Chp 5 Identifications

Albany Plan of Union (1754 essentially right at the start of the Seven Years War)
Background Info: The French build a series of forts in 1753 to keep out English
traders. Washingtons efforts to persuade the French fails.
Largely based on the ideas of Franklin and Hutchinson.
Called for a Grand Council representing all the colonial assemblies and led by a
crown-appointed president general.
The Grand Councils role would be to devise policies on defense and Indian affairs.
The Grand Council could demand funds from the colonies if needed.
It provided to future American unity but at the time came to nothing as no colonial
legislature wanted to surrender the slightest control over its taxation powers.
Seven Years' War / French and Indian War (1754-1763)
Background Info: The French and British were enemies and were preparing for a
war.
After Washingtons clash with the French (1754) Britain dispatched Braddock and a
thousand troops to America.
Braddock expected his disciplined soldiers to make light work of the French and
Indians but his force of 2,200 succumbed to a raid from about 850 opposing forces.
The Anglo-Americans were numerically superior but disorganized.
By 1757, Britain seemed to be facing defeat on all fronts (both in US and EU).
But 2 events turned the tide:
1) some of the Natives decided France was becoming too strong and in 1758
abandoned support of the French. Some became neutral, some helped the British.
2) William Pitt took over control of military affairs and declared that he was the
only one that could save Britain. Pitt re-installed a patriotic belief and became the
colonists hero (symbol of Americans and English together).
With problems of their own in Europe, Pitt chose against additional troops to
America, instead encouraging colonists to take action. He promised Parliament
would bear most of the cost. This led to well over 40,000 troops, far more than the
number the crown sent in previous years combined.
The war was effectively over when French resistance ended with the surrender of
Montreal in 1760, but the Treaty of Paris in 1763 officially ended the war. Britain
gained control of the East, while Spain took the West.
Acadians and Cajuns
At the conclusion of the French and Indian War, Acadians were the most badly
affected of all Franco-Americans.
Background Info: England took over Acadia in 1713 and renamed it Nova Scotia.
Nova Scotias government ordered all to swear loyalty to Britain, but most refused to
take the oath.
British soldiers drove them from their homes and burned their villages.
Acadians and others like them were deported to the colonies, esp. Maryland and
Penn., but with intense anti-French prejudice, they moved on to Louisiana. Here,
they became known as Cajuns.
King George III
Background Info: King George III ascended to the throne at age 22 and in 1760
towards the end of the Seven Years War.

King George III was content to rule as a constitutional monarch, but wanted to have
a strong influence on government policy. Neither his experience or philosophy
allowed this to happen.
George III made frequent and abrupt changes, angering the colonists further.

Friction Develops (1760-1763)

