Developing Reading

Skills

F. Grellet

Cambridge University Press, 1999

Pp3-25

To i h e
neader

31110E-1,U CT 0

1 3 1li the book Is for

' ki d s b o o k w a s w i i d e a l w i th [ c a c h e ' s a n d m a te r i a l d e v e l o p e r s i i i
I t s h o u l d b e u s e l i r l i n t e a c h e r s w h o d o n o t u s e a re a d i n g c o w s r an d w h o w i s h
to p ro du c e th e i r o w n m a te r i a l , a s w e l l a s to
p e o p l e w h o a re d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l fo r ta i l o r- m a d e c o u r s e s . i t m a y a l s o h e u s e ful to
te a c h e r s us in g a c ou r s e w h i c h th e y w i s h to e in
it ll-

V Ylini t he b o o k i s a b o u t
Ti l e b o o k a tt e m p ts to d e s c r i b e a n d c l a s s i fy v a r i o u s t y p e s o f re a d i n g o n r ] 1 ,
c h c n s i on exe rc i s e s . I t i s n o t a tex tb o o k. fu r s tud e n ts o r a g , c n c r a l h a n d b o o k o n
r e a d i n g . T h e e xe r c i s e s p r o v i d e d i n t h e h o o k ; l i t e c i t e d a s e x a m p l e s a n d o u g h t n o t t o
b e u s e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y: th e y a rc i l lu s tr a ti on s o f d i ff e re n t exe rc i s e - t y p e s . I t i s th e
p r in c i p l e
I ying each exercise Whicit is of the greatest importance to the ( c a c h e t : I n d m a t e '
h i s w r i t j r.
T l i i s ex p l a i n s w i l y th e b o o k' i s n o t d e s i g n e d f o r a n y p a r ti c u l a r l e v e l . Ti l e l e v e l
o f d i ffi c u l t y n C t l i e t e x t s i s u n i m p o r t a n t h e m : t h e
ex i ercise- lypc.s sugges ted can he adapted for elementary,
7

m e d i a t e o r a d v a n c e d l e v e l s . W h a t i s i m p o r t a u t i s t h e i te g re e
ci i .)Jupl exity of i.lie ranks die students are as ked to perform iu rela tion to the test.

ileading and readiny comprehension

What is reading uompreliension?

U n d e l s t a n d i n g a w i ke n t e x t m e a n s c x l ( : A c t i n g t h e l e l p i i r e i l i n f o r m a t i o n I i i l l i t
a s e . p i c t r u t l y a s p o s s i b l e . f o r e x a m p l e , w e a p p l y d i ff e r e n t re a d i n g - h a t e g i e s w h e n
l o o k i n g - a t a n o t i c e . b o a t d sec il there is all G i l l e ' 1 1 L 5 r I l l c l i t fora particular type of liar and
v.clien rareliill y reading all[ 4 : 3 1 ) e C i 3 i interest. in a scientific. :pout nal.
Ye t l o c a t i n g t h e r e l e v a n t a c I v e r t i s m e n t o n t h e h o a r d a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n e w
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h e a r t i c l e clernotistrates that. the reatlitig putposc ill each

case has been

success fully

In the fi r st c as e, a c om pe ten t le ade r wi ll

q u i c k l y re j e c t t h e i t r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n a n d h o d w h a t h e i s loo ki ng fo r. il t th e
s ec ond c as e, i t is t o il ei mugh to i linte rs ta nd gist. oldie text; more detailed
coil]Iii c I i e 1 3 s i c b a i s neccssat y.
it is dicrefore essential to take the lo.11owing clements into consider - Atkin.

VVIial do we read? I
heir are the 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 ' t e x t t y p e s one usually conics across:
-- Novels, short stories, tales-, 'Attn. literary texts and passages (.g,

essays, dia rie s,

an ec do te s, biugta Pi li ( 7 .0

Po t i m s , l i n t e r i c k s , n u r s e r y t h y i n c s

Le t t e r s , p o s t c a rd s , t e l t : g o t : i n n s , n o t e s

N e w s p a p e r s a nd m a g a z in e s ( h e a d l in e s , a tti c i e s , ed i to r i a l s , l e l t e ts to th e e d i to r , s to p

p res s , c l a s s i fi e d ad s , w e a tl i c t f o re c a s t, r a di o / T V / t h e a t re p ro w: a i r l i n e s )
- Speciliv.ed inticles, reports, reviews, essays, business 'rucks, s u m m a r i e s , p r e c i s ,
accounts, pamphlets (political and iithci) I i an dl ioo ks , t ex t bo ok s, gu id ebo ok s

cc ipos

A c i v e i t i s c n i c i l t s , t r a v e l b ro c i n i t c s , c a t i l l u g u e s
Pu zzles, proh lems , I ti les fo r gam es
i n s t r u c t i o n s (e . g . wa l M u g s ) , i l l r e c t i o n s ( e . . g . I l o w
.),
n o ti c e s , r id e s a n d te g , u l a ti ox i s , po s te r s , s i gn s ( e . g . ro ad s i gn s ) ,

1 01 1.11S
-

R 1 1 1 1 ( 1 : 1 0 1 1 1 limns, landing cards), graffi ti, mew's, in ice lists, tickets

,

.1.<.cwarOly, and tf,d(riu, Lorupreltrnsion

- Comic strips, cartoons and caricatures, legends (of maps., pictures)

-- Statistics, diagrams, fl ow / pie charts. time--tables, maps -- Telephone
director ies, dictionaries, phrasebooks
WI ly do we lead?
The' e are two main reasons for icailing:
- - Wa d in g fo i p lea su re .

Reading

for information (in order to fi nd out something, in in

4,1Ici

to do

(e.g.

s o m e t h i n g w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n y o u g e t ) . I low do we read?

I he main t,vays olicading ate as-follows:

Skimming: qui ckl y running one's eyes over a text to get. the gist oft.
Scanning: quickly ghing (hi ough a text to fi nd a particular piece o f in fo rm a tio n .
- 1: 1 ,xtensivc reading: readinglonger texts, usually for one's own pleasure. 'Ins is a
Ihren6r activity, mandy involving global understanding.
intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract. specifi c information. 1. his is
mote an accuracy activity involving treading for detail.
'h es e cliff rent wa ys c l ifrea ding a re no t m utua lly exc lu sive. For
iiistancr, ape often -skims through a passage to see what it: is about I
before clecidirtg whether it is worth scanning a particular paragraph
[Or the intiirmation one is looking for.
In real life, our reading purposes constantly vat y and therefore, wh en d evis in g
exe rcis es , We sh o u ld va r y th e qu es tio n s an d th e activities according to the type of
text studied and the purpose in reading it. When working on a page of classifi ed ads, for
instance, it would be highly to propose exercises requiring the
d etai led co tn p reh en s in o f
single advertisement. This would
only discourage the students and prevent them from developing reading strategies
adapted to the true purpose Illicit - reading.
Reading involves a Variety of skills. The main ones are listed below (This list
istaken from...John Mithy's C o m u m u i c a t i v e Syllabus nesign_)

Rec o g n iz in g t h e s e t i p t o f. a la n g u a g e

D e d u c i n g t h e m e a n i n g a n d u s e o l u n i a m i l i a r l ex i c a l i t e m s
U nd er s ta n d in g exp lic it ly s ta ted in fo rm a tio n

- Understanding informa tion when not explicitly stated Un d er s ta nd in g r a m c c p tu a l

mean in g

Understanditig the cOnninuncative. value (function) ofsemenees :mil inlet:am:es

Understanding relat ions within the sentence

Understanding relations between the parts fa text through lexica l cohesion
devic es

Understanding t:oliesimi between parts of a text tht ought

g r am m a tic a l c o h es ion d evic es

I n te l p ret iu g , t ex t b y g o in g o u t s i d e i t

Re c o g n i z i n g , i n d i c a t o r s i n d i s c o u r s e
Identifying the main ',pint or input tam information in a pi( c c or discourse
I ) is t in g u i s h i n g t h e m a in id ea fro t u s u p p o r t in g d et a i ls
Extracting salient points to Slith.0.1:111ZC (the text, an idea etc.)
S el ec t i ve ex t r a c ti o n (i rrel e v a n t p o i n t s fro n t a t e x t

