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Tumbang Kabeh
Tumbang Kabeh
Oxygen delivery to the tissues for a fetus in utero is a much different task than for the
neonate, and the fetus has many unique mechanisms designed to maximize the
efficiency of circulation. Once a baby is born however, it must begin to function with a
circulatory system that resembles that of an adult. During the first 10 minutes after
birth, the average heart rate is between 120-200 beats per minute (bpm). Thereafter,
the average is approximately 120-130 bpm. Tachycardia may result from volume
depletion, cardiorespiratory disease, drug withdrawal and hyperthyroidism.
Bradycardia often results from apnea and is often seen with hypoxia. Given that the
contractile strength of the neonatal heart has not had a chance to adjust to the new
pulmonary and systemic circuitry and pressures, the neonate is highly dependent on
heart rate for maintenance of cardiac output and blood pressure. Furthermore, the
vasoconstrictive response of the neonate to hemorrhage or volume depletion is less
that that of an adult. Following is a summary of the changes that occur in the
cardiovascular system soon after birth.
Ductus Arteriosis
Ductus Arteriosis is a shunt from the descending aorta to the left pulmonary artery
near the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk. It stays open in the fetus because low
PaO2 and circulating prostaglandins (PGE2) are vasodilatory on the ductus. In the
neonate, when pulmonary oxygen saturation increases, there is less circulating PGE2
and the ductus closes off. This usually occurs within the first day of life in the term
infant. Permanent closure due to fibrosis takes 4-6 weeks, and the remnant is
referred to as the ligamentum arteriosum.
Ductus Venosus
Ductus Venosus is a shunt of oxygenated blood from umbilical vein to IVC, bypassing
the liver. The crista dividens in the right atrium deflects 1/3 of this blood through the
foramen ovale, to the left atrium. The ductus venosus closes physiologically as soon
as the umbilical vein is obstructed with the clamping of the cord, but with time it
closes anatomically, and becomes the ligamentum venosus.
Umbilical Vein
The Umbilical Vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus in intrauterine life. It flows into 1) the Ductus Venosus and 2) the IVC before it enters the
liver. With the clamping of the umbilical cord, the umbilical vein closes physiologically,
and after a few days anatomically. The remnant of this structure is called the round
ligament of the liver (or ligamentum teres), and is clinically significant as it may be
responsible for spreading tumors from the peritoneum to the umbilicus later in life.
Foramen Ovale
Foramen ovale is a flap valve in the atrial septum that shunts highly oxygenated
blood from the IVC to the left ventricle. From the left atrium oxygenated blood is
pumped through the aorta to the coronary circulation and the great vessels of the
head and neck. The foramen ovale functionally closes at birth when the pressure in
the left atrium (increased systemic resistance because loss of the placental parallel
circuit) exceeds the pressure in the right atrium (decreased pulmonary resistance
because of expanded lung vasculature with breathing), forcing the flap valve closed.
It takes several months however for the atrial septum to fibrose, giving permanent
closure to the foramen ovale, and leaving behind only the fossa ovalis.
Umbilical Artery
Two umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the internal ileac arteries of the
fetus to the placenta. Delayed clamping of the cord in an infant held at a level higher
than the placenta with delivery may decrease total blood volume as the blood is
displaced to the placenta through the umbilical artery.
Placenta
Clamping of the umbilical cord removes the low resistance systemic diversion to the
placenta, thereby forcing more blood to the lower limbs. This also increases systemic
resistance, directing a larger proportion of blood through the pulmonary circulation.
Lungs
The cause-effect relationship of the onset of breathing and pulmonary vascular
resistance is not completely understood. However, increased PaO2 in the breathing
neonate compared to the fetus lowers pulmonary vascular resistance and allows
more blood to flow to the pulmonary circulation. The closing ductus arteriosus
contributes to a higher blood flow to the lungs as less blood is diverted from the
pulmonary trunk to the aorta. PO2 rises from 20-30 mmHg in the fetus arterial blood
to 60 mmHg at approximately 1 hour of life to 80-90 mmHg at 24 hours of life.
Right Ventricle
The right ventricle is the dominant ventricle in utero. It pumps 65% of the total
cardiac output. In the neonate, a decreased pulmonary vascular resistance and
closed ductus arteriosus requires less force from the right side of the heart.
Left Ventricle
The left ventricle is relatively quiescent in utero because of the parallel structure of
the circulatory system, but as the ductus arteriosus closes, the left ventricle becomes
responsible for the increasing cardiac output to the body. In the neonate, the
systemic vascular resistance increases much more than the size of the fetus does,
exerting much force onto the left ventricle, thereby causing hypertrophy of the left
ventricle.
References
Smyth, JA. Fetal-neonatal Transition. Growth & Development: Week 2 lecture
notes. 2005.
Behrman, RE. and Kliegman, RM. Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics. W.B. Saunders
Company. Philadelphia, USA: 2002.
Acknowledgements
Written by: Brook Glanville
Edited by: Jeff Bishop
http://learnpediatrics.com/body-systems/cardiology/normal-cardiacphysiology-transition-from-fetal-to-neonatal/
A. Overview
Thetransitionfromafetustoanewbornisthemostcomplexphysiologic
adaptationthatoccursinhumanexperience.Priortomedicalizationof
delivery,thetransitionhadtooccurquicklyforsurvivalofthenewborn.All
organsystemsareinvolvedatsomelevel,butthemajorimmediate
adaptationsaretheestablishmentofairbreathingconcurrentlywithchanges
inpressuresandflowswithinthecardiovascularsystem.Otheressential
adaptationsarestrikingchangesinendocrinefunction,substrate
metabolism,andthermogenesis(Box1).Hospitalbaseddeliveriesincrease
thedifficultiesfortransitionformanyfetusesbecauseofthefrequentuseof
Cesareansections,deliveriespriortotheonsetoflabor,rapidclampingof
thecord,andtheanestheticsandanalgesicsassociatedwiththesehospital
deliveries.Thenetresultisthefrequentneedtoassistthenewbornwiththe
birthtransition.Pretermdeliveriescauseparticulardifficultiesfortransition
andexposethepreterminfanttolunginjuryfrommechanicalventilation.
Thesecomponentsofthefetaltoneonataltransitionwillbereviewedfor
pretermandtermdeliveries.
Box 1
Essential components for a normal neonatal transition
Cortisolisthemajorregulatoryhormoneforterminalmaturationofthefetus
andforneonataladaptionatbirth(1).Thecortisolsurgeisinitiatedwith
theswitchfrommaternaltransplacentalderivedcorticosteroidstotheability
ofthefetaladrenaltosynthesizeandreleasecortisolunderfetal
hypothalamiccontrol.Fetalcortisollevelsinthehumanarelow(5
10ug/ml)relativetonormalcortisollevelsuntilabout30weeksgestation.
Cortisollevelsprogressivelyincreasetoabout20ug/mlbyabout36weeks
gestationandincreasefurthertoabout45ug/mlpriortolaboratterm.
Cortisolincreasesfurtherduringlabortopeakathighlevelsofabout
200ug/mlseveralhoursaftertermdelivery.Theincreaseinfetalcortisol
throughoutlategestationsupportsmultiplephysiologicchangesthat
facilitatenormalneonataladaption.Forexampleoverthefinalweeksof
gestation,theconversionofT4toT3increases,catecholaminereleasebythe
adrenalandotherchromaffintissuesincreases,glucosemetabolicpathways
inthelivermature,gutdigestivecapacityincreases(enzymeinduction),
adrenergicreceptordensityincreasesinmanytissuesincludingtheheartand
thelungs,andthesurfactantsysteminthelungsisinducedtomature( 2).
Cortisolinassociationwithincreasingthyroidhormonesactivatesthe
sodiumpumpthatclearsfetallungfluidatbirth.Thesecortisolmodulated
changesarenormallyaprogressiveprocessofpreparationforbirthasthe
cortisollevelsrisepriortobirththenpeaksoonafterdelivery.Thisnormal
increaseincortisolsupportsanintegratedtransitionfollowingbirth( Box2)
Cesareansectionwithoutlaborattermbluntsthepostnatalriseincortisol,
andthecortisolresponsestopretermbirthalsoareattenuatedbecauseof
unresponsivenessandimmaturityoftheadrenalgland( 3).Aparticularly
stressfuldeliverycanuncoverafunctionaladrenalinsufficiencyifthe
adrenalglandcannotrespondtotheincreasedstress.Theverypreterminfant
mayhavelowcortisollevelsaroundbirthwithsymptomssuchaslowblood
pressurethatareresponsivetocortisoltreatment.Incontrastantenatal
exposuretochorioamnionitismayincreasefetalcortisollevelspriorto
delivery(4).
Box 2
Some effects of cortisol on factors contributing to a normal
fetal to newborn transition
Despitetheenthusiasmofclinicianstousecatecholaminesinfusionsto
increasethebloodpressureofverypreterminfantsfollowingbirth,the
normalphysiologyofendogenouscatecholaminesduringandafterbirthare
notreviewedinrecentneonatologytextbooks.Thetermhumanfetuscan
releasecatecholamines(norepinephrine,epinephrine,anddopamine)from
adrenalmedullaryandothersympathetictissuesinresponsetofetalstresses
ofvarioussorts,asevaluatedbycatecholaminevaluesincordblood( 5).The
pretermfetushashighercordcatecholaminelevelsthanthetermfetus,and
cesareandeliveryisassociatedwithlowercordcatecholaminelevels.The
detailsofthecatecholamineresponsestotermandpretermlaborand
deliverywerecharacterizedelegantlybyPadburyandcolleaguesinaseries
ofreportsbeginninginthe1980s.Usingcatheterizedfetalsheepthatwere
transitionedthroughdelivery,theydemonstratedthatnorepinephrineand
epinephrineincreasetohighlevelswithinminutesoftermdeliveryandcord
clamping(6).Incontrastthecatecholaminesincreasedmoreslowly
followingpretermdeliverybuttolevelsthatwereabout3foldhigherfor
norepinephrineand5foldhigherforepinephrinethanaftertermdelivery.
(Fig1)Thelowerincreasesincatecholaminesinthetermnewbornwere
associatedwithlargerincreasesinplasmaglucoseandfreefattyacidsthan
inthepreterm.Carefulmeasurementofthresholdsforresponsesoffetal
sheeptoepinephrineandnorepinephrineinfusiondemonstratedthattheterm
fetushadlowerthresholdsandgreaterresponsesforbloodpressure,glucose,
andfreefattyacidincreasesthandidthepretermfetuses( 7).The
catecholamineincreasesatdeliveryresultedprimarilyfromadrenalrelease
asadrenalectomyablatedtheincreaseinepinephrineandnorepinephrine
andbluntedbloodpressure,glucoseandfattyacidsincreasesandpulmonary
adaption(8).Thefetusisinpartprotectedfromthecardiovascularand
metaboliceffectsofstressmediatedcatecholaminereleasebecausethe
placentaincreasescatecholamineclearance(9).
Catecholamine response to delivery of term lambs, preterm
lambs and term lambs following adrenalectomy. Fetal term
(1452 day gestation) and preterm (1301 day gestation)
lambs were delivered at 0 time following fetal catheter
placement. ...