Background Info: New France has all but lost and Britain is virtually bankrupt. As
hard times strike friction develops between the Natives, Colonists, and Brits.
Britain decides to cut costs by stop distributing food and ammunition to the Natives.
Tension mounted and a Delaware prophet named Neolin called for Indians to refuse
European culture. Other Natives hoped for France to return so they could again
manipulate an imperial balance of power.
Pontiac, an Ottawa Indian political leader, decided to forge an anti-British movement
known as Pontiacs Uprising.
Despite early successes, shortages of food and ammunition, smallpox (which the
Brits deliberately spread), and the knowledge that the French were gone for good led
Natives to make peace with the British.
Despite the failure of the uprising, the Natives were conciliated by the Proclamation
of 1763, which acknowledged lands west of the Appalachians to be Native land.
This calmed Natives fears but at a cost: colonists were angered as they felt imperial
authority was slowing expansion.
Writs of Assistance and James Otis (specifically 1760-1761)
British authorities began an attempt to halt American merchants from illicit trade
with the French West Indies and employed a document called Writs of Assistance
which allowed customs officials to enter any ships or buildings purely on suspicion.
Writs of Assistance turned out to be a powerful weapon against smuggling.
Boston merchants, who often smuggled, reacted quickly by hiring lawyer James
Otis.
Otis proclaimed that the writs challenged the constitutionality and claimed an act
against the Constitution is void.
But the court was influenced by the opinion of Chief Justice Thomas Hutchinson who
described an identical write in England and ruled against the merchants.
Furthermore, most British politicians assumed Parliaments laws were part of the
constitution. Otis, like other colonists, contended Parliaments had no such authority.
Sugar Act (1764)
The goal of the Sugar Act (unlike that of the Navigation Acts which was actually
becoming a burden financially) was to raise revenue that would help offset American
expenses. Crucially, the Sugar Act ended Britains policy of salutary neglect.
The Sugar Act:
1) placed a tax on French West Indian molasses entering America. However,
colonists continued to smuggle in cheaper molasses by bribing officials.
2) forced trade to foreign countries to go through Britain. Parliament hoped for less
purchase from rivals and more from Britain, creating jobs for the British.
3) required Captains to complete a series of documents to certify trade as legal. The
regulations made it impossible to avoid violations in the given local circumstances.
4) allowed officials to transfer smuggling cases from colonial to vice-admiralty
courts. A single judge (who had a 5% cargo incentinve) gave the verdict, and all
cases had to be heard in the v-a court at Halifax, Nova Scotia. Also, instead of
presuming innocence until proven guilty, a defendant had to prove himself innocent.

In 1766, Britain lowered the tax to discourage smuggling. The immediate effect of
the Sugar Act was minor, but some became aware of a new direction of imperial
policies.

Stamp Act (1765)

Background Info: The revenue from the Sugar Act did little to ease Britains financial
crisis. At the time, Brits paid 26 shillings of tax where as colonists paid 2-6% of
that.
Colonists were required to purchase and use special stamped paper. Violators would
face prosecution in v-a courts.
Unlike the Sugar Act, the Stamp Act was an internal tax directly taxing property,
goods, or services in the colony. (External taxes = regulate trade)
(continued below)
Virtual Representation
Pitt objected the Stamp Act and emphasized that the colonists had never paid
internal taxes and already taxed themselves through their own elected assemblies.
Grenville (PM) thought that colonists were virtually represented by Parliament.
Virtual representation held that Parliament considered the welfare of all subjects.
Rather than representation by a single seat, Grenville believed colonists were
represented by all members of Parliament.
Colonists accepted virtual representation as valid only for England and Scotland and
argued that they should enjoy substantial self-governance like Ireland.
Many colonists felt they had to face the issue head-on or surrender self-government.
Patrick Henry
A young Virginia lawyer and planter who urged the Virginia House of Burgesses to
adopt resolutions which denied Parliament power to tax the colonies.
Newspaper accounts of Henrys resolutions spread throughout the colonies, and by
the end of 1765, seven other assemblies adopted Henrys resolutions.
Loyal Nine
In Boston, a group of middle-class artisans and small business owners formed the
Loyal Nine to fight against the Stamp Act. They recognized the stamp distributors as
the weak link and pressured them into resignation.
Sidenote: It was no surprise Boston led the way. They were severely affected by the
Sugar Act. Earlier on, Boston had lost ground to NY and Philadelphia. In addition,
Boston was still struggling to recover from a great fire in 1760. Poor Bostonians
were already used to large scale demos, and disdained the better sort.
The Loyal Nine and several hundred Bostonians rallied against Bostons stamp
distributor, Andrew Oliver. After destroying his new building, Loyal Nine withdrew
and the crowd continued to Olivers house. Hutchinson tried to disperse the crowd
but took cover under a barrage of rocks. The next morning Andrew Oliver resigned.
Hutchinson too was attacked because smugglers held grudges against him and
amany saw him as a symbol of a troubled Boston economy. Ironically, Hutchinson
privately opposed the Stamp Act!
Sons of Liberty
Similar groups to Royal Nine called Sons of Liberty began forming across the
colonies.
The leaders of SoL tried to prevent violent outbreaks. They recognized that if not
carefully, all elites could be attacked. They were also fearful of a royal soldier/officer
being shot/killed, and forbade carrying weapons, focusing strictly against property.

