2.

1 DEFINITION of PLASMA
Plasma is actually the 4th state of matter. A plasma is a gas in which an important fraction of the
atoms is ionized. So that the electrons and ions are separately free. Taking into consideration the
energy of the particles constituting it, plasma is energetically the fourth state of the matter. Apart
from the solid, liquid, and gas states. It is sometimes remarked that 95% or 99% of baryonic
content of the Universe consists of plasma. At a sufficiently high temperature, the molecules in
the gas decompose to form a gas of atoms that move freely in random directions, except for
infrequent collisions between atoms. If the temperature is further increased, then the atoms
decompose into freely moving charged particles (electrons and positive ions), and the substance
enters the plasma state. . The temperatures required to form plasmas from pure substances in
thermal equilibrium range from roughly 4000 K for easy-to-ionize elements like cesium to
20,000 K for hard-to-ionize elements like helium [1]. It is frequently described as a highly
"ionized gas." Langmuir wrote that,
"Except near the electrodes, where there are sheaths containing very few electrons, the ionized
gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very
small. We shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions
and electrons." [2]
In a plasma, the motion of the particles can cause local concentration of positive and negative
electric charge .These charge concentrations create long-ranged coulombic fields that affect the
motion of charged particles far away from the charge concentrations. Elements of the plasma
affect each other, even at large separations, giving the plasma its characteristic collective
behavior [3].
Normally at low pressure, ion densities in plasma is 10 7 to 1012 cm [3].Actually, we call an
ionized gas plasma if it is quasi-neutral and its properties are dominated by electric and/or
magnetic forces [10].Plasma contained electrons, positive ions, negative ions, atoms and
molecules .But on average Plasma is electrically neutral, because any charge imbalance would
result an electric field that would tend to move charge such way as eliminate the imbalance [4].
Typical ac frequency of excitation are 100 kHz, at low end of spectrum 13.56MHz in radio
frequency (RF portion of spectrum) and 2.45 GHz in microwave region. These plasma referred

to as electric discharge or gaseous discharge .Actually there will be slightly difference between
plasma and discharge [4].
The term 'plasma' is for everyone and not just for specialists. In spite of their mathematical
complexity, the acknowledgement of their existence thought space and utilization in industrial
processes (80% of the manufacture of computing chips requires a plasma) it is time to
acknowledge that 'plasmas' are for everyone [5].

2.2 BASIC PLASMA PARAMETERS

Plasma parameters are very important for describing the characteristics of plasma. The basic
plasma parameters are given below:

2.2.1 Degree of Ionization

Degree of ionization is an important parameter to plasma. This is actually defined the charge
particle of plasma. It specifies the fraction of the particles in the gaseous phase which are
ionized. The degree of ionization , can de define

= ni/n , where degree of ionization for

low pressure discharge is 10-3 to 10-6 ,this could be higher for adding magnetic field. To describe
degree of ionization, another important parameter is critical ionization, which is depend on
electron temperature [6]. If the degree of ionization is much bigger than the critical ionization
value, the charged particles behave as in a fully ionized gas [3].
Plasma with degree of ionization much less than unity is refer to as weak plasma. At fully
ionized plasma, neutral particle play no role and degree of ionization approaches unity [4].
2.2.2 Plasma Density
Plasma density is a fundamental property for existing of plasma. The plasma density actually
means its electron density, the number of free electron per unit volume for weakly ionized
plasma, electron density is about 108 cm-3 and for highly ionized plasma, 1012 cm-3. Typical glow
discharges and arcs have an electron and ion density of 108 1014 [7].

It is found that at constant RF power, the electron density increases with the driving frequency
then starts to level off after reaching some transition frequency.

2.2.3 Temperature
Temperature actually represents the state or energy of molecule in that system. thermally, as
consisting of two systems: the first containing only electrons and the second containing the
heavy species, that is, neutral atoms or molecules, ions, and neutral molecular fragments. The
ions and electrons in the plasma can therefore be characterized by their specific different average
temperatures: the ion temperature Ti and the electron temperature Te. Actually in some cases
additional temperatures may characterize the particles in the plasma, such as parallel
temperature, radiational temperature, the temperature of gas Tg , which characterizes the
translator energy of the gas; the excitation temperature Tex, which characterizes the energy of the
excited particles in the plasma; the ionization temperature Tion. The dislocation temperature Td
[3].
It is common to represent electron temperature T as average electron energy [4] .The range of
cold plasma is up to the dense temperature of electron us higher than temperature of gas, and for
hot plasma, electron and gas temperature are same. For process plasma, the temperature of
electron ranged 1 to 10eV, where 1eV means 11600K.
The degree of ionization of process plasma varies from 10-6 to .3.At lower end of densities
energy and ionization scale are discharge that are formed between planar electrode [4].For the
following figure, electron density and temperature ranges for a variety of natural and manmade
plasma. The region Ranges process plasma indicates the parameter range for plasma used for thin
film deposition.