I t3sic reference skills

Skimming

 Scanning

to locate speciln ally requited infoi !nation - Tr aitsc oding

informa tio n to (ha g' amm atic d isp la y

lit order to develop these skills, several types of exercises can be used. These
question-types can have two diff erent functions.
I 'hi clarify the organization oldie passage.:
The questions can he about:
the function oldie passage
the general organization (e.g. argumentative)
-- the rhetorica l organization (e.g. contrast, comparison)

the cohesi ve devices (e.g. link-wo rds)

the intrasentenlial relations (e.g. derivation, moi phology hyponyiny)

2 To clarify the contents of the passage.

The c1ICS00113 C311 he alimit:

p l a i n f a c t ( d i re c t i e t c r e n t . e )

- ii1plied. fact (iitletence)

deduced meaning (suppositihn)

evaluation

T h e ab o ve s kills , q u es tio n - typ es a n d q u es tio n - lin ic tio n s a re constantly telated

since a given exercise rises a eel tutu type of question, with a certain funetiotl, to
develop a particular reading skill.
i<erlrif Pig

(41111pleil01.1i011

Some at;stiniptioill;
llirre anti a windier of l...nl1SIe h ations to he Irorne iii mind when t i o t d m i n g . i i r u s i n g
re a d i n g c o 1 n p 1 e l i e n s i o l l exeloseN .
i U n t i l v c r y re c e n t i y m a t e r i a l s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n th e s e n t e n c e and uni ts sin all ei
than th e se nten ce . Thi s i s stil l ve t y large ly ti tl e. IL was assumed that a text was a
succession ofsepai ate sentences th e m a ti c a l l y ' el a t e d an d th a t i i w a s ne c e s s a r y m e re l y
to d e a l w i th the str iletnic and meaning of the sentences.
1 h i t , i t re a d i n g i s t o b e e ffi t . i e n t , the stun hue o f l o n g t I i m i r s sue I t a s th e
pa rag raph tti the w ho le tex t m us t li e ond is tti od. I t is no $0)11(.1 studying a text as
though it were a series of independent i mi ts . This w ould ( )l il y l ead (l ie s tud en ts ( a) to
b ec om e di: pend ent , , . I I t i n d e i s t a n d i n g e'VeVy s i n g l e ' s e n t e n c e i i n a text, even win't] t h i s
is not necessar y It. fi dlil their reading purpose', wi th the result.
Mat they would tend to lead all texts at the saute speed ants (h) It!

[IC iChiCtaiit ii)

i n fe i th e

m e a n in g o f s e n te n c e s ti t pa l ag i a t tl i s II o u t w h a t c o m e s [ w h i t e iii alter.
:A I t i s c l e a t, a s a , A i n s c q u c r i t. . c 0 1 ( 0 , I I I A L tm e s h o ti l d s t a r t w i t h global
imilcrstandinit, :mil move towa rds detailed tiliderstant ling r a t h e r t h a n w r i t k i n g i t h e

o t h e r w a y ro u n d . l ' i w ( a s k s g i v e n t o b e g i n w i t h s h u t t l e b e i l i a i n u r e

lobal kind

w i t h i n t h e e m i n p e t e n c e o f t h e s t u d e n t s . G r a d u a l l y , a s I h e y r e a r. { m o r e I l u e n t l y
a n d g e t . t h e g i s t b r a t e x t m o re e a s i l y , i d e e p e r aild laore
Lletailed mitierstat.iding Of the text Call he worked Lira/v:11d,...
S i m il a r l y , w h e n c on . .q u i e ti ng re a d in g
ncitm exerc iges
o n a g i v e n text, it IS i w y s p r e fi l - , i b l e t o s t a r t w i t h t h e o v e r a l l
r
itteaningof the text, its function and aiiii, rather than winking on v o c a bu l a r y o r ni o te -

s p e c i fi e i d e a s .
Tliis treat uncut is important. because.,
- , i ) I t i s a v e r y e ffi c i e n t w a y o f b u i l d i n g u p t h e s t u d e n t s ' confi dence when faced
with ittithent lc texts dim often contain diffi cul L vocabt Oa ry el; strtic t u res. if die
acti vity is global e n ou gh ( e . g . ( Lo o s i ng fro m a l i s t w h a t: fi l m : L i on a re rx t fu l ti l s ) t h e
s t u d e n t s w i l l n o t f e e l c o m p l e t e l y l o s t , H w y w i l l f e e l t h a t 31 least. they
-

understand what the tex t is about and will s u b s d r p te n t l y l e 4 l e s S d i ffi d e n t. w h e n

l a c kl i t i g a h e w t ex t.
L ) ) I t w i l l d e v e l o p a n a w a re n e s s o f th e w a y LCXLS al C Ill g a n i z e d
Mani i
( e . g . s t a t i n g t h e a i n f o r m a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p i n g i t , o r g i v i n g th e
c h ro n k l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e o f e v e n ts ) . I t i s th i s
-

a w arne ss of the gen ci al s tr uc tu re o f a pas sa ge tr ea t w ill a llo w th e stude nts to ',tad

m ore e ffi c ie ntly la te r au.
i . . ) fl y s t a r t i n g w i l l fl o n g e i u n i t s a n d b y c o u s i d e t i n g t h e layout IA the tex t, th e
a cc om pan yi ng, pi iutug ra pli s of i lia g ] a t ns , the number o
StutienLs can b e e n c o u r a p , c d t o

r paravaphs,

e t c . , the

:inticipate what they arc to fold in the text. This is essential in d e l t o d e v e l o p t h e i i

s k i l l s o l i i i l e i e n c e , a n t i c i p a t i t i t i a n d 11c.thiction,
. Re a d i ng i s a c a ti r s ta i l l p o tc e s s o f gu e s s in g a nd w h a t ti n e b i d ug s th e tex t i s o fte n
in ci te ii iqii ir ta ti t th an w hit on e fi nds in it. Thi s i s w h y , I r o n t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , l i t e
s t u d e n t s s h o u l d b e ( a l i g h t t o u s e w h a t t h e y l i n o w. t o u n d e r s t a n d u n k n o w n e l e m e n t s ,
w h t t h e i these t: Ideas cdl simple words. This is best. A l I l i L 7 V C 1 1
g l ob a l ap p ro a c h t o th e tex t.
c l i n e c o u l d s u m u p th i s ki n d o f : i n t ro : v. 1 i i n th e fo l l o w i n g , w a y:
Sindy nI Ilii.
MI:tkily,liyinillirscs 1 milli iliac inn i tr
aliont the conic:J14:s
layout: title,
wilt.' c t i lifl.)1( ft ti
len
aud hinction
gth, pi(attics,
confuniation
t y p e l a t . e ,
t i t
I l i l '
text.
th e s e h y p o th e s e s
cotiling hi 5511?at. one knows oil sip 11 tc x t
types
acctmI leading
fi ti 'her
--I 011111 mation
i l l re v i s i o n o f
lot mole Lletail
pi ctiu.tion
one's guesses
11.1111.)nd', tlif
Massage
. 1 . . Li is important to use authentic 1.f.:...xts whenever. pussinle. I burl c C
are S V C 1 :11 IrCaS011(5 frig 1111t
a ) Par ad oxi ca ll y, ' sim pli fy ing' a tex t o ften res ul ts in in crea se d d i ffi c u l t y Ilecause t h e
.

'

s y s t e m o f cferervies, re p e t i ti o n a n d e t h i n d a n c y a s well as 1hr d i s c o u r s e U n l i t a tm

s o n e re l i c s o n w hen rea ding ate o ften I unlo ve d or at le as t sign ifi t,a ittl y
;dieted. Simplifying a text may mean
replat ing diffi cult words or structrit rs by those. already fa tu i l i a t In th e
s tu d e n ts
- r e w r i t i n g t h e pas sa ge in utL ki . to ma ke its th etor ic al . n gain 7.ation more
explicit
giving a
a c c o u n t', th a t i s to s a y c on v e y i ng th e
i n f o rm a t i o n c o n t a i m - a l i n t h e t e x t i n o n e ' s o w n w o rd s .
lin text is to be simplifi ed at all, then .techniques such as re w r i t i n g a n d
s i m p l i fi e d a c c o u n t s e e n 1 t o b e p i e f e r a b l e al thou gh the y usu all y i1 111 1 y a l h alige
o f i l le t. ot i ca l
ganization.
li) Getting the staidents accustomed to reading authentic tex ts frc?rll Ilse vet y
,

beginning sloes not necessat ily mean a hutch m o r e d i ffi c u l t t a s k o i l t h e n p a r t .

.

T n e d i ffi c u l t y o r a exercise depends on tile at.tivet y Lvliil 11 is It...iptited or the

s tu d e n ts l a t h e r t h a n o n th e l ex l i ts e l f, p ro v i d e d i t

Infrodurtiorr

Frinqill

Rt'atiirr{: ,n/Hl Po idil/s.: cc rr+} rrltrtrcit!1,

,

t.

