guyana.
27. The States with descending order of metropolitan cities are U.P (6), Maharashtra & Gujarat (4 each),
Andhra Pradesh, M.P & Tamil Nadu (3 each).
28. Jhingurda (Singrauli-Shahdol) in M.P with 130 m thickness is the thickest coal seam of India.
29. Conifers are found in Himalayas at the altitude of 1500 m to 3500 m. The following states/UTs are
arranged in the descending order of mangrove forests West Bengal, Gujarat, Andaman & Nicobar and
Andhra Pradesh. The correct sequence of forest cover of India is Dense forest, Open forest & Mangrove.
Mangrove forests are also found in the Krishna Delta.
30. Assam has boundary with 7 states including West Bengal but not with Sikkim.
31. India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world.
32. Rajmahal hills are block mountains & Dalma is volcanic in origin. Laterite soils are the most preferable
for Dryland farming. Salher & Kalsubai are two important peaks located in the western ghats
33. Rihand is a tributary of Son & Banas is the tributary of Chambal. The extension of Aravallis to the city of
Ambala forms the river divide between Ganga & Indus. The Vindhyan range acts as a water divide
between the Ganga system & the river system of South India.
34. The Deccan Traps have been formed by both the fissure eruption (western side) & central eruption
(eastern side). Sal, Teak, Sandalwood & Sheesham are related to tropical moist deciduous forest.

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Geography Notes

35. Black soil is found in the Deccan Plateau region. Red soil is found in the periphery of the plateau &
Laterite soil is found on highland plateau.
36. 25 % of the rainfall is received during winter season. About 55 % of the country is vulnerable to
earthquakes. East of Maikal range is the Baghelkhand Plateau made of limestones & sandstones on the
west & granite on the east.
37. Chilka Lake & Keoladeo National Park are protected under the Ramsar convention. The tertiary rocks are
mostly found in the Himalayas. In the Peninsula they occur in the coastal areas of Gujarat, Kerala & Tamil
Nadu. The western slopes of Sahyadris are more steeper than eastern slopes as the western part is highly
faulted
38. Karakoram range has the maximum glaciers. Namcha Barwa is 7750 metres high & Gurla Mandhata 7728
metres. The theories of monsoon generation are thermal concept (Hadley), Dynamic Concept (Flohn) and
Southern Oscillation Theory (Walker).
39. Bhutan touches 4 Sates of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Nepal touches the
following 5 states - Uttaranchal, U.P. Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim. Bangladesh touches 5 states of
West Bengal Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura & Mizoram.
40. In Assam Brahmaputra has a highly braided course. Purna falls is on Tons river.
41. Vizhingam in Kerala produces wave energy. Muppandal in Tamil Nadu Wind Energy.
42. The types of Montane forests according to decreasing height are: Alpine (3000-4000 m), Moist Temperate
Forest (2000-3000 m), Pine Forest (1500-1750 m) & Wet Temperate Forest (200-1000 m).
43. Hyundai Motors, Hindustan Motors, Ashok Leyland are all in Chennai.
44. Vishakhapatnam is a landlocked harbour & the ships are protected by the Roass hill in the North &
Dolphins Nose to the south. Gujarat will benefit most from the water allocated in Sardar Sarovar Project
& M.P will be the main beneficiary in terms of electricity. The Reliance Petroleum Refinery at Jamnagar
refines imported petroleum.
45. Alang is the leading ship breaking centre of India of the three centres of Alang, Sachna & Mumbai.
46. India imports cashew nut from the countries of East Africa. The processing industries of Cashew Kernels
is concentrated in Quilon. The imported raw cashew nut is processed & exported to other countries.
47. Large part of Deccan plateau is poor in minerals because the Lava has buried the mineral bearing old
rocks baring very few exposures of mineral bearing rocks.
48. Marble is quarried along the western region of Sambhar Lake & Sandstone in Kaimur range. Lac is the
secretion of tiny insect called the lac insect which lives on the sap of trees like Kusan, ghont, palas, khair,
ber etc.

