Fermat's Last Theorem Proof by Tom Ballard

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Tom Ballard's Original Notes
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SYNOPSIS

This is an improved version of an earlier treatise. It features a

short-form proof that xn + yn = zn is impossible in integers for n >2. It is
the writers belief that this is Fermats original proof. This version
addresses some of the comments from reviewers and resolves their
objections.

To begin, a model for squared numbers will be introduced and used to

devise a method to create all Pythagorean (x2 + y2 = z2) relationships.
Equations will be derived from this process which indicate the
existence of a Pythagorean equation in the model for squared
numbers.

A model for higher powers of "n" will then be introduced. This model
will be an extension of the model for squared numbers. Simple
manipulations of this model will show that the "end game" packaging of
quantities postulated to be xn and yn into spaces known to be xn and
yn requires that x, y, and z form a Pythagorean equation ! This is
totally incompatible with the postulation that xn + yn = zn where n >2.
The proof is thus Reductio ad Absurdum. . The recogniton of the
afore-mentioned equations in the packaging process is the essence of
the proof.

FORWARD

Validating Fermats assertion that he had a proof is of utmost

importance. It will never be known for sure that he had a proof in his
own day and age until some credible effort can be put together to
substantiate this. This treatise will provide that proof.. Also, a
short-form proof may provide valuable adjuncts to the recent
accomplishments of "Twentieth Century Mathematics".
We have no direct knowledge of what might have been Fermats
general approach; however, we have a few tantalizing clues from the
notes he is said to have made in the margin of a text.

1. He was studying Diophantine analysis.

2. He conjectured about the possibility that the sum of two cubes could
equal a third cube (in integers).

3. He rapidly asserted that this was impossible.

4. With equal rapidity he dismissed the possibility of an integral

solution for xn + yn = zn for any n > 2 !

5. He claimed to have a marvelous demonstration of this that was "Too

long to include in the margin".

All of this bespeaks for a proof with the following characteristics:

1. It must be quite brief, perhaps only a few pages.

2. It was inspired by the Diophantine literature he was studying.

3. It required the recognition of a commonality in all xn + yn = zn

equations where n > 2. How else could he have proceeded so rapidly
to his final statement?!!

4. It probably has several plateaus of logic which are simple in

themselves, but obtuse in their application.

This treatise contains four sections which reconstruct what might have
been Fermat's methodology in proceeding to a statement of his last
theorem. These are:

1. Establishment of a model for squared integer numbers.

2. The use of this model to generate all Pythagorean (n =2)

relationships and to identify equations which indicate the existence of a
Pythagorean in x, y, and z when the equations occur in the model for
squared numbers.

3. The creation of an advanced model in integers for xn + yn = zn

where n > 2.

4. The use of this model to show that packaging postulated values of

higher powers of x and y into spaces known to be actual values results
in a Pythagorean in x, y, and z; which is absurd and thereby proves the
theorem.

GENERATION OF ALL PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLETS

This will explain the methodology for creating P. triplets from even
"root numbers". To the knowledge of the writer, this method is entirely
new. This has been confirmed by many math people. A simple model
for squared numbers will be introduced. By manipulations of this
model, it will be shown how a known Pythagorean triplet relates to an
even "root number". Then an inverse process will be shown whereby
any even "root number" can generate P. triplets. Depending on the
factorability of the root number, a multiplicity of P. triplets can be
generated from one root number.

This method generates all valid P. triplets. Trivial P. triplets such as 6,

8, and 10 having a common factor, ( in this case, 2), are avoided.

MODEL FOR SQUARED NUMBERS

Figure 1. Model for squared integer numbers

This model consists of a horizontal base of "ones" and an upper

structure of "twos", thereby forming a triangular shape. The vertical
and diagonal dimensions of the triangle equal the horizontal
dimension. The cumulative value of the contents of the triangle equals
the square of the horizontal dimension. Figure 1 shows the numbers
from 1 to 8 and their squares. Observe that the cumulative value is
actually the sum of odd numbers.Throughout this treatise, the model
will be referred to as a "triangle". Sometimes it will be called an r, x, y,
or z triangle depending on the horizontal dimension. Wherever
meaningful, it may also be called an r2, x2, y2, or z2 triangle.