Stamp Act Congress

In October 1765, representatives of nine colonial assemblies met in NYC.
The session concluded that Parliament lacked authority to enforce the Stamp Act.
Sidenote: This was remarkable as the only other inter-colonial meeting (Albany
Congress 1754) had failed completely. The success was a surprise for many.
End to Stamp Act and the Declaratory Act (1766)
By late 1765 most stamp distributors had resigned.
Merchants obtained sailing clearances by threatening to sue if their cargo spoiled
while delayed in port. By late December, harbors were functioning again.
Colonial elites looked to avoid an out-of-hand situation by taking over leadership of
local SoL groups and coordinating protest through the Stamp Act Congress.
Merchants boycotted British goods, and Englands businesses warned Parliament that
continuation of the Stamp Act could lead to bankruptcies and political unrest.
Parliament revoked the Stamp Act in Match 1766 but only with the passage of the
Declaratory Act which affirmed that Parliament had power to legislate for the
colonies in all cases whatsoever.
Americans interpreted the act as Parliaments way of saving face, but the House of
Commons meant that colonists could not claim exemption, even from future tax
laws.
Most colonists put the crisis behind them and praised the king and Parliament with
loyal statements. The SoL disbanded. On the other hand, British policies and
actions were scrutinized more than ever before.
social contract and republicans
Background Info: following the Stamp Act, resistance grew in the colonies and
colonists became familiar with political writings of Enlightenment thinkers.
John Locke argued that each man has natural rights of life, liberty, and property
and that society has a social contract in which a govt. works to protect individual
rights. He believed that once the contract was broken, people had the right to resist
their govt. Many colonists believed this justified their opposition of Parliament.
Building on this, some articulated a set of ideas termed republicans based on the
Roman Republic. They believed an elected leader ruled more by virtue than power.
Many colonists followed Mass. clergymen Samuel Adams, who wanted American to
be a Christian Sparta. Using Christian piety and republican ideals, he combined
two massive appeals in rallying public protest, and clergymen became a huge
influence.
Furthermore, pamphlets denounced British efforts to enslave the colonies and
found reasons for opposing British policies and actions.
The end of the Stamp Act took out urgency momentarily, but colonists were not
easily put to rest.
Charles Townshend and resistance to the Quartering Act (1765)
Charles Townshend took office in March 1767 after the dismissal of Rockingham
and the collapse of Pitts health.
At the time, a conflict rose over the Quartering Act that required colonial
legislatures to pay for certain inexpensive goods for soldiers. Colonists were
resentful of this indirect tax. Also, the presence of a standing army reinforced
tyranny.
The act had little effect except in NY where the most soldiers were stationed.

NY denied any supplies. Townshend countered by drafting the New York

Suspending Act which would nullify all laws passed by NY. However, by the time
King George III signed the act, NY had collected the necessary funds.
The conflict demonstrated that Parliament would not hesitate and interfere with
American self-governance if needed.

Townshend Duties (Revenue Act of 1767)