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Geography Notes

49. .The coalfields arranged from west to east are Bokaro, Jharia & Raniganj.
50. The States arranged in descending order of cropping intensity are Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh & Mizoram.
51. The utilization of Ground water potential is very high in Punjab area, High in Maharashtra region,
Moderate in Tamil Nadu region & low in NE region.
52. Grount Nut is the principal crop of Rayalsema region.
53. The following Urban agglomerations are arranged in descending order of their population & are the last 5
among the 35 million cities - Faridabad, Allahabad, Amritsar, Vijaywada & Rajkot.
54. The following territories are arranged in descending order of their population size: Delhi, Pondcherry,
Chandigarh, Andaman & Nicobar, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu & Lakshadweep.
55. Uttar Pradesh is the chief producer of vegetables & tanned hides. Cardamom is the leading cash crop of
southern Sikkim & is mainly exported.
56. The shortest National Highway 47A connects Wellingdon Island & Cochin Bypass. The following
features of the Indian Ocean are arranged from North to South Socotra-Chagos Ridge, Carlsberg ridge,
Mascarene basin & Prince Edward Crozet ridge.
57. The largest number of Muslim population in India is in Uttar Pradesh.
58. Banas & its tributaries have carved the Mewar upland into a rolling peneplain. The Mandovi Zuari Creek
in Goa is an important embayment in the coastline. Parasnath Hill is situated in Haraibagh plateau. The
Kaimur hills belong to the Vindhyan range. Dhupgarh (Satpuras), Mahendragiri (Garhjat Hills),
Gorakhnath peak (Girnar Hills), Mulangiri (Baba Budan Hills).
59. Siachen glacier is in Nubra valley. Amarnath cave is situated near Kalahoi glacier.
60. The longest beach of India is in Chennai. Dense forests have a tree canopy cover of more than 40 %. The
true dense cover in India is about 12 % of the total land area. Western Ghats have two different types of
vegetation on its two slopes. The largest portion of Indias wasteland occurs in degraded pastures &
grazing land.
61. The name of forest & corresponding state is: Manas (Assam), Betla (Bihar), Gorumara (West Bengal) &
Madumalai (Tamil Nadu).
62. The centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) programme was launched in the year 197374. Forest conservation Act was passed in 1980. Cyclonic activity in India is a characteristic of the pre &
post monsoon periods. Worlds highest observatory is in Hanle, Laddakh.

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Geography Notes

63. The Gangetic plain has been created by both exogenic & endogenic forces. The expression of earliest
volcanic activity is found in India in Dalma hill of Bihar. Soil erosion in India occurs in almost all the
states but it is most serious along the coast of Kerala.
64. Chhattisgarh is the only tine producing state in India.
65. The peninsular India has not undergone marine submergence since Archean times. The Aravalli
Mountains were one of the oldest geosynclines in the world. Shillong plateau is also known as
Meghalaya meaning abode of clouds. It was so named by S.P Chatterjee.
66. The cultural gap theory given by Ogburn states that material aspects (money etc) change faster with time
than the non material aspect (like social values) therefore it results in cultural gap.
67. Sunderbans, Simplipal & Manas are the three biosphere reserves which are also tiger reserves. Kaziranga
National Park, Nandadevi, Manas wildlife park are among Indias world heritage site. Corbett National
park (earlier Hailey national park) was the first national park of India & Vedanthagal bird sanctuary is the
first bird sanctuary of India. Longest navigable waterway is in Uttar Pradesh.
68. Midnapore canal is on Kosi river. Gujarat is the leading producer of Beedi Tobacco in India. Groundnut
is the leading oilseed in India.
69. Wattle a tanning material used in leather industry is grown in Nilgiri & Palni Hills & from here major
supplies are done for the entire country.
70. The plants & their power source are Bokaro Steel plant (Jharia), Bhilai Steel plant (Korba), Indian Iron &
Steel Co. (DVC power supply) & Visveswaraya Iron & Steel Co (Shravati power project).
71. Indias production of gold has been declining. Raniganj is the oldest coalfield in India. In Karnataka
plateau the hilly region is known as Malnad & the rolling plain as Maidan. Vindhyas form watershed
between the Ganga System & peninsular river system. Cardamom hills is a branch of Annamalai hills.
72. Lakshwadeep (Atoll), Gulf of Kutch (Platform), Palk Bay (Fringing reef) are the types of reef in India.
73. The term Bhabhar implies piedmont plain & it is extensive in the west & narrow in the east. Kolleru lake
was formed when marine transgression had taken place forming a lagoon, but at present it is almost a fresh
water lake.
74. Atari is the last Indian railway station before crossing into Pakistan on the Amritsar Lahore line. Leh lies
between Ladakh & Zaskar.
75. Hoggenakkal falls is on Kaveri river as soon as it enters Tamil Nadu. Wular lake is tectonic, Rakas lake is
glacial & Didwana lake is Aeolian.
76. In 2004 a new biosphere reserve was inaugurated in Arunachal Pradesh.

