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Antenna
Antenna
where
Pr=radiated power
Pt =total power supplied the antenna
2
SIMPLE ANTENNAS
1. Isotropic - it has zero size, is perfectly
efficient, and radiates power equally in all
directions. Even though this antenna cannot be
built and tested, its characteristics are simple
and easy to derive.
2. Half-wave dipole - is a simple, practical
antenna which is in common use. Actually, in
practice its length should be slightly less than
one-half the free-space wavelength to allow for
capacitive effects. A half-wave dipole is
sometimes called a Hertz antenna. It is used in
the calculation of antenna radiation patterns.
Pr
Pt
I 2 Rr
= 2
I Rt
Rr
Rt
where
Rr =radiationresistance , as seen the feedpoint
Rt =total resistance , as seen the feedpoint
Unlike the isotropic radiator, the halfwave dipole does not radiate uniformly in
all directions. The field strength is at its
maximum along a line at a right angle to
the antenna and is zero off the ends of
the antenna.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Antennas differ in the amount of
radiation they emit in various directions.
1. Radiation Pattern
where
=efficiency
2
The space close to the antenna is called the
near-field region and does not have the same
directional characteristics.
dist. radius from a point of source is <<
G=D
and
EIRP=Pt Gt =P At
ERP - which represents the power input
multiplied by the antenna gain measured
with respect to a half-wave dipole. Since
an ideal half-wave dipole has a gain of
2.14 dBi, the EIRP is 2.14 dB greater than
EIRP=ERP +2.14 dB
7. Impedance
The impedance is completely resistive
at resonance, which occurs when the
length of the antenna is about 95% of
the
calculated
free-space
halfwavelength value.
If the frequency is above resonance, the
feedpoint impedance has an inductive
component; if the frequency is lower
than resonance, the antenna impedance
is capacitive.
A center-fed dipole is a balanced device,
and should be used with a balanced
feedline. If coaxial cable is used, a balun
(balanced-to-unbalanced)
transformer
should be connected between the cable
and the antenna.
Delta match - It is possible to feed the
antenna at some distance from the
center in both directions. Allows the
impedance to be adjusted to match a
transmission line.
8. Polarization - the polarization of a radio wave
is the orientation of its electric field
vector. A horizontal antenna produces
horizontally polarized waves, and a vertical
antenna gives vertical polarization.
It is important that the polarization be
the
same
at
both
ends
of
a
communication path.
9. Ground Effects participation of earth.
2. Monopole Antenna (vertical quarter wave) It is mounted on a ground plane, which can be
the actual ground or an artificial ground such as
the body of a vehicle. The monopole is fed at
the lower end with coaxial cable.
This antenna has a power gain of two (or
3 dB) over a dipole in free space.
Inductors used to increase the effective
length of antennas are called loading
coils.
3. The Five-Eighths Wavelength Antenna - This
antenna is often used vertically as either a
mobile or base antenna in VHF and UHF
systems.
It has a higher feedpoint impedance
and therefore does not require as
good a ground, because the current
at the feedpoint is less. The
impedance is typically lowered to
match that of a 50- feedline by the
use
of
an
impedance-matching
section.
4. The Discone Antenna - It is characterized by
very wide bandwidth, covering approximately a
ten-to-one
frequency
range,
and
an
15 NS
G=
52
D NS
where
=beamwidthdegrees
There are two modes of propagation,
Normal mode EM radiation is in a direction at
right angles to the axis of the helix.
Axial mode radiation is in the axial direction
and
produces
a
broadband,
relatively
directional pattern.
S=turn spacingmeters , S / 4
D=diameter of the helixmeters , D /
=wavelengthmeters
ANTENNA ARRAYS
Arrays can be classified as broadside or endfire, according to their direction of maximum
radiation.
If the maximum radiation is along
the main axis of the antenna (which
may or may not coincide with the axis of
its individual elements), the antenna is
an end-fire array. T-lines is not
crisscrossed.
If the maximum radiation is at right
angles to this axis, the array has a
broadside configuration.
Antenna arrays can also be classified according
to the way in which the elements are
connected.
A phased array has all its elements
connected to the feedline. There may be
phase-shifting,
power-splitting,
and
impedance matching arrangements for
individual elements, but all receive
power from the feedline (assuming a
transmitting antenna). It is a group of
antenna arrays that when connected
together, function as a single antenna.
They eliminate the need for mechanically
rotating antenna elements. Its radiation
pattern can be electronically adjusted.
Collinear Array - one type of broadside
array using half wave dipoles. This is
called a collinear array because the axes
of the elements are all along the same
line.
Turnstile - The turnstile is a simple
combination of two dipoles designed to
give omnidirectional performance in the
horizontal
plane,
with
horizontal
polarization. Turnstile antennas are often
used for FM broadcast reception, where
they give reasonable performance in all
directions without the need for a rotor.
Formed by placing two dipoles at right
angles to each other.
Log-Periodic Dipole Array - The logperiodic array derives its name from the
fact that the feedpoint impedance is a
periodic function of the operating
REFLECTORS
The antennas and arrays described in the
preceding section can often be used with
reflecting
surfaces
to
improve
their
performance. A reflector may consist of one or
more planes, or it may be parabolic in shape.
1. Plane and Corner Reflectors - A plane
reflector acts in a similar way to an ordinary
mirror. Reflection changes the phase angle of a
signal by 180. It is possible to use a plane
reflector with almost any antenna. Base
antennas for cellular radio systems are often of
this type.
The corner reflector creates two images for a
somewhat sharper pattern. Corner reflectors
are often combined with Yagi arrays in UHF
television antennas.
2. Parabolic Reflector - have the useful property
that any ray originating at a point called the
focus and striking the reflecting surface will be
reflected parallel to the axis of the parabola.
That is, a collimated beam of radiation will be
produced. The parabolic dish antenna,
70
D
where
=beamwidthdegrees at the 3 dB points
=freespace wavelengthm
D=diameter of the dishm
G=
2 D2
2
where
ANTENNAS by Tomasi
Waveguide is a special type of
transmission line that consists of a
conducting metallic tube through which
high-frequency electromagnetic energy
is propagated. It is used to efficiently
interconnect high-frequency EM waves
between an antenna and a transceiver.
P=
P At
4 R2
where
P= power density ,
W
m2
most
common form of waveguide.
Circular waveguide used in radar and
microwave applications when it is
necessary or advantageous to propagate
both vertically and horizontally polarized
waves in the same waveguide.
Ridged waveguide is more expensive
to
manufacture
than
a
standard
rectangular waveguide; however, it also
allows operation at lower frequencies for
a given size. More loss per unit length.
Flexible waveguide consists of spiralwound ribbons of brass or copper. Is
used extensively in microwave test
equipment.