Background Info: Dominating the House of Commons, the gentry slashed 25% of
their own taxes and cost the govt. 500,000 pounds.
Townshend emphasized that colonists said little about the right to tax imports that
entered the colonies (i.e: external taxes). Parliament passed Townshends Revenue
Act of 1767 which taxed glass, paint, lead, paper, and tea imported to the colonies.
Colonial assemblies had great power because they paid the governors salaries.
Townshend had an ulterior motive to use the funds raised to pay governors/officials
in America and free them from the assemblies control.
Colonists realized that the Townshend Duties differed significantly in that moderate
rates clearly signalled the purpose was to raise revenue for the treasury instead of
limiting foreign goods (like in previous cases).
The colonists therefore treated the Townshend Duties just like the Stamp Act.
Townshend had eliminated $60,000 of import fees to make the goods affordable, but
the Duties brought in about $37,000, worsening British treasury by $23,000.
From Parliaments POV, the conflict was becoming a test of national will.
(i.e: political reasons became the driving force, not financial)
John Dickinson and resistance to the Revenue Act
Resistance to the Townshend Duties remained weak until Dickinson published Letters
from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (Dec 1767) which spread throughout the colonies.
Dickinson didnt state anything new, rather he had merely argued that the
arguments against Stamp Act was also valid for the Revenue Act.
Soon after, James Otis persuaded the Mass. legislature to oppose the Townshend
Duties. Samuel Adams drafted a circular letter to every colony, but many colonial
legislatures reacted indifferently. On the other hand, the British govt. overreacted.
Disorganized by Townshends sudden death, Hillsborough flatly forbade the
resistance and commanded royal governors to dissolve any legislature that violated
his commands.
To protest Hillsboroughs bullying, many colonies adopted the circular letter.
Royal governors obeyed and dismissed legislatures, which ignited public opposition.
Under the slogan Save your money, and you save your country, the colonists
adopted non-importation, which kept out about 40% of all imports from Britain.
The boycott affected Brits, who also called for repeal of Townshend Duties.
John Wilkes
Protests also erupted in Britain. This movement led by John Wilkes opposed the
policies of George III and his Parliament dominated by the wealthy.
Wilkes had previously been sent to court, to jail, denied his seat in the House of
Commons, and fled to Paris, before returning to England in 1768.
He gained popular support from the colonists as well as British merchants, artisans,
and the lower class, who rallied around the cry Wilkes and liberty.
Wilkes protest sharpened the political thinking of govt. opponents in Britain and the
colonies. For the colonists, Wilkes made it clear that Parliament only represented a
small powerful minority whose authority could be legitimately questioned.
Womens Role in Colonial Resistance

Background Info: White womens participation in public affairs was widening slowly.
Women far outnumbered the men in the church and was praised by ministers.
Daughters of Liberty was a group of upper class female patriots who had played a
minor role in repealing the Stamp Act.
In the Townshend Duties more than 300 Bostonian women denounced consumption
of tea. Non-consumption, like non-importation, was effective and became popular.
Non-consumption was possible thanks to women who stopped consuming tea. Also,
many women participated in spinning bees which gave significant political virtue to
something that was previously commonplace.
This showed Americas willingness to do without luxury to gain liberty.
Also, womens participation showed that colonial protests were deeply rooted into
American households, leading to a wider popular participation in politics.

Customs Racketeering
Townshend also sought to increase revenues through stricter enforcement of the
Navigation Acts and in 1767, he introduced the American Board of Customs
Commissioners. Townshends goal was to bring honesty and earn revenue.
This law raised the number of port officials as well as provide money for secret
informers who would be awarded one-third of all goods from smuggling.
Revenue agents commonly filed charges when there was no evidence of illegal trade.
Commissioners also made sailors angry by treating sailors chest (previously private)
as cargo. Chests were ruthlessly broken and confiscated as it was not listed on the
captains papers. This cost crewmen several months wages worth of trading stock.
John Hancock, reportedly Americas richest merchant and a leading opponent of
British taxation, became the target of commissioners who fined him $9,000.
A crowd began assaulting customs agents and eventually drove off all revenue
inspectors from Boston.
Britain reacted by sending 4,000 soldiers to Boston. Bostonians resented this
because of their threat to liberty as well as the financial burdens they brought.
Acts like these expanded colonists opposition from taxation without representation
to legislation without representation. Violence escalated in the years to come.
Boston Massacre (Mar 1770)
Background Info: Boston took on the atmosphere of an occupied city with so many
troops. Furthermore, the fact that most of these soldiers competed for the same
jobs, and the fact that they were Irish Catholics generated a fierce environment.
Resentment erupted into violence on Feb 22, 1770 when a informer shot into a
crowd, killing an 11 year old boy.
On Mar 5, 2010, a crowd led by Indian-African seaman Crispus Attucks fell victim
in a shooting (Boston Massacre). 11 were shot, 5 of whom died (incl. Attucks).
The shock that followed marked the emotional high point of the Townshend crisis.
Patriot leader John Adams served as the soldiers attorney. All but two of the
soldiers were found guilty, and they suffered only a branding on their thumbs.
The shooting of unarmed men and the light punishment led some colonists to think
the British govt. was bent on suppressing them through force.
Lord Norths Partial Retreat (Apr 1770)
Lord North became the new British PM and was keen to stabilize relations with the
colonies by eliminating most of the Townshend Duties. At the same time, he wished
to emphasize Britains authority, and kept the tax on tea.
This partial retreat produced a dilemma for American politicians as to whether strive
for a total victory or only boycott tea. They opted for the non-consumption of tea.