Thesestudiesdemonstratetheimportanceofalargecatecholaminerelease
asanormalresponsetothebirthprocessforfetaladaption.The
catecholaminesurgeisprimarilyresponsiblefortheincreaseinblood
pressurefollowingbirth,adaptionofenergymetabolismwithsupportofthe
primarysubstratesformetabolismafterbirthglucoseandfattyacids,and
forinitiatingthermogenesisfrombrownfat.Thepretermsecretesmore
catecholaminesbecausetheorgansystemsarelessresponsivehigher
concentrationthresholdsforresponseandlowerresponses.Cesareansection
oftheunlaboredfetusdepressescatecholaminerelease.Catecholamine
releaseatbirthcanbeviewedasthegasthatdrivestheadaptive
responses.However,fetalexposuretocortisolisthecarburetorthatisthe
potentregulatoroftheresponsesofthenewborntocatecholamines.
Antenatalcorticosteroidtreatmentsdecreasecatecholaminelevelsinpreterm
infantscomparedwithunexposedinfants(10).Cortisoltreatmentsoffetal
sheepalsogreatlydecreasethepostnatalincreaseinbothnorepinephrineand
epinephrine(11)(Fig2).Nevertheless,theanimalshadbettercardiovascular
andmetabolicadaptationtopretermbirth.Thesestudiesdemonstratethe
importanceofbothcortisolandcatecholaminestoadaptationstobirth.
Antenatal cortisol alters postnatal catecholamine secretion
and blood pressure responses to delivery in preterm lambs.
Fetal sheep had vascular catheters placed at 122125 days
Thethyroidaxismaturesinlategestationinparalleltotheincreasein
cortisolwithincreasedthyroidsimulatinghormone(TSH),T 3andT4levels,
anddecreasedrT3levelsastermapproaches(14).Followingtermbirth,TSH
quicklypeaksanddecreases,andT3andT4increaseinresponseprimarilyto
theincreasedcortisol,tocordclampingandtothecoldstimulusofbirth.
Acuteablationofthyroidfunctionatbirthdidnotgreatlyalter
thermogenesisorcardiovascularadaptationinexperimentalanimals.
However,inhibitionofthyroidfunctionmorechronicallypriortobirthdid
interferewithpostnatalcardiovascularadaptationandthermogenesisin
newbornlambs(15).Theseresultsdemonstrateasupportiveandpreparative
roleforthyroidhormonesforbirthratherthanasacutemodulatorsof
endocrineadaptationtobirth.Forexample,fetalinfusionsofT3andcortisol
canactivatetheNa+,K+,ATPasethathelpsclearfetallungfluidafterbirth
(16).Terminfantswithcongenitalhypothyroidismgenerallydonothave
abnormalitiesofearlyneonataladaptationthatareevidentinthecontrolled
environmentofhospitaldeliveries.Verypreterminfantshaveablunted
thyroidfunctionaltransitionfromfetaltonewbornlifewithverylowlevels
ofplasmaT3andT4relativetoterminfants.Theeffectsofthedepressed
thyroidfunctionontheearlypostnataltransitioninthepretermareunclear
butprobablycontributetothedepressedadaptivebehaviorofthepreterm.
C. Metabolic Adaptations
1. Energy Metabolism
Fetalenergyneedsaresupportedprimarilybythetransplacentaltransferof
glucosetothefetus(17).Althoughthefetalliveriscapableof
gluconeogenesisfromearlygestation,gluconeogenesisisminimalduring
normalfetalhomeostasis.Ratherastermapproachesglucoseandother
substratesarebeingstoredasglycogenandfatinanticipationofbirthinthe
highinsulinandlowglycogenfetalenvironment.Withdeliveryandcord
clamping,thematernalglucosesupplyisremoved,andplasmaglucose
levelsnormallyfallovertheearlyhoursafterbirth.Theglucoseandfree
fattyacidlevelsareaccompaniedbyafallininsulin,andincreasein
glycogen,thenormalglucosehomeostatichormones.However,thelarge
catecholaminereleaseandincreaseincortisolareprobablythemajoracute
regulatorsofplasmaglucoseandfreefattyacidlevelsintheimmediate
newbornperiod.Forexample,adrenalectomyofthefetalsheepwho
receivedcortisolreplacementbluntsanddelaysthepostdeliveryincreasein
plasmafreefattyacidsandresultsinpersistenthypoglycemia( 8)(Fig.1).
Fetaltreatmentswithcortisoldecreasethecatecholaminesurgeatbirth,but
increasebothplasmaglucose,andfreefattyacidsrelativetocontrolanimals
(11)(Fig.2).Therefore,themetabolicadaptationstobirthareregulatedby
acutechangesininsulinandglucogen,butalsobycatecholaminesand
cortisolinterminfants.
Cortisolandcatecholamineresponsestopretermbirtharedysregulatedwith
lesscortisolandmorecatecholaminerelease.Thepretermalsohasminimal
glycogenandfatstores(17).Therefore,theavailabilityofenergysubstrates
duringthebirthtransitionwillbeseverelychallengingforthepreterm.This
aspectofadaptationintheimmediatenewbornperiodistreatedroutinely
withglucoseinfusiontopreventhypoglycemia.However,theintegrated
effectsoftheendocrineabnormalitiesandresponsestoglucoseinfusions
havenotbeenwelldescribedinextremelylowbirthweightinfants.
2. Thermoregulation
Fetalbodytemperatureisabout0.5Cabovethematernaltemperature.
Althoughthefetusproducesheatfrommetabolism,thatheatiseffectively
dissipatedacrosstheplacentaandfetalmembranes.Atbirththesympathetic
releaseresultingfromtheredundantstimuliofincreasedoxygenation,
ventilation,cordocclusionandacoldstimulustotheskinactivates
thermogenesisbybrownadiposetissue(18).Thisthermogenicresponse
potentialhasdevelopedduringlategestationbyanincreaseinbrown
adiposetissuearoundthekidneyandintheintrascapularareasofthebackto
becomeabout1%offetalweightatterm(19).Brownadiposetissue
generatesheatbyuncouplingoxidativemetabolismfromATPsynthesisin
themitochondria,withthereleaseofheat(18).Thisuncouplingismediated
bythemitochondrialmembraneproteinuncouplingprotein1(UCP1)which
isactivatedbynorepinephrinereleasedbythesympatheticinnervationof
brownadiposetissue.UCP1levelsincreaseinthebrownadiposetissue
duringlategestationinresponsetoalocalconversionofT 4toT3andto
inductionofUCP1synthesisinresponsetotheincreasingcortisollevelsin
thefetalplasmaastermapproaches.Thusthesamehormonesthatmodulate
thefetalpreparationforbirthandthetransitionperiodarecentralto
thermogenesisbybrownadiposetissue.Theterminfantalsocangenerate
someheatbyshiveringthermogenesis,whichisanincreaseinnon
purposefulskeletalmuscleactivitysignaledbycutaneousnerveendingsvia
centralmotorneurons.Shiveringthermogenesisseemstobeofsecondary
importancetothenewbornhuman.Thepretermhumanisatamajor
disadvantageforthermoregulationfollowingbirthasbrownadiposetissue
hasnotdevelopedinquantityorresponsepotentialforacoldstress.
D. Cardiovascular Adaptations
Profoundchangesinthecardiovascularsystemoccurafterdeliveryin
responsetoremovalofthelowresistanceplacentaasthesourceoffetalgas
exchangeandnutrition.Muchofourknowledgeregardingcardiovascular
adaptationafterbirthisbasedonstudiesinanimals,particularlythesheep.
Themajorchangesareanincreaseinthecardiacoutputandtransitionof
fetalcirculationtoanadulttypeofcirculation.Increasedcardiacoutputis
requiredtoprovideforincreasesinbasalmetabolism,workofbreathing,
andthermogenesis.Intheclosetotermfetus,thecombinedventricular
outputisabout450mL/kg/min,withtherightventricularoutputaccounting
for2/3rdofthecardiacoutputandtheleftventricleejecting1/3rdofthe
cardiacoutput(20).Soonafterbirth,thecirculationchangesfromparallel
toseries,wheretherightventricularoutputequalstheleftventricular
output.Thecardiacoutputnearlydoublesafterbirthtoabout400
mL/kg/min(fortherightandtheleftventricle).Thismarkedincreasein
cardiacoutputparallelscloselytheriseinoxygenconsumption.Theorgans
experiencingincreasedbloodflowafterbirtharethelungs,heart,kidney
andthegastrointestinaltract(21).Althoughtheprecisemechanisms
mediatingincreasedcardiacoutputafterbirtharenotknown,theincreasein
cortisolandvasoactivehormones,thatincludecatecholamines,therennin
angiotensinsystem,vasopressinandthyroidhormonecontributetosupport
ofbloodpressureandcardiovascularfunction(20).
Inthefetus,therelativelywelloxygenatedbloodfromtheplacentais
deliveredviatheumbilicalcordandductusvenous.Thisductusvenous
bloodenterstherightatriumfromtheinferiorvenacavaandisdirected
preferentiallytotheleftatriumbytheforamenovuleandsubsequently
deliveredpreferentiallytothebrainandthecoronarycirculationbythefetal
leftventricle.Therightventricleisthepredominantventricleinthefetus,
andmostoftherightventricularoutputgoestothedescendingaortaviathe
ductusarteriosussinceverylittlebloodentersthepulmonarycirculation.
Withbirthandremovalofthelowresistanceplacenta,bloodflowincreases
tothepulmonarycirculation.Shortlyafterbirthfunctionalclosureofductus
arteriosusbegins.Themechanismscontributingtothehighpulmonary
vascularresistanceinthefetallungareprimarilythelowoxygentension
andlowpulmonarybloodflowwhichsuppressesthesynthesisandrelease
ofnitricoxide(NO)andprostaglandinI2fromthepulmonaryendothelium
(22).Fetalexposuretohypoxiawillincreasethealreadyhighpulmonary
vascularresistanceandhyperoxiawilldecreasepulmonaryvascular
resistanceandincreasefetalpulmonarybloodflow(23).Experimentally,
ventilationofthefetallungwithoutchangingoxygenationwilldecrease
pulmonaryvascularresistanceandincreasepulmonarybloodflowby400%.
Withdelivery,ventilation,andoxygenation,NOandPGI 2increasewitha
rapidfallinpulmonaryvascularresistance.Theuseofsupplementaloxygen
fortheinitiationofventilationwillcausepulmonaryvascularresistanceto
decreasemorerapidlywiththeresultantmorerapidincreaseinpulmonary
bloodflow(24).However,thereisnobenefitinsystemicoxygenation,and
thepulmonaryvesselssubsequentlybecomemorerefractorytodilationby
NOoracetylcholine.
Thecardiovasculartransitionatbirthalsoismodulatedbycorticosteroids.
Exposureoffetalsheeptobetamethasoneincreasedfetalpulmonaryblood
flowbutdidnotalterpostnatalpulmonaryvasodilationinpretermsheep
(25).Heartfunctionafterpretermbirthisimprovedbyantenatalexposureto
corticosteroids(7).Thefetalandnewbornbloodpressuresincrease,asdoes
cardiacoutputandleftventricularcontractibility.Theseeffectsarepartially
explainedbyanincreaseinbetareceptorsignalingtoanincreaseincyclic
AMP.Similarlyadrenalectomyablatestheincreaseinbloodpressurethat
normallyoccursatbirth(8)(Fig.2).Thus,althoughtherearespecific
mediatorssuchasNOandPGI2thatfacilitatecardiovasculartransition,the
consistentthemeisthatthesamemediatorscorticosteroidsand
catecholinesalsofacilitatethistransition.