.s.
w i th i n th e i r g en e r a l c o m p e te n c e . h i o th e r w o i c i s , on e s h ou l d acle e x.eicisies rattier
than texts.
-

c ) Au th en ti ci ty m ean s th at n o t h i n g o r t h e 0 . t i g i 1 1 ; I I l e X . t i s t h a n g u l and al so th at its

p re sen ta tio n and l ay out are re tain ed . A new sp ape r ai t idl e, for in stanc e, should he
p re sen ted a s i t l i r s t a p p e a l e d i n ( h e p i p e t : w i t h t h e same typeface, the S a m e s p a t e
d e v o t e d l o t h e h c a d h i l e S , l i l y s a m e a c c o m p a n y in g p i c t u r e . fl y s t a n c l a i d i v i n g t h e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t e x t s i n a t e x t b o o k , o n e n o t o n l y re c u t e s M u l e s ! . a n d m o t i v a t i o n ,
l i n t tine actually inciCASCS t h e d l i fi C t I l l V f o r t h e s t u d e n t s ,
pit Line, the SiZ of dI hcadillic, the use of boil-Care type, all c o n t r i b u t e t o
c s i n v e y i t i p , t l i c m e s s a g e t o t h e r e a d e r. I t i s rd i v i o n s t h a t a rc p t n i t w i l l n e v e r h e
c o m p l e t e l y a u t h e n t i c . , s i n c e i t e x t b o o k c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l texts taken o ur o leirinexi
and juxtaposed, tfhhl one sltuilld at least try to keep them a s a l i t h r l i t h . : a s p O S S i b l e
i i i o rd c i to help the student anticipate ri tea ll injr , b y ming th es e tion l ingui sti, c lue s.

lteitiling comprehension should tint lie separated him% the other skills. There al c few
cases in real lire when we do not tal k in)
w t i t e a b o u t w h a t w e h a v e r e a d o r w h e n w e d u m t r e l a t e w h a t w e h a v e re a d to
s o m e th i ng w e mi g h t ha v e he a rd . I t i s th e re fo re i m p , t a n t , t o h i d ; t h e c l i ff N e m s k i l l s
-

t h r o n g h t h e l e a d i n g a c fi v i ti c s
- l e a d i n g a n d w r i ti r i g , . c . . g . s u n t i n ta r i 7 i n g , m e n t i o n i n g w h a t y o u have read in a letter,
hon.' fnaking, ere.
l e a d i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g , e . g . c o m p a r i n g a n a t t i c k a n , d . a i i r W s - h ul l c ti n , U s i ng
re c o rd e d i n fo rm a ti on to S o l v e a written proldenr, imitching opinions and texts, e l ( 7 _
% U R I s p e a k i n g , e.g. discussions, debates, :111 1p:it:ration,
,

etc.
heading is an active skill. As mentioned earlier, it constantly involves guessing,
p r e d i c t i n g , c h e c k i n g a n d a s k i n g , o n e s e l f q u e s t i o n s . T h i s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t a ke n
i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n d e v i s i n g re a d i n g c o n i p c e l i e n s i o n e xe r c i s e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e , I i i
i i i s o i l e e , t o d e v e l o p l i t e s t u d e n t s ' p o w e r s o f i n f e re n c e t h ro u g h s y s t e m a t i c ' t a c t i c I ' ,
,

o r i n t ro t l u c e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h
encoui age students t o a n t i c i p a t e the content of a text hum. its title a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s o r
t h e e n d o f a s t o r y f r o n t t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r ag r a ph s .
S i m i l a r l y , o n e s h u t tl , l i n t ro d u c e exe rc i s e s i n w h i c h t h e re i s n o
s t r a i g h t f o r w a rd A n s w e r. ' i b i s t y p e o f e xe r c i s e h a s t o o o f: te n re q u i re d s tu d e n t s
t o e x e r c i s e o n l y th e i r p o w e r s o f judgement and appieciation, but extending t h e range
of these e xe rc i s e s to c o v e r o t h e r re a d i n g , s k i l l s w i l l l e a d t o g re a te r 'discus:inn and
refl e ction
IrX1
A sec-mill aspet t of reading as all active skill is its
c i i i i m i t i n i c a t i v e ( u n c ti o n , l i . xe rc i s e s m u s t h e m e a n t i rg ki l a n d c o rre s p o n d a s o ft e n
a s p o s s i b l e t o w h a t r i n i s ex p e l te d t o d o

with the t e x t .

We. rarely answer

questions after reading, a text, b u t w e m a y h a v e t o

- whir a n a l l S We r t o , a letter
use the t e x t t o do something (e.g. follow direc tions, make a choice, S O N ( ' a
p r 0 1 1k i l l )

()nip:11 - the ill! 01 iii.011111

t u t Vi o l e t k 1 1 1 1 , Vi e ( t h e _

T h e t h i rd s e i l i o n i d t h i s h o o k ` l i t i c l e r s t a n c l i n g ( v i e : m i n g ' stlg,wc ts a ntirlibet of

acti vities of this kind, to which should he added the use of wt 'ken texts fi rr simulations
and t h e U s e t fl
:

i2,a Mrs (e.g, hoard gatueS) teas ed Oli 1h rsed1mt tit shot t text;
n v i i l i n g 11 (:C C SSM 'y i tnit ) 1111:1 1.1 0111 (11 t he
.

moves of the

players.
c", Another impoi tam point when

trading compreltensir

i-xci rises is that the ;oTVVViies should lie Ilexilrie and varied. l'eNsr e xe r c i s e - t y p e s

h i t t i t i s i c a l l y g o o d o f b a d . T h e y o n l y b e c o m e so when iisecfi n helation to a g i v e n t e x t I t

o r I i I 1 g t t J u n i n c l i c l i n l o n a t t i V i t l e s s h o u l d h e sui te d to the tex ts and to ini e's
rea so ns Ii i [calling them. It is essential to take into at ( - n u n (

point

O f v i e w , i u l e n t i o n : 1 1 1 1 1 I M : k i r a kill understanding

ithr t e x t . T h i s ' n a y b e

c o v e r e d b y o p e n c p i e s t i o n s , m i t h i p l e - c l u n c e ip i c i s ti o n s , ri gh t t,h w l n t l g qu e s ti o n s ,
e t c . In o th e r e a s e s , th e tex t m a y n a t u r a l l y l e n d i t s e l f ' t o a i t o n l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t y s l u t
h a s t r a c i n g a ro u t e o n a M a p , n h i m ti c h l n g
7 The aint ()Cal(' CHclCiSt'S Illtist

p i t I M C S par1R101111S.

Inc cleatly defi ned and a clear d i s t i l l ( ( i o n m a d e

b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g a n d t e s t i n g . Te s ti n g w i l l o b v i o u s l y i n v o l v e m o r e a c c u r a c y - t y p e
e x e t r i s e s w h e r e a s tl , ro c t s te, 4 1f t , c . .acliiirg one should try t o I l e v e l t i i i the skills listed tiii
i
31

he stude nts mus t he taugh t ho w to app ro ar I I and entis idi i th c:

t r , i x t i n o rd e r to b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d e ffi c i e n t re a d e r s . I t i s also i n i p o r t a n t t o
I re l l t r i n h e r t h a t incatiltig is not

eta in the

text, that each reader litings his own, meaning In what he I ( " M I S b a s e d o n w h a t I l e
e X p e c t s h o w th e t ex t a n d h i s p re v i o u s kn o w l e d g e . ' fi n s sh o w s h o w di ffi c ul t i t i s to
te s t c o n w e te n e . e i n r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d h o w g r e a t t h e t e m p t a t i o n

is to

i m p o s e o n e ' s o w n i n t e r p re t a t i o n o n t h e l e a rn e r s .

hitioduriion

Heading comprehengion in the classroom ConsItuctilig uxercisos

l'here must be vat iety in th I :Inge of exercises. This is an
important factor in on ,tivation and it is necessary if -different skills are to he covered.
An exercise should never be imposed on a text. It is better to Allow the text to suggest what
exercises are most appropriate to it:. In other words, the text simuld always be the startit tg, point
for determining why one would normally read it, how it would be rcaii, how it might relate to
()thin inforMation before thinking of a
parl tncidar exercise.
Lint it is important to te rmeinlier that many texts are meant: to be ,lead aunt enjoyed, eat foci
malty exercises might spoil the pleasure of reading. A balance shoulde struck between leaving
the students without any help on the nine hand and on die oth er hand `sgneelin g Me text dry'.
.

