Linearalgebra PDF

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832 00
JJ
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1 212
Copyright ,
All rights reserved
1.1.
V3 ,

.
E , E
D .

, .
AB A
~ BA,
B . AB
JJ
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2 212
B A.
AB D,
(), :
A B.
AB CD - . AB
A B. D R,
D D D D, ( AB CD
(AB, CD ) ):
AB, CD D , :
AB CD
:
1. AB, CD ( ).
2. AB, CD .
3. AB, CD .
.
AB, CD, EZ D, :
1. :
JJ
II
3 212
AB AB.
2. :
AB CD CD AB

3. :
AB CD CD R EZ , AB EZ .
D
D.
D ,
. D
D :
A A = D.
A, B A , B, : A B = .
D:
:= {CAB | AB D},
CAB := {CD D | CD AB}
CAB , , AB. CAB

AB, -
D, .
, CAB
AB.
() . -
JJ
II
AB AB, :
4 212
AB = {CD D | CD AB}
V3 := D/ = {AB | AB D}
() . ,
: , , , , ,
, , , , ,
AB , , , ,
AB. AB
, V3 . .
AB, : |AB|.
AB, CD V3 ,
EZ := AB + CD, AB CD,
. () AB (0 )
CD, (0 )
() CD
AB.
CD ,
B := E Z . EZ ,
AB CD (
) A
EZ .
JJ
II
AB CD ,
AB CD.
5 212
k R , AB V3 ,
k AB,
k AB, . k = 0, AB = ~
0 ,
k AB = ~
0. k , 0 AB , ~
0, k AB
AB. k AB AB k > 0
AB = BA k < 0. k AB :
|k ||AB|
V3 :
1. :

+ : V3 V3 V3 , (AB, CD ) 7 AB + CD
2. :
: R V3 V3 , (k, AB) 7 k AB
,
V3 ,
, :
(1) . :

AB, CD, EZ V3 : (AB + CD ) + EZ = AB + (CD + EZ )
(2) . :

AB, CD V3 : AB + CD = CD + AB
(3) . ~
0
V3 , ,
:
AB V3 : AB + ~
0 = AB = ~
0 + AB
JJ
II
6 212
~
0 ,
.
(4) . AB V3
AB V3 , AB,
:

AB V3 , (AB ) V3 : AB + (AB ) = ~
0 = (AB) + AB )
AB BA,
AB, .
(5)
R. :
AB V3 , , R : ( + ) AB = AB + AB
(6)
V3 . :
AB, CD V3 , R : (AB + CD ) = AB + CD
JJ
II
(7) . :
7 212
AB V3 , , R : ( AB ) = () AB
(8) . :

AB V3 : 1 AB = AB

,
:
1. ,
.. , , , , .

.

.
2. , ..
.
.
V
, :
V, (1)-(8)
, .
(

.

.
.
JJ
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8 212
1.2.
S .
S,
* : S S
S, (s1 , s2 ) 7 *(s1 , s2 ).
s1 , s2 S, *(s1 , s2 ) s1 * s2 :
s1 , s2 S : *(s1 , s2 ) := s1 * s2 .
K S .
K S,
: K S
S, (k, s) 7 (k, s).
k K s S, (k, s) k s:
K, s S : (k, s) := k s
1.2.1 Z , ,
+ : Z Z
Z, (k, l ) 7 k + l.
, : Z Z
Z, (k, l ) 7 kl.
: Q , R
, C ,
.
1.3.
JJ
II
9 212