Figure : The range of electron density and tempareture for natural and man-made
Plasmas

2.2.4 Debye Length

Debye length is very much important parameter for Plasma. If an electric field is created in the
plasma, the charged particles will react to reduce the effect of the field. If a plasma had an excess
of positive or negative particles, this excess would create an electric field and the electrons will
move to cancel the charge. The response of charged particles to reduce the effect of local electric

fields is called Debye shielding and the shielding gives the plasma its quasi-neutrality
characteristic.
Let assume that an electric potential is applied between two surfaces immersed in a plasma. The
concentration of charged particles near the two surfaces will shield the charged surfaces from the
plasma bulk, which will remain neutral. The applied electrical potential will therefore develop
mostly near the surfaces, over a distance called the Debye length and defined by D:
kT
D 0 2e
ne e

Where, Permeability of free space

e Charge of electron
An ionized gas is considered a plasma only if the density of the charged particles is large enough
such that D L, where L is the dimension of the system [3].

Figure: Schematic for an unshielded potential from a point charge Q compared to the debye shielded
potential occur when charge emerge in plasma [4].

The Debye length arises naturally in the thermodynamic description of large systems of mobile
charge. Every Debyelength, the electric potential will decrease by 1/e. In space plasmas where
the electron density is relatively low, the Debye length may reach macroscopic values [8].
2.2.4 Plasma Sheath
2.2.5 Plasma Potential
Since plasmas are very good conductors, electric potentials play an important role. The potential
as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, is called the plasma potential or
the space potential. If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie
considerably below the plasma potential due to the development of a Debye sheath. The
magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply
finding the net charge density. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy
the Boltzmann relation Due to the good electrical conductivity, the electric fields in plasmas tend
to be very small. In astrophysical plasmas, Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly
affecting the plasma over large distances .

Figure: Electron and ion current as a function of applied potential. The greater mobility of the
electron compared to the ions result in a larger electron current for a given positive voltage than
the ion current which flows for an equal negative voltage.

2.2.6 Magnetization
A plasma in which the magnetic field is strong enough to influence the motion of the charged
particles is said to be magnetized. A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average
completes at least one gyration around the magnetic field before making a collision. It is often
the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not. Magnetized plasmas
anisotropic, meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are
different from those perpendicular to it. While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to
the high conductivity, the electric field associated with a plasma moving in a magnetic field is
given by
E V B

(Where E is the electric field, V is the velocity, and B is the magnetic field), and is not affected
by Debye shielding [9].

2.3 PLASMA PROPERTIES

Plasma is typically an ionized gas, but it is usually considered a distinct state of matter in
contrast to gases because of its unique properties. "Ionized" means that at least one electron is
more free to move and is not bound to an atom or molecule. In the fourth state of matter a
plasma the electrical charges move independently, their energy being too great for stable atoms
to form. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds
strongly to electromagnetic fields.
The fundamental properties of Plasma given below -

2.3.1 Electro Neutrality

A plasma is a collection of free charged particles moving in random directions but on the
average, electrically neutral. Because any charge imbalance would result an electric field that
would tend to move charge such way as eliminate the imbalance [4].
2.3.2 Conductivity of Plasma

The presence of a significant number of charge carriers makes plasma electrically conductive so
that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Under the influence of a magnetic field, it
may form structures such as filaments, beams and double layers.
In Plasma includes two type of conductivity, transverse conductivity and longitudinal
conductivity .1st represent conductivity along electric and magnetic field and 2nd represents
conductivity along electric field. In the absence of magnetic field the parallel conductivity is
much higher. In the case of high magnetic field and low pressure, the longitude conductivity can
be more neglected and ion motions becomes quasi collitionless [10].