Figure 1(a).

The left figure shows how any diagonal segment of the model will
represent a square. The overall triangle is 82, (64), and the shaded
segment is 42, (16). The right figure shows how a vertical trapezoidal
segment of the model can be represented by a slanted segment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PYTHAGOREAN RELATIONSHIPS

Consider a known P. triplet, x = 8, y = 15, and z = 17 as shown in Fig.

2
 Figure 2. From Pythagorean equation, 82 + 152 = 172.

The contents of the overall "z" triangle are z2, (289). The dimension "y"
below the figure is the dimension of the "y" triangle which is 15. The
contents of this triangle are y2, (225). Since x2 = z2- y2, the contents of
the outlined trapezoid with width, (z-y), must equal x2, (64).

Note the shaded rhomboid atop the trapezoid with height, (z-x), equal
to 9, and width, (z-y), equal to 2. This rhomboid encloses a group of
"twos" and has a total value of 2(9*2) = 36. For the trapezoid to form
an x2 triangle, the rhomboid contents must spill down as shown and
form the small, shaded "r" triangle which abuts the lower portion of the
trapezoid. The result is an x2 triangle.

The small "r" triangle plus the lower portion of the trapezoid now
equals x2, (64). Note that "r", equals 6, and r2 equals 36 which is the
sum of the rhomboid contents, 2(9*2). "r" will always be even since r2
is composed from the rhomboid contents which are all "twos". The
following generalized equations are now obtained from the bottom of
Figure 2.

(1) x = r + (z-y)
(2) y = r + (z-x)
(3) z = r + (z-x) + (z-y)
(4) r2 = 2(z-x)(z-y) (since r2 = rhomboid contents)
 Figure 2(a). From Pythagorean equation, 82 + 152 = 172.

For additional clarity, the process is repeated in Figure 2(a) with the
trapezoid equal to y2. The trapezoid width is now (z-x). The rhomboid
dimensions are still 9 by 2.

Again, the rhomboid contents spill down and form the small "r" triangle.
It is the same size as before since the rhomboid dimensions are still
(z-x) and (z-y). The numerical content of the "r" triangle is again
2(z-x)(z-y), 36. The "r" triangle abuts the lower portion of the trapezoid
to form y2. The generalized equations observed in Figure 2 are also
observed from Fig. (2a).

The operations shown in Figures 2 and 2(a) have shown how the
rhomboid contents in a known Pythagorean triplet "spill" down to form
triangles whose contents equal r2. P. triplets in x, y, and z can be
created by a reverse process wherein an even number, r, is selected,
squared to obtain (4), and factored to generate quantities representing
the sides of rhomboids. Figure 3 shows this process in generalized
form. The "ones" and "twos" have been omitted from Figure 3 for
simplicity. The factors of r2 are designated 2(z-x) and (z-y) to facilitate
the explanation process using generalized terminology.
 Figure 3. Method of generating P. triplets from even root numbers.

The shaded triangle, whose numeric content is r2, now spills upward
and forms a rhomboid of "twos" whose sides are (z-x) and (z-y) and
whose numeric content equals that of the "r" triangle. Now a trapezoid
equal to x2 in numeric content has been created. A slanted trapezoid
equal to y2 with bottom dimension, (z-x), has also been generated.
Note the interchangeability of the contents of the rhomboids and the r2
triangle Note, also, that (1), (2), and (3) can be observed at the bottom
of Figure 3. Figure 3 is the Framework for a Pythagorean triplet.

