FORENSIC

FROM DRs FINAL EXAM NOTE

(I) Post-Mortem Changes

POST MORTEM CHANGES

1. Cooling
2. Hypostasis (Postmortem Lividity)
3. Rigor Mortis
4. Decomposition

1. Cooling
The human body cools down after death ( Algor

Mortis ). It is useful from the standpoint of

estimating how long a time has elapsed since death
took place. It is well to bear in mind that there is no
completely reliable method for making this
determination. The temperature which measured is
the Core Temperature.

Cooling
Cooling is accelarated

by:
A cold atmosphere
Immersion of the body
in cold water
Nakedness
A thin body
A high surface-tovolume ratio
(e.g.children)

Cooling Retarded by:

A warm atmosphere
Heavy clothing on the
body
A fat body
Poor ventilation /
still air

Cooling
Points:

1. It may be that different factors cancel out- for

example, a clothed thin body in a warm room.

2. It is not always true that the body temperature

was normal at the time of death.

2. Hypostasis
(Postmortem Lividity)
This is a purplish staining of the skin resulting from the
settling of blood within the blood vessels after death
under the influence of gravity.

The main usefulness of hypostasis to the investigator is

to indicate whether the body has been moved after
death.

The colour of hypostasis may also be informative in

some poisons, such as the gas carbon monoxide, or
cyanide salts, since they alter it.

It is important to distinguish between hypostasis and

bruising. The test is a simple one: to incise the area.

3.Rigor Mortis
A chemical change in the muscles of the body

involving the release of lactic acid and the

breakdown of ATP, causing the muscles to stiffen
gradually, first the small ones and then the larger.

The rate of development of rigor is increased by

heat and also in children. Refrigerating a freshly
dead body postpones the onset of rigor.

Rigor Mortis
Cadaveric Spasm ( Instantaneous Rigor ) :
Very rare. It tends to happen in moments of high
emotion- It cannot be imitated and is therefore of
important evidential value. It is essential to record
this photographically before breaking the grip.

4. Decomposition
(Putrefaction.)
MUMIFICATION

ADIPOCERE

The most usual case involves a An unusual change which

strong current of dry hot air
occurs when all or part of the
and a body whose surface area body becomes saponified.
is large in comparison to its
volume.

ADIPOCERE
Adipocere ( literally, "fatty soap" ) is a rancid, foul-smelling,
greasy substance formed by stiffening and swelling of the soft tissues of the
body when it is buried in wet soil of the right alkalinity or immersed in water
for long periods at the right temperature
The result is a body which may show remarkably fine detail of
distinguishing marks and injuries many years after death.

(II) SUDDEN
NATURAL DEATH
(SND

Definition:
WHO defines SND as: death within 24 hours of the
onset of symptoms.

The purpose of investigation into sudden and

unexpected deaths is to remove the ones that are

epidemic and traumatic.

Causes of Sudden Natural

Death:
CVS

CNS

RS

GIS

Gynae

1. CAD

1. Epilepsy

1. Pulmonary TE

1. Massive
Hemorrhage

1. Ruptured Tubal
Ectopic Pregnancy

2. Atheroma

2. SAH

2. Asthma

2. Peritonitis

2. Ruptured Uterus

3. Bridging

3. ICH

3. Pneumonia

3. Air Embolism

4.Hypertensive
heart disease

4. Meningitis

4. Hemoptysis

4. Amniotic Fluid
Embolism

5.
Cardiomyopath
y

5. Tumors

6. Myocarditis

A. Cardiovascular System:
The vast majority of sudden natural and

unexpected deaths in adults are due to

cardiovascular diseases. It is the leading cause of
death in men between 20 and 65 years of age. The
great majority of such deaths are due to coronary
atherosclerosis. Hypertensive cardiovascular
disease accounts for a significantly smaller number
of deaths, with occasional deaths from
cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease,
myocarditis, and other less common forms of heart
disease.

Coronary artery disease:

Stenosis or complete occlusion due to atheroma.
Thrombosis: usually associated with atheroma.
Spasm.
Myocardial bridging.

Atheroma:
Approximately half the individuals with coronary

atherosclerosis die suddenly. Coronary artery atheroma

may be either focal or diffuse and usually affects the
medium-sized arteries.

Sites of coronary artery occlusion (in order of

frequency):

First 2cms of the left anterior descending coronary

artery.