Thenormaloxygensaturationoffetalbloodintheleftatriumisabout65%
(26).Duringlaborthehumanfetustoleratesoxygensaturationsaslowas
30%withoutdevelopingacidosis(27).Afterbirth,thepreductalsaturation
innormalterminfantsgraduallyincreasestoabout90%at5minutesofage
(28).Thisknowledgeisimportanttoavoidunnecessaryadministrationof
supplementaloxygenduringresuscitation.
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E. Lung Adaptations
1. Fetal Lung Fluid
Themostessentialadaptationtobirthistheinitiationofbreathing,butthe
airspacesofthefetallungarefilledwithfetallungfluid.Whatisfetallung
fluidandhowisitclearedfromtheairspaces?Fetallungfluidissecretedby
theairwayepitheliumasafiltrateoftheinterstitialfluidofthelungbythe
activetransportofchloride(29).Consequentlythechloridecontentoffetal
lungfluidishighandproteincontentisverylow.Theproductionrateis
high,althoughdirectmeasurementsarenotavailableforthehumanfetus.
Thevolumeoflungfluidofthefetalsheepincreasesfrommidgestationand
thesecretionrateincreasestoabout4ml/kg/hrbylategestation( 30).
Productionandmaintenanceofthenormalvolumeoffetallungfluidis
essentialfornormallunggrowth.Theelectrochemicalgradientforthe
productionoffetallungfluidissubstantialandcanoverdistendthe
airspaces.Thisbehavioroftheproductionoffetallungfluidisusedto
advantagetoobstructthetrachea,whichwilldistendthehypoplasticlungs
offetuseswithdiaphragmatichernia.
Inexperimentswithfetalrabbitsandsheep,Blandandcolleagues
demonstratedthatfetallungfluidproductiondecreasedpriortotheonsetof
labor,andthevolumeoflungfluidintheairspacesdecreasedfromabout25
ml/kgto18ml/kg(31).Thefetallungfluidvolumedecreasedfurtherwith
laborsuchthattheairwayscontainedabout10ml/kgatdelivery.Harding
andHoopermeasuredanairspacefluidvolumeofabout50ml/kginfetal
sheepattermandwithoutlabor,whichisabouttwicethefunctionalresidual
capacityofthenewborntermlambafteradaptationtoairbreathing( 30).
Theendocrineadaptationsthatbeginbeforedeliveryarecriticaltofluid
clearance.Cortisol,thyroidhormonesandcatecholaminesallincreaseand
shutdowntheactivechloridemediatedsecretionoffetallungfluidand
activatethebasalNa+,K+,ATPaseoftypeIIcellsontheairwayepithelium.
SodiuminfetallungfluidenterstheapicalsurfacesoftypeIIcellsandis
pumpedintotheinterstitiumwithwaterandotherelectrolytesfollowing
passively,thusremovingfluidfromtheairways.Inpretermfetalsheep,
infusionofcortisolandT3willactivatethesodiumpump,whichnormally
occursatterm(16).Thecomponentsoffetallungfluidthenarecleared
directlyintothevasculatureorvialymphaticsfromthelunginterstitium
overmanyhours.
Thisclearanceofalargevolumeofairspacefluidisremarkablyefficient
normally.TheessentialcontributionofactivationofNa +transportwas
demonstratedbyrespiratorydistressinanimalsfromamilorideinhibitionof
theNa+,K+,andATPase.MicewithdefectiveNa+transporterswilldie
followingdeliverybecauseoffailuretoclearfetallungfluid( 32).The
frequentclinicalscenariowhereretainedlungfluidcontributestopoor
respiratoryadaptationistheoperativedeliveryofinfantswhowerenotin
labor.Theseinfantsdonotincreasetheiroxygensaturationsasquicklyas
vaginallydeliveredterminfants(28),andthereisanincreasedincidenceof
transienttachypneaofthenewbornandotherrespiratorymorbidities( 29)
(Table1).Inexperimentalstudiesinsheep,theincreasedvolumeoffetallung
fluidinterfereswithrespiratoryadaptation,andvaginaldeliveryfacilitates
adaptationrelativetooperativedeliveryatequivalentvolumesoffetallung
fluid(33).respiratorymorbiditiesareincreasedbyCesareansection
deliverieswithoutlaborrelativetovaginalbirthsafterapreviousCesarean
section.
Transienttachypneaofthenewbornismostfrequentinlatepreterminfants.
Thissyndromeisthoughttodirectlyresultfromineffectiveclearanceof
fetallungfluidbecauseofinadequateNa+transport,eitherbecauseof
decreasednumbersoftransportersorlackofactivation(34).Preterminfants
alsohavedecreasedNa+transport,andlatepreterminfantswithtransient
tachypneaofthenewbornhavelowamountsofsurfactant( 35).Thus,the
infantwithtransienttachypneaofthenewbornhasimmaturityof
Na+transportandatendencyforsurfactantdeficiencywhiletheinfantwith
RDShasmoreseveresurfactantdeficiencythatalsoincludesimmature
Na+transport.Thesetwodiseasesprobablyare,infact,acontinuumofthese
twoabnormalitiesfrommildtosevere.
Ahypotheticalcalculationmayhelpthecliniciantounderstandwhylung
fluidcancompromiseneonataladaptation.Ifthe3kgterminfanthasabout
30ml/kgoffetallungfluidintheairspacesatCesareandeliverywithout
laborandthatinfantisintubated,thennofluidcanpassivelydrainfromthe
lungs.Assumingthatthebloodvolumeofthisinfantis80ml/kgandthe
hematocritis50%,thentheplasmavolumeis40ml/kg.Thefetallungfluid
willmovefromtheairspacetothelunginterstitiuminitiallyinterferingwith
lungmechanicsandgasexchange.Thisfluidthenwillbetransferredtothe
plasma,whichifthisoccurredacutelywouldexpandplasmavolumefrom
40ml/kgto70ml/kg.Thistransferoccursoverhoursinreality.
Nevertheless,thefetallungfluidvolumethatmustbeaccommodatedduring
neonataladaptationisaddedstressforthenewborn.
2. Breathing at Birth
Theessentialcomponenttoneonataladaptationtobirthisthemaintenance
ofadequaterespiratoryeffort.Thestimulichangingthefetalbreathing
patternvirtuallyinstantaneouslytocontinuousbreathingremain
incompletelydefinedandprobablyareredundantasarethestimuliforother
adaptationstobirth.Mostoftheinformationaboutfetalbreathingandits
transitionafterbirthisfromquiteoldstudiesusingfetalsheepmodels,with
someverificationinthehumanfetus(36).Thefetalstateinuterocanbe
classifiedintoREMsleepandquietsleepwithnoclearperiodsof
wakefulness.DuringREMsleep,thefetushasirregularbreathingactivity
characterizedbylonginspiratoryandexpiratorytimeswithmovementof
variablevolumesoffetallungfluid(mixedwithamnioticfluid)intoandout
ofthelung.Fetalbreathing,swallowingandlickingactivitiesareconfined
toREMsleep,withminimalmovementsduringquietsleep.Fetalhypoxia
abolishesfetalbreathingwhilehighfetalPO2valuesstimulatefetal
breathing.Withbirth,thefetalsheepwillnotbreatheconsistentlyuntilthe
cordisclamped.Thisobservationhasgeneratedthehypothesisthat
breathingissuppressedbyaplacentallyderivedsubstanceexceptinthe
REMstate.FetalsheepgivenprostaglandinE2infusionsstopbreathing,and
treatmentwithprostaglandinsynthetaseinhibitorssuchasindomethacin
causecontinuousfetalbreathing(37).Theneteffectisthatthenormalfetal
toneonataltransitionresultsintherapidonsetofvigorousbreathingbecause
ofthecombinedstimuliofcordclamping(andtheprobableremovalof
rapidlycatabolizedprostaglandinsthatsuppressbreathing),diffusetactile
andcoldstimulithatactcentrally,andchangesinPCO2andPO2levelsinthe
blood.Thenewbornwillnotinitiatebreathingifhypoxiaissevere.
Remarkably,intheabsenceofhypoxia,virtuallyallterminfantswill
effectivelyinitiatebreathing.Themajorityofverypreterminfantsalsowill
successfullyinitiatebreathingifgivenopportunity( 38).
3. Surfactant and Lung Adaptation
Theadequatedevelopmentofthefetallungtosupportgasexchangeisthe
essentialadaptationinpreparationforbirth.Duringthelastthirdof
gestationthefetallungseptatesintoabout4milliondistalsaccules
(respiratorybronchiolesandalveolarducts)derivedfromthe17generations
ofairwaysbyabout32weeksandthenfurtherseparatestoformalveoli( 39).
Inparallelthelungparenchymaltissuemassdecreasesrelativetobody
weightsuchthatthepotentialgasvolumeoftheairwaysandalveoliincrease
greatly.Concurrentlyfromabout22weeksgestationalagesurfactantlipid
andthelipophilicproteinsSPBandSPCbegintobesynthesizedand
aggregatedintolamellarbodiesinthematuringtypeIIcells( 40).The
lamellarbodiesarethestorageandsecretorypacketsfortheessential
biophysicallyactivecomponentsofsurfactant.Asthelungmatures,more
andmoreofthelamellarbodiesarereleasedintofetallungfluidand
subsequentlymixwithamnioticfluidorareswallowed.BytermtypeIIcells
inthefetallungcontainmuchmoresurfactantthandoestheadultlung,and
thislargepoolofsurfactantispoisedforreleasepriortoandatdelivery.
Asdeliveryapproaches,fetallungfluidsecretionceases(seeabove)and
fetallungfluidvolumemaydecrease.Simultaneously,surfactantissecreted
intothefetallungfluidwithlabor,whichwillincreasethesurfactant
concentrationinthefetallungfluid(41).Thepresumedmediatorsofthis
secretionaretheincreasesincatecholaminesthatstimulateBetareceptors.
PurinergicagonistssuchasATPmayalsopromotethispredelivery
secretion.Subsequentlytheinitiationofventilationfollowingbirthcauses
alveolarstretchandthereforedeformationsoftypeIIcells,anothersecretion
signal.Thelargeincreaseincatecholaminesfollowingdeliveryprobably
furtherstimulatessurfactantsecretion.Intermanimalsshortlyafterbirth,
thealveolarpoolsizeofsurfactantisabout100mg/kg.Thisvalueis5to20
foldhigherthantheamountofsurfactantinthealveoliofhealthyadult
animalsorhumans.Althoughnomeasurementsareavailablefortheterm
human,asimilarvalueislikelybasedontheamountofsurfactantpresentin
amnioticfluidatterm.Thusthetermfetusisassuredofhavingadequate
surfactantforthetransitiontoairbreathing(42).Thehighsurfactantpool
sizedecreasestoadultlevelsoverthefirstweekoflifeinanimalmodels.
Followingoperativedeliveryofpretermlambs,astablesurfactantpoolof
alveolarsurfactantisachievedinabout3hoursdespitenolabor( 43).
Althoughtherehasbeennosurfactantsecretionpriortodelivery,the
endocrineandlungstretcheffectsallowtheunlaboredfetallungtoquickly
adapttoairbreathing.Thesecretoryeventsconcurrentwithbirthdonot
appreciablydepletesurfactantstoresintypeIIcellsbecausesurfactant
synthesisandpackagingintolamellarbodiescontinuesandthesurfactant
thathasbeensecretedalsoisrecycledbackintotypeIIcellsforsecretionas
needed(44).
Thepretermlunghasseveraldisadvantagesfortransitiontoairbreathing.