P. triplets in x, y, and z can be calculated by using equations (1), (2),

and (3) with actual numbers in place of the generalized values, r, (z-x),
and (z-y). Henceforth "r", will be called the "root number" since it is
the starting point for creating P. triplets. Every even value of "r" will
generate at least one P. triplet. If a given root number contains many
prime factors, it will generate a multiplicity of P. triplets. The root
number, 210, 2(3*5*7), generates 8 P. triplets.

The following process generates P. triplets in x, y, and z. Steps 1 thru

4 determine the rhomboid side dimensions, (z-y) and (z-x) as shown in
Figure 3.
 1. Select any even root number and express it in prime
factors as shown.

Root number = r = 2(p1p2p3p4 . . . )

2. Square "r" to get the "root square" which is the contents

of the "r" triangle and the rhomboid

Root square = r2 = 4(p1p2p3p4 . . . )2

3. Obtain the the value of the rhomboid area (which is

(z-y)(z-x) in Figures 2 and 3).

Since the rhomboids are composed of "twos", the root

square must be halved to obtain the rhomboid area.

Rhomboid area = (Root square)/2 = 2(p1p2p3p4 . . . )2

4. Obtain the rhomboid sides by separating the rhomboid

area into 2 factors. These will be (z-x) and (z-y) in general
terminology. One side will be even since it contains 2 as a
factor. The primes may be grouped in any combination.
Only one is shown below.

Even factor = 2(p1p2 . . )2

Odd factor = (p3p4 . . )2 .

5. Generate x, y, and z from (1), (2), and (3) by inserting

actual numbers.

(1) x = 2(p1p2p3p4 . . . ) + (p3p4 . . )2

(2) y = 2(p1p2p3p4 . . . ) + 2(p1p2 . . )2

(3) z = 2(p1p2p3p4 . . . ) + (p3p4 . . )2 + 2(p1p2 . . )2

In summary, equations (1), (2), and (3) are the result of r2 =

2(z-x)(z-y). These equations were generated from the "Model for
squared numbers" and should be used with this model throuighout the
proof. Later this will be an important consideration in the proof of the
theorem.

EXAMPLES OF PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLET GENERATION

The most primitive root number, 2(1*1), which is 2, yields only one
solution:

root number r squaredr squared/2Even factorOdd factor

2(1*1) 4(1*1)2 2(1*1)2 2(1)2 (1)2

x = 2(1*1) + (1)2 =3
y = 2(1*1) + 2(1)2 =4
z = 2(1*1) + 2(1)2 + (1)2 =5
The root number, 2(2*1), which is 4, yields only one valid solution:

root number r squaredr squared/2Even factorOdd factor

2(2*1) 4(2*1)2 2(2*1)2 2(2)2 (1)2

x = 2(2*1) + (1)2 =5
2 = 12
y = 2(2*1) + 2(2)
z = 2(2*1) + 2(2)2 + (1)2 = 13

The prime, 2, in the even factor cannot be transposed to the odd factor
because x, y, and z would then have a common factor, 2. The result
would be a 6, 8, 10 Pythagorean triplet which is a trivial doubling of the
3, 4, 5 solution.

The root number, 2(3*1), which is 6, yields two valid solutions since the
prime, 3, may be transposed from the even to the odd factor.

Root number r squaredr squared/2Even factorOdd factor

2(3*1) 4(3*1)2 2(3*1)2 2(3)2 (1)2

x = 2(3*1) + (1)2 =7
2 = 24
y = 2(3*1) + 2(3)
z = 2(3*1) + 2(3)2 + (1)2 = 25

Transposing the factor 3, the following valid solution results:

Root number r squaredr squared/2Even factorOdd factor

2(3*1) 4(3*1)2 2(3*1)2 2(1)2 (3)2

x = 2(3*1) + (3)2 = 15
2 =8
y = 2(3*1) + 2(1)
z = 2(3*1) + 2(1)2 + (3)2 = 17

The above examples are the smallest P. triplets. As the number of

primes in the root number goes up, the number of factors increases
rapidly. Consider r = 2(1*3*5), which equals 30. This root number
yields four P. triplets:

Even factorsOdd factors x y z

2(1)2 (3*5)2 255 32 257

2(3)2 (5)2 55 48 73
2(5)2 (3)2 39 80 89
2(3*5)2 (1)2 31 480 481

The root number, 2(3*5*7), which equals 210, yields eight P. triplets:

Even factorsOdd factors x y z

2(1)2 (3*5*7)2 11235 212 11237

2(3)2 (5*7)2 1435 228 1453
2(5)2 (3*7)2 651 260 701
 2(7)2 (3*5)2 435 308 533
2(3*5)2 (7)2 259 660 709
2 2 235 1092 1117
2(3*7) (5)
2(5*7)2 (3)2 219 2660 2669
2(3*5*7)2 (1)2 211 22260 22261

Note that the values of x, y, and z vary widely because the rhomboid
changes shape with each different pair of factors. A long, slim
rhomboid will result in large dimensions for z and either x or y.. As the
rhomboid dimensions become more equal, the x and y values become
more equal, and the z value becomes smaller. The rhomboid area is
unchanged.

As the number of prime factors in "r" increases, the number of P.

triplets doubles with each additional prime as follows:

Numerical value of No. of P. triplets

"r" in prime factors
"r" generated
2(1*3*5*7*11) 2310 16
2(1*3*5*7*11*13) 30030 32
2(1*3*5*7*11*13*17) 510510 64
2(1*3*5*7*11*13*17*19) 9699690 128

This method generates all valid Pythagorean triplets. Since any given
P. triplet can be shown to have an even root number, "r", as shown in
Figures 2 and 3, the P. triplet will eventually be generated as
sequential even root numbers are selected and processed. The only
limitations will be the capacity of the computational devices used.

This method is used in Dave ParkersÕ interactive Pythagorean triplet

generator which appears in his website at:
http://members.aol.com/parkerdr/math/. The P. triplet generator treats
higher powers of individual prime numbers as prime numbers thereby
avoiding trivial solutions.

MODEL FOR HIGHER POWERS

Consider the model for squares in Figure 1. A model for z3 is easily

formed by stacking z2 triangles horizontally as shown in Figure 4. Thus
z3 is a wedge-shaped figure whose width, height, and length are all
equal to z. For higher powers of z, the length is z(n-2) while the width
and height remain equal to z. For simplicity, the twos and ones are not
shown in the model . It is understood that the bottom of the model
consists of "ones" and the rest consists of "twos".
 Figure 4. Model for higher powers of "z". (cubed value shown)

Figure 5. Relationships between x3, y3, and z3 in the advanced model

Figure 5 shows how y3 may represented as a "wedge" in the advanced

model. If x3 + y3 = z3 is postulated to be true in integers, then x3 must
be equal to the L-shaped form in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows this form
separately.

Figure 6. x3 (postulated) form separated from the model.

Next, consider a separate z3 wedge with the wedge representing x3

removed, thereby leaving a void known to equal x3. Now suppose that
the form in Fig. 6, postulated to be x3, is placed snugly on a level base
within this x3void as shown in Figure 7
 .

Figure 7. x3 L-shaped form placed within x3 void.

Note that parts of the L-shaped body (postulated to be x3 ) protrude

above, to the side, and to the front of the void representing x3 ).
Suppose that these protrusions are sliced away and the "detritus" is
placed aside temporarily. The result is shown in figure 8.

Figure 8. x3 void partially filled in.