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Geography Notes

77. During 1901-2001 the population of India has increased by about 4 times. The sex ratio on a worldwide
scale is 986. The sex ratio of India in 1901 was 972 & the density in 1901 was just 77 persons/km2.
78. The sex ratio of various religious communities/ other communities is Scheduled tribe (978), Scheduled
Caste (936), Jains (940), Sikhs (893).
79. 1921 is taken as the year of demographic divide & 1931 as urbanization divide.
80. Jains have the highest literacy rate (overall, male as well as female) followed by Christians in all the three
categories. Muslims have the highest proportion of children population among their total population. The
census is conducted under the Census Act 1948. The census moment was 00:00 hours of 1st March, 2001.
India has 2.3 % of worlds area & 16 % of total population. The district having least population density is
Lahul & Spiti (2 person/Km2) & the highest density is in NE Delhi (29400)
81. Sikhs have recorded the lowest decadal growth rate of 16.9 %. Jain population has registered growth rate
of population @ 26 % (highest among all religions) in 1991-2001 compared to 4.6 % during 1981-1991.
Parsi population has shown signs of decline.
82. The sex ratio of India in 1991 was 927 which has improved to 933. The density of India in 1991 was 267
which has increased to 324 per/km2 during 2001 adding 57 persons per square km.
83. The over concentration of urban population in the big urban centers of India is called population
implosion. As per the census a person is deemed as literate if he/she can read & write in any language with
understanding. For the first time since independence there is a decline in the absolute number of illiterates
during a decade.
84. The census 2001 has provided for the first time report on religious data.
85. The correct decreasing order in terms of sex ratio is Kerala (1058), Chhattisgarh (990), Tamil Nadu (986).
Among UTs sex ratio is highest for Pondicherry (1001).
86. The urbanization is highest in Goa (49.7), Mizoram (49.5), Tamil Nadu (43.8) & Maharashtra (42.4). The
least urbanized state in India is Himachal Pradesh (9%) Bihar (10%) & Sikkim (11%). In terms of
absolute number of people living in Urban areas Maharashtra leads followed by UP. U.P has the
maximum number of illiterates in absolute number followed by Bihar.
87. Lakshwadeep has the minimum population & maximum literacy rate (87.5) among UTs. Pondicherry has
the maximum sex ration (1001)
88. The total number of districts in India in 2001 were 593 & total number of towns is 5161. Tamil Nadu has
the maximum number of towns in India. Total number of urban agglomeration in India is 384 (maximum
in M.P). The life expectation at birth in India is 61 years.

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Geography Notes

89. The Mediterraneans are considered to be the bearers of earliest form of Hinduism in India. Bulk of the
population among lower caste is also comprised by the Mediterraneans in Northern India.
90. Jains have the minimum gap in literacy levels of male & female in India. Muslims have the lowest literacy
levels.

Geographical Thought
Geographers & their Contribution
Neo Determinism
Griffith Taylor
Demographic Transition Model
W.S. Thomson & Frank W. Notestein
Mobility Transition Model
Zelinsky
Cylindrical Equal Area Projection
J. Heinrich Lambert
Polar Zenithal Equal Area Projection
J. Heinrich Lambert
Sea Floor Spreading
Harry Hess
Geosynclinal Theory of Mountain Building
Kober
Optimum Population Theory
Sidgwick (Later Dalton, Robbins, Carr Saunders)
Economic Theory of Population
Leibenstein
Least Cost Theory
Weber
Locational Interdependence
Palender
Sub-Optimal Location
Smith
Economic Rent
Ricardo
Agricultural regions
Whitlessey
Natural Regions
Herbertson
Five Stages model of Development
W.W. Rostov
Growth Pole
Francois Perroux
Atmospheric Circulation Model
Palmen
Convection Current Hypothesis
Arthur Holmes
Theory of Intervening Opportunities
S.A. Stouffer
Theory of Intervening Obstacles
E.S. Lee
Concept of Urban Village
H.J. Hans
Concept of Urban Continuum
R.E. Pahl
Concept of Rural Urban Fringe
Pryor
Geosophy concept (subjective conceptions)
John Wright
Geopacifics Concept
Griffith Taylor
Geopolitics Concept
K Haushofer
Geonomics Concept
G. T Renner
Density-size rule
R.H. Best
Demographic Index
B.J.L. Berry
Population Potential
G Tornqvist
Centrality Index
Preston
Origin of rift valley
Bullard
Morphometric Analysis
Strahler
Panplane concept
Crickmay
Primarumpf concept
Penck
Panfan concept
Lawson.
Concept of Base Level
Powell
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Geography Notes