( ) .
, ,
Z, Q, R, C .
.
1.3.1 K :
(a) + : K K
K, (k1 , k2 ) K K
k1 + k2 K, ( K).
(b) : K K
K, (k1 , k2 ) K K
k1 k2 K, ( K).
K + ,
:
(1) . :
k1 , k2 , K : (k1 + k2 ) + k3 = k1 + (k2 + k3 )
(2) . :
k1 , k2 K : k1 + k2 = k2 + k1
(3) . 0 K,
, :
k K : k + 0 = k = 0 + k
(4) . k K
k K, k, :
JJ
II
10 212
k K, (k ) K : k + (k ) = 0 = (k ) + k
(5) K. :
k1 , k2 , k3 K : k1 (k2 k3 ) = (k1 k2 ) k3
(6) K.
:
k1 , k2 , k3 K : k1 (k2 + k3 ) = k1 k2 + k1 k3
k1 , k2 , k3 K : (k1 + k2 ) k3 = k1 k3 + k2 k3
(7) K. :
k1 , k2 , k3 K : k1 k2 = k2 k1
(8) . :
1 K, k K : 1 k = k = k 1
(9) . k
K k 1 K,
k, :
k K \ {0}, k 1 K : k k 1 = 1 = k 1 k
JJ
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11 212
C ,
.
1.3.2 , :
1. Q .
2. R .
3. C .
Z ( ;).
1.3.3 :
Q( 2) := { + 2 R | , Q}
Q( 1) := { + 1 C | , Q}
Q( 2) Q( 1)
,
.
1.3.4
K C
0 1 , ,
( k K k , 0, k 1 K.
K
1.3.1.
JJ
II
12 212
1.3.5 .
. F
, 0, 1: F = {0, 1}. F

+ : F F
F, (x, y) 7 x + y
: F F
F, (x, y) 7 x y
:
1. 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 0.
2. 0 0 = 0, 0 1 = 0, 1 0 = 0, 1 1 = 1.
F .

,
1.3.1.
Q, R, C .
JJ
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13 212

.

.

.
2.1.
K. 1
K C
0 1 , ,

,

.
JJ
II
14 212
( k K k , 0, k 1 K.

,

.

.
2.1.1 K -
V,
~
x, ~
y, ~
z , , :
(a) + : V V
V,
(~
x, ~
y) V V ~
x +~
y V,
( V).
(b) : K V
V, (k, ~
x ) K V
k ~
x V, (
K V).
V + ,
:
(1) . :
~
x, ~
y, ~
z V : (~
x +~
y)+~
z=~
x + (~
y+~
z)
(2) . :
~
x, ~
yV: ~
x +~
y=~
y+~
x

,

.
JJ
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15 212
(3) . ~
0
V, ,
:
~
xV: ~
x +~
0=~
x =~
0+~
x
(4) . ~
x V
~
x V, ~
x ,
:
~
x V, (~
x)V: ~
x + (~
x)=~
0 = (~
x) + ~
x)
(5)
K. :
~
x V, , K : ( + ) ~
x =~
x +~
x
(6)
V. :
~
x, ~
y V, K : (~
x +~
y) = ~
x + ~
y
(7) . :
~
x V, , K : ( ~
x ) = () ~
x
JJ
II
16 212
(8) . :
~
x V: 1~
x =~
x
2.1.2
1. (V, +, )
V.
+, ,
/ , V
.
2. 2.1.1 K
V,
. .. (5), +
K +
V.
3. ~
x V, ~
x ,
(4), .
~
x (1) ~
x.
4. (1) .
~
x + (~
y+~
z ) ~
x +~
y+~
z
~
x, ~
y, ~
z , (~
x +~
y) + ~
z
(1) . ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ,
(
), : ~
x1 + ~
x2 + + ~
xn .
5. (2)
. ~
x1 + ~
x2 + ~
x3 = ~
x3 + ~
x1 + ~
x2 = ~
x2 + ~
x3 + ~
x1 ,
...

,

.
JJ
II
17 212

2.1.1 -

.
V K.
2.1.3 ~
x, ~
y V, :
~
x + (~
y) := ~
x ~
y
~
y ~
y.
, .