Classroom Ina:Wows
Hie first point to be not:ca lm/hien practising reading in the (ilassroom is that it is a silent.
activity. TherefOre silent reading should be encouraged in inostcases, though the teacher may
stimelitnes need to i cad part of the text aloud. l'he stmkuts
rt temselves should not read aloud. It is an extremely din:nark dxercise, highly specialized (very
few people need to read aloud iii t. heir profession) and it would tend to give the impression that
all Lexts are to be read at the saline speed. Besides, when we read, our eyes do not follow each
word oldie text one alter the other -.at
lbst in the case ofefficient readers. On the contrary, many words or tixpressions are simply
skipped; we go back to check something, or fb rward to confirm some orciur hypotheses. Such
tactics become
i inpossible when reading aloud, and this reading activity therefore hurls to prevent the students
front ileveloping efficient reading
t tegics.
-

it is useful to give the class sonic help on how to approach a new !xt. The lUllowing procedure .,
Cm: instance, is very helpful with lost texts.
a Consider the text as a withle, its title, accompartyiiig nicture(s) or diagram(s), the paragraphs, lite
typeface used, and make uuesseS about what (tie text is about, who wrote it, who ills for, where it
appeared, etc.
Li Skim through the text a first [title to see if your hypollietIps wen e 1411*
Reading and t cadill, fornorpliewion
.

Then ask youtsell a IlllInbet of questions about lire center its cut text.
c) Read the text again, more slowly and carefully ibis time, trying to understand as molt as you can
and trying to answer thin rlilestions you asked yourself.
oi...cdute can consist_ of helping the student to time liimselland increase
his: reading speed little by little. It is necessary to reach a certain reading speed in order to
read efficiently, This can be done by showing the students how to record their
reading-.sftiecal systematically on a chart and i i try to
Another daSSI001,11 [11

improve it each time they read a new text.

To say that reading is a silent: and personal activity does not imply that it only lends
itself -to individual war k. M the cOntrary,
it is par tient:lily .interest ing to encourage compat isons between several interpi etatirms la
text which will lead to discussion and probably a need to refer back La the text to cl teck. liere
are possible
steps:
a) Silent reading t011 owed by an activity which carli sirilcnt, doc7 ;
on his own.

b)

'('lie students now wort( 111 Van s , each clue to ying to justify his
answer. The group al muld try to :kw cc on one answer nt
interpretation.
0) The groups exchange Ill I I [WAS and SlAlljelltS compate their
results.
c) A general discussion involving the whole elassinay
When 10 use residing comprehension exercises
Reading can he done as a class activity (see above) but reacting; activities can also be devised
to iiidividualize stridetits` work at
home. Instead of choosing one activity for the whole class, t wo 01 three sets of exercises of
varying difficulty can he prepared based oil
the same text so that. each student call work at home At his own level. lithe text is then to be
discussed in the: class, each group of students who have worked on the same exercises will be
able to talk
.

aboul what they have done. This will certainly be stimulating for
the weaker students, while the better ()rtes will trot Icel held bat k. II there is little teachercontrol of the reading activity, then self-correcting exercises are extrentely useful. 'lire
students al e
to evaluate their work and can try little by little to ing3rove their reading ability. They feel
reassuied and guided and lising this type of -material is one of the best ways of building up
die students'
confidence. (See Muifiread 1f (S.R. A. Paris, icy/:1) and Mnitiread l a i n d o n t r r i )
t.
11

Reading cumprehension exercise-types

[leading Inclutiques
I

SENS' I 17,1Nr:

How the aim is conveyed

I
AIM A NO PUNCTIUN Olt 11
1F.TEI.XT
-

thiough the context

Inference: through
2

iiiicierStatiding trlations within w o rd - f o rn i n t i o n

the senteii:e
-

Linking sentences and ideas:

3
ref erc iii x
Linking sentenres and ideas;

2 in.irlitiVINi; f t1,Anttri:
,

rilOM SKAfri I,tNC:'i'U SC' A NNINic;

I Pi c d iet lig

A n t i c i p a t i o n 4 Skinu
3 Searinit g

ortGANIZATION
T i t I 3 1 1 7 AT I C rArrinws
T Main idea

;wit supporting derails

Ch ro n o lo g ic a l s eq u en c e, D es cr ip t io ns

4 Analogy and contrast

5 C l a s s i fi c a t i o n
6 Argumentative and logical o rg a n iz a tio n

TirlimATIZATION
I;LimAinn olihe (Cm
), Functions within (he text
Understanding meal
-

J . NU N - tita u ti ts Ti r:

o Tint

t Ordering a s e q u e n c e of pictures
( _ : o u i p a i tug texts a n d p i c t u r e s
3 M.atchitig
4 . U s in g il lus tr a tio n s
5 0 .nn p let in g a d o c u m en t.
6 Mapping it out
7 Us in g th e in fo ' m o tio n in th e t e x t
8 jig s a w rea d in g
2

LIN(,UISTie: RESP( )N1S11 111 1 III.: TEAT

I Re o rg a n i z i n g t h e i n f o rm a t i o n : reottleting events

R eOr ga ll IZ in g t he

1111111'111:11.11,11:

rising grids
2 t.:om paring several texts
3 Completing a document
4 Question-types
5 Study skills: sumniarizing Study skills: male-taking

A s s e s s i n g We l e x t
I

V F.R S I I S

(4TriNi-tt)t4,
filnll r l r i n r f i r

2 WRITER S
'

' H i e ( - s e t r i s e s s u g g e s t e d i n th i s h o o k h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d i n to f o u r s e c ti on s . T h e fi r s t
-

i s d e v c ) te tl to th o s e . re a d i ng s ki l l s an d s ti tti r t. i e s that arc essential to acciiiiring a

basic wading, competence. Th u ihr- e. r.. p a i l s t l i . r t f o l l o w a n t i t o i l l u s t r a t e c l i ff : c o - i n w a y s
o f h e l p i n g t h e stinlnts teach a better 1111(1 :i 5tawling ola text, starting fl ow
,

over :ill t ow pi ellension (Itritetion and organization Of the passage), m ov ing lo \ vl d5 a

m ol e detai le d one ( t indr i s ta nding w ea ning ) and c o d i n g w i l l , s o m e g u i d e l i n e s i f / I l e l i l
1 1 1 . s E . n t l r 1 1 t s A S S S S a n d CV:111VAC 1N11:11 they have read

T h e ' e i s o b v i o u s l y , h o w e v e r , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o l o v e r l a p p i n g he t v v c c i l 'h e s e fb ui
p a i l s.

leading tedlia
\ l o s t o f th e te c h ni qu e s dd a l t w i th in do s p a i l. a rc a l re a d y fa m i l i a l to .lie students in
their native language. !lot it is neces sary to re- -Ilan' heel, as sonic students have

diffi cult y iii applying thew to a second a l l g u a g e .

i:Sensitizing
Th e aiin c if thi s se c ti on is to pi r) vi de exerc is es th at w il l dev el op di e s t r a t e g i e s t h a t
-

students cell to cope with linfainilial Nvords and

,oniplcx or apparentl y uhscrue

s e i t t e l w e s . I t s h o u l d e m u ' t h a t t h e y i d o n o t s t u m b l e ( i l l e v e ! y d i ffi c u l t ) o r g u t
d i m : o u r : Te d f r o n t t h e '_-nisei.
only:41010i0rl e.N.ret5e t y p e s
,

develop lulevence aloog dilfetcbt

( fi re exercise. (exercise ti) is devised to 11:1111 the stirderits to inlet a s q u i c k l y a s
p o s s i i ) k 1 1 1 c n i c a t l i t i p , o f p i c v i t u . i s l y re a r m r l I n t l
1114 0111111rte words.

The o(.Iici exercises 11111

tlic: students wi.)11; ()1.11.

strategy of inference for cleating with unlanliliar woid5.

-

hi ill fi r st } fa ll o f th e se c ti on (In in fe ren ce di e exc ic in .e l a t i ma m r ct

c ihrougli

the. context..