Core-Periphery Model
Cultural Hearth
Concept of Sequent Occupance
Mental Map
Differential Heating concept of Monsoon
Crop Combinations Theory
Line of Compensation
Etchplain
Gravity Model
Plastic Space
Compage
Density & Fecundity Theory
Cultural Realms of the World
Concept of Regional Synthesis
Regional Science Concept
Regional System Concept
Uniformitarianism
Mountain Root Theory
Cumulative Causation Theory
Maximum Revenue Theory
Concept of Natural Boundary
G Scale (Scale of Natural Values)
Incubator Hypothesis
Time Space Convergence Theory
City of Need & City of Death (Concepts)
Treppen Concept
Tangent of Average Slope
Use of Dots
SIAL, SIMA, NIFE classification
Identified four basic pedogenic regimes
Concept of City Region
Concept of Garden City
Social Physics
Human Welfare concept
Spatial Organization

Behaviouralism
Humanism
Universalism
Particularism
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Positivism
Marxism

Friedmann
Sauer
Whittlesey
Lynch & Gould
Halley
J.C. Weaver
Pratt
Pugh & Thomas
T. Q. Stewart
Pip Feror
Whittlesey
Saddler
Broek & Webb
Berry
Isard
Tuan
Hutton
Airy
Gunnar Myrdal
A Losch
Layer
Hagget & Chorley
Hoover & Vernon
D Janelle
W. Bunge
Albrecht Penck
E Raisz & J Henry
A H Robinson
E. Suess
Simonson
R.E. Dickinson
Ebenezer Howard
Stewart
David Harvey
Smith

Philosophies & Geographers

Huff, Haggerstand, Cox, Peter Gould, Tobbler
John wright, Lowenthal, Kirk, Tuan
Talcot Parsons
Hoselitz
Leonard Guelke
John Scott, Gibson
Pierce
Auguste Comte, BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge
David Harvey

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Welfare Approach
Radicalism
Probabilism

Geography Notes
D.M Smith & David Harvey
Peet
O.H.K. Spate

Works of Geographers
Meterologica
Guide to Geography
Quadriparitum (effect of position of celestial bodies on Humans)
On Airs, Water & Places
History of Plants
General Treatise
Exposition of the World System
The World & its People
Prologue to Population Geography
Jyotisiddhanta
The Economics of Location
The Earth & its resources
Statistical Analysis in Geography
Land of Britain Its use & Misuse
Editor of Antipode
Methods of Regional Analysis
On Geography & its History
Post Modern Geographies
The Major Natural Regions of the World
Comparative Method
Cosmographic Universalis
Nouvelle Geographic Universelle
Realm of Nature
Territorial Production Complex
Ill Million
Jewahirat
Description of the Earth
The History of Geography
Geography as Human Ecology
Theoretical Geography
Radical Geography
Rural Settlement & Landuse
Systematic Geography
Geography as fundamental research discipline
Where is the Research Frontier
Approaches to Regional Analysis: A Synthesis
Geographic Influences on American History
Principles of Geology
157