2.3.3 Quasi-neutrality
Quasi-neutrality describes the apparent charge neutrality of a plasma overall, while at smaller
scales, the positive and negative charges making up the plasma, may give rise to charged regions
and electric fields. Actually quasi neutrality means as a whole volume, plasma has equal number
of positive and negative charge. And neutrality in the presence of free charges implies
equilibrium if the differences of electrostatic energy at different points are much less than the
thermal energies [11].
The distance over which quasi-neutrality becomes apparent depends on factors such as the
density and temperature of a plasma. For example, the higher the density of a plasma, the smaller
the region of quasi-neutrality because it will contain nearly equal numbers of negative and
positively charged particle. This distance over which quasi-neutrality may break down, is often
described by the Debye length [12].
Quasi-neutrality of a plasma means that the densities of negative and positive charges are
(almost) equal. In the case of plasma containing only singly charged ions, this means that, ni =ne.
This condition exists throughout the volume of the ionized gas except close to the boundaries,
and the assumption of quasi-neutrality is valid whenever the spatial scale length of the plasma is
much larger than the characteristic length over which charges or boundaries are electrostatically

shielded, called the Debye length. The ions and electrons have distributions in energy usually
characterized by a temperature Ti for ions and Te for electrons, which are not necessarily or
usually the same. In addition, different ion and electron species can exist in the plasma with
different temperatures or different distributions in energy [13] [14] [11]
Quasi-neutrality is violated by, for example, charged particle beams (jets) and double layers,
though the containing plasma as a whole will still maintain charge neutrality, but local regions
may not. The magnitude of the size of the violation of quasi-neutrality is typically a few 10s
times the Debye length. Spontaneous quasi-neutrality breaking has been observed in a rotating
plasma [15].
2.3.4 Instability
An important field of plasma physics is the stability of the plasma. Plasma instability means
whether the plasma is in equilibrium, oscillate or damped, if not, plasma is not stable.
A plasma instability involves plasma waves that grow exponentially or faster. For proper
description of a particular instability. Here some list of plasma instabilities Drift wave instability,
Magnetic drift instability, free electron maser instability, rotating instability. Instabilities in
plasmas are often referred to as 'modes' [16] [17] [18].
2.3.5 Electromagnetic Responsiveness
In the presence of an electric field E and magnetic field B, a particle charge q and velocity v will
experience a force F

F qE qv B
Here denotes vector cross product.
2.3.6 Collective Nature
When two charged particles are very close together they interact through their Coulomb electric
fields as isolated, individual particles. However, as the distance between the two particles
increases beyond the mean particle separation distance (n1/3, in which n is the charged particle

density), they interact simultaneously with many nearby charged particles. This produces a
collective interaction [19].
Within a few Debye lengths of a material limiter or wall. This boundary region, which is called
the plasma sheath region, is not quasi-neutral. Collective nature of plasma actually means that
plasma as a hole can capable of process electric and magnetic field to which plasma can react in
turn. On length scales longer than the Debye length a plasma responds collectively to a given
charge, charge perturbation, or imposed electric field. The Debye shielding distance is the
maximum scale length over which a plasma can depart significantly from charge .Most plasmas
are larger than the Debye shielding distance and hence are not dominated by boundary effects. If
the charge density in a quasi-neutral plasma is perturbed, this induces a change in the electric
field and in the polarization of the plasma. The small but finite inertia of the charged particles in
the plasma cause it to respond collectively, with Debye shielding, and oscillations or waves [19]
[20] [17];
Here the figure for normal particle motion and plasma particle motion:

Figure: (a) Brownian motion of a neutral gas molecule (b) motion of a charged
particle in plasma

In a plasma, contrary to the preceding description, the motion of the particles can cause local
concentration of positive and negative electric charge. Thus elements of the plasma affect each
other, even at large separations, giving the plasma its characteristic collective behavior [3].
2.3.7 Non-Maxwellian Distribution
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution means particle moves without interacting with others.
Otherwise, unstable velocity distributions (particles move with different velocity) are non
maxwellian distribution [19]. Significant non-Maxwellian plasma distributions may occur in
nature as a mixture of ionospheric and magnetospheric plasmas or secondary electrons produced
by photoionization in the thermosphere precipitation [21][22].