Thestructurallyimmaturelunghaslesspotentiallunggasvolumerelativeto
bodyweightandmetabolicneeds,andsecretionoffetallungfluidmaynot
ceasepriortoandafterdelivery,whichwilldelayclearanceoffetallung
fluid.Further,theamountofsurfactantstoredintypeIIcellsislow,and
thuslesssurfactantcanbesecretedinresponsetobirth.Theresultisalower
concentrationofsurfactanttoformasurfacefilmandstabilizethelung.
Surprisinglymanypretermlungscanadapt,perhapswithabitofhelpfrom
continuouspositiveairwaypressure.Thesmallalveolarsurfactantpoolsize
neednotbemorethanabout5mg/kgforthepretermlambsupportedby
continuouspositiveairwaypressure(45).Thisresultillustratesthattheterm
infanthaslargeexcessesofsurfactanttoassureasuccessfultransitiontoair
breathing.
4. Injury of the Preterm Lung
Thetransitionfromafetustoanewbornrequirestheinitiationofbreathing,
clearanceoffluidfromairways,andventilationofthedistalairspaces.
Normalnewbornsinflatetheirlungsatbirthbygeneratinglargenegative
pressurebreaths,whichpullthelungfluidfromtheairwaysintothedistal
airspaces.Theinfantcontinuestoclearlungfluidwithsubsequentinflations
(46,47).Spontaneouslybreathingnewbornrabbitsquicklymovefluidfrom
theirairwaystothealveoliandsubsequentlyintotheinterstitiumatbirth,
with50%oflungaerationoccurringwiththefirstthreebreaths.Theyusean
increasedinspiratoryvolumetoexpiratoryvolumeratiotoachieve
functionalresidualcapacity(FRC)(47).Themajorityoftheclearanceoffetal
lungfluidoccursduringinspiration,withareturnoflungfluidintoairways
duringexpirationwhenPEEPisnotused(47).Innewbornpretermrabbits,
theuseofPEEPduringinitiationofventilationfacilitatesthedevelopment
ofFRCandsurfactanttreatmentcreatesmoreuniformeddistributionofFRC
(48,49)
Manypretermorasphyxiatedterminfantsdonothaveadequate
spontaneousrespirationsatbirthandrequirepositivepressureventilation.
Prematureinfantshaveimmaturelungsthataremoredifficulttoventilate
duetoinadequatesurfactanttodecreasesurfacetensionandmaintainFRC.
Theairwaysinthepretermlungstretchwithpositivepressureventilation
andthedecreasedsurfactantpoolscontributetononuniformexpansionof
thelungwithareasoffocaloverdistensionandatelectasis( 50,51).The
initialventilationofthepretermlungwilloccurbeforemuchofthe
endogenoussurfactantissecretedandsurfactanttherapycannotpractically
begivenbeforetheinitiationofventilation.Themovementoffluidattheair
interfaceacrossepithelialcellsgenerateshighsurfaceforcesthatdistortthe
cellsandinjuretheepitheliumofthesmallairways,afeatureprominentin
infantsinthelungsofinfantswhohavediedofRDS( 52,53).CPAPorPEEP
shouldminimizethemovementoffluidintheairways,andsurfactantwill
lowerthepressurerequiredtomovefluidintothesmallairwaysand
decreasetheinjuryfromfluidmovement(48,54).Asfewassixlargetidal
volumebreathsatbirthcaneliminatethesurfactanttreatmentinresponses
ofpretermsheepbecauseofacutelunginjury(55).Inpretermsheepmodels,
wedemonstratedthatairwaystretchoccursduringinitiationofventilation
andinitialinjuryislocalizedprimarilytothebronchiandbronchioles( 53).
Acutephaseresponsegenesinvolvedininflammation,angiogenesis,
vascularremodeling,andapoptosiswereactivatedwithinthelung,and
immunologicallyactiveproteins(HSP70,HSP60)werereleasedbythe
airwayepitheliumintotheairspacefluid(56).
Aswithpretermsheep,ventilatedverylowbirthweight(VLBW)infants
haveincreasedproinflammatorycytokines(IL8,IL1,IL6,andMCP1)
intrachealaspiratessoonafterbirth,whichcorrelatewithanincreasedrisk
ofBPD(57).Ventilationofpreterminfantswithrespiratorydistress
increasedplasmalevelsofIL1,IL8andTNFanddecreasedlevelsof
theantiinflammatorycytokineIL10(58).Wepreviouslydemonstratedthat
regardlessofthetidalvolumeorPEEPused,initiationofventilationin
fluidfilled,surfactantdeficientpretermlambsisinjurious( 56,59).Small
increasesintheendogenoussurfactantpoolsizecanincreasetheuniformity
oflungexpansionandthusdecreasefocalinjury(60).Thepretermlungis
likelyatriskforsmallandlargeairwayinjuryfrominitiationofventilation
duringresuscitation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504352/
2. Apakah yang dimaksud dengan adaptasi dari intrauterine ke
ekstrauterine pada bayi tersebut kurang baik?
D. Cardiovascular Adaptations
Profoundchangesinthecardiovascularsystemoccurafterdeliveryin
responsetoremovalofthelowresistanceplacentaasthesourceoffetalgas
exchangeandnutrition.Muchofourknowledgeregardingcardiovascular
adaptationafterbirthisbasedonstudiesinanimals,particularlythesheep.
Themajorchangesareanincreaseinthecardiacoutputandtransitionof
fetalcirculationtoanadulttypeofcirculation.Increasedcardiacoutputis
requiredtoprovideforincreasesinbasalmetabolism,workofbreathing,
andthermogenesis.Intheclosetotermfetus,thecombinedventricular
outputisabout450mL/kg/min,withtherightventricularoutputaccounting
for2/3rdofthecardiacoutputandtheleftventricleejecting1/3rdofthe
cardiacoutput(20).Soonafterbirth,thecirculationchangesfromparallel
toseries,wheretherightventricularoutputequalstheleftventricular
output.Thecardiacoutputnearlydoublesafterbirthtoabout400
mL/kg/min(fortherightandtheleftventricle).Thismarkedincreasein
cardiacoutputparallelscloselytheriseinoxygenconsumption.Theorgans
experiencingincreasedbloodflowafterbirtharethelungs,heart,kidney
andthegastrointestinaltract(21).Althoughtheprecisemechanisms
mediatingincreasedcardiacoutputafterbirtharenotknown,theincreasein
cortisolandvasoactivehormones,thatincludecatecholamines,therennin
angiotensinsystem,vasopressinandthyroidhormonecontributetosupport
ofbloodpressureandcardiovascularfunction(20).
Inthefetus,therelativelywelloxygenatedbloodfromtheplacentais
deliveredviatheumbilicalcordandductusvenous.Thisductusvenous
bloodenterstherightatriumfromtheinferiorvenacavaandisdirected
preferentiallytotheleftatriumbytheforamenovuleandsubsequently
deliveredpreferentiallytothebrainandthecoronarycirculationbythefetal
leftventricle.Therightventricleisthepredominantventricleinthefetus,
andmostoftherightventricularoutputgoestothedescendingaortaviathe
ductusarteriosussinceverylittlebloodentersthepulmonarycirculation.
Withbirthandremovalofthelowresistanceplacenta,bloodflowincreases
tothepulmonarycirculation.Shortlyafterbirthfunctionalclosureofductus
arteriosusbegins.Themechanismscontributingtothehighpulmonary
vascularresistanceinthefetallungareprimarilythelowoxygentension
andlowpulmonarybloodflowwhichsuppressesthesynthesisandrelease
ofnitricoxide(NO)andprostaglandinI2fromthepulmonaryendothelium
(22).Fetalexposuretohypoxiawillincreasethealreadyhighpulmonary
vascularresistanceandhyperoxiawilldecreasepulmonaryvascular
resistanceandincreasefetalpulmonarybloodflow(23).Experimentally,
ventilationofthefetallungwithoutchangingoxygenationwilldecrease
pulmonaryvascularresistanceandincreasepulmonarybloodflowby400%.
Withdelivery,ventilation,andoxygenation,NOandPGI 2increasewitha
rapidfallinpulmonaryvascularresistance.Theuseofsupplementaloxygen
fortheinitiationofventilationwillcausepulmonaryvascularresistanceto
decreasemorerapidlywiththeresultantmorerapidincreaseinpulmonary
bloodflow(24).However,thereisnobenefitinsystemicoxygenation,and
thepulmonaryvesselssubsequentlybecomemorerefractorytodilationby
NOoracetylcholine.
Thecardiovasculartransitionatbirthalsoismodulatedbycorticosteroids.
Exposureoffetalsheeptobetamethasoneincreasedfetalpulmonaryblood
flowbutdidnotalterpostnatalpulmonaryvasodilationinpretermsheep
(25).Heartfunctionafterpretermbirthisimprovedbyantenatalexposureto
corticosteroids(7).Thefetalandnewbornbloodpressuresincrease,asdoes
cardiacoutputandleftventricularcontractibility.Theseeffectsarepartially
explainedbyanincreaseinbetareceptorsignalingtoanincreaseincyclic
AMP.Similarlyadrenalectomyablatestheincreaseinbloodpressurethat
normallyoccursatbirth(8)(Fig.2).Thus,althoughtherearespecific
mediatorssuchasNOandPGI2thatfacilitatecardiovasculartransition,the
consistentthemeisthatthesamemediatorscorticosteroidsand
catecholinesalsofacilitatethistransition.
Thenormaloxygensaturationoffetalbloodintheleftatriumisabout65%
(26).Duringlaborthehumanfetustoleratesoxygensaturationsaslowas
30%withoutdevelopingacidosis(27).Afterbirth,thepreductalsaturation
innormalterminfantsgraduallyincreasestoabout90%at5minutesofage
(28).Thisknowledgeisimportanttoavoidunnecessaryadministrationof
supplementaloxygenduringresuscitation.
Go to:
E. Lung Adaptations
Themostessentialadaptationtobirthistheinitiationofbreathing,butthe
airspacesofthefetallungarefilledwithfetallungfluid.Whatisfetallung
fluidandhowisitclearedfromtheairspaces?Fetallungfluidissecretedby
theairwayepitheliumasafiltrateoftheinterstitialfluidofthelungbythe
activetransportofchloride(29).Consequentlythechloridecontentoffetal
lungfluidishighandproteincontentisverylow.Theproductionrateis
high,althoughdirectmeasurementsarenotavailableforthehumanfetus.
Thevolumeoflungfluidofthefetalsheepincreasesfrommidgestationand
thesecretionrateincreasestoabout4ml/kg/hrbylategestation( 30).
Productionandmaintenanceofthenormalvolumeoffetallungfluidis
essentialfornormallunggrowth.Theelectrochemicalgradientforthe
productionoffetallungfluidissubstantialandcanoverdistendthe
airspaces.Thisbehavioroftheproductionoffetallungfluidisusedto
advantagetoobstructthetrachea,whichwilldistendthehypoplasticlungs
offetuseswithdiaphragmatichernia.
Inexperimentswithfetalrabbitsandsheep,Blandandcolleagues
demonstratedthatfetallungfluidproductiondecreasedpriortotheonsetof
labor,andthevolumeoflungfluidintheairspacesdecreasedfromabout25
ml/kgto18ml/kg(31).Thefetallungfluidvolumedecreasedfurtherwith
laborsuchthattheairwayscontainedabout10ml/kgatdelivery.Harding
andHoopermeasuredanairspacefluidvolumeofabout50ml/kginfetal
sheepattermandwithoutlabor,whichisabouttwicethefunctionalresidual
capacityofthenewborntermlambafteradaptationtoairbreathing( 30).