V.
2.1.4 .
1. , K, ~
x V: ( ) ~
x =~
x ~
x.
2. K, ~
x, ~
y V: (~
x ~
y) = ~
x ~
y.
3. ~
x V: 0 ~
x =~
0.
4. ~
x V: (1) ~
x = ~
x.
5. ~
x V: (~
x) = ~
x.
6. ~
x, ~
y V: (~
x +~
y) = ~
x ~
y.
JJ
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18 212
7. K: ~
0=~
0.
8. K ~
x V ~
x =~
0, : = 0 ~
x =~
0.
~
0 ~
x V, (3)
(4), .

.
2.1.5
1. ~
01 ~
02 V
(3), ~
x +~
01 = ~
x ~
x +~
02 = ~
x , ~
x V, : ~
01 = ~
02 .
2. ~
x V ~
x1 ~
x2 (4), ~
x +~
x1 = ~
0 ~
x +~
x2 = ~
0. ~
x1 = ~
x2 .
3. K, , 0, ~
x, ~
y V. ~
x = ~
y, ~
x =~
y.
4. 1 , 2 K ~
x V ~
x ,~
0. 1 ~
x = 2 ~
x , 1 = 2 .

,

.
2.1.6

1. (2) .
: ~
x, ~
y V
(1 + 1) (~
x +~
y) , (5),
(6).
2
2. R2 = {(, ) | , R}, + : R2 R2
R2 :
(1 , 2 ) + (1 , 2 ) = (1 + 1 , 2 + 2 ).
~ : R R2
R2 : ~ (1 , 2 ) = (1 , 0). (R2 , +, ~)
2.1.1, (8).
: (8) 1 ~ (1, 1).
2
JJ
II
19 212
3. R2 u : R2 R2
R2 : (1 , 2 ) + (1 , 2 ) =
(1 + 1 + 1, 2 + 2 + 1). : R
R2
R2 : (1 , 2 ) = (1 , 2 ). (R2 , u, )
R. ;
4. R+ . :
R+ R+
R+ : := .
* : R R+
R+ : r * := r . (R+ , , *)
R.
-
2.1.4 .
2.2.
.
, ,

.
2.2.1 K .
Q R C
.
K K
K, (, ) 7 + K, K K
K, (, ) 7 K ( ),
2.1.1 ( ).
K K.

,

.
JJ
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20 212
0
K .
.
2.2.2 K n (n 1).
:
Kn := K K K = {(1 , 2 , , n ) | i K, i = 1, 2, , n }
K, + : Kn Kn
Kn
n
n
n
:KK
K K , .
~ = (k1 , k2 , , kn ), ~
= (l1 , l2 , , ln ) Kn ,
r K, :
~+~
= (k1 + l1 , k2 + l2 , , kn + ln )
r
~ = (rk1 , rk2 , , rkn ).
(Kn , +, ) K.
~
0 = (0, 0, , 0)

~ = (k1 , k2 , , kn )
~ = (k1 , k2 , , kn ).
(5). r, s K
~ =
(k1 , k2 , , kn ) Kn . :
(r + s )
~ = (r + s) (k1 , k2 , , kn ) =

,

.
JJ
II
((r + s)k1 , (r + s)k2 , , (r + s)kn ) = (rk1 + sk1 , rk2 + sk2 , , rkn + skn ) =
21 212
(rk1 , rk2 , , rkn ) + (sk1 , sk2 , , skn ) =
r (k1 , k 2 , , k n ) + s (k1 , k 2 , , k n ) = r
~+s
~.
2.2.3 2.2.2.