Iii die second pail, they in:id Ise inference through

-

wi11d-1in matron. /
- Must of the ext." eiscs
s h ou l d v , ii e s s th e in c a i i ii I K

o f th e s tud e n ts th a t li n ty

t I n c exc t r i s e , l i o We v c r ( exe rc i s e leads then: to analys e their

p ro c e s s o f i n f e re n c e m o re s y s t e m a t i c a l l y.
1.2lINDERS'l AV-11)11 1c (11;1 Al 1(11\iS NVITHIN 1 111 Slit I h i s i c r.
,

I n a b i l i t y t o i n l e t t h e w e a n i n g o f u n k n o w n e l e m e n t s 140 11 caiiscs d i s c o n i a g e i n e w
-

:Inc, appieliension iu StIldelitS wilrat

ale kit

w i t h : 1 n e w t ex t. A s i m i l a r p i o b l e w a r i s e s w h e n s tu d e n ts a t c u n a b l e to get :in

inunetliate grasp e ft seinencr... sum t111es. This will he a d e fi n i t e h a n d i c a p i i i t h e

-

c a s e o f t e x t s w i t h r e l a t i v e s , e m b e d d e d clauses

An

d c. unplex striicitires. It is there foie

,

impoi tant to twin iln s t u d e n t s , a s e l l I v . i s p o s s i b l e , t o l o o k fi r s t f o g M e ' c o r e ' ( t i t h e

s en te nc e (s ubj er I I- v er b) . In orde l to do th at, il te le :1i ne ts ran he asked to divide
passages into sense glnlIpS aul.l 1111[1111111e, 1111.X, Ill

re.ogniv.cs o n i c o t h e r w a y d i e i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s o f e a c h
sentence in a passage. (Sec exercises t--2..)
1 1 1 C : 1 1 1 S ma ki ng u s e t I s y u t . a c t i c , I t4 . 4 nA

an

cn

Iu u Ai d ues. o d i s c o v e r th e m e a ni n g o f

u n kn o w n e l e m e n ts . ( 1 tl i e s e a rc w in d s , t h e i r w i l d - f O r m a t i o n d e r i v a t i o n w i l l a l s o p l a y
a n i m p o r t a n t . part.
W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h a n e w t ex t , h i s h e i f e r n o t . 1 1 1 ex p l a i o t h e d i ffi c u l t w o r d s t o
U r e i c a t t i c T S b e f o r e h a n d . ' H i e ) w o u l d o n l y g e l us ed to being gi ve n 'p re - pro ce ss ed ' tex ts
-

and w ould ne ve r m ake the e ff o r t t o c o p e w i t l i a d i ffi c u l t p a s s a g e o n t h e i r o w n . O n t h e

i ' nn t r a t y , s t u d e n t s s h o u l d h e e n c o u r a g e d 1 : 0 m a ke A g u e s s a t t h e i i re a t i i n g o f t h e w o rd s
they do not know rather than look them
in a dictis wary. If they need to kick at the dictionary to get a precise m e a n i n g - w i n c h i s a n
1 r 4 p o r t a n t a n a l n e c e s s a r y a c t i v i t y t o o - t h e y s h o u l d o n l y d o s o a fl e r l i h v i n g t r i e d to w o r k
o u t a s o l u t i o n o n th e i r o w n . T h i s i s Why, from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , i t i s v i t a l t o d e v e l o p
the s ki ll o f inferen ce . Th e exe rc is e s sti v Aes ted in th e boo k. tr y to
1, 1 11 11(114 (; SENT11,7Jc:IiS Ar41) WEAN
,

A n o th e r a l e a i n W h i c h i t 1 S e s s e n t i a l I t t I I 1 1 1 : u e th e s tu d en ts Is lu e c ti gn i z i ng
th e v a t i ou s d e v i c e s u s e d to c re a te tex tu a l i c i l l e s i on an d m o l e p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e u s e o r l C re l c l m e a n d l i n k - w o r d s .
-

Re f e r e n c e c o v e r s a l l t h e d e v i c e s t h a t p e rm i t . l ex i c a l re l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i n a
t ex t ( e . g . re f e re n c e t o a n e l e m e n t p re v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d - - a n a p h o r a - o r t o
one to he mentioned below -eatapitora, use of synonymy, hyponyiny,
c o m p a r i s o n , t i o n t i n a l i z a t i o n , c o . . . ) I t i s import:tin fi le the students to realize
that a tex t. is not made: up of iirdependeut sentences Ot clauses, but 1 nit it is
a web of I elated ideas drat arc announced, i n trod uc ed 11 1 1 1 1 ta ke n 1 1 1 11 again
latet throughout d i e . p a s s a g e w i th t h e h e l p o f re fe re n c e s . E xe i c i s e s s u c h as i
and

(5.

can hcli, the sinciraus re c o g n i z e th i s u s e o f t e l e re n e e m o t e q u i t H y.

!Idle

0 r-l ti r
-

I A . , I

.............

1,

..

r^

ifilro(turroll

sonic idt he facts an(I ideas will prol7Atly escape hint. 131it it he does not nude' st and
inter- or intra-sunisaitt al connects:as, he may also
fail to iccor,iiize the cuinittunic:ative vtiltR: iii Llw passage since those w ol cis act as
signals indicating the finiction of what rolimvs (e.g. announcing a conclusion, an
example, a suppi.isition). I: Rm i th e
y

students should Oleic:tore lie taliglit not only to

understand them whtit they . orne act.rnss thcin, lint also tit loci": out 1..51 silt 11
itrul(ers, This will lie useful Ei.i them when skimming,
sinct- the simple recognition ell those link-w(n ds
.

iniderstand the development til the

Sum(' cx ercisrs
.

Willi to

iv,is:4J1-..,C.

Alhffig ll1C! rt11101V111}.;

RCCORTilZing t.Iu1 h11101[111 (if Ihti I uiiiiec.l.qrs and finding equivalents (excvciscs

(lompicting texts with thci missing, link-words (exercises 3- 5) - Transit)! tiling a

series of statements and propositions intia a
colicnent tem. hy joining sentences and adding; connectors.
This last kind of exercise is a thrriCl111.01101.1til. very 'Hitt:testing since it :ninths ot
seveial poSsible solutions and the coniparistm ortlic resolls obtained will slhiw
&Nemo. Wa ys 4..ipresenting Ow same
intition

1n11.rttrviity readillg speed

!
MI() cad

w ill eas ily ge t disci nt ra w( 1 .1 .1 te y will also tend to

stimilile s.ril tithinillar words and rail to grasp the ge',Ilcral meaning of the passage.
tout.slowly

(..)ne of the must common

read and to tisk them to

ways k.)t increasing ri atling speed

,,

is to godsit.idCI1CS 1.. 05.1.1 ., 7

1,

41t0

A conversion table, taking the length unlit. text and the reading '
will

tin ii' il.lto at:A:MI[11,

reading speed is and Ibis

What

will make it easiesr rut diem to 1.1 y and lead a litt.1?!. roster every time. Reading should
also he followed by comprehension questions or activities

S111{.(1

leading speed

should not be developed at die expelise of com prekterisicm.

Most of tlieexerciseS iii Ibis book cat' therefore be. used with
raster reading in mind. Below is an example of a conversion table
Jsir sooword texts (Irwin (f.i.:.ra.ld and Vivienne I'vlosback, Prrafical
Fasie.i. earhlw, Cambridge University Press, 1.976),
5
When practising faster reading systematically, the students can be elicouraged to keep
a recut:el A:their results, showing their progress (e.g. in the (Orin ora graph). This
should encourage them to rcad
The few exercises on speed I eading included ill this book are of .a different. kind since
tht.y aim to develop spccil in tecogniving words and their meaning.
Nrodiq

o ch n

iorl eIxerrise-fypes

Itentling nine

UPariMK 11131C1
(11111i/S(.1(:)
I ,
1 . 1 1 .