Right coronary artery.

Circumflex coronary artery.

Bridging:
Sudden death due to a coronary artery abnormality
has been described in a condition called
Bridging.

In this entity, the left anterior descending coronary

artery (very rarely the right), instead of lying in the

epicardial fat of the heart, dips down into the
myocardium.

Hypertensive heart
disease:
Sudden death in individuals with hypertension is

usually associated with, and in most instances due

to, accompanying coronary atherosclerosis.

Cardiomyopathy:
The cardiomyopathies constitute a diverse group of

diseases of both known and unknown etiology

characterized by myocardial dysfunction, that is,
diseases that are not the result of atherosclerosis,
hypertension, congenital, or valvular disease.
Cardiomyopathies can be grouped into three general
categories:

Dilated / Congested which is usually associated with

alcoholism.

Hypertrophic.
Restrictive / Obliterative which is usually associated
with amyloidosis, sarcoidosis and
hematochromatosis.

Myocarditis:
The most common cause is viral infection. The

clinical manifestations of the acute picture may

range from none to acute heart failure to sudden
death.

B- Central Nervous System:

The most common causes encountered in order of
frequency are:

Epilepsy.
Subarachnoid haemorrhage.
Intracerebral haemorrhage.
Meningitis.
Tumors.

C- Respiratory System:
Sudden death due to diseases of the respiratory

system comprises only a small proportion of all

sudden deaths. The major causes of sudden death
within the respiratory system is vascular. The
common causes of sudden death include:

Pulmonary thromboemboli.
Asthma.
Penumonia.
Hemoptysis.

D- Gastrointestinal System:
The two most common modes of sudden death
involving the gastrointestinal system are

1) Massive haemorrhage
2) Peritonitis

E- Gynaecological System:
Most deaths are associated with e.g.:

Ruptured tubal ectopic pregnancy.

Ruptured uterus.
Air embolism.
Amniotic fluid embolism.

Special Problems
Special problems arise in certain cases and situations
because they have the most potential for serious errors:

1- No identification.
2- No cause of death.
3- Environmental exposure.
4- Decomposed bodies.
5- Skeletal remains.
6- Deaths in police custody and police shootings.
7- Mass disasters.

III) WOUNDS

DEFINITON
Wound may be defined as a disruption of continuity
of tissues produced by external mechanical force.

Any injury may acquire medicolegal importance

either in connection with criminal charges or by
giving rise to actions for civil compensation.

TYPES
1. Bruises
2. Abrasions
3. Lacerations
4. Incised Wounds
5.Stab Wounds (Puncture/
Penetrating)

Bruises:
These very familiar injuries are an everyday

occurrence resulting from blunt force impact on the

body. More precisely, they occur when tissue is
crushed, allowing blood to escape into the tissues
from damaged vessels under pressure from the
heart.

The rate at which bruises fade is variable from one

individual to another, and even between different
parts of the same individual

Bruises
The only factor which holds constant is the order of the
colour changes.Therefore lt is not possible to precisely
determine age of constusion. The full exent of bruising
and even the presence of a bruise may not be readily
apparent on external examination.

Bruises may occur internally as well as externally.

Some individuals are especially likely to bruise easily.
In addition to changing colour, bruises may also
migrate. This they do under the influence of gravity.

Bruises
Bruises may reproduce the outline of the

instrument or surface which caused them, but in

general the match is poor.There is no mathematical
correlation between the size of a bruise and the
force applied. Bruises are uncommon in suicides.
Bruises in deep tissue can be life-threatening.

Abrasions:
These are familiar in everyday life as Grazes: they

are usually, in medical terms, some of the most

trivial and insignificant injuries, requiring nothing
more than a clean up and some sticking plaster. By
contrast, in forensic medicine,the importance of
abrasions is often pivotal.

An abrasion represents the direct impact, pressure

or glancing contact of an object against the skin.
This contact crushes the epidermis, some
abrasions may be closely associated with much
more serious or fatal injuries.

Abrasions
Abrasions are mostly due to:
Direct Impact

Tangential Impact

Imprint which may reflect

the pattern of causative
surface

Graze or scratch which

may reflect direction of
impact.
Abrasions always occur at
the site of impact

Lacerations:
A laceration is a tear in the tissues, inflicted when
the applied force exceeds the elastic limit of the
tissue concerned. They are not related to object
shape. They are distinguished from other wounds
by the presence of tissue bridges in-depth.

