CE 40/L Construction Materials and Testing

Chapter III - TIMBER

Chapter III

TIMBER
-

timber was derived from a Saxon word "timbrian" which means "to build"
a wood of sufficient size, suitable for engineering construction

Two classes of trees

1. Phanerogams - flowering trees
a. exogens - outward growers
- used for engineering works
a.1. conifers
- yielding soft wood
- usually light colored, light in weight, resinous and weak, and show
distinct annual rings
a.2. deciduous
- yielding hard wood
- used for engineering construction
- close-grained, dark colored, strong, heavy, durable and non-resinous
b. endogens inward growers
2. Cryptogam - non-flowering trees
Structure of an Exogenous Tree
1. bark or cortex - outermost layer or skin of the trunk which covers the wood
2. cambium - a thin layer of thickened sap just beneath the bark
3. sapwood - light in weight, broad annual rings and liable to decay as this is not a matured
wood
4. annual ring - consists of innumerable closed cells of woody fibers and tissues arranged in
a distinct concentric rings or circles round the pith
5. pith, heart or medulla - the innermost part or core of the tree, represents the first formed
central portion of the stem consisting entirely of cellular tissues
6. medullary sheath - a layer of fibro-vascular bundle of the first year surrounding the pith
7. heartwood or duramen - consists of the inner annual rings round the pith, it is dark in
color, hard, strong, compact and durable
8. medullary rays or transverse septa - composed of a series of hard flattened cells lying
one above another, vertically in rows, rays are found in a spider like radial lines from pith
to bark binding the annual rings together.

Important considerations in the use of wood in engineering work

1. Its mechanical properties are extremely variable, unlike steel and concrete.
2. Strength is influenced by species, locality, density, moisture content, and defects
3. All wood gain strength and stiffness when thoroughly air-dried or kiln-dried
4. Timber in construction is practically never subjected to pure tensile stresses.
5. Timber members have better elastic shock resistance than steel.
6. Timber differs from most materials in that the rate of application of load has more
pronounced effect on strength and stiffness.

Nena G. Zara

CE 40/L Construction Materials and Testing

Chapter III - TIMBER

Mechanical Tests for Wood

A. Static Bending
Size of specimen - 2 x 2 x 30 in ( 50 x 50 x 750 mm)
P

Modulus of Rupture, R =

3PL
2 bd2

Stress at Proportional Limit, Spl =

Modulus of Elasticity, E =

3P1L
2bd2

P1L3
4bd3y1

where:
b - width of specimen
d - depth of specimen
L - span length
P - maximum load
P1 - load at proportional limit
y1 - center deflection at proportional limit
B. Compression Parallel to Grain
Size of Specimen - 2 x 2 x 8 in (50 x 50 x 200 mm)

Stress at Proportional Limit, Spl =

Maximum Crushing Strength, Smax =
Modulus of Elasticity, E =

P1
bd
P
bd

P1L
bdy1

where: b - width of specimen

d - depth of specimen
Nena G. Zara

CE 40/L Construction Materials and Testing

Chapter III - TIMBER

L - span length
P - maximum load
P1 - load at proportional limit
y1 - center deflection at proportional limit
C. Compression Perpendicular to Grain
Size of Specimen - 2 x 2 x 6 in (50 x 50 x 150 mm)

P
bearing block

Stress at Proportional Limit, Spl =

P1
bd

D. Shear Parallel to Grain

Size of Specimen - 2 x 2 x 2 in notched

P
shearing surface

Smax =

P
Area of shearing surface

E. Hardness - is determined by measuring the load required to embed a 0.444 in (11.3 mm) steel
ball to one-half its diameter into the wood. This test is of value for comparative purposes only.
Size of Specimen - 2 x 2 x 6 in (50 x 50 x 150 mm)
F. Tension
a. tension test parallel to grain

b. tension test perpendicular to grain

Nena G. Zara

CE 40/L Construction Materials and Testing

Nena G. Zara

Chapter III - TIMBER