(W.p.I11.)
'100

1.10
I . 7,

01)7

1,31)

114

1-4IP

300

4.10

pct-al
(1/41..t
.1)
In.)
lett

11

-40

1.57

151,

2,73

2.01

2.511

lo

1).11

)31

CPO

llei

2,-10

a..5

2.211

4.3"

2,30

4.1"

2-41)

IRK
1'74

2 511

I1

1.04
100

-,

leo

3.(.1

4..5"

io scam sing

Ft otit

the most impintain. points ia1 kcp iii mind whet, teaching reading
comprehension is that there is not title I ypi7. of Leading but sevel al according to
ones rcasons fru tending. Students will never read el tteiently unless they can
adapt. (lieu.' reading speed and technique to their soil when rc.ading. 13y reading
all texts iii the saint: way, students would waste time and fail to remember 11(111115
1

1111[1 1.7ttaner Et) I Belli beCallS 1110y would :111.501 h (00 11111d1
1

non--essential information. The exercise.s suggested ill titi s(.(.6,111 hotr1r1

Llicrchire rill(c du' 41.11dclilsmolc. Crntfuleill and el:licit-lit each:vs.

i7.l)1(:1111(4

Tills is not really a technique hut a skill which is hashe to all the leading,
techniques pt actised iti tlds part and in die process or I e a c l i l l l generally. it is the
facility of predicting in guessing what is to collie next., waiting use or
-

granituatica,l, lov,ical and 1.01tural clues. This skill is at the

as 'anticipation' or `skimming' and will It
may be NAtorthwhile

III

Core

or techniques Sill 11

chore he practised in lhose sections, hut it

devotc some lime to timre systenhit it

training by giving die students unfinished passag,es compltc

ley

tlitough

a !XXl

little by little, stopping atter each

in order to in edict what is likely to come next (see exeri.Ises

3.1 4 1MV1.E.WiNQ
1

Unlike predicting, previewing is a very specifi c reading Le:chili, pie -which involves
.1

Reorthlg coitspirtrolsion crercrce-ryJles

prchce, the, c liaptei and paragraph headings tiff order to hind out w h re t.i n i cr1 Lli rc d
in ftir u ation . k like ly to b e. It is pai l i tr il arl y u s e fi l l w h e n s ki m m i n g i n i d s c a n n i n g
a n d a s a s tu d y s ki l l .
Hie exercises stw esteci in this part: attempt in Intl the studi ans into Lice sort of
situation where they would quite 11:11(11 ..illy apply t h i s t e c h n i q u e ( e . g . q u i t k l y
l o c a l i n g a n a r t i c l e i n a l i c w s p a p e r ha v i n g a fe w i i ii nu i e s tu idea tila im.)t.ik ( Hough
.

the tex t on
the hack cover and ;he

AN

(.orrients).

11O11

fy l o ti v a ti o n i s o ( F , i e a t i m po r t: n i c e wh e i l re a d in g . tly bccate.e
.

most. of .vhat. we usually read is what we 'Nana 1,A) react (1100k9, inaga2.ines,
adveitisentenis, etc.), 1)11( also because being inotivateri
m ea ns th at we s ta r t read ing, th e tex t pi cp ared to hod a inind ic r of
things iii it, expecting Lo fi nd answers to 2 I1Lilid)(71
5re1 iliklrillatik)11 Op' ideas WC aEC

111. This ' ex p e c t a t i o n

'

i s i n h e re n t i n t h e p ro l e s s O f re a d i n g w h i c h i s a p e w
-

i k t e r re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e d t h e r e a d e r a n d t h e t e x t , W h a t w e a l r e a d y kno w :11.1ulif. 111C.

S1.111jeCt and w ha t we an l oo king for e p rob ably is as Hp)! Lant

w h a t ' , w e i i c i l i a l l y . d r : i v y f ro m t h e t e x t . W h e n
re a d i n g , v e ke e p m a k i n g , p re d i c t i o n s w h i c h , i n t h e i r ( n n , w i l l l i e c o n fi rm e d o r
c o r re c t e d .
' i n s u n d e r l i n e s t h e a r t i fi c i a l i t y i i i t i l l . c l a s s ro o m s i t u a t i o n . i n it
w h i c h s t u d e n t s a rc w r e n c o n fi t i n t e d w i t h p a s s a g e s t h e y k n o w
[milli! 14 qhmil, do not and cannot_ situate in a more general rail/mai Lo i n ex t . a u d -

w h a t . i s e v e n m o re i m p o i t a m . - I n VC IRp p a i t i c u l a r desire to lead. It is very di

tfi raill., ill such couilitinlis, to expect the s tud en ts to l ean t to rea d bettei .
The prdr:rise. of letting (lie students chnuse the topics the y wish t o read

should

t h e re f o re b e e n c o u r a g e d . I h o w e v e r , w h e n
dealing with lay.g,e.i groups, it may 1.10 1.::dways be easy to agree oil defi nite subjects
1

and the tea r:her may also wish to introduce a new t o p i c w h i c h h e b e l i e v e s ' n i g h t b e o f
i n te re s t . W h e n t h i s i s th e , c a s e i t i s o ft e n w o r t h w h i l e t o s p e n d s o n i c t i m e g e t t i n g t h e
s t u d e n t s t e a d y t o re a d a g i v e n t e x t . B e rn i e t h e s t u d e n t s s t a r t re a d i n g a t e x t , t h e y c a n
a l w a y s he a s ke d to l oo k te s t th e an s w e r s t. o s p e c i fi c qu e s t: l o l l s . T h i s w i l l g i v e a n
i n c e n t i v e t o t h e i r re a d i n g a c t i v i t y. A f e w o t h e r possibilities are sugg,ested in the
exercises:
a i i i i ed a t m a ki n g th e s tud e n ts th in k about the subject of
the text and ask themsel ves questions ( exe rc i s e s r- 3 ) .
U s i ng l i e ti tl e a nd p i c tu re s to ta l k ab o u t th e Various w a y s th e t ex t m a y de v e l o p
( exe rc i s e s 4 - 5 )
- U s i ng , E l i e ke y- w o rd s o f di e t ex t ( e . xe r ( i s e sv. I tvl NI N (-7 AND sit:Ant-um;
l i l o t h s k i m m i n g a n d s c a n n i n g a l e s p e c i fi c re a d i n g

n e c e s s a r y t o r q u i c k a n d v i r u l e n t re a d i n g .
W h e i i s k i m m i n g , w e g o t h i o u g h t h e r e a d i n g i n a t e i l a b q u i c k l y i n older to get the
gist. of it, to know hcli1 it is orgaiii /..e.th oi to get an ttle:1 of the trine or the intention I if
(he writer.
W h e n s c . : i n n in g, w e ti l il y tr y to [ ( Wa i l . s p e c - i fi c in fr i i il l a ti o n an d often we di) not
.

ev en (ollerw C H lineal ity tl f the liaSS(42,,e to do so, We s i m p l y l e t i n n e y e s w a n d e l

r i v e r t h e t e x t u n t i l w e l i t i d w h a t w e are looking, loi, whether it be a nan3r, a date, tit
a

less specifi c: piece r i f i n f o rm a t i o n .

S ki mm ing is die t e lm c a u nc le i li trough : ac tiv i ty whi c. 11 ic rli li rc cs a n o v l a l l v i e w

n i t l i c t e x t a n d i i i i p u i s a d e fi l i n e r e a d i n g rintipelence Scanning, nit the contrary, is fin

t u n i c lilatil-r id since. Il. o n l y

m e a n s re tr i e v i ng w h a t i n r i i m a ti o n i s re l e v a n t to ou r

p in p o s e . Yet. it is usual tr.) make usethese two activi ties together %vireo
r e a d i n g a g i v e n t e x t . . I " o r i n s t a n c e , w e m a y w e l l s k i m t h r o t i g h a r t i c l e fi r s t j i i s t t o
k n o w w h e l l i c i i t . i s w o r t h re a d i n g , t h e n l e a d i t
thiinigh 'lune) carefully t o

w e h i v e d e c id e d th a t i t i s o f

interest. Iia ls o po ss ibl e a fter wa rds to sc an th e sa ne r a tti c I t iti

LO luct.e 1.Iniwii a l i g i n i n a n a m e w h i c h w e p a r t i c u l a r l y w a n t (-member.

s e c ti o n a ir I.railling

The fi l st two exercises in the

p i l i r l i i i i a r y exe r c i s e s . T h o s e t h a t M o w ( ex c . , ( i s e s ti) try 1r)

l'eCicaLe au th entic re adin g s itua ti ons . 1 he y sh ould co ntribu te to i m i l d i n g t i p t h e
s t u d e n t s ' c o n fi d e n c e b y s h o w i n g t h i n l i o v m u c h t h e y c a n l e a r n s i i L L s l y h y l o o k i n g
a t s o m e m o i n i n e n t p a r t s o l 3.1 1.1c1c, icy c, al cl iing a few w o rd s only , by rea ding a
fe w par agi apl is
.