A seemingly small deviation of the ion velocity distribution from a Maxwellian form may yield
an unexpectedly different result in the conventional calculation of thermal ionization rate in a
two-temperature plasma [21].
2.3.8 Plasma Oscillation
When charge imbalance occur in plasma, electron will move to shield out its effect. A reasonable
estimate of time it take for the shielding to get in place would be time require for to move debye
length. This time is tp.
0 me
2
ne

1/ 2

t p D v

Moving under the force of electric field from charge imbalance will overshoot and execute and
oscillatory motion. Electron overshoot at a frequency which is just inverse of tp is plasma
frequency / plasma oscillation p.

p t p 56.4 10 3
Collision will damp out this oscillatory motion. In the absence of magnetic field this is actually
the normal mode of plasma. But if magnetic field present, plasma will show additional mode of
oscillation. The oscillatory mode of plasma establish its response to applied external
electromagnetic radiation. Plasma will screen out some oscillating field below frequency p. But
above this field, electron will not response enough to applied shield [4].
Plasma

oscillations

are

known

as

Langmuir

waves.

So

the

plasma

waves

can accelerate electrons that are moving with speed nearly equal to the phase velocity of the
wave. This process often leads to a form of collisionless damping, called Landau damping [23].

2.4 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF PLASMA RANGES

2.5 COMMON FORMS of PLASMA

Plasmas are described by many characteristics, such as temperature, degree of ionization, and
density, the magnitude of which, and approximations of the model describing them, gives rise to
plasmas that may be classified in different ways. But from the root there are mainly two types of
plasma exist in nature, natural and artificial plasma.

2.5.1 Natural Plasma

It is estimated that more than 99 percent of the visible universe is made up of plasmas. Plasmas
dominate the environment of earth in the solar system and farther out in the interstellar space.
Some natural plasma can be found close to the earth's surface.
some type of natural plasma are solar wind, cosmic rays ,strong radiation source like nebula and
pulsar, ionosphere, lighting , all stars, very hot flame etc. Even black holes, which are not
directly visible, are thought to be fuelled by accreting ionizing matter, which is actually plasma
[24].
2.5.2 Artificial Plasma
Artificial Plasma are mainly Hot and cold plasma. Hot or thermal plasma is produced in
atmospheric arcs, sparks and flames. The highly ionized plasma consists of large numbers of
electrons and positive ions, with the temperature of both being extremely high. Depending on
their power, plasma-cutting torches operate at very high temperatures between 5000 and 10
000C.
Cold or non-thermal plasma is less well ionized, and although the electrons are high temperature,
the positive ions and neutral particles are at a lower temperature. When a fluorescent lighting
tube is switched on, cold plasma (at room temperature) is set up within the tube [25].
Artificial Plasma uses range across a number of industries including lighting, coatings
and metal fabrication and purification. Fluorescent light, plasma TV, Plasma torch are example
of them.

High voltage dc
Power supply

I
V
+ Plasma____---+++++
-

____---+++++

Figure: Formation of Artificial plasma in a simple discharge tube

For this case, plasma is generated when an electric current is applied across a dielectric gas or
fluid (an electrically non-conducting material) as can be seen in the image to the right, which
shows a discharge tube as a simple example (DC used for simplicity).

2.6 APPLICATIONS of PLASMA

2.6.1 Fabrication and Processing Technology
The driving force of Plasma is used in microelectronics industry and fabrication of silicon
integrated process. Chemical vapor was used to deposit semiconductor and dielectric field. But
they are very high temperature process (625).Etching SiO2 required hydrogen fluid acid baths.
And now-a-days, many of this fabrication process are based on Plasma physics and Plasma
chemistry.
2.6.1.1 Plasma Etching and Sputtering
Plasma etching is a form of plasma processing used to fabricate integrated circuits. It involves a
high-speed stream of glow discharge plasma of an appropriate gas mixture being shot (in pulses)

Accelerated Ions
at a sample. During the process, the plasma will generate volatile etch products at room
temperature from the chemical reactions between the elements of the material etched and the
Figure: Plasma etching process

reactive species generated by the plasma [26]. The pressure is one factor that influences a plasma
etching process a lot. For plasma etching to happen, the chamber has to be under low pressure
which means less than 100 Pa. In order to generate low pressure plasma the gas species which is
used has to be ionized. The ionization happens by a glow charge. Those excitations happen by an
external source, which can deliver up to 30 kW and frequencies from 50 Hz (dc) over 510 Hz
(pulsed dc) to radio and microwave frequency (MHz-GHz) [27] [4].

