Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Experiment 2: Strain Measurement

N.M. Ghoniem
Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Department, UCLA

October 26, 2009

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

Experiment 2: Strain Measurement

October 26, 2009

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Objectives of the Experiment

Experiment Setup

Principles of Strain Gages

Basics
Strain Gages for Torsion
Strain Gages for Bending

Theory of Torsion and Bending

Torsion Theory
Bending Theory

Cross-talk for Combined Loading

Error Analysis

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Objectives of the Experiment

To use strain gage rosettes for the measurement of strain in an aluminum

torque tube subjected to torsion and bending, individually and in
combination.

To assess the utility and accuracy of strain gages.

To determine the influence of combined loading on strain gage accuracy (i.e.

the phenomenon of cross-talk).

To compare the measured values to simple beam bending and torsion theory.

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Experiment Setup-1
The aluminum torque tube (6061 alloy) has an outer diameter of
D = 1.905 cm and an inner diameter d = 1.65 cm.
The loading arms have a radius R = 18.82 cm and the span of the beam is
80.2 cm.
Two strain gage rosettes are mounted approximately 1.5 (3.81 cm) from
one of the fixed ends, on opposite sides of the tube, and in the plane of the
applied load.
The rosettes consist of three gages each, oriented at 0 and 45 degrees to
the axis of the tube, respectively.
The gages are connected to form one full bridge and two quarter bridges.
The full bridge measures strain along the 45 axis of the gages, while the
quarter bridges measure bending compression and tension strains.

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Experiment Setup-2

80.2m

Center Loading
Arm

Torque Tube

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

End Loading
Arm

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Principles of Strain Gages-1

The resistance of a metal sample is given by

R0 = A00
where R0 = sample resistance (); = sample resistivity (-m);
0 = length (m); A0 = cross-sectional area (m2 ).
Suppose this sample is now stressed by the application of a force F. Then we
know that the material elongates by some amount so that the new
length is + .
for small strains, the volume is nearly constant, then
V = 0 A0 = (0 + )(A0 A)

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Principles of Strain Gages-2

The new resistance of the stressed strain gaige is:
R=

0 +
A0 A

Using previous relationship for constant volume, we can show that

approximately


0

R
1+2
A0
0
and thus the change in the resistance is

R 2R0

Measurement Principles: This involves attaching (gluing) a metal wire

or foil to the structure. As stress is applied and the structure deforms and
the SG material experiences the same deformation. Because strain is a
fractional change in length, the change in SG resistance reflects the strain of
both the gauge and the stucture to which it is secured.
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Principles of Strain Gages-3

The relative change in resistance is

R
=2
R
0
Or, in general,

R
= K
R
where K is the strain gage factor, and is the strain.
The gage factor, K, differs depending on the metallic materials. The
copper-nickel alloy provides a gage factor around 2.
However, since strain an infinitesimal quantity, the resistance change caused
by strain is extremely small.
Generally, the sensing element of the strain gage is made of a copper-nickel
alloy foil.
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Principles of Strain Gages-4

Figure: Wheatsone Bridge for torsion

(full bridge)

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

Figure: Wheatsone Bridge for bending

(quarter bridge)

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Principles of Strain Gages-5

Change in voltage due to resistance change in Wheatstone bridge


RB RC RA RD
V = E0
(RA + RB ) (RC + RD )

(1)

When a Wheatstone bridge is balanced,

RB RC = RA RD
and the output voltage is zero.
If all resistances are equal to R, and the gage resistance changes from R to
R + R, then the output voltage (for a quarter bridge) is:
V =

1 R
1
E0 = KE0
4 R
4

For a full-bridge, it can be similarly shown that



1 R1
R2
R3
R4
1
V =

E0 = K(1 2 + 3 4 )E0
4
R1
R2
R3
R4
4
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Strain Gages for Torsion-1

Using Pythagorean theorem on right

triangles in both undeformed surface
element and deformed surface element

s2

a2 + b 2

a2 + (b + b)

s2 + 2ss + (s)2

a2 + b 2
+2bb + (b)2

(s + s)

Thus; approximately: bb = ss

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Strain Gages for Torsion-2

By elimination,
s =

bb
s

L
L

Strain is defined as:

The strain in the 45 gage is:

s
bb 1
a
ab b
=(
)( ) = 2
s
s s
a
a + b2 a
For best sensitivity, we need to maximize,

ab
(a2 +b2 ) ;

it is maximized when a=b

ab
a2
1
=
=
(a2 + b2 )
(a2 + a2 )
2
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Strain Gages for Torsion-3

D

b
a

Figure: (b)

Figure: (a)

Similar triangles formed by torsion loading (a) on a tube; (b) on a deformed

surface element.
Using similar triangles theorem, we can obtain the shear strain
The torsion shear strain is the change in angle in radians, or:
b
(D/2)
=
a
L
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Strain Gages for Torsion-4