Meanwhile, the British govt took steps to rein in the powers of the American Board of
Customs Commissioners and the smuggling charges against Hancock were dropped
to avoid a possible conviction to England.

Committees of Correspondence (1772-1773)

The colonists viewed Townshends goal of paying royal governors a threat to
representative govt. Samuel Adams persuaded that every Mass. community appoint
people responsible for exchanging information and coordinating measures.
Within a year, almost all 260 towns established committees of correspondence.
The idea soon spread throughout New England.
In June 1773, Adams publicized letters of Mass. Governor Hutchinson that claimed
he supported a great restraint of natural liberty. This confirmed colonists suspicion
of UK plot to destroy basic freedoms.
Starting with Virgina, colonies established their own Committees of Correspondence.
By 1774, a communications web linked colonial leaders for the first time since 1766.
Tea Act (1773)
Background Info: Due to the non-consumption policy the British EIC, who had a
monopoly on sale of tea, was on the verge of bankruptcy. Lord North could not let
this company fail as it provided huge indirect savings for Britain by maintaining
India.
In May 1173, to save the EIC, Parliament passed the Tea Act which severely lowered
the selling price of tea. In addition, EIC could now sell its tea directly to consumers.
Sidenote: Ironically, repealing the Duties completely wouldve had the same effect.
Parliament expected simple economic self-interest from the colonies, but the Tea Act
actually alarmed Americans who saw the act as a strangle on liberty and
representative govt. By making tea prices competitive, the British govt would raise
enough funds to pay royal governors.
Quickly, the committees of correspondence resisted the importation of tea by
pressuring company agents or intercepting ships at sea and ordering them home.
However, on Nov 28, 1773, a ship landed in Boston.
On Dec 16, 50 young men disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians and dumped 45
tons of tea into the harbor. This became known as the Boston Tea Party.
The incident angered British govt. and Parliament who became determined to quash
colonial insubordination once and for all.
Colonial leaders were equally determined to defend self-government and liberty.
Liberty for Black Americans
Throughout the crisis, slaves also responded to calls for their own liberty.
In Britain, slavery was never established by Parliament. Slaves filed petitions
arguing that the decision should apply to the colonies as well.
Many slaves looked for war and the arrival of British troops to get their liberty.
In 1775, Lord Dunmore, Virginias governor, decided to grant freedom to any slave
who enlisted in the cause of restoring royal authority. About 1,000 joined before
hostile patriots forced Dunmore out of the colony.
Slave liberation lingered in the minds of both blacks and whites throughout the war.
Coercive Acts and Quebec Act
Background Info: After the Boston Tea Party Lord North fumed that only New
England Fanatics could possibly revolt against inexpensive tea.
The 4 Coercive Acts, together with the Quebec Act, formed the Intolerable Acts:
1) Boston Port Bill (Apr 1, 1774) - Ordered the navy to close Boston harbour unless
the town paid for the ruined tea by June 1. The short deadline was implemented to