.
2.2.4 2.2.1
. C
C 2.2.1.
+, : R C
C .
r R z C, r z = rz. z = a + bi, r z = ra + rbi.
(C, +, )
R ( ).
2.2.5 C R2 ,
1-1 C
R2 z = a + bi
(a, b), C R2 ,
C R2 .
.
2.2.2.
V1 , V2 , , Vn n
K. Vi .
,
.
V1 , V2 , , Vn :
V1 V2 Vn := {(~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) | ~
xi Vi , i = 1, 2, , n }

,

.
JJ
II
22 212
1. : = (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) = (~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn )
V1 V2 Vn , :
+ := (~
x1 + ~
y1 , ~
x2 + ~
y2 , ~
xn + ~
yn ) V1 V2 Vn .
2. : = (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) V1 V2
Vn k K, :
k := (k ~
x1 , k ~
x2 , , k ~
xn ) V1 V2 Vn .
V1 , V2 , , Vn V1 V2 Vn
.
2.2.6 V1 , V2 , , Vn n
K.
, V1 V2 Vn
K.

,

.
2.2.7 1. Vi = K, i = 1, 2, , n 2.2.6,
2.2.2.
2. V K, Vi = V,
i = 1, 2, , n 2.2.6, V V V
V n , V.
3. R C R 2.2.1 2.2.4. R C
R.
JJ
II
23 212
2.2.8 K L K .
L 0, 1,
K, l 1 L, l L \ {0}.
K L, L K
L.
L Q
K R C .
V K,
.
V,
V.
2.2.2 .
. .
2.2.1.
.
-
( ) .
f, g : S
T S, T , :
f = g f (s) = g(s), s S. .
2.2.9 .
F(R, R) := {f : R
R | f }
JJ
II
24 212
R,
F(R, R) :
f, g F(R, R), f + g : R
R, x 7 (f + g)(x ) := f (x ) + g(x ).
r R, f F(R, R), r f : R
R, x 7 (r f )(x ) := rf (x ).
(F(R, R), +, ) R. F(R, R) ~
0 : R
R, : ~
0(x ) = 0.
f F(R, R) f : R
R,
: (f )(x ) = f (x ).
2.2.9
.
S V = (V, +, )
K. S
V:
F(S, V) := {f : S
V | f }
F(S, V) :
f, g F(S, V), f + g : S
V, s 7 (f + g)(s) := f (s) + g(s)
(2.1)
K
F(S, V) :
k K, f F(S, V), k f : S
V, s 7 (k f )(s) := k f (s).

,

.
(2.2)
. (f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s)

+ F(S, V),
+ V.
(k f )(s) = k f (s)
F(S, V),
V.
( )
, () .
.
JJ
II
25 212
2.2.10 S V = (V, +, )
K. 2.1 2.2 F(S, V)
S V K.
F(S, V) ~
0 : S
V, s 7 ~
0(x ) = ~
0
f F(S, V) f : S
V, s 7 (f )(s) = f (~s).
2.2.10, S = [0, 2 ] S = [0, 1] K = R, K =
C, F([0, 2 ], R), F([0, 1], R), F([0, 2 ], C) F([0, 1], C),
R, C.
2.2.2.
2.2.10
K, .
N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, , n, n + 1, }
0, K .
2.2.11 K
.
: N0
K
A(K) K. A(K),
(n ) : N0
K n
(n ) := n . ,
{0 , 1 , , n , }.
K : (n )n 0 . n , n 0,
.
2.2.12 A(K) K
K :
JJ
II
26 212
1. : (n )n 0 , (n )n 0 A(K), :
:

(n )n 0 + (n )n 0 := (n )n 0 , n := n + n , n 0.
2. : (n )n 0 A(K) k K, :
k (n )n 0 := (n )n 0 n := kn , n 0.
2.3.
2.2.10 2.2.12.
2.3.1.
Nn := {1, 2, 3, , n } n
. K .
2.3.1 m n- K
JJ
II
A : Nm Nn
K, A(i, j) := ij .
27 212
A,
A : Nm Nn
K, mn
{a11 , a12 , , a1n , a21 , a22 , , a2n , , , am1 , am2 , , amn } K.
,
:
a11
a
21
..
.
A =
ai1
.
..
am1
a12
a22
..
.
ai2
..
.
am2
..
..
.
a1j
a2j
..
.
aij
..
.
amj
..
.
..
a1n
a2n
..
.
ain
..
.
amn
m n- K
mn K . aij A
(i, j) Nm Nn . aij A (i, j)-.
m n- A : A = (aij ),
i = 1, 2, , m j = 1, 2, , n.
A = (aij ) m n K.
j = 1, 2, , n, j- A m
:
a1j
a
2j
..
.
j
A :=
aij
.
..
amj
1
m n A n A , A , , A
m .
JJ
II
28 212
i = 1, 2, , m, j- A
m :
Ai :=
ai1
ai2
aij
aim
m n A m
A1 , A2 , , Am n .
aij A i-
j-.
Mm n (K) m n- K:

Mm n (K) = A = (aij ) | aij K, i = 1, 2, m, j = 1, 2, , n
1
3
A=
3
2
0 5
, B =
4 2
4
!

0
, C = 1 0 2 ,
8

7
!
4
2
i
D = , E =
5
1 1 + 2i
2
A M23 (R), B M42 (R), C M13 (R), D M41 (R), E M22 (C).
Mm n (K) m n- K
:
JJ
II
29 212
1. : A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mm n (K), A + B m n-

(aij + bij ). :
a11
a
21
..
.
a
i1
.
..
..
.
..
.
am1
a1j
a2j
..
.
aij
..
.
amj
a1n b11

a2n b21

.. ..
. .
+
ain bi1

.. ..
. .
bm1
amn
..
.
..
.
a11 + b11
a + b
21
21
..
.
=
ai1 + bi1
..
am1 + bm1
..
..
.
a1j + bij
a2j + b2j
..
.
aij + bij
..
.
amj + bmj
..
.
..
.
b1j
b2j
..
.
bij
..
.
bmj
b1n
b2n
..
.
bin
..
.
bmn
..
.
..
.
a1n + b1n
a2n + b2n
..
.
ain + bin
..
.
amn + bmn
..
.
..
.

,

.
2. : A = (aij ) Mm n (K), k K, k A
m n- (kaij ). :
a11
a21
.
.
.
k
ai1
.
..
am1
..
..
.
a1j
a2j
..
.
aij
..
.
amj
..
.
..
a1n ka11

a2n ka21

.. ..
. .
=
ain kai1

.. ..
. .
amn
kam1
..
..
.
ka1j
ka2j
..
.
kaij
..
.
kamj
..
.
..
ka1n
ka2n
..
.
.
kain
..
.
kamn
JJ
II
30 212
,
m n- : Nm Nn
K,

.
2.2.10.
2.3.2 Mm n (K) m n- K
,
K. Mm n (K)
m n- 0 0:
0 0
0 0
.. ..
. .
0 =
0 0
. .
.. ..
..
0
0
..
.
0
..
.
0
..
.
..
.
..
..
.
.
0
..
.
0

,

.
m n- A = (aij ) m n- A = (aij ):
a11
a21
.
.
.
A =
ai1
.
..
am1
a12
a22
a1j
a2j
..
.
ai2
..
.
am2
..
..
.
aij
..
.
amj
..
.
..
.
..
a1n
a2n
..
.
.
ain
..
.
amn
JJ
II
31 212
0 m n , A Mm n (K),
A = (aij ) A.
m n A = (aij ) m = n.
.
n n A = (aij ) aij = 0, i , j.
A :
0
a22
..
.
0
..
.
0
a11
0
..
.
A =
0
.
..
..
..
.
0
0
..
.
aii
..
.
0
..
.
.
0
..
.
ann
..
.
..

,

.
n n
1 0
0 1
.. ..
. .
In =
0 0
. .
.. ..
..
..
.
0
0
..
.
1
..
.
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
0
..
.
JJ
II
32 212
. A
: A = kIn , :
k
0
..
.
A = kIn =
0
.
..
0
k
..
.
0
..
.
0
..
..
.
0
0
..
.
k
..
.
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
0
..
.
k
2.3.2.
A(K)
K 2.2.2. S(K)
(an )n 0 A(K)
- . :
K[t ] := (an )n 0 A(K) | k N0 : an = 0, n > k .