Aristotle
Ptolemy
Ptolemy
Hippocrates
Theophrastus
Strabo
Laplace
H.J Fleure (British)
W. Zelinsky
Aryabhatta
A. Losch
Finch, Trewartha & Shearer
L.J.King
Stamp
R. Peet
Isard
D. Stoddart
E. Soja
A. J. Herbertson
Carl Ritter
Sebastian Munster
Elisee Reclus
H Robert Mill
Kellossvosky
Marco Polo
Al Biruni
Al Battani
J N L Baker
H H Barrows
William Bunge
R. Peet
M. Chisolhm
W. M Davis
E. A. Ackerman
E. A Ackerman
B.J. L Berry
Albert Parry Birmingham
Charles Lyell (1830)

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

City Region & Regionalism

Economic Geography of Britain
Isaiah Bowman
The spatial organization of Society
Silent Spring

R.E. Dickinson
Smith
The Pioneer Fringe
Morill
Carson

Famous Saying/Quotation/Thought
Earthquakes & Volcanoes are caused by winds
Aristotle
Soil Erosion & Land destruction are parts of culture, history & repeated in many places Plato
Our senses can tell us fire is hot but not why it is hot
Aristotle
Geography is the science which deals with the art of map making
Ptolemy
The best economic programme for a country to follow is determined by nature & it is Stop & Go
geographers duty to interpret this programme
Determinism
As body is made of soul, the physical globe is made for mankind
Carl Ritter
We must ask the earth itself for its laws
Carl Ritter
Geography is the mirror of man; to know the world is to know yourself
Yi Fu Tuan
Give me the map of a country & I pledge myself to tell you what the man of the Ratzel
country will be & what part that country will play in history
People of cold climate are physically stron, more courageous, less suspicious & less Montesquiue
cunning than those in the warm climate
The environment in essentially neutral
Edward Ullman
Environment taken by itself is a meaningless phrase; without man environment does O.H.K. Spate
not exist
The main obstacle between Hindus & Muslims is the Varna system
Al-Biruni
Geography is the Study of partial distribution & space relations on the earths surface
E. A. Ackerman
Man can never get entirely rid himself of the hold his environment has on him
L Febvre
Human environment relationship is dynamic rather than static
Semple
Human geography is the study of changing relationship between unresting man & the Semple
unstable earth
Present is the Key to the past
James Hutton
I traveled, I sketched, I described
Ratzel
Cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is Sauer
the agent, the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape the result
Geography is the study of things associated in areas, mutually interacting, Blache
characterizng particular segments on the earth surface.
Who gets what, where & how
Welfare Geography
Nature to be commanded must be obeyed (Neo determinism)
Fracis Bacon
Regional geographers may be trying to put boundaries that do not exist around areas Kimble
that do not matter
It is the links in the landscape rather than the breaks that impress the scientific mind
Kimble
Defined geography as Discovery of predictive patterns during quantitative revolution Bunge
Dimension of society are analogous to the physical dimensions & include numbers of Social Physics
people, distance & time
Geography comes through the soles of ones shoes
Grieve

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Geography Notes

Classical Geographical Concepts

Lebensrauam
Ort Lichkeiten
Zusammenhang (Harmonius unity among diverse phenomena on earth)
Principle of Activity & Principle of Interaction
Concept of World Island
Space time concept

Ratzel
Richthofen
Humboldt
Jean Brunhes
Mackinder
Kant

Ancient Names
Arabian Sea/Indian Ocean Scythia
Po
Sinus Arabicus
Iceland
Taprabone
Ireland
Rha
Sea of Azov
Tanais
Dneiper
Euxine
Caspian Sea
Elephantine Cataract
Arabian Sea
Sea of Kendrej
Malacca Sea
Coniaci
Mesopotamia (Iraq)
Mother of Euxine
Hindukush Mountains
Zaradrus
Karakoram
Acesipes
Siwalik
Hydratoes
Tibetan Plateau
Hyphasis
Aravalli
Chyrse
Tanganyika
Arabicus Sinus
Aromata
* - Name in Italics are Puranic Names
Erythrean Sea
Istre
Ivernia
Irene
Palus Maeotis
Boresthenes
Hyrcanian
Sea of Larvey
Sea of Shelhat
Arbela
Nishad
Krishnagiri
Menkagiri
Kimpurusa
Arbud
Rhapton

Ukraine
Red Sea
Sri Lanka
Volga
Don
Black Sea
Aswan
Gulf of Thailand
Cape Comorin
Sea of Azov
Sutlej
Chenab
Ravi
Beas
Malay Peninsula
Red Sea
Somali Coast