Since they are very much blunt force injuries,

lacerations tend to accompany those

circumstances in which such force is likely to be
applied.

Lacerations
For example:

-Blows from blunt instruments.

-Kicking and heavy punching assaults.
-Motor vehicle collisions, especially with pedestrians.
-Industrial accidents.
-Glancing, rolling or crushing impacts with heavy objuects.
-Falls on hard surfaces.
-Dragging along rough ground.
-Damage to the perineum in childbirth.
-Damage to the hymen in rape or to the anal verge in sodomy.

Incised Wounds:
A surgical incision is a good example of an incised wound.
As a general rule, incised wounds are longer than they are

deep, and they give no idea at all of the shape or size of the
weapon which inflicted them. The only exception might be a
series of regularly spaced incisions caused by an instrument
with multiple fixed blades, which would produce parallel
injuries.They are deeper at the start.

A useful distinction which can often be made is to determine

whether an incised wound is Homicidal, Suicidal or
Accidental. This depends upon the pattern of injury.

Stab wounds (Puncture/

Penetrating):
Breach in full skin thickness and depth is greater than
length. Hemorrhage is internal. Homicidal wounds are
usually multiple of different directions and many of
which are potentially fatal.

The suicidal ones are usually multiple, grouped in

elective site with tentative ones and one is fatal.

Defensive injuries are injuries sustained by victims as

they are trying to protect themselves from an assailant.

Hesitation marks are multiple, superficial usually

paralled incised wounds that are seen in cases of selfinflicted sharp force injuries.

Medical Complications of
Injuries:
-Infection.
-Disseminated intravascular coagulation.
-Acute respiratory distress syndrome/diffuse alveolar damage.
-Deep venous thromboses.
-Acute tubular necrosis.
-Compartment syndrome.
-Fat embolism.
-Necrotizing fasciitis.
-Physiologic stress ulcers/Cushing's ulcer(Curling's ulcer)
-Neurogenic pulmonary edema.
-Multiple system organ failure (MSOF).

FIREARM / GUNSHOT
WOUNDS
A consideration of kinetic energy (KE) is of

particular importance in firearm injury. Factors

which influence the loss of kinetic energy and
penetrating power of a bullet are these:

- KE = 1/2 MV2:Mass (M) and velocity (V)

- Yawing of the bullet any tendency for the bullet
to tumble or strike side-on will maximise its
chances of wounding.

FIREARM / GUNSHOT
WOUNDS
- The shape of the bullet and its tendency to fragment -

a bullet which breaks up is subject to high drag, slowing

it down and making it more likely to stay in the body.

- The density, strength and elasticity of the tissue

struck.

- Shock waves: they may cause the rupture of gas-filled

organs and hemorrhage into the body cavities.

- Secondary projectiles e.g. bone fragments

- Discharged gases.

Gunshot Entry Wounds

Divisible into four broad categories, according to
range:
GUNSHOT ENTRY WOUNDS
1. Contact Range Wounds
2. Near Contact Range Wounds
3. Intermediate Range Wounds
4.Distant Range Wounds

1. Contact Arrange Wound

In all contact wounds, flame, soot, powder, gas and
also vaporized metals from the bullet, primer and
cartridge case enter the wound, together with
Carbon Monoxide gas, which may stain tissue pink
alongside the wound track.

2. Near Contact Range

Wounds
The muzzle is not in contact with the skin, but is
probably not more than 10mm away.

Gas Entry: In all contact and near contact wounds,

the potential exists for large amounts of gas to

enter the wound. The chest or abdomen will stretch
to accommodate this. Not so the rigid skull, which
may be blown to pieces along with the brain.

3. Intermediate Range
Wounds
The hallmark of these is powder tattooing, in which
grains of unburnt propellant stipple the skin
around the entry site.

4. Distant Range Wounds

The only marks produced on the target are those of
mechanical piercing of the skin by the bullet.

Gunshot Exit Wounds

These have the same general characteristics

irrespective of the range of fire. They are typically

( but not always ) larger and more irregular than
entrance wounds and seldom have an abrasion
ring.

( IV )
ASPHYXIA

Definition:
Asphyxia (which literally derives from a Greek word

meaning pulseless) is a term which has a place in

the history of medicine and which persists in
medico-legal practice but which has little use in the
everyday technical vocabulary of clinical medicine.