ensure the harbors closure, which would lead to serious economic distress.
2) Mass. Govt. Act - Restructured the govt. to make it less democratic. Colonys
upper house would be appointed for life by the crown. Changes brought Mass. in line
with other royal colonies, but colonists felt the actions were hostile towards liberty.
3) Administration of Justice Act (aka Murder Act) - Permitted any soldiers charged
with murder while enforcing royal authority to be tried in England or other colonies.
4) new Quartering Act - Allowed governor to use empty private buildings to house
troops. Furthermore, Gen. Thomas Gage was appointed governor.
5) Quebec Act - Intended to cement loyalty to Britain among French-Canadians. Mde
Catholicism the official religion in Quebec, and permitted property disputes to be
settled by French law.
The Intolerable Acts convinced colonists that once resistance was smashed, the
Quebec Act would provide the blueprint to ridding future representative govts.
In other words, although only intended to punish Mass. (esp. Boston), the repeal of
these laws became the colonists nonnegotiable demand.

First Continental Congress

In response to the Intolerable Acts, 52 reps. (exc. Georgia) formed the First
Continental Congress in Philadelphia.
They endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, which declared that the colonies owed no
obedience to the Coercive Acts and that the colonies should take defensive measures
in case of a royal attack.
They also came up with the Continental Association, which agreed boycott of all
British goods and the end of exportation to Britain and the West Indies.
Not all delegates, esp. more moderate ones, agreed but finally, the delegates
summarized their demands in a petition to George III. By addressing the King,
Congress hoped that the King would put right the Parliament's wrong.
Lexington and Concord
By Spring 1775, the colonies formed provincial congresses that rivaled assemblies
headed by royal governors.
Colonist prepared for the worst by collecting arms and organizing military units that
could respond instantly to an emergency. These men were known as minutemen.
On Apr 19, Gage sent 700 soldiers to seize colonists military supplies in Concord.
William Dawes and Paul Revere raced out to warn nearby towns. At Lexington,
about 70 minutemen confronted the soldiers, which led to 8 minutemen deaths.
The minutemen touched off on a 16-mile hit-and-run battle. The redcoats suffered
273 losses, while the colonist had lost 92.
Second Continental Congress
Most delegates still opposed independence and sent a loyal message to George III
which became known as the Olive Branch Petition.
They also established an American Continental Army led by George
Washington.
Bunker Hill
Redcoats attacked colonists at Bunker Hill, yet the British suffered 3 times as much.
On Aug 23, 1775, George III declared New England in a state of war.
Thomas Paines Common Sense
Despite events that lead George III to declare New England in a state of war, many
colonists still hoped for reconciliation.

Many colonists sentimental attachment to the king finally crumbled in Jan 1776 with
Thomas Paines Common Sense.
Thomas Paine immigrated to the colonies late in 1774. He had a penchant for radical
politics and writing in plain prose that everyone could understand.
Paine told Americans that monarchy was a danger to liberty, and inappropriate for
Americans. The king was the royal brute. Furthermore, he declared that American
had no economic need for Britain, and also appealed to religious mission.
Paine believed that America would not just be a new nation, but a new kind of nation
and model society founded on republican ideals.
Common Sense sold over 100,000 copies and dissolved any remaining allegiance to
George III and the British Empire. American was ready for independence.

Declaration of Independence
New England was already in rebellion and R.I. declared itself independent in May.
The Middle Colonies were a bit hesitant because any war would largely be fought
over Phil. and NY. Following North Carolina, southern colonies also pressed for
separation.
Delegate Richard Henry Lee proposed independence on June 7, and a committee of
five, with Jefferson the main author, wrote the first draft of the Declaration of
Independence.
All men were created equal referred to white males.
The Declaration never claimed perfect justice, but challenged the nation to bring this
ideal closer to reality.

2010 SeungJoon Sung

Disclaimer: I take no responsibility for any wrong information that may be present.