Miscellaneous Facts
1. The term latitude & longitude were first used by Ptolemy. Ptolemy also developed the polyconic
projection. Ptolemy considered the Indian ocean as an inland sea. The Greek cartography is said to have
attained its culmination (reach zenith) at the hands of Ptolemy.
2. Eratosthenes is considered father of geodesy. Elisee Reclus was an anarchist geographer.
3. The main contribution of Romans was in the field of Historical & regional geography. Anaximander used
the term latitude & longitude for the first time. Hippocrates was the founder of medical geography (also
father of medicine). The T-O map was developed during the dark ages (Christian parts 200 to 700 AD)
& was oriented towards east.
4. The main contribution of Al Idrisi was in the field of Cartography & that of Ibn Khaldun in Human
Geography.
5. Varenius General Geography was Systematic Geography & Special Geography was Regional.

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6. The Prime Meridian of the classical Indian geographers used to be drawn through the city of Ujjain, Lanka
& Mt. Meru (North Pole). The Vedic planets are Buddha (Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter), Mangala (Mars)
& Shukra (Venus).
7. Humboldt attempted to formulate general or abstract laws. He believed that all the races of man had a
common origin. Ritter was the first professor of Geography. The principle of interaction was introduced
by Brunhes.
8. Strabo is considered the father of Chorology ie regional geography. Strabo attempted to explain that
slope, relief & climate were all the work of god. Griffith Taylor applied the concept of Zones & Strata
for the evolution of races of mankind. Kant Freed Geography from its tight bonds with theology.
9. Herodotus was associated with Pythagorean School of philosophy. Hipparachus prepared catalogue of
star. Thales was associated with Ionian School of Philosophy. Archytas measured the total length of the
land & sea. Archimedes deducted that the surface of the sea must be convex.
10. Ruling deity & directions were: Yama (South), Indra (East), Varuna (West), Kuber (North) & Brahma
(Zenith). The first Indian university to establish geography department was Madras University. The first
detailed map of India was prepared by Ptolemy. Bhaskaracharya was the ancient Indian scholar who
divided earth into 360 degrees.
11. The ancient Puranic directions were North West (Vayavya), North East (Isana), South West (Nairitya) &
South East (Agneyay).
12. Hartshorne rejected environmental determinism as it separates nature from man & is thus disruptive of
fundamental unity of the field. Oscal Peschel was the originator of the dualism between Physical &
Human Geography.
13. W.M Davis concept was down wasting & Pencks Concept was back wasting. The quantitative models
recognize men as passive agents.
14. G.K. Gilbert was the first to establish the relationship between load of a river, its volume, velocity &
gradient. He gave the concept of grade.
15. Thales was the first Greek scholar to be concerned about the measurement & location of things on the
surface of the earth. Thales applied the principles of geometry to measuring land area. Herodotus is often
called the father of ethnography.
16. Plato conceived the world as having been created in perfection but now in the process of decline from
perfection.
17. Aristotle was a teleologist. In fact he is considered the father of teleologist concept as he believed that
everything was changing according to a pre-existing plan. Aristotle founded his own school in Athens

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which he named Lyceum. Aristotle added ether to the list of four basic substances (earth, water, fire &
air) comprising all materials on the earth. He considered equatorial regions as uninhabitable.
18. Eratosthenes accepted an invitation from the king of Egypt to become the royal tutor & was also named as
Alpha fellow at the museum in Alexandria.
19. Pytheas was the first Greek to tell about ocean tides & showed that tides were related to the phases of the
moon. Eudoxus, a contemporary of Plato developed the theory of zones of climate based on increasing
slopes (Klima) away from the sun on a spherical surface.
20. Homer was considered by Strabo as the founder of all geographical knowledge but Strabo considered
Herodotus as a fable monger & fiction retailer. Herodotus described about the dumb commerce
practiced by Carthagians with primitive tribes in western Africa.
21. As a result of the voyage of Ibn Haukal to the south of equator the wrong notion about the inhabitability of
the torrid zone came to an end.
22. Al-Masudi said that there is no place on the earth that is always covered with water, nor one that is always
land but a constant revolution takes place. Al Masudi also said that the power of the earth vary in their
influence on man on account of three causes viz water, natural vegetation & topography. Al Masudi
correlated the colour of ocean water & its salinity
23. Al-Biruni referred to the Mountain of Moon situated near the equator which was the source of Nile river
& was of the opinion that floods in the Nile occurred because of the heavy rains in the upper reaches of
the Nile.
24. Pferre dAlly wrote Imagine Mundi which influenced Columbus to search a route to Asia moving
westward from the Canary Islands.
25. Varenious in his treatise on regional geography outlined its contents under three sections: Celestial
properties, terrestrial properties & human properties.
26. Kant recognized the importance of commercial geography, theological geography, moral geography &
mathematical geography & saw them heavily influenced by underlying physical geography. Kant believed
that physical geography is the first part of knowledge of the earth.
27. Ritter emphasized that he was teaching a new scientific geography in contrast to the traditional lifeless
summary of facts about countries. Erdkunde means earth science.
28. The term anthropogeographic was coined by Ratzel & was used by him for the Organic theory of society
& state.
29. Sauer established a research group at Berkeley School that focused on the historical ecological study of
cultural landscapes.