(2.3)
JJ
II
2.3.3 (an )n 0 K
- , K[t ] A(K),
K. -
.
-
.
33 212
2.3.4
1. (an )n 0 a0 = 1 an = 0, n , 0,
K[t ], t 0 .
t 0 :
t 0 := (1, 0, 0, 0, , 0, ) K[t ]
2. (an )n 0 a1 = 1 an = 0, n , 1,
K[t ], t . t
:
t := (0, 1, 0, 0, , 0, ) K[t ]
m
3. m 1, m- t t
(an )n 0 am = 1 an = 0, n , m. :
t m := (0, 0, 0, , 0, 1, 0, ) K[t ]
1 m + 1 .
(an )n 0 , (bn )n 0 K[t ],

, (an )n 0 + (bn )n 0 K[t ],
. an = 0, n > k bn = 0, n > l,
an + bn = 0, n > max{k, l }. (an )n 0
K[t ] k K K, k (an )n 0 = (kan )n 0
K[t ].
K[t ], A(K) K[t ]:
JJ
II
34 212
(an )n 0 , (bn )n 0 K[t ] : (an )n 0 + (bn )n 0 := (an + bn )n 0 K[t ]
(2.4)
(an )n 0 , k K : k (an )n 0 := (kan )n 0 K[t ].
(2.5)
A(K) ,
K[t ] 2.4, 2.5 K. K[t ]
K.
K[t ] (an )n 0 an = 0, n 0 . (an )n 0
(an )n 0 .
2.3.5 , t 0 := (1, 0, 0, , ) 1.
0.
(k, 0, 0, ) : (k, 0, 0, ) = k (1, 0, 0, ) = k 1. ,
(k, 0, 0, ), k K.
(an )n 0 K[t ] m N0
an = 0, n > m, .

,

.
2.3.6 (an )n 0 K[t ] -

K. (an )n 0 n
an , 0 deg(an )n 0 . :
JJ
II
deg(an )n 0 = max{n N | an , 0}
35 212
.
2.3.7
1. t n n: deg t n = n.
2. (k, 0, 0, ), k K, 0.
3. K = R, (1, 0, 4,
2, 3, 0, 0, ), 4.
2.3.8
K[t ] . (an )n 0 (bn )n 0 K.
(an )n 0 (bn )n 0
(cn )n 0
cn :=
a i bj
i +j=n
:
c0
c1
c2
= a0 b0
= a0 b1 + a1 b0
= a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0
..
.
cn
= a0 bn + a1 bn 1 + a2 bn 2 + + an 1 b1 + an b0
..
.

,

.
(cn )n 0 = (an )n 0 (bn )n 0 . an = 0, n > k

bn = 0, n > l,
(cn )n 0 k + l .
m- t m t
t t t t m . ( ).
36 212
() .
JJ
II
(an )n 0 K[t ] K.
2.3.3, m 0 an = 0, n > m.
(an )n 0 :
(an )n 0 = (a0 , a1 , a2 , , am 1 , am , 0, 0, ),
t, K[t ]
(an )n 0 :
(a0 , a1 , a2 , , am 1 , am , 0, 0, ) =
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
(a0 , 0, 0 )
(0, a1 , 0, )
(0, 0, a2 , 0, )

(0, 0, , 0, am 1 , 0, )
(0, 0, , 0, 0, am , 0, )
a0 (1, 0, 0, )
a1 (0, 1, 0, )
a2 (0, 0, 1, 0, )

am 1 (0, 0, , 0, 1, 0, )
am (0, 0, , 0, 0, 1, 0, ).