Theendocrineadaptationsthatbeginbeforedeliveryarecriticaltofluid
clearance.Cortisol,thyroidhormonesandcatecholaminesallincreaseand
shutdowntheactivechloridemediatedsecretionoffetallungfluidand
activatethebasalNa+,K+,ATPaseoftypeIIcellsontheairwayepithelium.
SodiuminfetallungfluidenterstheapicalsurfacesoftypeIIcellsandis
pumpedintotheinterstitiumwithwaterandotherelectrolytesfollowing
passively,thusremovingfluidfromtheairways.Inpretermfetalsheep,
infusionofcortisolandT3willactivatethesodiumpump,whichnormally
occursatterm(16).Thecomponentsoffetallungfluidthenarecleared
directlyintothevasculatureorvialymphaticsfromthelunginterstitium
overmanyhours.
Thisclearanceofalargevolumeofairspacefluidisremarkablyefficient
normally.TheessentialcontributionofactivationofNa +transportwas
demonstratedbyrespiratorydistressinanimalsfromamilorideinhibitionof
theNa+,K+,andATPase.MicewithdefectiveNa+transporterswilldie
followingdeliverybecauseoffailuretoclearfetallungfluid( 32).The
frequentclinicalscenariowhereretainedlungfluidcontributestopoor
respiratoryadaptationistheoperativedeliveryofinfantswhowerenotin
labor.Theseinfantsdonotincreasetheiroxygensaturationsasquicklyas
vaginallydeliveredterminfants(28),andthereisanincreasedincidenceof
transienttachypneaofthenewbornandotherrespiratorymorbidities( 29)
(Table1).Inexperimentalstudiesinsheep,theincreasedvolumeoffetallung
fluidinterfereswithrespiratoryadaptation,andvaginaldeliveryfacilitates
adaptationrelativetooperativedeliveryatequivalentvolumesoffetallung
fluid(33).respiratorymorbiditiesareincreasedbyCesareansection
deliverieswithoutlaborrelativetovaginalbirthsafterapreviousCesarean
section.
Transienttachypneaofthenewbornismostfrequentinlatepreterminfants.
Thissyndromeisthoughttodirectlyresultfromineffectiveclearanceof
fetallungfluidbecauseofinadequateNa+transport,eitherbecauseof
decreasednumbersoftransportersorlackofactivation(34).Preterminfants
alsohavedecreasedNa+transport,andlatepreterminfantswithtransient
tachypneaofthenewbornhavelowamountsofsurfactant( 35).Thus,the
infantwithtransienttachypneaofthenewbornhasimmaturityof
Na+transportandatendencyforsurfactantdeficiencywhiletheinfantwith
RDShasmoreseveresurfactantdeficiencythatalsoincludesimmature
Na+transport.Thesetwodiseasesprobablyare,infact,acontinuumofthese
twoabnormalitiesfrommildtosevere.
Ahypotheticalcalculationmayhelpthecliniciantounderstandwhylung
fluidcancompromiseneonataladaptation.Ifthe3kgterminfanthasabout
30ml/kgoffetallungfluidintheairspacesatCesareandeliverywithout
laborandthatinfantisintubated,thennofluidcanpassivelydrainfromthe
lungs.Assumingthatthebloodvolumeofthisinfantis80ml/kgandthe
hematocritis50%,thentheplasmavolumeis40ml/kg.Thefetallungfluid
willmovefromtheairspacetothelunginterstitiuminitiallyinterferingwith
lungmechanicsandgasexchange.Thisfluidthenwillbetransferredtothe
plasma,whichifthisoccurredacutelywouldexpandplasmavolumefrom
40ml/kgto70ml/kg.Thistransferoccursoverhoursinreality.
Nevertheless,thefetallungfluidvolumethatmustbeaccommodatedduring
neonataladaptationisaddedstressforthenewborn.
2. Breathing at Birth
Theessentialcomponenttoneonataladaptationtobirthisthemaintenance
ofadequaterespiratoryeffort.Thestimulichangingthefetalbreathing
patternvirtuallyinstantaneouslytocontinuousbreathingremain
incompletelydefinedandprobablyareredundantasarethestimuliforother
adaptationstobirth.Mostoftheinformationaboutfetalbreathingandits
transitionafterbirthisfromquiteoldstudiesusingfetalsheepmodels,with
someverificationinthehumanfetus(36).Thefetalstateinuterocanbe
classifiedintoREMsleepandquietsleepwithnoclearperiodsof
wakefulness.DuringREMsleep,thefetushasirregularbreathingactivity
characterizedbylonginspiratoryandexpiratorytimeswithmovementof
variablevolumesoffetallungfluid(mixedwithamnioticfluid)intoandout
ofthelung.Fetalbreathing,swallowingandlickingactivitiesareconfined
toREMsleep,withminimalmovementsduringquietsleep.Fetalhypoxia
abolishesfetalbreathingwhilehighfetalPO2valuesstimulatefetal
breathing.Withbirth,thefetalsheepwillnotbreatheconsistentlyuntilthe
cordisclamped.Thisobservationhasgeneratedthehypothesisthat
breathingissuppressedbyaplacentallyderivedsubstanceexceptinthe
REMstate.FetalsheepgivenprostaglandinE2infusionsstopbreathing,and
treatmentwithprostaglandinsynthetaseinhibitorssuchasindomethacin
causecontinuousfetalbreathing(37).Theneteffectisthatthenormalfetal
toneonataltransitionresultsintherapidonsetofvigorousbreathingbecause
ofthecombinedstimuliofcordclamping(andtheprobableremovalof
rapidlycatabolizedprostaglandinsthatsuppressbreathing),diffusetactile
andcoldstimulithatactcentrally,andchangesinPCO2andPO2levelsinthe
blood.Thenewbornwillnotinitiatebreathingifhypoxiaissevere.
Remarkably,intheabsenceofhypoxia,virtuallyallterminfantswill
effectivelyinitiatebreathing.Themajorityofverypreterminfantsalsowill
successfullyinitiatebreathingifgivenopportunity( 38).
3. Surfactant and Lung Adaptation
Theadequatedevelopmentofthefetallungtosupportgasexchangeisthe
essentialadaptationinpreparationforbirth.Duringthelastthirdof
gestationthefetallungseptatesintoabout4milliondistalsaccules
(respiratorybronchiolesandalveolarducts)derivedfromthe17generations
ofairwaysbyabout32weeksandthenfurtherseparatestoformalveoli( 39).
Inparallelthelungparenchymaltissuemassdecreasesrelativetobody
weightsuchthatthepotentialgasvolumeoftheairwaysandalveoliincrease
greatly.Concurrentlyfromabout22weeksgestationalagesurfactantlipid
andthelipophilicproteinsSPBandSPCbegintobesynthesizedand
aggregatedintolamellarbodiesinthematuringtypeIIcells( 40).The
lamellarbodiesarethestorageandsecretorypacketsfortheessential
biophysicallyactivecomponentsofsurfactant.Asthelungmatures,more
andmoreofthelamellarbodiesarereleasedintofetallungfluidand
subsequentlymixwithamnioticfluidorareswallowed.BytermtypeIIcells
inthefetallungcontainmuchmoresurfactantthandoestheadultlung,and
thislargepoolofsurfactantispoisedforreleasepriortoandatdelivery.
Asdeliveryapproaches,fetallungfluidsecretionceases(seeabove)and
fetallungfluidvolumemaydecrease.Simultaneously,surfactantissecreted
intothefetallungfluidwithlabor,whichwillincreasethesurfactant
concentrationinthefetallungfluid(41).Thepresumedmediatorsofthis
secretionaretheincreasesincatecholaminesthatstimulateBetareceptors.
PurinergicagonistssuchasATPmayalsopromotethispredelivery
secretion.Subsequentlytheinitiationofventilationfollowingbirthcauses
alveolarstretchandthereforedeformationsoftypeIIcells,anothersecretion
signal.Thelargeincreaseincatecholaminesfollowingdeliveryprobably
furtherstimulatessurfactantsecretion.Intermanimalsshortlyafterbirth,
thealveolarpoolsizeofsurfactantisabout100mg/kg.Thisvalueis5to20
foldhigherthantheamountofsurfactantinthealveoliofhealthyadult
animalsorhumans.Althoughnomeasurementsareavailablefortheterm
human,asimilarvalueislikelybasedontheamountofsurfactantpresentin
amnioticfluidatterm.Thusthetermfetusisassuredofhavingadequate
surfactantforthetransitiontoairbreathing(42).Thehighsurfactantpool
sizedecreasestoadultlevelsoverthefirstweekoflifeinanimalmodels.
Followingoperativedeliveryofpretermlambs,astablesurfactantpoolof
alveolarsurfactantisachievedinabout3hoursdespitenolabor( 43).
Althoughtherehasbeennosurfactantsecretionpriortodelivery,the
endocrineandlungstretcheffectsallowtheunlaboredfetallungtoquickly
adapttoairbreathing.Thesecretoryeventsconcurrentwithbirthdonot
appreciablydepletesurfactantstoresintypeIIcellsbecausesurfactant
synthesisandpackagingintolamellarbodiescontinuesandthesurfactant
thathasbeensecretedalsoisrecycledbackintotypeIIcellsforsecretionas
needed(44).
Thepretermlunghasseveraldisadvantagesfortransitiontoairbreathing.
Thestructurallyimmaturelunghaslesspotentiallunggasvolumerelativeto
bodyweightandmetabolicneeds,andsecretionoffetallungfluidmaynot
ceasepriortoandafterdelivery,whichwilldelayclearanceoffetallung
fluid.Further,theamountofsurfactantstoredintypeIIcellsislow,and
thuslesssurfactantcanbesecretedinresponsetobirth.Theresultisalower
concentrationofsurfactanttoformasurfacefilmandstabilizethelung.
Surprisinglymanypretermlungscanadapt,perhapswithabitofhelpfrom
continuouspositiveairwaypressure.Thesmallalveolarsurfactantpoolsize
neednotbemorethanabout5mg/kgforthepretermlambsupportedby
continuouspositiveairwaypressure(45).Thisresultillustratesthattheterm
infanthaslargeexcessesofsurfactanttoassureasuccessfultransitiontoair
breathing.
4. Injury of the Preterm Lung
Thetransitionfromafetustoanewbornrequirestheinitiationofbreathing,
clearanceoffluidfromairways,andventilationofthedistalairspaces.
Normalnewbornsinflatetheirlungsatbirthbygeneratinglargenegative
pressurebreaths,whichpullthelungfluidfromtheairwaysintothedistal
airspaces.Theinfantcontinuestoclearlungfluidwithsubsequentinflations
(46,47).Spontaneouslybreathingnewbornrabbitsquicklymovefluidfrom
theirairwaystothealveoliandsubsequentlyintotheinterstitiumatbirth,
with50%oflungaerationoccurringwiththefirstthreebreaths.Theyusean
increasedinspiratoryvolumetoexpiratoryvolumeratiotoachieve
functionalresidualcapacity(FRC)(47).Themajorityoftheclearanceoffetal
lungfluidoccursduringinspiration,withareturnoflungfluidintoairways
duringexpirationwhenPEEPisnotused(47).Innewbornpretermrabbits,
theuseofPEEPduringinitiationofventilationfacilitatesthedevelopment
ofFRCandsurfactanttreatmentcreatesmoreuniformeddistributionofFRC
(48,49)
Manypretermorasphyxiatedterminfantsdonothaveadequate
spontaneousrespirationsatbirthandrequirepositivepressureventilation.