The General Changes

Caused by Asphyxia:
1- Congestion.
2- Cyanosis.
3- Edema.
4- Petechiae.
5- Other consequences of the struggle to breathe:
* Reflex vomiting.
* Reflex voiding of urine and faeces.

Reflex Cardiac Arrest:

The victim of reflex cardiac arrest looks completely
different from someone who has asphyxiated:

The face is pale and composed.

There is no swelling or cyanosis.
There are no petechiae.
There is no reflex voiding or vomiting.
The diagnosis can be established only by means of
careful history and by exclusion of other causes of
death- there is no cardinal sign at autopsy.

Reflex Cardiac Arrest:

Many potentially dangerous activities can terminate either
in asphyxia or in reflex cardiac arrest. These include:

Hanging.
Compression of the neck.
Stimulation of the glottis.
Drowning.
Sexual asphyxia.
Walking into an atmosphere of irrespirable gas.

Types of Asphyxial and

Related Deaths:
TYPES OF ASPHYXIA
1. Suffocation and Gagging:
2. Choking:
3. Manual Strangulation:
4. Ligature Strangulation:
5. Hanging:
6. Crush Asphyxia:
7. Sexual Asphyxia:

Suffocation and Gagging:

Suffocation is blockage of the mouth and nose by

impermeable material, such as cloth or mud. Homicidal

suffocation (smothering) is usually effected with a pillow
or some other soft cloth object and is practicable only
against the very young, the very old or the invalids.

Suffocation may also be completely accidental:

'Postural'/'Positional' e.g. the drunk who falls face down

in the mud, for example or rarely, suicidal.

Suffocation by a ploythene bag may kill children

accidentally, adolescent gluesniffers by misadventure.

Death from suffocation is, in general, asphyxial with
plenty of asphyxial signs.

Choking:
Chocking implies blockage of the glottis or trachea by
foreign matter. It is almost invariably the result of an
accident and the groups most at risk are:

- Young children.

- Old people.

- The mentally handicapped.

- Greedy eaters.

- The drunk.

- The drugged.

Manual Strangulation:
Obviously, this is almost always homicidal. There

are many variants of this method of assault; one

hand from in front, both hands, repeated
application of hands, assault from back, front or
side. Any of these methods is likely to leave
fingertip-sized bruises and often fingernail marks
either from the assailant or from the victim
scrabbling at the attackers hands. The laryngeal
skeleton is often damaged.

Ligature Strangulation:
A ligature in this context is anything that encircles and

compresses the neck, partially or completely. Rarely, the

circumstances are accidental or suicidal. Most often it is
homicidal, either deliberate or unintentional.

Classically, ligature strangulation is garotting, producing

a discontinous horizontal groove across the neck
(usually the front). The mark is deepest opposite the
point of application and is often a dried red-based or
golden abrasion. This abrasion may reproduce the
pattern of the ligature (chain, belt, irregular lines of
folded cloth, etc). There is often severe damage to the
surrounding and underlying neck structures, with
bruising, crushing and fractures of the laryngeal
skeleton and hyoid.

Hanging:
Almost always suicidal. Occasionally accidental.

Very rarely homicidal. Classically, and very

commonly, there is a continuous or almost
continuous groove encircling the neck and rising
towards a point of suspension. The mark is deepest
opposite the point of suspension and the dried
abrasion often reproduces the pattern of the
ligature.

Crush Asphyxia:
This is also described sometimes as Traumatic

Asphyxia. It occurs when the chest and lower body

is trapped, pinned and crushed by a heavy weight.
Examples include collapsing trenches, mine
accidents and panic in crowds when people are
squashed against walls or underfoot , It is
associated with marked asphyxial signs.

Sexual Asphyxia:
This category of curious and uncommon deaths is
an example of a syndrome, a group of findings
which go together to make up a distinct clinical or
pathlogical entity. It consists of a pattern of
paraphilia in which the subject has experimented
with partial asphyxia to enhance orgasm and the
mechanism has gone wrong with fatal results.

Sexual Asphyxia:
The diagnostic features of this syndrome, some at least must be present for
the case to qualify, are these:

- The victim is almost invariably a young male.

- Asphyxia has been induced most often by means of a neck ligature.

- There may be evidence of repetition.

- Transvestism.

- There may be an evidence of narcissism.