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30. Chisolhm is considered father of economic geography. Mackinder renamed his Pivot Area as
Heartland in his famous book Demographic ideals & reality.
31. Humanism emphasizes the importance of participant observation, iconography, place & hermeneutics.
The humanistic geography aims at Verstehn which means understanding of man in his environment.
32. Behavioural geography did not bring about a revolution away from quantitative geography, it became an
attachment to it. Behavioural geography also adopted positivist approach. Preds work represents an
attempt to incorporate probability into the locational analysis.
33. White had presented the PhD thesis on Human response to floods. Taylor on the basis of climatic cycles
evolved a theory known as the Migration zone theory of race evolution where he assumed that climate
has been a cause of human migrations.
34. O Riordian has given forms of environmentalism. Ecocentrism & Technocentrism are the two major
forms of Environmentalism according to him.
35. The basic dictum of existentialism is Man makes Himself. To the existentialist for every landscape or
existential geography someone can be held accountable.
36. To the idealist the explanation of an action is complete when the agents goal & theoretical understanding
of his situation have been discovered.
37. The American School represents the major tradition of Cultural Geography in the 20th century.
38. Patanjali described the crop regions on the basis of climate & soil. The area drained by Saptasindhu
contained all the rivers of Punjab along with Saraswati & Present Gagghar.

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Techniques of Geographical Analysis

Hydrometer
Atmometer
Campbell Strokes Recorder
Cielometer
Octas
Reversing Thermometer
Sundial
Wind Vane
Optical Square
Cynometer
Analemma
Tachometer
Tacheometer
Odometer
Rotameter
Auxanometer
Udometer
Wentworth Scale
Saffir Simpson scale
Fujita Scale

Various Measuring Instruments

Relative density of a liquid/ Measurement of water flow in currents
Rate of Evaporation
Sunshine
Height of Clouds
Amount of Cloud cover
Temperature of Ocean Depth
Duration of Sunshine
Wind Direction only (not windspeed).
For short off-sets from chainline to any object close by
Blueness of Sky
Scale drawn on the globe to show daily declination of the sun
indicates rotational (angular) speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
Measurement of horizontal & vertical position of a point
Measuring distance traveled by a vehicle
Measuring length (esp stream lines on map)/ rate of fluid flow
Measuring growth in plants
A rain guage
Classify particles ranging from boulders to colloids
Measuring Hurricane Intensity
Measures Relative severity & damage of Tornado

Miscellaneous Facts:
1. Cadastral map can be best reduced by Pantograph & wall maps are generally reduced with the help of
Camera Lucida. A map with diagrammatic statistical information is known as Cartogram. One yard is
equal to 3 feet. 1760 yards make a mile.
2. Galls Projection is most suitable for general purpose world map. In Mercator projection the scale along
the Meridians & Parallel is the same & hence it maintains accuracy of shape.
3. Sinusoidal (Sansom Flamsteed) projection is suitable for Africa. For drawing map of small countries like
Nepal, Sri Lanka, France, Portugal the Simple conical projection with one standard parallel is most
suitable. Galls projection is rectangular in shape & is most suitable for General purpose map of the world.
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4. The Ria coast contours are shown below the sea level. The chorographical maps are drawn on a very small
scale & give more or less highly generalized information.
5. Hypsometer measures the proportion of area of the surface at different elevation above or below the sea
level. Most globes are formed from a series of roughly triangular maps called gores, which are glued on
the outside of a sphere. The earliest known globe is said to have been constructed by a Greek scholar
Crates about 150 BC.
6. The Indian topographical maps have the scale 1 = 1 mile. The scale of degree sheets published by the
Survey of India is 1:250,000. Aerial photographs of India are supplied by Survey of India. March to April
& September to October is the best period for aerial photography.
7.