A wide range of material use for plasma etching .BCl 4, SiCl4, Cl2 are used for etching Al alloy.
Sputtering is a process whereby particles are ejected from a solid target material due to
bombardment of the target by energetic particles, It only happens when the kinetic energy of the
incoming particles is much higher than conventional thermal energies ( 1 eV) [28].Previous

Sputtering Gas
Substrate &
Film growth

Sputtering Target

method , evaporation was complex for sputtering .Sputtering method needs producing correct
flux ratio and target Figure:
effect willPlasma
change Sputtering
this ratio. ItProcess
the target temperature is too high diffusion
will occur.

Photomask
Sheath
Substrate
Plasma Bulk
Ar+

In conventional SEM sputter coating a gold (gold-palladium, or platinum) target is bombarded

with heavy gas atoms (usually argon but air is a fair substitute). Metal atoms ejected from the
target by the ionized gas cross the plasma to deposit onto the any surface within the coating unit
including the specimen. A low vacuum environment is used (0.1 to 0.05 mbar), which with one
of the modern low voltage sputter coaters, enables metal to be deposited at up to 1nm/s1 [4].

2.6.1.2 Plasma Based Thin-film Deposition

Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is the process which is for thin film
deposition. It requires increasing the temperature of substrate to reach the value at which
chemical reaction happens in a controlled manner. Simplest case for deposition is deposition of
silicon from SiH4 and N2 at 625 C. Chemical reactions are involved in the process, which occur
after creation of a plasma of the reacting gases. The plasma is generally created by RF (AC)
frequency or DC discharge between two electrodes, the space between which is filled with the
reacting gases.

2.6.2 Metallurgic Application

To improve the classical metallurgic process, application of plasma is very important .Plasma
technology actually classified here smelting and reducing process, like Plasma-blast technology.
Thus Plasma overheating of the blast makes possible more flexible control [29].

2.6.3 Plasma Arc-welding/Plasma Torch

A plasma torch (also known as a plasma arc, plasma gun, or plasma cutter) is a device for
generating a directed flow of plasma. Thermal plasmas are generated in plasma torches by direct
current (DC), alternating current (AC), radio-frequency (RF) and other discharges. DC torches
are the most commonly used and researched, because when compared to AC: there is less
flicker generation and noise, a more stable operation, better control, a minimum of two
electrodes, lower electrode consumption, slightly lower refractory heat wear and lower power
consumption [30].
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process. The electric arc is formed between
an electrode, which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten .The plasma is forced
through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc and the plasma exits the orifice at high
velocities and a temperature approaching 28,000 C (50,000 F) or higher. Arc plasma is the
temporary state of a gas.
2.6.4 Industrial Applications
Plasma based surface treatment in modern manufacturing is popular now. Plasma technologies
offer a wide spectrum of possible treatments of materials. In particular, in function of the
peculiar physical characteristics of the plasma, produced by different ionization systems, three
types of processes on the materials can be activated: (1) Destruction of toxic/harmful materials;
(2) Superficial modification of existing materials; (3) Creation of new materials.

2.6.5 Other Applications

fusion energy, astrophysical and space plasmas

Plasma technologies for NOx, SO2 and VOC emission control

Chemical synthesis, melting, welding, surface treatment

Removal of volatile organic compounds

Dust filtration, ozone generation

It can even be used in work with minerals such as diamond, and in extracting
economically valuable metals from rock.

2.7 INTRODUCTION to NON-THERMAL PLASMA (NTP)

Non-thermal plasma is generally the plasma where gas and electron are not in thermal
equilibrium. Here non-thermal plasma means cold plasma. In cold plasma, electron temperature
is greater than gas temperature.
2.7.1 Properties of NTP
The cold plasmas are usually excited and sustained electrically by direct current (DC), radio
frequency (RF), or microwave (MW) power applied to a gas. Plasma chemistry in cold plasmas
is controlled mainly by electron energies and gas temperatures. Therefore, as far as identical
energies and temperatures can be achieved, the type of discharge used to create the plasma is of
little importance [3].

