Quarks and Lepton

A. Particles
The atom could be understood in terms of only three particlesthe electron, the proton, and the
neutron. The new particles have names and symbols such as muon (), pion (), kaon (K), and
sigma ().
N = N0e-t
The rate of decay R, from an initial value of R0
R = R0e-t
And the half-life T1/2, decay constant lamda, and mean life
T1/2 =

ln 2
= ln 2

The half-lives of the new particles range from about 10 -6 s to 10-23 s. Indeed, some of the particles
last so briefly that they cannot be detected directly but can only be inferred from indirect
evidence.
1. Fermion or Boson
All particles have an intrinsic angular momentum called spin, as we discussed for electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
Sz = ms h
Which Sz =

for ms = s, s 1 -s

1
1
(spin up) or Sz =
(spin down)
2
2

Particles with half-integer spin quantum numbers are called fermions, after Fermi, who
discovered the statistical laws that govern their behavior. Particles with zero or integer spin
are called bosons, after Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, who found the representing
factual laws for those particles.

2. Hadron or Lepton
We are left with the strong force, which is the force that binds nucleons together, and the
weak force, which is involved in beta decay and similar process. The weak force acts on all
particles, and the strong force only on some. Particles on which strong force acts are called
hardrons (protons, neutrons, pions). Particles that leaving the weak force and the
electromagnetic force as dominant forces, are called leptons (electrons and neutrinos). Boson
is known as mesons, and Fermion is known as baryons.

3. Particle or Antiparticle
Physicist gradually realized that every particle has a corresponding antiparticle. At first,
particle was used to refer to the common particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons,
and antiparticle referred to their rarely detected counterparts.

Annihilation. When a particle meets its antiparticle, the two can annihilate each other. For an
electron annihilating with a positron, this energy reappears as two gamma-ray photons:
e+ + e- is equal to +
If the electron and positron are stationary when they annihilate, their total energy is their total
mass energy, and that energy is then shared equally by the two photons.
An assembly of antiparticles, such as an antihydrogen atom, is often called antimatter to
distinguish it from an assembly of common particles.

B. The Leptons
There are two types of neutrino which is muon neutrino and electron neutrino which are known to
be different particles because, if a beam of muon neutrinos strikes a solid target only muon and
never electron are produced. If a beam of electron neutrinos strikes a solid target, only electron
and never muons are produced.
Tau was discovered at SLAC in 1975, which discovered by Martin Perl and shared the Nobel
Prize in physics in 1995.
1. The conservation of Lepton Number
Particle interaction involving leptons obey a conservation law for a quantum number called
the lepton number L. Particle L=+1, and Antiparticle L=-1, and which are not lepton =0.
There are actually three types of lepton number,one for each lepton family: the electron
lepton number Le, the muon lepton number Lm, and the tau lepton number Lt. Illustration of
conservation by reconsidering the antimuon decay process:
+ is equal to e+ + ve + v

C. The Hadrons
We start by adding another conservation law to our list: Conservation of baryon number. To
develop this conservation law, let us consider the proton decay process:
p is equal to e+ + ve
This process never happens. Yet this decay process does not violate the conservation laws
involving energy, linear momentum, or lepton number. We account for the apparent stability of
the protonand for the absence of many other processes that might otherwise occurby
introducing a new quantum number, the baryon number B, and a new conservation law, the
conservation of baryon number. the proton has a baryon number of B =+1 and the positron and
neutrino both have a baryon number of B = 0.Thus,the process does not conserve baryon number
and cannot occur.

D. Still Another Conservation Law

If a beam of energetic pions interacts with the protons in a bubble chamber, the reaction

+ + p is equal to K+ ++
Often occur. The reaction
+ + p is equal to + + +
Which violates no conservation law known in the early days of particle physics, never occurs.
The proton, neutron, and pion have S = 0; that is, they are not strange. It was proposed,
however, that the K+ particle has strangeness S =+1 and that sigma + has S = -1. Strong particles
are produced only by strong interactions and only in pairs with a net strangeness of zero which
make them decay through the weak interaction without conserving strangeness.