Prematureinfantshaveimmaturelungsthataremoredifficulttoventilate
duetoinadequatesurfactanttodecreasesurfacetensionandmaintainFRC.
Theairwaysinthepretermlungstretchwithpositivepressureventilation
andthedecreasedsurfactantpoolscontributetononuniformexpansionof
thelungwithareasoffocaloverdistensionandatelectasis( 50,51).The
initialventilationofthepretermlungwilloccurbeforemuchofthe
endogenoussurfactantissecretedandsurfactanttherapycannotpractically
begivenbeforetheinitiationofventilation.Themovementoffluidattheair
interfaceacrossepithelialcellsgenerateshighsurfaceforcesthatdistortthe
cellsandinjuretheepitheliumofthesmallairways,afeatureprominentin
infantsinthelungsofinfantswhohavediedofRDS( 52,53).CPAPorPEEP
shouldminimizethemovementoffluidintheairways,andsurfactantwill
lowerthepressurerequiredtomovefluidintothesmallairwaysand
decreasetheinjuryfromfluidmovement(48,54).Asfewassixlargetidal
volumebreathsatbirthcaneliminatethesurfactanttreatmentinresponses
ofpretermsheepbecauseofacutelunginjury(55).Inpretermsheepmodels,
wedemonstratedthatairwaystretchoccursduringinitiationofventilation
andinitialinjuryislocalizedprimarilytothebronchiandbronchioles( 53).
Acutephaseresponsegenesinvolvedininflammation,angiogenesis,
vascularremodeling,andapoptosiswereactivatedwithinthelung,and
immunologicallyactiveproteins(HSP70,HSP60)werereleasedbythe
airwayepitheliumintotheairspacefluid.
Aswithpretermsheep,ventilatedverylowbirthweight(VLBW)infants
haveincreasedproinflammatorycytokines(IL8,IL1,IL6,andMCP1)
intrachealaspiratessoonafterbirth,whichcorrelatewithanincreasedrisk
ofBPD.Ventilationofpreterminfantswithrespiratorydistressincreased
plasmalevelsofIL1,IL8andTNFanddecreasedlevelsoftheanti
inflammatorycytokineIL10.Wepreviouslydemonstratedthatregardless
ofthetidalvolumeorPEEPused,initiationofventilationinfluidfilled,
surfactantdeficientpretermlambsisinjurious.Smallincreasesinthe
endogenoussurfactantpoolsizecanincreasetheuniformityoflung
expansionandthusdecreasefocalinjury.Thepretermlungislikelyatrisk
forsmallandlargeairwayinjuryfrominitiationofventilationduring
resuscitation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504352/
3. Periode perkembangan dan pertumbuhan pada janin!
Week 1 - 2
Week 3
A single sperm and the mother's egg cell meet in the Fallopian
tube. When the single sperm enters the egg, conception
occurs. The combined sperm and egg is called a zygote.
The zygote spends the next few days traveling down the
Fallopian tube. During this time, it divides to form a ball of
cells called a blastocyst.
The inner group of cells will become the embryo. The embryo
is what will develop into your baby.
Week 4
Week 5
It's during this time in the first trimester that the baby is most
at risk for damage from things that may cause birth defects.
This includes certain medications, illegal drug use, heavy
alcohol use, infections such as rubella, and other factors.
Weeks 6 - 7
Your baby's brain forms into five different areas. Some cranial
nerves are visible.
Tissue grows that will become your baby's spine and other
bones.
Week 8
Hands and feet begin to form and look like little paddles.
Week 9
Week 10
Weeks 11 - 14
Your baby's eyelids close and will not reopen until about the
28th week.
Genitals appear.
Weeks 15 - 18
Weeks 19 - 21
Week 22
Weeks 23 - 25
Week 26
Air sacs form in baby's lungs, but lungs still aren't ready to
work outside the womb.
Weeks 27 - 30
Weeks 31 - 34
Weeks 35 - 37
Your baby keeps gaining weight, but probably won't get much
longer.
Week 38 - 40
APGAR is a quick test performed on a baby at 1 and 5 minutes after birth. The 1minute score determines how well the baby tolerated the birthing process. The 5minute score tells the doctor how well the baby is doing outside the mother's
womb.
Breathing effort
Heart rate
Muscle tone
Reflexes
Skin color
Breathing effort:
o
If heart rate is less than 100 beats per minute, the infant
scores 1 for heart rate.
Muscle tone:
o
Skin color:
o
If the skin color is pale blue, the infant scores 0 for color.
Difficult birth
C-section
Oxygen and clearing out the airway to help the baby breathe
IUGR
A. DEFENISI
Pertumbuhan janin terhambat merupakan suati bentuk deviasi atau
reduksi pola pertumbuhan janin. Yang terjadi pada IUGR adalah proses
patologi yang menghambat janin mencapai potensi pertumbuhannya. Intra
Uterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) merupakan suatu keadaan dimana
janin tidak mampu berkembang sesuai dengan ukuran normal akibat
adanya gangguan nutrisi dan oksigenase, atau dengan kata lain suatu
keadaan yang dialami bayi dengan berat badan lahir dibawah batasan
tertentu dari umur kehamilannya.2
Defenisi IUGR yang sering digunakan adalah bayi yang
mempunyai berat badan lahir dibawah persentil ke-10 dari kurva berat
badan normal yang disesuaikan dengan usia kehamilan. 2
B. KLASIFIKASI2
Terjadinya IUGR dapat diklasifikasikan kedalam tiga kelompok :
1. IUGR tipe-1 (simetris atau proporsional)
Pada IUGR tipe-1 dijumpai tubuh janin secara keseluruhan
berukuran kecil akibat berkurangnya potensi pertumbuhan janin
dan berkurangnya proliferasi seluler semua organ janin. IUGR tipe1 ditandai dengan berat badan, lingkar kepala dan panjang badan
berada dibawah persentil 10. IUGR simetris ini terjadi selama
kehamilan trimester ke-1 dan trimester ke-2 dan angka kejadian
kira kira 20 30 % dari seluruh bari IUGR.
2. IUGR tipe-2 (asimetris, diproporsional)
IUGR tipe-2 terjadi karena janin kurang mendapat nutrisi dan
energi, sehingga sebagian besar energi digunakan langsung untuk
mempertahankan pertumbuhan organ vital (seperti otak dan
jantung). Hal ini umumnya terjadi akibat insufisiensi plasenta.
IUGR asimetris mempunyai ukuran kepala normal tetapi lingkar
perut kecil. IUGR tipe-2 memiliki berat badan yang kurang dari
persentil ke-10, sedangkan ukuran kepala dan panjang badan
normal. IUGR asimetris terjadi pada trimester terakhir, yang
disebabkan karena terjadinya penurunan kecepatan pertumbuhan.
3. IUGR Kombinasi
Bayi mungkin mengalami pemendekan skeletal, sedikit
pengurangan jaringan lunak. Jika malnutrisi terjadi dalam jangka
Rubella
Sindroma antibodi
plasental
Toxoplasmosis
Antiphospholipid
Insersi tali pusat Herpes virus
Hipoksia persisten
HIV
(penyakit paru atau velamentosa
jantung, anemia yang
berat)
Malnutrisi,
toksin
(alkohol, rokok, obatobatan,dll)
Malformasi uterus atau
adanya massa
D. PATOFISIOLOGI 2
Posture:Withtheinfantsupineandquiet,scoreasfollows:
Square Window: Flex the hand at the wrist. Exert pressure sufficient
to get as much flexion as possible. The angle between the
>90 degrees = -1
90 degrees = 0
60 degrees = 1
45 degrees = 2
30 degrees = 3
0 degrees = 4
Arm Recoil: With the infant supine, fully flex the forearm for 5
seconds, then fully extend by pulling the hands and release. Score
the reaction:
Popliteal Angle: With the infant supine and the pelvis flat on the
examining surface, the leg is flexed on the thigh and the thigh fully
flexed with the use of one hand. With the other hand the leg is then
extended and the angled scored:
180 degrees = -1
160 degrees = 0
140 degrees = 1
120 degrees = 2
100 degrees = 3
90 degrees = 4
<90 degrees = 5
Scarf Sign: With the infant supine, take the infant's hand and draw it
across the neck and as far across the opposite shoulder as possible.
Assistance to the elbow is permissible by lifting it across the body.
Score according to the location of the elbow:
Elbow at midline = 2
Heel to Ear: With the infant supine, hold the infant's foot with one
hand and move it as near to the head as possible without forcing it.
Keep the pelvis flat on the examining surface. Score as shown in the
diagram above.
Physical Maturity
Sign -1
0
Gelatino
us red,
transluc
ent
Smooth
pink,
visible
veins
Superfici Cracki
al
ng,
peeling pale
and/or areas,
rash,
rare
few
veins
veins
Lanug None
o
Sparse
Planta
r
Creas
es
Heel-toe Faint
>50
red
mm, no marks
creases
Skin
Sticky,
friable,
transpare
nt
Heel-toe
40-50 mm
= -1, <40
mm = -2
Anterior
transver
se
crease
only
Parchm Leathe
ent,
ry,
deep
cracke
cracking d,
, no
wrinkl
vessels ed
Crease Creases
s over over
anteri entire
or 2/3 sole
Lids
open,
pinna
flat,
Slightly
curved
pinna,
soft
Wellcurved
pinna,
soft but
Forme
d and
firm,
with
Thick
cartilag
e, ear
stiff
= -2
stays
folded
with
slow
recoil
ready
recoil
instant
recoil
Genit Scrotum
als,
flat,
male smooth
Scrotum
empty,
faint
rugae
Testes
in
upper
cannal,
rare
rugae
Testes
descend
ing, few
rugae
Testes
down,
good
rugae
Testes
pendulo
us,
deep
rugae
Genit Clitoris
als,
prominent
femal , labia flat
e
Promine
nt
clitoris,
small
labia
minora
Promin
ent
clitoris,
enlargi
ng
minora
Majora
and
minora
equally
promine
nt
Majora
large,
minor
a
small
Majora
cover
clitoris
and
minora
Maturity Rating
Add up the individual Neuromuscular and Physical Maturity scores
for the twelve categories, then obtain the estimated gestational age
from the table below.