2.7.2 Types of Cold Plasma

2.7.2.1 DC coupled plasma
2.7.2.2 Inductively coupled plasma
An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) or transformer coupled plasma (TCP) is

a type

of plasma source in which the energy is supplied by electric currents which are produced
by electromagnetic induction, that is, by time-varying magnetic fields [31] In planar geometry,
the electrode is a length of flat metal wound like a spiral (or coil). In cylindrical geometry, it is
like a helical spring. In half toroidal geometry, it is toroidal solenoid cut along its main diameter
to two equal halves.
ICP discharges is that they are relatively free of contamination because the electrodes are
completely outside the reaction chamber. Also, ICP discharges are of relatively high electron
density, on the order of 1015 cm3. So it can be used as a HDP related works.
2.7.2.3 Capacitively Coupled Plasma
A capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) is one of the most common types of industrial plasma
source. A typical CCP system is driven by a single radio-frequency (RF) power supply, typically
at 13.56 MHz. It essentially consists of two metal electrodes separated by a small distance,
placed in a reactor.one of two electrodes is connected to the power supply, and the other one
is grounded. As this configuration is similar in principle to a capacitor in an electric circuit, the
plasma formed in this configuration is called a capacitively coupled plasma. We further discuss
about this plasma as it is an important part of our topics.
2.7.2.4 Microwave Plasma
Microwave plasmas are sustained by power supplies operating at a frequency of 2.45 GH. This
frequency, which is commonly used for industrial or home heating applications, makes suitable
power supplies readily available. In a typical microwave plasma the strength of the electric field
is about EO 30 V/cm.

The absorption of microwave power is thus a function of the collision frequency of the electrons
with the heavy species and is therefore dependent on the pressure in the discharge. For a
microwave frequency of 2.45 GHz, efficient microwave absorption in helium occurs at 5-10 torr
[32].
2.7.2.5 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Plasma
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasmas have the capability to operate at lower pressures
than RF plasmas and to create higher plasma densities, with corresponding higher degrees of
ionization (a > 10% in some cases [33]). The cyclotron frequency of the electron is a
characteristic parameter of the system. Where cyclotron or larmor frequency c is given by,

c
Where

eB
m

m = mass of charged particle

B = applied magnetic field

For a magnetic field of 875 gauss, the cyclotron frequency of the electrons defined by C with m
= me, becomes 2.45 GHz, and if microwaves of frequency J = 2.45 GHz are used to excite and
sustain the plasma, the gyromotion of the electrons is in resonance with the microwaves. This is
called the Electron Cyclotron Resonance Plasma 41 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Plasma
condition, and a plasma excited in the presence of a magnetic field, which satisfies the resonance
condition, is called an ECR Plasma [3].

2.8 BASIC PLASMA REACTORS

The process parameters of a plasma reactors are, pressure-unchanged, sample temperature
unchanged, electric power-proportional to the area of electrodes [3]. Here we describe the
characteristics of some most common reactors.

2.8.1 Plannar Reactor

The reactor where plasma is formed between two planar parallel electrodes which are attached to
the power source. Planar reactors are applicable to generate LF- or RF-plasmas (40 kHz or 13,56
MHz).The importance of plasma electrons in generating chemically active species in the plasma
volume , and edge electric field accelerating into the substrate in a reactor decomposed into two
region. In plasma volume, chemically reactive elements or ions are generated, where a small
electric field occur .Adjacent to this there is a plasma free sheath region of strong electric field. It
also underlines the approach to many of advanced plasma deposition and etch tools.
The electric field of a planar reactor usually is homogenous, parallel and oriented vertical to the
electrodes. The operation of planar reactor can be enhanced by magnetic field.

Power Source

Generation of reactive species and ions

Plasma

Electric Field

Transport of reactive ions and species

Substrate

Figure: Generic plasma reactor for thin film deposition and etching

2.8.2 Barrel Reactor

Barrel reactor is a tubular shaped structure. In barrel reactor, plasma is sustained either by
inductively coupling an Ac power supply through a coil which surrounds the reactor or
capacitively coupling by external rings. For this configuration, the electric field is established
inside the non-conducting vacuum vessel without internal reactors, But this reactor does not
establish large sheath that planar reactor does, so ion bombarding play a little role or not. The
main application of barrel reactor is isotropic etching, including the removal of organic material.