Europe (Polyconic projection) Asia (Zenithal Equidistant), General purpose map of India (Bonnes) &
USA (Lamberts Zenithal Equal Area) Distribution map of world (Cylindrical Equal Area)

8. The Gnomonic Projection is a great circle projection. Transverse Mercators projection is also known as
Gauss conformal projection & it never shows pole.
9. LANDSAT orbit allows the imaging of the location about every two & a half weeks.
10. Topographical maps are prepared on a smaller scale than a map of Delhi.
11. Halley prepared the first weather map of the world. In the year 1884 the meridian that passes through the
royal observatory at Greenwich in London was established as the global starting point for measuring
longitudes.
12. Conical map projections were the first map projections developed by ancient Greeks. Pole is represented
by an arc in conical projections. Cardinal points refer to the four main directions on a compass.
13. In Azimuthal projection the direction of one point with respect to the other point is the same as it is on the
globe. In all cylindrical projections, meridians are equispaced. In all cylindrical projections latitudinal
scale is correct only along the equator.
14. Perspective projection is also known as geometrical projection. In Mercators projection, a straight line
drawn is a line of constant bearing (Loxodrome) but it does not give the shortest distance. Still it is
popular among navigators as they project the great circles into smaller loxodromes & then navigate
through Mercators projection.
15. The stereographic projection is suitable for navigational chart. Gnomonic projection is used for air routes
in the higher latitudes. Mercator projection is also referred to as Cylindrical Orthomorphic projection.
16. The counters showing vertical cliff come very close to meet each other but do not intersect each other.
Longitudinal profile would suit to show a waterfall.

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17. The direction of the hachures is the same as that in which water would flow ie the direction of slope.
Hachures cut contours obliquely. Hill Shading is a modern substitute for hachures. It involves shading the
slopes which are usually shadowed form the sun.
18. The true north is called geographic north.
19. For a map, horizontal equivalent is generally not constant, however the vertical equivalent is constant.
20. The various colours used in making maps are Cultivated area (yellow), Grasslands (light green), Forests
(Dark Green) & Built up area (Brown).
21. The balloon borne instrument used to measure different atmospheric elements & sending information to
the ground is called Radio Sounde.
22. The wet bulb & dry bulb thermometer is used to measure Humidity.
23. Equal area projections are Cylindrical equal area, Bonnes projection, Sinusoidal projection, Stereoscopic
projection & Mollweids projection.
24. The world is divided into 136 million sheets. The million sheets are further divided into 16 parts A to P.
The reduced bearing equivalent of whole circle bearing 225o is S 45o W.
25. On a topographical map built up areas like village site, towns, roads are shown by brown colour.
26. SPOT was the first satellite to offer a stereoscopic cover. Quick bird is the highest resolution satellite of
the world. At international date line west side of the line is always one day ahead of the east side.
27. The IRS satellite has a polar, sun synchronous orbit. It returns to its original orbit after 22 days. The
satellite takes about 103 minutes for completing one orbit.
28. Daylight Saving, system of setting clocks 1 or 2 hours ahead so that both sunrise and sunset occur at a
later hour, producing an additional period of daylight in the evening. Daylight saving was first proposed
by Benjamin Franklin.
29. China with a longitudinal extent of 50 degrees has only one time zone corresponding to the eastern part of
the country.
30. Africa cannot be shown suitably on Bonnes projection.
31. Ancient period maps: Circular showing Europa north of Asia surrounded by Oceanus on all sides
(Hecataeus), Rectangular having cylindrical projection (Eratosthenes) & Conical shape projection
(Ptolemy), Heart shaped map (Peter Apian), world in two hemispheres (Mercator) [Refer last 3-4 pages
of S.K Manocha for map].

165