Total Score
Gestational Age, Weeks
-10
20
-5
22
24
26
10
28
15
30
20
32
25
34
30
36
35
38
40
40
45
42
50
44
Indikasi: Untuk menentukan usia gestasi pada bayi baru lahir melalui penilaian
rumus neuromuskular ( postur, quare window, arm recoil, sudut popliteal,
scarf sign, heel to ear manufer) dan fisik (kulit, lanugo, payudara, plantar,
kelamin, mata/telinga).
a. ballard
24 minggu 28 minggu 32 minggu
34 minggu 37 minggu 41 minggu
Posisi
Lateral
Ekstensi
E.A :
E.A :
Flexi pada Flexi total
dekubitus
total
E.A dan
(hipotoni)
ekstensi
E.B : tonus
meningkat
ekstensi
E.B : flexi
(frog)
E.B
Popliteal
angle
180 0
180 0
180 0
120 0
90 0
90 0
Head to ear
manouvre
Tanpa
tahanan
Tanpa
tahanan
Sedikit
tahanan
Susah
Hampir
tidak
mungkin
Tidak
mungkin
Berjalan
otomatik
Minimal
Jalan pada
ujung jari
Jalan pada
tumit
Refleks
Moro
Baik
Baik
Baik
Baik
Refleks
mengisap
Lemah
Lemah
Lemah
Lemah
Baik
Baik
Refleks
cahaya
pupil
29 minggu
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
Glabellar
tap reflex
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
Neck
traction
reflex
(+)
(+)
(+)
Neck
righting
reflex
(+)
(+)
(+)
Head
turning to
light
(+)
(+)
(+)
b. Dubowitz
Maturitas neuromuskular
Maturitas fisik
Estimasi usia kehamilan menurut kurva Lubscencho: Bayi preterm + Sesuai Masa
Kehamilan
berat
ke-10
untuk
ke-90
ASFIKSIA NEONATORUM
Asfiksia neonatorum adalah di mana bayi tidak dapat bernafas secara
spontan dan teratur segera setelah lahir keadaan tersebut dapat disertai
dengan adanya hipoksia, hiperkapnea dan sampai ke asidosis (Hidayat,
2005).
Asfiksia neonatorum adalah kegagalan bernafas secara spontan dan
teratur pada saat lahir atau beberapa saat setelah lahir yang ditandai dengan
keadaan PaO2 di dalam darah (hipoksemia), hiperkabia (PaCO2)
meningkat dan asidosis (Utomo, 2006).
Asfiksia neonatorum adalah suatu keadaan bayi baru lahir yang mengalami
kegagalan bernafas secara spontan dan teratur segera setelah lahir
(Kamarrullah, 2005).
Asfiksia neonatorum adalah suatu keadaan bayi baru lahir yang gagal
bernafas secara spontan dan teratur segera setelah lahir, sehingga dapat
menurunkan O2 (oksigen) dan mungkin meningkatkan CO2
(karbondioksida) yang menimbulkan akibat buruk dalam kehidupan lebih
lanjut (Purwadianto, 2000).
Asfiksia adalah keadaan bayi baru lahir tidak dapat bernapas secara
spontan dan teratur (Waspodo dkk (ed), 2007).
Etiologi
1. Faktor ibu
a. Hipoksia ibu
Dapat terjadi karena hipoventilasi akibat pemberian obat analgetik
atau anestesi dalam, dan kondisi ini akan menimbulkan hipoksia
janin dengan segala akibatnya.
b. Gangguan aliran darah uterus
Berkurangnya aliran darah pada uterus akan menyebabkan
berkutangnya aliran oksigen ke plasenta dan juga ke janin, kondisi
ini sering ditemukan pada gangguan kontraksi uterus, hipotensi
mendadak pada ibu karena perdarahan, hipertensi pada penyakit
eklamsi dsb.
2. Faktor plasenta
Pertukaran gas antara ibu dan janin dipengaruhi oleh luas dan kondisi
plasenta, asfiksis janin dapat terjadi bila terdapat gangguan mendadak pada
plasenta, misalnya perdarahan plasenta, solusio plasenta dsb.
3. Faktor fetus
Kompresi umbilikus akan mengakibatkan terganggunya aliran darah dalam
pembuluh darah umbilikus dan menghambat pertukaran gas antara ibu dan
janin. Gangguan aliran darah ini dapat ditemukan pada keadaan talipusat
menumbung, melilit leher, kompresi tali pusat antara jalan lahir dan janin,
dll.
4. Faktor neonatus
Depresi pusat pernapasan pada bayi baru lahir dapat terjadi karena
beberapa hal yaitu pemakaian obat anestesi yang berlebihan pada ibu,
trauma yang terjadi saat persalinan misalnya perdarahan intra kranial,
kelainan kongenital pada bayi misalnya hernia diafragmatika, atresia atau
stenosis saluran pernapasan, hipoplasia paru, dsb.
Beberapa keadaan ibu seperti : Preeklampsia dan eklampsia; Pendarahan
abnormal ( placenta previa, solution placenta ); Partus lama / partus
macet; Demam selama persalinan; Infeksi berat ( malaria, sfilis, TBC,
HIV ); Kehamilan post matur ( sesudah 42 minggu kehamilan ) dan
beberapa keadaan Tali pusat seperti : Lilitan tali pusat; Tali pusat pendek;
Simpul tali pusat; dan prolap tali pusat, yang mengakibatkan aliran
darah ke janin berkurang sehingga aliran oksigen ke janin juga
berkurang yang mengakibatkan terjadi gawat janin, menyebabkan
asfiksia bayi baru lahir.
Beberapa keadaan bayi walaupun tanpa didahului tanda gawat janin, seperi
: Bayi premature ( sebelum 37 minggu kehamilan ); Persalinan sulit ( letak
lintang, bayi kembar, distosia bahu, ekstraksi vakum, forcep ); Kelainan
congenital; Air ketuban campur mekonium ( warna kehijauan ).
1. Etiologi
Asfksia dalam kehamilan
disebabkan oleh
o penyakit infeksi akut/kronis
o keracunan obat bius
o uremia
o toksemia gravidarum
o anemia berat
o cacat bawaan
o trauma
asfiksia dalam persalinan
disebabkan oleh :
o kekurangan O2 misalnya pada :
partus lama ( CPD, servik kaku dan atonia/inersia
uteri )
1.
Vigorous Baby
Skor APGAR 7-10, bayi dianggap sehat dan tidak memerlukan
tindakan istimewa.
2. Moderate asphyksia/asphyksia sedang
Skor APGAR 4-6, pada pemeriksaan fisik akan terlihat frekuensi
jantung lebih dari 100/menit, tonus otot kurang baik atau baik,
sianosis, reflek iritabilitas tidak ada.
3. Asphyksia berat
Skor APGAR 0-3, pada pemeriksaan fisik ditemukan frekuensi jantung
kurang dari 100 x permenit, tonus otot buruk, sianosis berat, dan
kadang-kadang pucat, reflek iritabilitas tidak ada. Pada asphyksia
dengan henti jantung yaitu bunyi jantung fetus menghilang tidak lebih
dari 10 menit sebelum lahir lengkap atau bunyi jantung menghilang
post partum, pemeriksaan fisik sama pada asphyksia berat.
Penatalaksanaan
Asphyksia berat
Resusitasi aktif harus segera dilaksanakan, langkah utama
memperbaiki ventilasi paru dengan pemberian O2 dengan tekanan
dan intermiten, cara terbaik dengan intubasi endotrakeal lalu
diberikan O2 tidak lebih dari 30 mmHg. Asphiksia berat hampir
selalu disertai asidosis, koreksi dengan bikarbonas natrium 2-4
mEq/kgBB, diberikan pula glukosa 15-20 % dengan dosis 24ml/kgBB. Kedua obat ini disuntuikan kedalam intra vena perlahan
melalui vena umbilikalis, reaksi obat ini akan terlihat jelas jika
ventilasi paru sedikit banyak telah berlangsung. Usaha pernapasan
biasanya mulai timbul setelah tekanan positif diberikan 1-3 kali,
bila setelah 3 kali inflasi tidak didapatkan perbaikan pernapasan
atau frekuensi jantung, maka masase jantung eksternal dikerjakan
dengan frekuensi 80-100/menit. Tindakan ini diselingi ventilasi
tekanan dalam perbandingan 1:3 yaitu setiap kali satu ventilasi
tekanan diikuti oleh 3 kali kompresi dinding toraks, jika tindakan
ini tidak berhasil bayi harus dinilai kembali, mungkin hal ini
disebabkan oleh ketidakseimbangan asam dan basa yang belum
dikoreksi atau gangguan organik seperti hernia diafragmatika atau
stenosis jalan nafas.
Asphyksia sedang
Stimulasi agar timbul reflek pernapsan dapat dicoba, bila dalam
waktu 30-60 detik tidak timbul pernapasan spontan, ventilasi aktif
harus segera dilakukan, ventilasi sederhana dengan kateter O2
intranasaldengan aliran 1-2 lt/mnt, bayi diletakkan dalam posisi
dorsofleksi kepala. Kemudioan dilakukan gerakan membuka dan
menutup nares dan mulut disertai gerakan dagu keatas dan
kebawah dengan frekuensi 20 kali/menit, sambil diperhatikan
gerakan dinding toraks dan abdomen. Bila bayi memperlihatkan
gerakan pernapasan spontan, usahakan mengikuti gerakan tersebut,
ventilasi dihentikan jika hasil tidak dicapai dalam 1-2 menit,
sehingga ventilasi paru dengan tekanan positif secara tidak
langsung segera dilakukan, ventilasi dapat dilakukan dengan dua
cara yaitu dengan dari mulut ke mulut atau dari ventilasi ke
kantong masker. Pada ventilasi dari mulut ke mulut, sebelumnya
Asphyksia berat
Resusitasi aktif harus segera dilaksanakan, langkah utama memperbaiki
ventilasi paru dengan pemberian O2 dengan tekanan dan intermiten, cara
terbaik dengan intubasi endotrakeal lalu diberikan O2 tidak lebih dari 30
mmHg. Asphiksia berat hampir selalu disertai asidosis, koreksi dengan
bikarbonas natrium 2-4 mEq/kgBB, diberikan pula glukosa 15-20 %
dengan dosis 2-4ml/kgBB. Kedua obat ini disuntuikan kedalam intra vena
perlahan melalui vena umbilikalis, reaksi obat ini akan terlihat jelas jika
ventilasi paru sedikit banyak telah berlangsung. Usaha pernapasan
biasanya mulai timbul setelah tekanan positif diberikan 1-3 kali, bila
setelah 3 kali inflasi tidak didapatkan perbaikan pernapasan atau frekuensi
jantung, maka masase jantung eksternal dikerjakan dengan frekuensi 80100/menit. Tindakan ini diselingi ventilasi tekanan dalam perbandingan
1:3 yaitu setiap kali satu ventilasi tekanan diikuti oleh 3 kali kompresi
dinding toraks, jika tindakan ini tidak berhasil bayi harus dinilai kembali,
mungkin hal ini disebabkan oleh ketidakseimbangan asam dan basa yang
belum dikoreksi atau gangguan organik seperti hernia diafragmatika atau
stenosis jalan nafas.
Asphyksia sedang
Stimulasi agar timbul reflek pernapsan dapat dicoba, bila dalam waktu 3060 detik tidak timbul pernapasan spontan, ventilasi aktif harus segera
dilakukan, ventilasi sederhana dengan kateter O2 intranasaldengan aliran
1-2 lt/mnt, bayi diletakkan dalam posisi dorsofleksi kepala. Kemudioan
dilakukan gerakan membuka dan menutup nares dan mulut disertai
gerakan dagu keatas dan kebawah dengan frekuensi 20 kali/menit, sambil
diperhatikan gerakan dinding toraks dan abdomen. Bila bayi
memperlihatkan gerakan pernapasan spontan, usahakan mengikuti
gerakan tersebut, ventilasi dihentikan jika hasil tidak dicapai dalam 1-2
menit, sehingga ventilasi paru dengan tekanan positif secara tidak
langsung segera dilakukan, ventilasi dapat dilakukan dengan dua cara
yaitu dengan dari mulut ke mulut atau dari ventilasi ke kantong masker.