This behavior is essentially masochistic. It would seem likely that such

experimentation is highly dangerous to life, though very few accounts
from survivors are known because the practice is so secretive

(V)
ALCOHOL

DEFINITION
For the purpose of this lecture alcohol refers to
ethanol (CH3CH2OH).

Methanol is highly toxic and several fatalities (as

well as disabilities in the form of blindness ) have

occurred following its consumption .

Ethanol is a low molecular weight primary alcohol

freely miscible with water.

Alcoholic Beverages:
Alcoholic beverages , can broadly be divided into three groups:-

a. Beers :
Beers are fermented beverages made from malt which comprises

cereal grains such as barley, rice or wheat which had been allowed to
germinate.The average beer contains approximately 45% alcohol

b. Wines :
Wines are fermented beverages which can be made from fruit

(grapes ) berries , herbs and flowers .The alcohol content is around

(715 %) except some fortified wines e.g. sherry and port (16 -25
%) .

c. Spirits :
these are distilled beverages which are originally almost 100%
alcohol but are watered down to 40 60 % for consumption

Absorption , Metabolism
and Elimination:
Alcohol can be absorbed by any part of the

gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the

rectum but for practical purpose , most of the
absorption can be said to take place from
duodenum and jejunum.

The absorption of alcohol depends on several

factors. Once alcohol is absorbed it mixes rabidly

with water in the body.

Food:
The presence of food in the stomach delays the

absorption of alcohol. Fats, such as cream, and in

particular strong sugar solution, retard absorption.

Alcohol is largely metabolized and degraded by the liver

(90%). The remaining 10% is excreted mainly by the
kidneys and lungs. In the liver alcohol is first broken
down into acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase.

The acetaldehyde is then broken down to acetate by

acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. The acetate enter the pool
of acetate in the tissues and is finally broken down into
carbon dioxide and water.

Concentration:
Alcohol is absorbed optimally at a concentration of

10-20%. Neat spirits retard absorption by reducing

gastric motility (i.e. cause local irritation).

Effects of Alcohol:
There is no well defined fatal levels but levels over

300mg% can be taken as fatal. The chronic intake

of alcohol mainly affect the liver. The other organs
which show alcohol related diseases are the
pancreas, heart, and brain. Alcohol related birth
defects (fetal alcohol syndrome)

Subjective effects due to its selective actions on the

frontal lobe of the cerebrum.

Alcohol Related Deaths:

DIRECTLY

INDIRECTLY

1. liver failure from cirrhosis.

1. accidents with multiple

injuries including road traffic
accidents.

2. bleeding from oesophageal avarices.

3. fits (usually in withdrawal phase)
4. pancreatitis:
5. cardiomyopathy.
6. aspiration of gastric contents.
7. alcohol ketoacidosis (starvation)

2. other violence.
3. falls with head injuries or
falls with head
down :postural/positional
asphyxia.

Alcohol Consumption in
Units of Alcohol.
One Unit is equivalent to:

8 grams of alcohol.
15 - 20 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood.
6 - 8 micrograms of alcohol per 100 ml of
breath.


(VI) CHILD ABUSE

TYPES
TYPES
1. Physical
2. Sexual
3. Emotional
4. Neglect
Age:
Abuse can begin in infancy and may continue through
adolescence to adult life.

CAUSES
SOCIOECONOMICS*
1. Poverty.

PARENTS
1. low self-esteem .

2. Unemployment.

2. Abused as children
themselves .

3. Isolation.

3. Immature parents or
single parents .

4. Domestic violence.

4. Alcoholics.
5. Psychiatric illness.

* It can affect all

socioeconomic classes but it is
more among the following risk
group

6. Marital problems .

(I) Physical abuse :

A delay in seeking help &/or non-compliance with the advised treatment.
It may be fatal .
Parents behaving unexpectedly, for example, aggressively , toward staff .
The child is seen frequently at the clinics for minor injuries .
The child appears to be thriving poorly .
The child displays developmental delay .

Prolonged bed wetting or soiling .

Discrepancies in the history .

The history changes with repeated telling

Physical abuse (cont.)

The history may be vague and lack details.
There may be denial of pain or minimizing of symptoms .
There are some trigger factors , such as feeding or sleeping
difficulties or prolonged crying .

Stealing, lying that usually further aggravate the parent

toward the child .

The parent could be physically or mentally ill , druged or

drunk .