Figure 8 shows that the x3 void has been partially filled by x2 triangles
and a trapezoidal form of thickness, (z-y). The remaining space is a
wedge-shaped void with dimensions "r". This void is thus composed of
identical r2 triangles. Note that the foregoing process has retained the
"ones" on the bottom of the advanced model, thereby maintaining the
integrity of the advanced model.Now, in keeping with the postulate that
x3+ y3 = z3 in integers, the remaining "detritus" must exactly fit into the
void of r2 triangles to complete filling of the x3 void. The exact fit, of
course, includes all of the "twos" and "ones" in their proper places.
Note the dimensions, z, x, r, z-x, and z-y which have been identified as
a result of the sequential filling of the x3 void.

Since the r2 triangles are exactly alike, we may confine the discusssion
to a single "z" triangle involving r, z, (z-x), and (z-y). When this is done
the following equations emerge from Fig.8..

x = r + (z-y)
z = r + (z-x) + (z-y)
If the foregoing exercise is repeated with a postulated y3 L-shaped
form filling a known y3 void, Figure 9 is obtained

Figure 9. y3 void partially filled in.

Again, in keeping with the postulate that x3+ y3 = z3, the remaining
detritus must exactly fit into the void of r2 triangles to complete filling of
the y3 void. The following equations emerge:y = r + (z-x)
z = r + (z-x) + (z-y)

The value of "r" is the same as that found in Figure 8 since (z-x) and
(z-y) have simply changed positions in the model. Again, we may
confine the discussion to a single "z" triangle since the r, z, (z-x), and
(z-y) dimensions are exactly the same in all of the triangles.

The two-stage filling of the x3 and y3 voids has yielded the following
equations in integers which relate to a Pythagorean in x, y, and z.

(1) x = r + (z-y)
(2) y = r + (z-x)
(3) z = r + (z-x) + (z-y)

Figure 10. Side view of figure 9 showing rearrangement of sections..

View (a) of Figure 10 shows the side view of Figure 9 after the filling of
the voids. View (b) shows how the shaded sections of view (a) can be
rearranged [see Figure 1 (a)]. View (b) now has the form of Figure 3
which is the "framework" for the construction of a P. triplet.

Note that equations (1), (2), and (3) can be clearly seen in view (b).
The "y" and "x" triangles overlap at the bottom of the figure. Note that
the vertical dimension of "z" .may be traced up from the bottom of the
figure, thru "r", z-y, and (z-x), thereby yielding z = r + (z-x) + (z-y).
Note, also, the rhomboid of "twos" at the top of the figure which has
the numerical content of 2(z-x)(z-y). The figure of view (b) will be
revisited later in the proof.

Assuming that the "detritus" will fit exactly into the r3 void commits this
proof to the "reductio ad absurdum" approach wherein the
consequences of doing this will be examined. The result will be an
enormous paradox which will prove the theorem.

The alternative to the above approach would be cutting and pasting

the "detritus" to show that it cannot fit into the r3 void . This could be
called the "direct" approach to a proof. This might conceivably work for
the cases where "n" is equal to 3 or 4. However, beyond this it will be a
hopeless slog into infinity.

It should be noted that the "Reductio ad Absurbum" approach shows

what must be as the consequence of assuming that xn + yn = zn exists
in integers. Many reviewers have become diverted by examining "what
if" situations before the proof has run its course. At this point, the
following observations apply:

The integral nature of the model has been preserved.

Some reviewers have maintained that the proof has departed from an
integral nature, but this is not true. The quantities x, y, z, r, and (z-x)
and (z-y) are all integers . This has been meticulously preserved
during the operations shown in Figures 4 thru 9. In all operations
involving sections of the model for higher powers, the sections have
been placed with the bottom side, consisting of "ones", on a level plane
with the other sections. Figures 4 thru 9 show this clearly. The exact
filling of the "r" voids has been done in like manner as the continuation
of the postulate that xn + yn = zn exists in integers. This is completely
justified by the proof process wherein the consequences of this
postulate will be examined..

The dimension, r, is an even number by the following logic:

Consider the postulate, xn + yn = zn, where x, y, and z are

integers with no common factor, 2.

Consider equation (1) , which is x = r + (z-y). This yields r =

(x+y) - z.