l ucre and there iii a story, Thrill :lint is (let tautly not to cm:outage the students to read :ill
tr.:xis in such a stye' ticial way (this would be tin cinitrat.lidion with I be principlc
mentioned catlier) but
t h e y s h o u l d m a ke t h e s t u d e n t s l i e t t e y l e a d e r s , [ h a u s , re a d e r s

who can decide

q u i c k l y w h a t t h e y w a n t c a l n e e d t o r e a d . S o m a n y stude nts sp end so mu ch ti me

c arel til ly and tho ro ti s- dil y rea ding as
wspapei (fi n instalic() that hy the ti ttle they fi nd S11i11CIII tilg,of re a l i n te re s t, th e y
n o lo ng e r h a v e ti m e o r e n e rg y l e ft to re a d i t in
'Hie exercises sugges ted to practise scanning also try to mil. die s tu d e n ts i n a n
a u th e n t i c s i tu a t i o n w h e re t h e y w o u l d v i a l : w a l l y s c a l l the text :.in read it. Ow sl.ucieuis
are thet(liii:e asked to
s o l v e c c s p e c i fi c p i o h l e n i a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e - w h i c h i s o n l y p o s s i h i b y m e a n s
of scarining.
'

iHitorint( flair
Neadinx
iSe-flpe,`

COMpf Chef

C s('Ii

H o w We fl i n t iq c o n v e y e d
Ili th is se co nd par t th e em pha si s is on the func tion and o rg aniz a ti on tit the passage.
11 111letiOri 01 ill Ii text
-

It is obvious that licing ai+vare oldie tiinction trf ; 1 1 1 1 S 5 0 , C i s vi ta l to

T he re h ne , ou r o ld ie v er y I i i t i t t h in g s st u d en ts sh ou ld b e led to d o

is to Mid out whethei the text aims.

it

th e re a d e r , gi v i n g, h in t i n fo rm a ti o n , a s ki ng , hi n t l o t s o m e t h i n g , e t c . I n
many cases, the ver y form ofthe passage, the way it. is printed, laid ow, or the
p l a c e w h e r e i t w a s ( m i n d , a re suffi cient to give us c lees as fink

and srudenrs should

a lw ay s b e e nc our aged to ma ke us e of ( he se m ill - lingui stic ei en len ts . li n o i t. Ma y

s o m e ti m e s b e m o re di l i c i tl t to d o e r m i n e th e ex a c t
.

HMI 6{111 of the NS:V.10.'. aut.f 101.11,1i5 reason it is wol di devoting scrure time to
activities such as the ones in exorcises 1 a nd
2Oignilizatioit of the text

given a specific function eonviliciug the Leader) ;loci Lei Lim

drat has to be col iveyed (e.g. Wine characteristics of a n e w c at) , th ere
a te tu' any.d ittere ta w0 ys in w hic h thi s informa tio n
-

y he presented and organized. One could compare the new car Ill other lessei
c a r s f o r i n s t a n c e , t h u s u s i n g c o n t r a s t t o m a ke t h e I H ) i n t , O r t r y ( 0 c o n v i n c e t h e
r e a d e r b y s o m e k i n d o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g , o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e c a r. A n o t h e r
p o s s i b i l i t y m i g h t be to use a ehrouolog,ical scemence of events ((Or instance listing,
the m a j o r e v e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ) , r e v e a l i n g t h e ma i n
c har ac ter is ti c s old ie c at: li ttl e b y l ittl e. .
T hi s s h o w s th a t l i re o rg a ni z a ti on o f a p a s s a g e i s n o t a l w a y s determined by its
c o n t e n t s a n d b y t h e t w i n e o f. t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o he coliveyed.
thematic pattern
used is ofteti a choice on the part
c i f (Le writer and this choice, in its min, alters the message,
A n o t h e r re a s o n w h y i t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e s t u d e n t s t o g r a s p t h e m e t h o d u s e d t o
present. the info rmation is that once they have re c o g n i z e d th e p a t t e rn th a r i s
b e i n g u s e d , t h e y c a n a p p l y t h e i r re a d i ng s tr a te g i e s to tin e t ex t a nd p re di c t w h a t i s
l i ke l y to ( c a l l o w. i f, l o t i n s t a n c e , w e re c o g n i z e t h e t ex t a s a n a rg u m e n t a t i v e o n e , w e
-

w i l l l o o k f o r a rg u m e n t s a n d c o u n t e r- a rg u m e n t s , t h e n f o r S W I M k i n d o f c o n c l u s i o l i
drawn Iran these arguments.
T h e fi r s t k i n d o f o rg a n i z a t i o n d e a l t w i t h i s th a t b u i l t a ro u n d a
m a i n i d e a , w h i c h i s th e n d e v e l o p e d th rou gh o u t. th e tex t. . I t i s o fte n
l o nn d

i n

newsp a p er

a r ti cl es

wh ere

th e

firqt

lip the main point, the res t of the tex t consisting of FiX pa n sio n s o f v o l i ( i l l s k i n d s N i t
.

o n e o fi e n fi n d s t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e imi agt.11)11 iLi ;ill kirtcts of trams. 1) 11

-

lc mil types of exercises can li o se ci to tra in the s ttu icu ls to IT ( ogni zt: thi s
-

o rg ani za ti on.
l ke j e c t i n g , i I i c l ( v a t i t . i n f o rm a t i o n ( e xe rc i s e 2 ) .

Fi n d in g th e top e % s m e l l s : e s a nd w h a t ki nd o f ! e l a ti o n th e y h a v e t o th e r u s t o l d i e
t ex t ( r a i n i s e s 3 - , ) .

) i s c r i m i n a l i n g , h e t V s / C e l l Re i t t l 3 1 1 7 , , i t i M I S A n d s i m e i n r , n i s
( exe r c i s e s 6 - 7 ) .
skeleionoritlirws ur III ; 1 i i i c i n i e i l l i l w r I e x l
(exert ises S. it/),
'lite sections that billow a l e d V 1 / 1 e l l I I I o i l e r (.)1
( r. 1 1 r u n o l u g i r a l 5 c t t u r n t e , description, analogy and c oo t as t,

c la ss ifi c a ti on, at gnm enr ativ e and log ic al ot gani zo ti on ), e a r l , o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s ,

( h e s u g g e s t e d t r y t r i i n v o l v e t h e students at lively, leacling them to study the
wa y the ideas art~
through ;it tivities vt 111 (.11./1e1111 1111111V, ill Lai- 11'S, III
-

rt .tri tiering passages) drat should motivate them ;mit 01)1iRc l h r i i i to

.

(111 )/k
.

t h e t r S i . T h e y a l s o u s e v i s u a l re p re s e n ta l i o n s s u c h a s

t a b l e s , t i e r d i a g r a m s o th e r di a g r a m s a s o fte n i ts po s s i b l e s in c e

they

help

the

:tridents

to

draw

omit

only

what

is

(7ssrun

ird

and

to

see

the

d e v e l o p m e n t o l d i e t e x t M o t e d i : a i l v. I t s h o u l d . 0 1 5 0 r i i t u i n a Re d i e m l o u s e s l i t
-

tlevices when oricing n otos on

hat they read,

3 Themalization
I t m a y h e i n t e r e s t i n g t o t h a w t h e s t u d e n t s ' a t t e n t i o n t o d i e w i r y i n w h i c h t i m e o rd e r
o f th e e l e m e n ts i n a s e n t e n c e c a n d i m th e m e s s a g e . A f e w e xe r t c i s e s h a v e t h c re fi n e
b e e n i t i . l u t l e c I t o i l l u s t r a t e H i t p ro c e s s o f t h e m o t i z a t i o n .

Undetstandiny meaning
B e s i d e s m u l c t s ta n d D i g t i m e w a y a t ex t i s o i g a n i z e d , i t i s o l c o u ts e e ss en ti al to
und ers ta nd its co nten ts . Ti ns pa r( a tte mp ts to sug ge st: d i ff e re n t . w a y s o f d o i n g th i s .
it is usual to help- or check comprehension through the use of
types or g lie Stio n (e.g.
o p e n q u e s t i o n s , r i g h t o r w r o n g , m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s ) . I t i s not in y in ten ti on
to dw el l on the v alu e of tl ie sc qiie stio n- typ es ( se e Widdowsou, Teadlirtx LanNuo,pe as
Communication, pp. 9,111). H o w e ' v e r , i t s h ou l d l i e p oi n te d ou t th a t th e y c a n ha v e
th e a d v a n ta g e o f i n v o l v i n g t h e s t u d e n t s a c t i v e l y , i . e . i f t h e y n e e d t o t h i n k a n d
reason in mile!. to give au answer or make a choice (sec Nil 'why,
-

Readirly compeliellSiOit OXVMSC. typeS

,

Winch

theie is no Single, 01 \6011S an Wier hut Which will force the students to exaltritie
1

the text. Mid the diff ercitt possibilities carefully in eider tk) make up t h eir winds. Some
possibilities are suggested in 2.4 `tRirestion-ty
lite other rixercises suggested in tins part. arc inspired hy two diff erent
t To make the students active in the reading process by presenting
them with decision-making, t . ictivitics (e.g. drawing a diagram

with the information given in the text, solving the problem,

conlyileting, a table which reorganizes the iatirmotion).

