STUDENT PARTICULARS

NAME
ENROLLMENT
NUMBER
MOBILE NO.
NAME OF
INSTITUTE
ADDRESS
WITH
CONTACT
DETAILS OF
FATHER/
GUARDIAN
BRANCH
SEMESTER

NAME
ENROLLMENT
NUMBER
MOBILE NO.
NAME OF
INSTITUTE
ADDRESS
WITH
CONTACT
DETAILS OF
FATHER/
GUARDIAN
BRANCH
SEMESTER

VAISHALI D. BARAIYA
146460309001
1. +91925252615
2. +91
SHREE N. M. GOPANI POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE,KINARA,RANPUR
PRESENT : BAROT STREET , NEAR TALUKA SCHOOL,
BOTAD
DIST:- Botad
TA:- ranpur
PERMANENT: BAROT STREET , NEAR TALUKA SCHOOL,
BOTAD
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
5TH SEMESTER

MONIKA KHANDVI
146460309020
1. +919879646661
2. +919586098454
SHREE N.M GOPANI POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE,KINARA,RANPUR
PRESENT : Behind Kailashdham, Railway Station Road, Ranpur.
DIST:- Botad
TA:- ranpur
PERMANENT: Behind Kailashdham, Railway Station Road, Ranpur.
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
5TH SEMESTER

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NAME
ENROLLMENT
NUMBER
MOBILE NO.
NAME OF
INSTITUTE
ADDRESS
WITH
CONTACT
DETAILS OF
FATHER/
GUARDIAN
BRANCH
SEMESTER

KRUPALI D. METALIYA
146460309032
1. +919924514124
2. +91
SHREE N.M GOPANI POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE,KINARA,RANPUR
PRESENT : BAROT STREET , NEAR TALUKA SCHOOL,
BOTAD
DIST:- Botad
TA:- ranpur
PERMANENT: BAROT STREET , NEAR TALUKA SCHOOL,
BOTAD
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
5TH SEMESTER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of
any task would be incomplete without the mentioning people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible.
This project is prepared by the inspiration received from Mr. K. K. Kansara,
Lecturer, Electrical Engineering Department,NMGPI.
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who gave us the
possibility to complete this project. we express our indebtness and gratitude to
our guide Mr. N. A. Mali, Lecturer, Electrical Engineering
Department,NMGPI, who encouraged us to go ahead with our project.
How can one forget her parents love, constant efforts, sustained in making
one educated and happy. I am truly indebted to my parents for this wonderful
opportunity.

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ABSTRACT
This is an experimental project based on the measurement of unknown
electrical quantities like resistance, inductance & capacitance by the electrical
bridge circuits e.g. Wheatstone Bridge, Hays Bridge & Wien Bridge
respectively.
The aim of our project is to verify the theoretical concepts, prediction and
calculations. Bridge circuits are simplest and acuurate methods for measuring
unknown electrical parameters. they can be operated on DC or AC supply.
Bridges are widely used for measurement in laboratories. Bridge circuits were a
common way of measuring component values by comparing them to known
values. Often an unknown component would be put in one arm of a bridge, and
then the bridge would be nulled by adjusting the other arms or changing the
frequency of the voltage source.

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List Of Figures

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List Of Tables

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Nomenclature

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INDEX
Student Particulars
Acknowledgement
Abstract
List Of Figures
Nomenclature
Index
Chapter 1 : Introduction To Project
1.1
1.2
1.3

What is measurement ?
Requirements Of Measurement
What Is Bridge Circuit ?

Chapter 2 : Selection Of Project Including Reason

Chapter 3 : Details and Descriptions Of Project
3.1 List of machines, Materials & Equipments.
3.2 Specifications of machines, Materials & Equipments.
3.2.1 Resistor & Variable Resistor
3.2.2 Inductor
3.2.3Capacitor
3.2.4 Galvanometer
3.2.5Battery
3.3 Cost Estimation Table

Chapter 4 : Circuit Diagram & Working Of project

4.1 Wheatstone Bridge
4.1.1 Basic Of Wheatstone Bridge
4.1.2 Working
4.1.3 Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge
4.2 Hays Bridge
4.2.1 Hays bridge theory
4.2.2 Phasor Diagram
4.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

4.3 Wien Bridge

Chapter 5 : Summary and Conclusions
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Future Scope
5.3 References
5.4 Suggestions for improving this project

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Chapter 1 : Introduction To Project

1.1.