Plasma

Gas Inlet

Pump

Coil

Figure: Inductively coupled plasma reactor running by ac power source creating a time varying current and s

Plasma

Gas Inlet

Pump

Split-ring
Electrode

Figure: Capacitively coupled plasma reactor similar to (a) expect two plates are electrode

2.8.3 Downstream Plasma Reactor

In this reactor, the region of bulk plasma is separated by a large distance, much more than
cathode sheath thickness, from the substrate. Such plasma are usually electrodeless, usually
sustained by microwave reduced by some radiation launching structure. An example of
downstream plasma reactor is electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasma reactors. This
apparatus include magnetic fields. Electrons are heated by microwave source which is applied at
a frequency, electron circulating magnetic field [4].

Cooling
Substrate
Figure: Working process of a downstream plasma reactor, substrate etching/deposition

The downstream reactor even emphasis separating the bulk plasma from the environment and so
important for advanced deposition and etching tool.
Plasma Jet

2.9 BREAKDOWN

In a gas system between two electrodes, an application of an electric field of strength E can cause
an electric discharge. This is known as breakdown. We consider here the breakdown processes
that precede the formation of DC and RF glow discharges.

2.9.1 DC Breakdown
Ar at 30 mTorr in a system, Comprising two electrodes connected to a dc power supply, voltage
Vps and resistance R. Initially, the resistance of the neutral gas will be much greater than that of
R, so the voltage across the discharge VVps. Let us assume that there is one free electron, formed
perhaps by a cosmic ray or some UV photon, near the cathode. The electric field
will accelerate the electron towards the anode. Let be the probability per unit length
that ionization will occur. The quantity is called Townsends first ionization
coefficient, and represents the net ionization probability, including losses. As a result of
the acceleration by the electric field, the electron will gain energy and produce
ionization.
Cathode

Ar P=30 mTorr
d

V(x)

E=V/d

Figure: Schematic of an Ar discharge tube prior to breakdown. The resistance of the argon is much greater than the ball

2.9.2 RF Breakdown
Breakdown in a RF field simplier than DC breakdown, is most of the electrons are able to
undergo their oscillatory motion without colliding with wall. In this case, the oscillating electric
field puts directed energy into the electrons, which then heat up by undergoing collisions with
neutrals. In this way the electrons are heated up sufficiently to produce the required amount of
ionization which must balance the losses due to diffusion to the walls, volume recombination,
electrical attachment and so on.
The minimum voltage required to break down a discharge Vbrk has long been known to be a
strong function of the product of the neutral gas pressure and the electrode separation.
Experimental measurements of Vbrk in an argon discharge are made for pressures in the range 1
500 mTorr and electrode separations of 220 cm [28].

2.10 DC GLOW DISCHARGE

The discharge exhibits several Sec. DC Glow Discharges
2.10.1 The Cathode Region
.There are bright and dark regions along the discharge tube. The dark regions are called the
cathode or Crookes dark space, the Faraday dark space, and the anode dark space. The luminous
regions are called the cathode glow, the negative glow, and the positive column.
A narrow luminous region can be observed near to the cathode. This light emitted from this
region is thought to be due to excitation of the neutral gas followed by a radiative decay and
surface bombardment by ions. The luminosity of the cathode glow results from the

decay

of

the

excitation

energy of the positive ions during neutralization with electrons.

The cathode dark space is a positive space charge plasma sheath. At a given applied discharge
voltage the product between the thickness of the cathode dark space, d, and the pressure in the
discharge, p, is approximately constant. For example, for a discharge in argon at 2000 V, p d =
50 mtorr.cm. The secondary electrons produced at the cathode by positive ion bombardment gain
energy through the cathode dark space. Most of the glow discharge volume is occupied by the
positive column. The voltage drop occurs over three regions indicated in Fig the cathode fall, the
positive column, and the anode fall.
2.10.2 Secondary Electron Generation
Ion bombardment of the cathode will cause secondary electron generation. The
secondary

electron

is

the

ratio

of

secondary

electrons

emitted

per

incident

ion. It will depend upon the material and the ion energy. It will also depend critically on the
condition of the crystal orientation and the degree of surface contamination. Some materials can
have secondary electron coefficients which exceed unity. The energy of the secondary electrons
is generally quite low, typically peaking around 2-5 eV [35]
2.10.3 The Negative Glow Region
The luminous negative glow is a plasma region characterized by nearly equal
electron and ion densities, typically in the range of 109 1011 cm-3 where the electron
temperature measurements within the glow show typical values of 2 10 eV. Since this
region is a plasma, the electric field is small. The sources of energy input to the glow
include the energetic secondary electrons emitted from the cathode and accelerated
across the sheath, and direct acceleration of the electrons in the glow by the electric
field. The negative glow region, along with the cathode and associated dark space
comprise a self-sustaining discharge configuration as shown in Fig. The sheath
field will accelerate ions formed in the negative glow. These ions will cause secondary electrons
to

be

emitted

at

the

cathode.