Pada ventilasi dari mulut ke mulut, sebelumnya mulut penolong diisi dulu
dengan O2, ventilasi dilakukan dengan frekuensi 20-30 kali permenit dan
perhatikan gerakan nafas spontan yang mungkin timbul. Tindakan
dinyatakan tidak berhasil jika setelah dilakukan berberapa saat terjasi
penurunan frekuensi jantung atau perburukan tonus otot, intubasi
endotrakheal harus segera dilakukan, bikarbonas natrikus dan glukosa
dapat segera diberikan, apabila 3 menit setelah lahir tidak memperlihatkan
pernapasan teratur, meskipun ventilasi telah dilakukan dengan adekuat.
Pada asfiksia yang terus berlanjut, curah jantung makin menurun dan aliran darah ke organ-organ vital
tidak mencukupi lagi.
Pada bayi dengan asfiksia, secara kasar terdapat korelasi antara frekuensi jantung dengan curah
jantung. Karena itu pemantauan frekuensi jantung (misalnya dengan stetoskop, atau perabaan nadi tali
pusat) merupakan cara yanng baik untuk memantau efektifitas upaya resusitasi.Perlengkapan dan
obat-obatan resusitasi (tabel)
resusitasi neonatal yang efektif memerlukan tenaga yang terlatih dan perlengkapan yang tepat (lihat
tabel).
Hendaknya disediakan minimum 2 set perlengkapan resusitasi (untuk menghadapi kemungkinan
persalinan kembar) dan 1 unit resusitasi mobil untuk keperluan transport.prinsip-prinsip umum
prosedur resusitasi neonatus
prinsip resusitasi neonatus :
t (temperature), baru kemudian a-b-c-d
pengaturan suhu
semua neonatus dalam keadaan apapun mempunyai kesukaran untuk beradaptasi pada suhu lingkungan
yang dingin.
Neonatus yang mengalami asfiksia khususnya, mempunyai sistem pengaturan suhu yang lebih tidak
stabil, dan hipotermia ini dapat memperberat / memperlambat pemulihan keadaan asidosis yang terjadi.
Segera sesudah lahir, badan dan kepala neonatus hendaknya dikeringkan seluruhnya dengan kain
kering dan hangat, dan diletakkan telanjang di bawah alat / lampu pemanas radiasi, atau pada tubuh
ibunya, untuk mencegah kehilangan panas. Bila diletakkan dekat ibunya, bayi dan ibu hendaknya
diselimuti dengan baik.
Namun harus diperhatikan pula agar tidak terjadi pemanasan yang berlebihan pada tubuh bayi.
Tindakan resusitasi pada bayi sebaiknya dilakukan pada suatu meja yang telah dilengkapi dengan
peralatan resusitasi.
Penilaian status klinik
digunakan penilaian apgar untuk menentukan keadaan bayi pada menit ke 1 dan ke 5 sesudah lahir.
Nilai pada menit pertama : untuk menentukan seberapa jauh diperlukan tindakan resusitasi. Nilai ini
berkaitan dengan keadaan asidosis dan kelangsungan hidup.
Nilai pada menit kelima : untuk menilai prognosis neurologik.
Ada pembatasan dalam penilaian apgar ini, yaitu :
1. Resusitasi segera dimulai bila diperlukan, dan tidak menunggu sampai ada penilaian pada menit
pertama.
2. Keputusan perlu-tidaknya resusitasi maupun penilaian respons resusitasi dapat cukup dengan
menggunakan evaluasi frekuensi jantung, aktifitas respirasi dan tonus neuromuskular, daripada dengan
nilai apgar total. Hal ini untuk menghemat waktu.
Perencanaan berdasarkan perhitungan nilai apgar
1. Nilai apgar menit pertama 7 - 10 : biasanya bayi hanya memerlukan tindakan pertolongan berupa
penghisapan lendir / cairan dari orofaring dengan menggunakan bulb syringe atau suction unit tekanan
rendah. Hati-hati, pengisapan yang terlalu kuat / traumatik dapat menyebabkan stimulasi vagal dan
bradikardia sampai henti jantung.
2. Nilai apgar menit pertama 4 - 6 : hendaknya orofaring cepat diisap dan diberikan o2 100%.
Dilakukan stimulasi sensorik dengan tepokan atau sentilan pada telapak kaki dan gosokan selimut
kering pada punggung. Frekuensi jantung dan respirasi terus dipantau ketat. Bila frekuensi jantung
menurun atau ventilasi tidak adekuat, harus diberikan ventilasi tekanan positif dengan kantong
resusitasi dan sungkup muka. Jika tidak ada alat bantu ventilasi, gunakan teknik pernapasan buatan dari
mulut ke hidung-mulut.
3. Nilai apgar menit pertama 3 atau kurang : bayi mengalami depresi pernapasan yang berat dan
orofaring harus cepat diisap. Ventilasi dengan tekanan positif dengan o2 100% sebanyak 40-50 kali per
menit harus segera dilakukan. Kecukupan ventilasi dinilai dengan memperhatikan gerakan dinding
dada dan auskultasi bunyi napas. Jika frekuensi jantung tidak meningkat sesudah 5-10 kali napas,
kompresi jantung harus dimulai. Frekuensi : 100 sampai 120 kali per menit, dengan 1 kali ventilasi
setiap 5 kali kompresi (5:1).
Jika frekuensi jantung tetap di bawah 100 kali per menit setelah 2-3 menit, usahakan melakukan
intubasi endotrakea.
Gunakan laringoskop dengan daun lurus (magill). Gunakan stilet untuk menuntun jalan pipa.
Stilet jangan sampai keluar dari ujung pipa. Posisi pipa diperiksa dengan auskultasi.
Kalau frekuensi jantung tetap kurang dari 100 setelah intubasi, berikan 0.5 - 1 ml adrenalin (1:10.000).
Dapat juga secara intrakardial atau intratrakeal, tapi lebih dianjurkan secara intravena.
Jika tidak ada ahli yang berpengalaman untuk memasang infus pada vena perifer bayi, lakukan
kateterisasi vena atau arteri umbilikalis pada tali pusat, dengan kateter umbilikalis. Sebelum
penyuntikan obat, harus dipastikan ada aliran darah yang bebas hambatan. Dengan demikian pembuluh
tali pusat dibuat menjadi drug/fluid transport line.
Jangan memasukkan larutan hipertonik seperti glukosa 50% atau natrium bikarbonat yang tidak
diencerkan melalui vena umbilikalis, karena dapat merusak parenkim hati.
Bayi dengan asfiksia berat yang tidak responsif terhadap terapi atau mempunyai frekuensi jantung yang
adekuat tetapi perfusinya buruk, hendaknya diberikan cairan ekspansi volume darah (plasma volume
expander) : 10 ml/kgbb plasmanate atau albumin 5% secara infus selama 10 menit.
Kalau diduga banyak terjadi perdarahan, berikan transfusi 10 ml/kgbb darah lengkap (wholeblood).
Bila bradikardia menetap : ulangi dosis adrenalin.
Dapat juga diberikan kalsium glukonat 10% untuk efek inotropik 50-100 mg/kgbb intravena perlahanlahan, atau sulfas atropin untuk antikolinergik / terapi bradikardia 0.01 mg/kgbb.
Asidosis respiratorik : dikoreksi dengan memperbaiki ventilasi
asidosis metabolik : dikoreksi dengan infus natrium bikarbonat dan cairan ekspansi volume darah.
Ada 3 masalah penting berkaitan dengan pemberian natrium bikarbonat pada bayi :
1. Zat ini sangat hipertonik. Bila diberikan dengan cepat dan dalam jumlah besar akan mengekspansi
volume intravaskular.
2. Jika diberikan dalam keadaan ventilasi tidak adekuat, paco2 akan meningkat nyata, ph akan turun,
asidosis makin berat dan dapat terjadi kematian. Hendaknya natrium bikarbonat hanya diberikan jika
ventilasi adekuat, atau telah terpasang ventilasi mekanik yang baik.
3. Pemberian bikarbonat dapat pula menyebabkan hipotensi.
Untuk monitoring : periksa darah arteri umbilikalis untuk analisis gas darah. Bila perlu lakukan
kanulasi vena sentral untuk
membantu menentukan
balans cairan.
Penyulit yang mungkin
terjadi selama resusitasi
hipotermia
dapat memperberat keadaan
asidosis metabolik, sianosis,
gawat napas, depresi susunan saraf pusat,
hipoglikemia.
Pneumotoraks
pemberian ventilasi tekanan positif dengan inflasi yang
terlalu cepat dan tekanan yang terlalu besar dapat
menyebabkan komplikasi ini.
Jika bayi mengalami kelainan membran hialin atau aspirasi
mekonium, risiko pneumotoraks lebih besar karena
komplians jaringan paru lebih lemah.
Trombosis vena
pemasangan infus / kateter intravena dapat menimbulkan
lesi trauma pada dinding pembuluh darah, potensial membentuk trombus. Selain itu, infus larutan
hipertonik melalui pembuluh darah tali pusat juga dapat mengakibatkan nekrosis hati dan trombosis
vena.
(www.geocities.com)
Tindakan umum
1. pengawasan suhu
bayi baru lahir secara relatif banyak kehilangan panas yang diikuti dengan
penurunan suhu tubuh. Penurunan suhu tubuh ini akan mempertinggi
metabolisme sel jaringan sehingga kebutuhan oksigen meningkat. Hal ini
akan mempersulit keadaan bayi , apalagi bila bayi menderita asfiksia berat.
Perlu diperhatikan agar bayi mendapat lingkungan yang baik segera
setelah lahir , harus dicegah/dikurangi kehilangan panas dari kulit.
Pemakaian sinar lampu yang cukup kuat untuk pemanasan luar dapat
X-Ray 1: Stage 1: slight reticular (slight granular) decrease in transparency of the lung,
no certain difference to normal findings. (The matches are used to show size)
X-Ray 3: Stage 3: like stage 2, but with gradual stronger decrease in transparency, as
well as a blurry diaphragm and heart.
karena tindakan invasiv seperti pemasangan jarum vena, kateter, dan alat2
respirasi.
3. Perdarahan intrakranial dan leukomalacia periventrikular : perdarahan
intraventrikuler terjadi pada 20-40% bayi prematur dengan frekuensi terbanyak
pada bayi RDS dengan ventilasi mekanik.
4 PDA dengan peningkatan shunting dari kiri ke kanan merupakan komplikasi bayi
dengan RDS terutama pada bayi yang dihentikan terapi surfaktannya.
Komplikasi jangka panjang dapat disebabkan oleh toksisitas oksigen, tekanan yang
tinggi dalam paru, memberatnya penyakit dan kurangnya oksigen yang menuju ke
otak dan organ lain.
Komplikasi jangka panjang yang sering terjadi :
1.
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD): merupakan penyakit paru kronik yang
disebabkan pemakaian oksigen pada bayi dengan masa gestasi 36 minggu.
BPD berhubungan dengan tingginya volume dan tekanan yang digunakan
pada waktu menggunakan ventilasi mekanik, adanya infeksi, inflamasi, dan
defisiensi vitamin A. Insiden BPD meningkat dengan menurunnya masa
gestasi.
2. Retinopathy prematur
Kegagalan fungsi neurologi, terjadi sekitar 10-70% bayi yang berhubungan
dengan masa gestasi, adanya hipoxia, komplikasi intrakranial, dan adanya
infeksi.
Sumber : Honrubia.D; Stark.AR. Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Dalam :
Cloherthy J,
Eichenwald EC, Stark AR,Eds. Manual of Neonatal Care,edisi 5. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,2004:341-61.