What is Measurement?

Measurement is the process of comparing unknown magnitude of certain

parameter with the known predefined standard of that parameter. For instance, if
we have to measure the temperature of the body, we measure it with the
thermometer that has predefined scale indicating different values of the
temperature. If we have to measure the length of the wall, we measure it with
the measuring tape that has predefined markings on it. The measurement
enables us obtaining magnitude of certain parameters whose value is not known
by comparing them with the standards whose value is predefined.

1.2.

Requirements of Measurement

For the measurements results to be accurate, two conditions should be

met. Firstly, the standard which is used for comparison must be defined
accurately and it should be universally accepted. For instance the weight cannot
be just light or heavy. It should be light or heavy in comparison to some
standard weight and should be measured accurately against it. The comparison
of the unknown magnitude should be made with the recognized standard and it
should produce some meaningful reading of the value.
The second important condition to be met for measurements is that the
procedure applied for the measurements should be provable and there should be
provable instruments for measurements. This means the methods for making the
measurements and the instruments used for them should be reliable enough to
make the correct measurements.

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1.3.

What is Bridge Circuit ?

The bridge circuits are used to measure the parameters like resistance,
Inductance or Capacitance. It can be used for the measurement of other
parameters like Frequency, Temperature, Pressure etc.
The bridge circuits compare the value of unknown parameter with the
accurately known parameter. the circuit can operate on A.C. /D.C.Wheatstone
bridge and Kelvins double bridge are used to measure medium and low value
of resistance and are operated on D.C. A.C. bridges are used to measure
inductance and capacitance. Maxwells bridge, Hays bridge Owens bridge De
Sauty bridge are the examples of A.C. bridges.

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Chapter 2 : Selection of project

Including Reasons

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Chapter 3 :Details And

Descriptions Of
project
3.1 List Of Machines, Materials & Equipments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Resistors
Variable Resistor
Inductors
Capacitors
Galvanometer
AC Supply
7. DC Supply

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3.2 Specifications Of Materials, Machines & Equipments

3.2.1 Resistors & Variable Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as
test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

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3.2.2 Inductor
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical
component which resists changes in current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. Energy is stored in a magnetic
field in the coil as long as current flows. When the current flowing through an inductor
changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according
to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. According to Lenz's law the direction of
induced electromotive (or "e.m.f.") is always such that it opposes the change in
current that created it. As a result, inductors always oppose a change in current

3.2.3 Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to temporarily store electrical
energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but most contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by
becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered
beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The no conducting dielectric
acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used
as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide
layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices.

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3.2.4 Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument for detecting and
measuring electric current. The most common use of galvanometers was
as analog measuring instruments, called ammeters, used to measure the direct
current (flow of electric charge) through an electric circuit. A galvanometer
works as an actuator, by producing a rotary deflection (of a "pointer"), in
response to electric current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field.

3.2.5 Battery

+ 5V DC Supply

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Chapter 4
4.1 Wheatstone Bridge

4.1.1 Basic Of Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge was originally developed by Charles

Wheatstone to measure unknown resistance values and as a means of calibrating
measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a long resistive
slide wire. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to
measure a resistance, The Wheatstone Bridge can still be used to measure very
low values of resistances down in the milli-Ohms range.
The Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used in a number of applications
and today, with modern operational amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit to interface various transducers and sensors to these amplifier
circuits.
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple seriesparallel arrangements of resistances connected between a voltage supply
terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference between the two parallel
branches when balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals
and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamondlike arrangement as shown.

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4.1.2 Working of Wheatstone bridge

When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analysed simply as two
series strings in parallel. Consider the series circuit below.

Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor values in
parallel with the first we would have the following circuit.

As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first, the voltage
at point D, which is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be the same at
8 volts, with respect to zero (battery negative), as the voltage is common and the
two resistive networks are the same.

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But something else equally as important is that the voltage difference between
point C and point D will be zero volts as both points are at the same value of 8
volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the voltage difference is: 0 volts
When this happens, both sides of the parallel bridge network are said to
be balanced because the voltage at point C is the same value as the voltage at
point D with their difference being zero.
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the

sensing arm of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting the
opposing resistor, R3 to balance the bridge network, will result in a zero
voltage output. Then we can see that balance occurs when:
R 1 R3
= =1
R2 Rx

The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the unknown
resistance,RX at balance is given as:
R4 =

R 3 R2
=R x
R1

Where resistors, R1 and R2 are known or preset values.