The

secondary

electrons

will

be

accelerated

across the sheath and represent the main energy input to the plasma. These high-energy

secondary electrons will generate more ionization in the negative glow. Thus the
discharge is sustained.
2.10.4 Beyond the Negative Glow
Although a dc glow discharge may end with the negative glow, in general it does
not. Beyond the negative glow is another dark space, called the Faraday dark space,
followed by the positive column and the anode sheath. Although the positive column is
not typically found in processing plasma discharges, we will now consider briefly the
so-called Faraday dark space and the positive column.
2.10.5

2.11 RF GLOW DICHARGE

In a dc glow discharge, most of the input power is used to accelerate the ion, appear as heat and
also dc glow discharge needs conduction of net current to sustain through discharge. Otherwise
RF glow is a non-thermal plasma generated by the application of RF power (13.56 MHz) to one
powered electrode, with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of
1 cm. Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon.
Actually, The frequencies used in the high-frequency discharges are in the range of radio
transmission giving the high-frequency discharges the name of radio frequency, or shortly, RF
discharge [3][4].In gases at glow discharge conditions is normally between 109 and 1011
collisions/sec [30]. The power absorption by the RF discharge can be either collisional or
collisionless. The secondary electrons emitted from the electrodes or walls of the reactor
of an RF discharge are accelerated across the plasma sheath and add to the ionization process but
are less important in sustaining the discharge. At a given pressure, the electrical impedance of the
discharge decreases with increasing frequency, making it possible to drive more current through
the discharge at the same voltage. Although the frequency of power supplies used for the

excitation of RF plasmas can be as high as 100 MHz, lower frequencies are generally used.
Plasma pressure low, 1mTorr or below.
2.11.1 Self Bias and Plasma Potential
Let's consider a RF plasma generated between two parallel electrodes and assume that one
electrode has an area much larger than the other. The electrodes will be at negative potentials, V1
and V2, relative to the plasma and the sheaths of thickness d1 and d2 will develop near the two
electrodes of areas A1 and A2.

V1

V2

Figure: Schematic of electrode configuration for an RF glow discharge. An RF power supply is capacitively coupled to the

Owing to the much greater mobility of the electrons compared to the ions, a given positive
voltage

will

result

in

much

larger

electron

current

than

the

ion

current

which flows for the same negative voltage. In effect, the plasma behaves like a leaky
diode, showing a much larger effective resistance for ion current than for electron
current. If a square-wave potential of amplitude V, is applied to the electrodes through the
capacitor, the voltage across the plasma will follow the curve:

Figure: Development of a self-bias in a parallel plate discharge applied voltage

Figure: Voltage across the discharge versus time.

Magnetic fields parallel to the electrode are sometimes superposed on the RF

plasma. The magnetic field confines the electrons next to the electrodes and

increases the ionization efficiency. This increase in ionization lowers the

sheath potential and the energy of the bombarding ions.
When a blocking capacitor is used with two electrodes of different areas, the
negative self-bias of the electrodes relative to the plasma is dependent on
the relative areas of the two electrodes. According to Koenig and Maissel the
following relation exists,
V1 / V2 ( A2 / A1 ) 4

Where

V1, V2=negative bias of 2 electrodes

A1, A2=Areas of electrodes

2.11.2 Discharge Characteristics

RF discharge can be similar to the DC discharge: there will be a cathode sheath and a quasinegative glow which is energized by the accelerated secondary electrons. There are differences,
however. Although the ions are typically going slowly enough that they will respond only to the
time average potential, the electrons will generally cross the sheath region in a fraction
of the RF period. This can give rise to time dependent phenomena. In particular the
edge of the sheath will generally oscillate. As RF field is changing direction in time, it can put
energy into the electron energy distribution function more readily than the DC field. RF
discharge is more efficient than the DC discharge. In a sense, the negative glow and positive
column regions overlap.