1. If z is odd in xn + yn = zn , then xn + yn (and

x + y) must also be odd.

Therefore, r in r = (x+y) - z is: r = (odd ) - odd =

 even

2. If z is even in xn + yn = zn, then xn + yn (and

x + y) must also be even.

Therefore, r in r = (x+y) - z is: r = (even) - even = even

Therefore, r and each "r2" triangle will always be even for

any postulated xn + yn = zn in integers.

Each r2 triangle is equal to a rhomboid of "2s". The content of the

rhomboid will be a squared number.

This is true because when the "detritus" was postulated to completely

fill the "r" voids in Figures 8 and 9 , the "detritus" had to be even and
equal to all of the even r2 triangles in the void. This is a most important
consequence of the continuation of the postulate that xn + yn = zn .
Since "r" is an even integer, and the contents of each r2 triangle is a
square number, r2 can be factored and used in the construction of a P.
triplet as shown in Figure 3.

Equations (1), (2), and (3) are the result of generating a P. triplet
from r2 = 2(z-x)(z-y)

In this proof, all operations involving (1), (2), and (3) will be conducted
within the framework of the model for squared numbers. This model
occurs in figures 9 and 10 as a result of the sequential filling of the
voids (in compliance with the postulate) and provides the following
requisites for the construction of a P. triplet.

1. All of the quantities involved, x, y, z, and r are integers.

2. The quantity "r" is an even integer.

3. When (1), (2), and (3) are used with r2 = 2(z-x)(z-y) to

construct a P. triplet in the model for squared numbers, the
result is an exact duplicate of the "z" triangles in Figures 8
and 9. The integers, x, y, and z form a P. triplet.

Equations (1), (2), and (3) are inexorably related to the model for
squared numbers where they originated. P. triplets are generated in
Figure 10 from r2 = 2(z-x)(z-y). When equations (1), (2), and (3) are
used outside of this model, that is, in the purely arithmetical sense,
results occur which can mislead reviewers

As a consequence of the assumption that xn + yn = zn in integers, the

following has resulted:

1. The filling of the r3 voids has created individual "r"

triangles which are all alike.

2. These "r" triangles are all even if xn + yn = zn in integers

(as shown earlier).
 3. Each of the "z" triangles in Figures 8 and 9 is a model for
squared numbers.

4. Equations (1), (2), and (3) in integers appear in each of

the "z" triangles.

5. Using Figure 10 (which is identical to Figure 3) a P.

triplet can be generated from (1), (2), and (3), and (4) [r2 =
2(z-x)(z-y)] which is identical to the "z" triangles in figures
8 and 9.

Now in keeping with the geometry of Figure 3, a P. triplet in x, y, and z

may be constructed in each "z". triangle. The numbers, x, y, and z
which were postulated to form a cubed relationship in the advanced
model must now form a x2 + y2 = z2 relationship in the "z" triangles of
the same model! This is clearly absurd.. If x2 + y2 = z2, then z3 would
greatly exceed x3 + y3 in the postulate. The cubed relationship is
impossible in integers !!

The value of "n" in the postulation, xn + yn = zn is completely

immaterial !! This is because the proof process has introduced a
general characteristic of all of the higher powers of n, namely, values
of (z-x), (z-y), and r which, in the model, exist for any value of n !! The
advanced models simply become longer as the value of "n" increases.
The operations shown in Figures 4 thru 9 result in sections with similar
shapes and characteristics for n > 3 as were observed for n = 3 !!!

Thus, the proof process will always yield the absurdity that x2 + y2 = z2
no matter what value of n is postulated in xn + yn = zn .

Therefore xn + yn = zn is impossible in integers for n > 2 !!!

In a nutshell, this proof works because the proof process requires that
x, y, and z in the relationship, xn + yn = zn, must fit into a Pythagorean
"framework". This framework is a "z" triangle within the model for
advanced powers (n>2) of x, y, and z.