Torsion strain is defined as
z =
By substitution

(D/2)
L

ab b
1
s
= 2
= z
s
a + b2 a
2

For experimental torsion strain, multiply your data by 2

z,exp = 2

s
s

(2)

For example, if you have 27.2 on your strain data for torsion loading,
z,exp = 2
N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

s
= 2(27.2) = 54.4
s

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Strain Gages for Bending

For experimental bending strain,
b,exp =

l
l

(3)

For example, if you have 25.2 on your strain data for bending,
b,exp =

l
= 25.2
l

For theoretical bending strain,

b,theoretical =

M (D/2)
32Mb D
=
EI
E(D4 d4 )

(4)

where M bending moment, L is length of tube (80.2cm), I is moment of

(D4 d4 )
inertia,I =
, and E is youngs modulus, 68.3 GPa
64
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Torsion Theory

can be obtained from:

=

Mt L
JG

where M is torsion moment, Mt = mglarm , L is length of tube (80.2cm), J is

(D4 d4 )
E
polar moment of intertia, J =
, and G is shear modulus, G = 2(1+)
32
(E is the Youngs modulus, 68.3 GPa, and v is the Poissons ratio, 0.33)
For theoretical torsion strain,
z,theoretical =

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

(D/2)
16MtD
=
L
G(D4 d4 )

Experiment 2: Strain Measurement

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Bending of Statically-indeterminate Beams-1

For statically indeterminate beams, all reactions cannot be obtained from

the equations of statics alone. We must consider additional methods to give
information on beam deflections as well.
Several techniques are generally used, such as the moment-area, conjugate
beam, virtual work, deflection equation, and dummy load methods.
The reactions, shear, and bending moment diagrams for a beam with one
fixed and one free end, and with a concentrated load at the center are given
next.

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Bending of Statically-indeterminate Beams-1

l
P
x
R1

l/2

l/2

R2

V1
Shear

V2

M1
Moment

M_max
3l/11

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Bending of Statically-indeterminate Beams-2

R1 = V1

R2 = V2,max

Mmax (at fixed end) =

M1 (at point of load) =
Mx (when x < /2) =
Mx (when x > /2) =
x (at point of load) =

N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

5P
16
11P
16
3P
16
5P
32
5P x
16



11x
P

2
16
3
7P
768EI

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Cross-talk for Combined Loading-1

Due to manufacturing and assembly tolerances, the output signals will
exhibit cross-talk. Torsion will affect the output of the bending bridge
somewhat, and vice-versa.
Cross-talk leads to a set of two linear equations:

z = Ktt z
+ Ktb b

b = Kbt z
+ Kbb b

(6)
(7)

Where z , b are the torsion and bending strains for combined loading,

respectively, and z
, b are the torsion and bending strains for pure loading,
respectively.
The equations can be represented in matrix form as
  
 
z
Ktt Ktb z
=
b
Kbt Kbb
b
where Ktb and Kbt are the cross-talk coefficients. Ideally, Ktt should be
unity, while Ktb and Kbt should be zero.
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Cross-talk for Combined Loading-2

If we make two independent measurements, we can re-write these equations

into a more suitable form:
 



z1 b1 Ktt
z1
=
z2
z2 b2 Ktb

Similarly


N.M. Ghoniem (2009)

 

b1
= b 1
b2
b2

z
1

z
2



Kbb
Kbt

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Cross-talk for Combined Loading-3

With the following values for the bending and torsion strains, corresponding
to combinations of :
(T = 2 lb,B = 4 lb) and (T = 3 lb,B = 4 lb)
z1

= 52.6 , z2 = 80.1

b1

= 99.60 , b2 = 100.7
= 54.18 , b1 = 102.07

z
1

z
2

= 81.35 , b2 = 102.07

solving for Ktt and Ktb



 

52.6
54.18 102.07
Ktt
=
80.1
81.35 102.07
Ktb
Ktt = 1.012 , Ktb = 0.0219
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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Cross-talk for Combined Loading-3

Solving for Kbt and Kbb


 


99.6
54.18 102.07
Kbt
=
100.7
81.35 102.07
Kbb
Kbb = 0.954 , Kbt = 0.041

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Outline Objectives of the Experiment Experiment Setup Principles of Strain Gages Theory of Torsion and Bending Cross-talk for

Precision Error Analysis

Propagation of Precision Uncertainty
Y (X1 + P1 , X2 + P2 , , XN + PN )
= Y (X1 , X2 , , XN ) +
Y
Y
Y
P1 +
P2 + +
PN
X1
X2
XN
" n 
2 #1/2
X Y
PY =
Pi
Xi
i=1

(8)

(9)

Estimate the errors in torsion strains due to the following inaccuracies:

Dimensions are accurate within 0.02 cm.
Loads are accurate within 0.005 kg
Take partial derivatives (or use a spreadsheet) for the theoretical bending
and shear strains with respect to all dimensions and all loads.
Note that there are some uncertainties in the boundary conditions used in
modeling and deriving the bending moment diagram. Discuss and asses the
influence of such boundary conditions.
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