2 To devise a ctivities wh ic h a ir as na tur al a s pos sibl e, i.e. as c los e as poSSiiiic to

What our. would naturally do with the text (e.g. answer big a lettet using the intro

illation given in that letter completing a docuthent, comparing several texts, etc.)
activities suggtlsted have been divided into two categrnies.
Non-linguistic respotIse to the text

'I here 15 a wholc rang,c of t.'011.11,11C.11C1 1Siull activities that tic) l e c l t . t i r e c i t y con,gclex
-

verbal response on the part. oldie learnt is. iii these exercises, something, is added to
the text (a document, a diagram, a picture) and the students are asked to relate the
text to that document. This can Mean:
a comparison (e.g. comparing lexts mid pictures, matching passages oldie text
anti diagrams)
a transposition of the information (transeirding, the information into the Itnan of a
diagram, completing or labelling a document) using the information ill the passage
to fi nd a solution, Make a decision ill solve a problem u.
A l t h o u g h n o a c t u a l q u e s t i o n s n e e d o c c o m . p a n y t h i s k i n d o f exercise, it is one ci
the most useful ones since this is the way we often use what we read and the very
fact of being able to inake proper decision will be proof that the student has
thought about die text and understood it_
Linguistic I espeitse to the text
The exercises suggested (Noet the following Categories: REOIW A N I Z I N G Tut
1T`tt'URMAT] UN
1 11 t. lte se eN .C [C I SC S, 1 11 0 students are asked to present the information in a diff erent

way; to reorganize it according to a diff erent pattern (e.g . c o m p letin g a ta b le ,

d r awin g u p a c liro in tlo g ic a l lis t o f th e events ineutioned in the passage). These exet
rises emphasize the
Fact that their arc many diff erent ways of presenting the sante info' matit

cOM.t Altli10 Silt/ER/1J. '11 .XTS

.

t h i s i s a v e r y n a t u r a l a c t i v i t y s i t t e r w e t i r t e n m e n t a l l y c o m p a l e till - h.-rent versions

oldie S a n t e e v e n t or incident, lot instance what someone wrote in a letter and what. We
rend in a pa pet, what: a
fl ielid tells its akin' a (.m111111) and what a g u i l t s - -h o o k o r a t i a v c i broduite says. II is
1

iiiroligp the comparison between the diff er cid t ex t s t h a t t h e . s tu d e n t s ' tr iA n i t io n

i s d r a w n i o ' w h a t i s s p e r i i i i passage they .0 c studying. The passages (dieted lot

compai m oil may diff er

In then: contents (e.g. one can Study Ilse.. tievdoliiiirlif ;iii
i)I news over a period ttl time)
i l l theb point of view (e.g, several

les 011 ihr s;1111C NIThiuLf

t a k e n I l r l t n diff erent newspapet s).

,),

1.;rin41' I li.T11 14.; A Ip(A.Irvii .11T

,

'lids is basically the saute type of:activity as the one mentioned under the s a u t e
L I C 3 d I n g in the preceding, section ('l\lon-lingnistic response to the text') but this time

the students are required to do more than simply provide, labels or fi gures, they
must,
example, Use the runtcrits of the text tic answer a letter, fi ll in an evaluation card, an
application lot in, leave a note, etc.
To these different categoi les, 1111[Ni he adcled the possihility t if - using the text fell:
simulations or tole-play. (...)ne (tin, for example, ask the students to study the
information in the text and identify with one of die chat:niers who will then have la)
readd in dif fel ent situatiOns.
2.5

S'I lI17Y SKILLS

Study skills in fact cover n i n n y diff erent tasks suidt as the use of a d ic ti o n a r y , a ta b l e
a co li t en ts (s ee ' Re a d in g te c h n i r p res ' ) , o r u n d er l in in g a n d b oxi n g (s ee ' Ho w t h e
a im is c o n ve y ed ' ) b u t o n l y two major skills have been selected in this section: notetaking; and
Taking notes is esseoial. 4, order to reili.C1 11 bei what one reads or listens to but it has a ( millet u s e : W h e n taking notes, it. is necessary to establish the sit ticit ire of the text and
its key ideas and to learn to l e a v e o u t u n e s s en t i a l i n f o rm a t i o n . I t i s a d i ffi c u l t
a c t i v i t y w h i c h Stuns up most oldie strategies developed in the fi rst three parts (lit
tact, mailY o l d i e tasks Prtrposrai
ltinlerstanding meaniutr'
-

2-

Za
Reading comprfisension exercise-types

lltirOdUC11011

left. to specialists olliteratute only. since it is of vital impottance, wh a te ver th e

kin d o f t ex t s tu d ied . th is c o ver s as p ec ts su c h a s the kind of vocabulary
and sentence structure used, the dillevent fo rm s o f s p ee c h h i g h l ig h t ed , th e
u s e o f i m a g e s , th e p o s s ib le iniitation of a remain genie, to give. only a k w
examples.
) Fin a lly , it is o b vio us th a t th e id ea s exp res s ed in th e pa s s ag e should be

discussed ancl11140.1 at. some

WilaieVCI way

these o p i n i o n s W e l e expressed one cannot. help reacting to them a n d

q u es tio ns lea d in g th e s tud en ts to c o m p a re th eir o wn vie ws to those of the
writer a,ie a necessary component. of any leading comprehension syllabits.
No (...set vises have been suggested to illustrate these last points, [ w il y
b ec a u s e i n a n y re a d in g b o o ks h a v e m a d e u s e o f th em a n d most teachers are
iIlelehce 1.11111lial with thew, partly be :nisi. it wou ld be extrem ely i i ffi e u p t
to c ovet th e wa in points in Oils section; the' e would in fact be enough
matelial hit anothe.t hook. lowevcr, the exercise-types used to practise
recognitiun uh Ilu.; writer's toile, Le( Intikpie and ideas do not diff et now
those seen in the prec ed in g pa ils o ld ie bo ok. It is only th e c on tents tha t a te
dillerent and this is another reason why n o ex:unities have been given.
The fa( t that fi st the purposes of this hook fi fe exercises ale
livided up into sever al categiuies does not I l l e a l l L hese lour parts
he used consecutively when teaching trading skills. l rrl the cunt' at y it
is necessary with most texts to thaw examples fl out all
(Mu pal is since one cannot dissoci.al.e. f orni and contents.
,

2-5

the section called 'Linguistic response to the text', require die a l fi l i i y to take
notes correctly.)
In summary writing, too, minor details must he rejected but a summary is
usually written in one's Own v ,,, o r d s .
-- it does nut necessaiily imply outlining the structm oldie passage, as notetaking Listi,tlly does.
It should be a n accurate and objective account of the text, 'cavil% out out reactions
to it (whet vas note-taking c a n he supplemented b y n o te - m a ki n g , i. e . b r i e fl y j o u
i n g c lo wn o n e' s re a c t io n s a n d ideas about the passage).

Assessinj the text

One vital aspect of

c o mp, ellension has so lar been left. out:

the abilu y to as s ess 11 1 1 t 1 evaluate the text. This toans, first ofall,
that one should be hilly aware unite writer's lute arson urhis print
of view and possible bias. I 1 ael versus
,

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In this section the exercises aim at training the students to lie able to discriminate facts
frokopinions. It is au import:no pal t uCreading competence since ably good reader
should be aware oldie. way his judgement is infl uenced one way or ;Another.
2 VVrilet'S
In the second section the activities suggested are focused on the attitude oldie
writer, die particulai kind of bias that can be felt. Llittig,h his WI itiug. This is of
particular interest, Cot instance, in advertising passages (exercises 6- 7).
I II 01 der to he comprehensive this part shoithl also deal with sever al other
aspects which-- to no lesser degree-- contribute to conveying the message.
a) Tone is often one oldie most diffi cult aspects ()fa text to grasp. , But, it is
essential, for what would we think of a student who ' reads Swill's A M o d e s t

P r o p o s a l and fails to recognize the irony i n i t ? A n d y e t , t h i s s a m e s t u d e n t m i g h t

v e r y w e l l h a v e lithlerstood all the facts in the passage. Teachers should
the; efor e make sure that the students are familiar with the whole range of tone
itony, anger, persuasion, etc.)
1+) 'f he language used by the writer, the kind of sentences he chooscs and die
way he arranges them also contribute to conveying, his meaning. This study
ollanguage should not 1c