E. The Eightfold Way

There are eight baryonsthe neutron and the proton among themthat have a spin quantum
number of . The symmetry of the eightfold way pattern for the spin- baryons (not shown here)
calls for ten particles arranged in a pattern like that of the tenpins in a bowling alley. However,
when the pattern was first proposed, only nine such particles were known; the headpin was
missing. In 1962, guided by theory and the symmetry of the pattern, Gell-Mann made a
prediction in which he essentially said:
There exists a spin- baryon with a charge of -1,a strangeness of 3,and a rest energy of about
1680 MeV.If you look for this omega minus particle (as I propose to call it),I think you will find it.
Similarly, the eightfold way patterns strongly suggest that the mesons and the baryons must have
an underlying structure, in terms of which their properties can be understood.

F. The Quark Model

The eightfold way patterns can be understood in a simple way if the mesons and the baryons are
built up out of subunits that Gell-Mann called quarks. There are three types of quarks which are,
up quark, down quark, and strange quark also known as quark flavors.
1. Quarks and Baryons
With regard to baryon number, we see that any three quarks (each with B=1/3) yield a proper
baryon (with B =+1).
The proton has a quark composition of uud, and so its charge quantum number is
Q(uud) = 2/3 + 2/3 + (-1/3) = +1
The neutron has a quark composition of udd,and its charge quantum number is therefore
q(udd) = 2/3 + (-1/3) + (-1/3) = 0
The (sigma-minus) particle has a quark composition of dds, and its charge quantum number is
therefore
q(dds) =- 1/3 + (-1/3) + (-1/3) =-1
2. Quarks and Mesons
Mesons are quark antiquark pairs. The quark antiquark model is consistent with the fact
that the mesons are not baryons; mesons have a baryon number B = 0.

3. A New Look in Beta Decay

32

P is equal to 32S + e- + v

After the neutron was discovered by Fermi, physicist came to the view of fundamental beta
decay process as changing of a neutron into a proton inside the nucleus, according to the
scheme,
n is equal to p + e- + ve
In which neutrino is identified more completely. Neutron can change into a proton by
changing a down quark into a up quark. Which the fundamental beta-decay process as
d is equal to u + e- + ve
The quark model not only help us to understand the structure of particles but also clarifies
their interactions.

G. The Basic Forces and Messenger Particles

1. Electromagnetic Force
We cannot detect these photons because they are emitted by one electron and absorbed by the
other a very short time later. Because of their undetectable existence, we call them virtual
photons. Because they communicate between the two interacting charged particles, we
sometimes call these photons messenger particles. Which the principle of conservation of
energy written in a form
Delta E. Delta t is nearly equal to h cross
When electron emits a virtual photon, overdraw in energy is quickly set right when that
electron receives a virtual photon from another electron, and the violation is hidden by the
inherent uncertainty.

2. Weak Force
The messenger particles that transmit the weak force between particles, however, are not
photon but massive particles, identified by the symbol of W and Z. The electroweak theory
was specific in predicting the properties of the messenger particles. The messenger of
electromagnetic interactions, the theory gives us three messenger of the weak interactions:

3. Strong Force
A theory of the strong forcethat is, the force that acts between quarks to bind hadrons
togetherhas also been developed. The messenger particles in this case are called gluons.
The theory assumes that each flavor of quark comes in three varieties that, for convenience,
have been labeled red, yellow, and blue. Which anti quark is also come up in three colors,
which are anti-red, anti-yellow, and anti-blue.
The force acting between quarks is called a color force and the underlying theory or so called
as Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). Apparently, quarks can be assembled only in
combinations that are color-neutral.

4. Higgs Field and Particle

The Standard Model of the fundamental consists of the theory for the electroweak
interactions and the theory for the strong interactions. A key success in the model has been to
demonstrate the existence of the four messenger particles in the electroweak interactions: the
photon, and the Z and W particles.
In the 1960s, Peter Higgs and, independently, Robert Brout and Franois Englert suggested
that the mass discrepancy is due to a field (now called the Higgs field) that permeates all of
space and thus is a property of the vacuum. The Brout - EnglertHiggs theory demonstrates
how the field breaks that symmetry, producing the electroweak messengers with one being
massless. It also explains why all other particles, except for the gluon, have mass. The
quantum of that field is the Higgs boson. Because of its pivotal role for all particles, which
Higgs Boson at a mass of 125 GeV/c2.