There are social factors such as the parent being abused as a

child , unemployed & poor , or during partnership break-up.

The child expresses pleasure to stay away from home.

(II) Sexual Abuse:

Perpetrators (Sexual abusers) are mostly:
* Parents , siblings or other relatives.
* Child care professionals .
* Teachers and athletic trainers .
* Neighbors and friends .

The minority of perpetrators are strangers .

Sexual abuse
Characteristics of families in which abuse may be more
likely :

Families who are isolated.

Parents who were abused as children .
Families who are often in crises.
Parents who are very critical of their child .
Parents who abuse drugs and/or alcohol .
Parents who show too little concern for their children .

Sexual abuse
Examples of some features of sexual abuse :

* There is often a history of repetition .

* Usually there is some psychiatric features .
* Abusers/ perpetrators are mostly males .

* Victims are mostly females.

* Abused children are usually reluctant to
disclose the abuse .

( VII )
ABORTION, CHILD
MURDER &
INFANTICIDE

ABORTIONS
TYPES
1. Spontaneous abortion
2. Therapeutic abortion
3. Criminal abortion

A. Spontaneous abortion:
It is due to pathological causes:

-Diseases related to the mother e.g: Anaemia ,

pneumonia, heart failure, chronic renal
failure ,typhoid, gonorrhea .

Diseases related to the fetus e.g:

Hydroamnios, placenta abruptio & congenital
anomalies.

B- Therapeutic abortion:
The unborn child is protected under the law by the laws relating
to the medical termination of pregnancy if certain conditions
are satisfied:

1. That permission has been obtained from the pregnant

mother in writing or by the guardian in cases of emergencies .

2.The opinion of two registered medical practioners that if

the pregnancy continues there would be a risk to the life of

the pregnant mother OR to the physical or mental health of
the pregnant mother.

3.That the termination is carried out in a licensed hospital or

department of Gyn & obs. but NOT in a clinic.

4. That the termination is documented in the records for a

period of at least ten years.

C- Criminal abortion:
Attempts made to dislodge and thus terminate a
pregnancy in its first months can take the following
forms:
1) Physical violence to the abdomen that is meant to
be transmitted to the uterus in general:
causing it to contract, and to the site of placentation
causing it to dislodge itself
such trauma often results in serious damage to the
mother and even death, without dislodgement of the
pregnancy.

Criminal abortion:
2) drugs given to induce the uterus to contract vigorously .
3) forceful opening of the cervix of the uterus
mechanically.
4) application of irritants to the vagina and cervix ( such
as potassium permanganate crystal).
5) insertion of objects into the cavity of the uterus to
remove the placenta from its uterine bed and /or to
puncture the fluid sac (amnion).
6) the pumping of fluid ( disinfectant or soap solution)
and/or of air in between the amnion and the uterus.
7) curettage of the uterus.

Complications of these
methods
1.local infection.
2. haemorrhage.
3. septicaemia.
4. perforations of the uterus.
5. vagal inhibition and sudden death.
6. air embolism.
7. renal shut-down and acute failure due to one or
other of these complications

CHILD MURDER
Most such deaths take place within the first few hours of
life . It has to be ascertained in such cases:

1.that the baby was born a live.

2.that the injuries sustained were not due to the effort

of the delivery which may precipitate or unprepared for

and carried out inexpertly.

3. that the death was not the direct result of a willful act
of commission or omission and neglect by the
mother,It is often difficult in such cases to be certain or
not, whether the child has lived a separate existence
from its mother, as the baby's body is often concealed
and not found till putrefaction with gas formation has
set in.

Features of separate
existence are:
1.healing and separation, partial or total, at the site
of the umbilical cord which can only take place
outside the uterus.

2.feeding the presence of milk in the stomach .

3.air within the stomach ( not so useful ).
4. evidence of aeration and expansion in the lungs.
It is difficult to determine even histologically if
putrefaction has set in .

Infanticide:
It is a form of intentional child murder BUT with a lesser

charge and carries a much lesser penality if the following

conditions are fulfilled:

1.

When by any willful act or omission the mother causes

the death of her child.

2.

The child is under the age of 12 months.

3.

The balance of the mother's mind at the time was

disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered
from the effects of giving birth to the child or by
reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the
birth of her child.

4.

Lesser charge is also applied in Jordan Penal Code if

the child was born as result of illegal pregnancy.