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When the bridge is balanced, the voltage across the output terminals (CD) is 0 volts. When the bridge is unbalanced, however, the output voltage may
be either positive or negative depending upon the direction of unbalance.
4.1.3 Limitations of wheatstone bridge
1) Resistance of the arms of the bridge changes due to the change in the
temperature.
2) Thermo EMFs are produced in the bridge circuit may introduce
considerable error especially in the measurement of low resistance.
3) Leads and contact resistance also introduce error while measuring low
resistance.
4.2 Hays Bridge

Before we introduce Hay's bridge let us recall the limitations of Maxwell

bridge, in order to understand what is the necessity of Hay's Bridge
Applications. Maxwell Bridge is only suitable for measuring medium quality
factor coils however it is not suitable for measuring high quality factor (Q > 10).
In order to to overcome from this limitation we need to do modification in
Maxwell Bridge so that it will become suitable for measuring Q factor over a
wide range. This modified Maxwell Bridge is known as Hay's bridge.
4.2.1 Hay's Bridge Theory
As I said earlier that Hay's bridge is modified Maxwell bridge, now
question arises here in our mind that where we need to do modification. In order

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to to understand this, let us consider the connection diagram given below:

In this bridge the electrical resistance is connected in series with the

standard capacitor. Here l1 is unknown inductor connected in series with
resistance r1. c4 is standard capacitor and r2, r3, r4 are pure electrical resistance
forming other arms of the bridge.
From the theory of AC bridge, We can write at balance point,

Substituting the values of Z1 , Z2, Z4 and Z4 in the equation (1) we Get,

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Now, Q factor of a coil is given by

The equations (4) and (5) are dependent on the source frequency hence,
in order to find the accurate value of l1 and R1 we should know the correct value
of source Frequency.
Let us rewrite the expression for l1

we get

r2 r3 c4

Now if we substitute Q>10 then Q2 = 100

neglect this value, thus neglecting

1
2
Q

and hence we can

which is the same as in

maxwell bridge. Hence Hays Bridge circuit is most suitable for high inductor
measurement.
4.2.2 Phasor diagram of Hays bridge

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In many practical situations bridge circuit that uses ac source, an electron

ray indicating is utilized to find out the balance condition by opening and
closing the shadow area of the tube. For audible balance headsets are used, but
accuracy is reduces due to this method. In order to control the operating power
to the bridge and to complete the detector circuit various switches are used.
Many times the two switching functions are merge into single key, known
bridge key this is to ensure that power applied to the bridge before to the
detector circuit, due this sequence the effect of inductor and capacitance is
reduced.
4.2.3 Advantages of Hay's Bridge
The bridge gives very simple expression for the calculation of unknown
inductor of high value.
The Hay's bridge requires low value of r4 while Maxwell Bridge requires high
value of r4.
4.2.4 Disadvantages of Hay's Bridge
Hay's bridge is not suitable for measurement of quality factor (Q<10) for Q<10
we should use Maxwell bridge.

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4.3 Wien Bridge

Wien Bridge has a series RC combination in one and a parallel

combination in the adjoining arm. Its basic form is designed to
measure frequency. It can also be used for the instrument of an unknown
capacitor with great accuracy.

The original Wien Bridge circuit was developed in 1891 for the purpose
of accurately measuring capacitor values. To find the unknown value of C1
for example, when the other component values are known, an AC signal is
applied across the circuit and the value of R1 is varied by a calibrated
potentiometer. At some point, the bridge will balance when the ratio of
resistances in the R3/R4 arm matches the ratio of impedances in the two
halves of the arm including C1, R1, C2 and R2. This will be indicated by both
sides of the ammeter bridge being at the same potential so the meter
indicates zero current. At this point it is possible to calculate the value of the
unknown capacitor C1.
A second use for the Wien Bridge is to measure an unknown frequency. If
all the component values are known, the same bridge balancing procedure can
be used to measure, by calculation, the frequency of the AC supplied.

The impedance of one arm is

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The admittance of the parallel arm is

Using the bridge balance equation, we have

We have

Therefore

Equating the real and imaginary terms we have as,

Therefore,

.................. (1.1)

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4.3.2 Advantages of Wien Bridge Oscillator

It gives constant output.

The circuit works quite easily.

The overall gain is high because of two transistors.

The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using

potentiometer.

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Chapter 5
Conclusion
Future Scope
References
Suggestions For Improving the project