,

.
JJ
II
37 212
(an )n 0 = a0 1 + a1 t + a2 t + + am 1 t
2
m 1
+ am t
(2.6)
2.6 K
a0 1 + a1 t + a2 t 2 + + am 1 t m 1 + am t m ai
K m .
.

.
, K
:
P (t ) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t 2 + + am 1 t m 1 + am t m
(2.7)
. P (t ) Q (t ) P (t )Q (t ).
2.3.9 P (t ), Q (t ) K[t ], :
1. deg(P (t ) + Q (t )) min{deg P (t ), deg Q (t )}.
2. deg P (t ) = deg(P (t )).
3. deg P (t ) = 0 - P (t ) - .
4. deg(P (t )Q (t )) = deg P (t ) + deg Q (t ).
2.4.
2.4.1 R+ = {x R | x > 0} .
:
: x, y R+ : x y := xy (
).

,

.
JJ
II
38 212
: r R, x R+ : r x := x r .
, R+
R.
2.4.2 R2 R3 ,
;
.
1. V1 = {(x, y) R | x 0, y R}.
2
()
2. V2 = {(x, 2x + 1) R | x R}.
()
()
3. V3 = {(x, 2x ) R2 | x R}.
4. V4 = {(x, x ) R2 | x R}.
()
()
()
()
()
5. V5 = {(x, y, z ) R3 | x, y R, z = 1}.
()
()
6. V6 = {(x, y, z ) R | x = y = z }.
JJ
II
()
()
7. V7 = {(x, y, z ) R3 | z = x + y}.
()
39 212
()
8. V8 = {(x, y, z ) R | xy = 0}.
()
()
2.4.3 , V 3 3
:
a 2c 2b
A = b a 2c
c b
a
a, b, c R, R.

,

.
JJ
II
40 212

. ,
,
.
.
3.1.
JJ
II

41 212
3.1.1
V K.
V, + .
V ~
0.
. k K
~
x k~
x . : k ~
x := k~
x.

.
W V - V, ~
x, ~
y W k K.
~
x +~
y k~
x W.
W
V.
2
3.1.2 R R 2- . Rn :
W1 := {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x12 + x22 = 1}, W2 := {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 , x2 0}

~
x = (1, 0) ~
y = (0, 1) W1 ,
~
x +~
y = (1, 1) W1 . ~
z = (1, 1) W2 ,
~
x = (1, 1) W2 .
-
, ,
. .
3.1.3 W V. W V
.

,

.
JJ
II
42 212
1. W , .
2. W V. :
~
x, ~
y W:
~
x +~
y W
3. W V. :
k K, ~
x W:
k~
x W
, ,
3.1.3.
3.1.4 W V.
1. ~
0 W. V W.
2. ~
x W, ~
x W. W .
3.1.5 1. W V V
- k~
x + l~
y W, ~
x, ~
y W k, l K.
2. K K
;
JJ
II
43 212
2. 3. 3.1.3
V W V.
W .
W
K. :
3.1.6 W V. V W
K. W
W ~
x W ~
x
V.
V, V, V;
.
3.1.7
1. V V.
2. {~
0} V.
3. ~
x V, h~
x i := {k~
x V | k K}
V.
3.1.8 {~
0} V. {~
0}
V. W V
, V: W $ V.
3.1.9
R2 R.
W R2 W , {~
0}. ~
x = (x1 , x 2 )
x W, r R. ,
W (x1 , x2 ) , (0, 0). , 3.1.3, r~
3.1.7, h~
x i := {r~
x | r R}, h~
x i W.
h~
x i R2
~
0 = (0, 0). h~
x i , W. ~
y = (y1 , y 2 ) W
~
y < h~
x i. :
x1 y2 x2 y1 , 0
,

.
JJ
II
44 212
()
x1 y2 x2 y1 = 0 .
~
x = (x1 , x2 ) , (0, 0), x1 , 0 x2 , 0. x1 , 0,
y
y
x1 y2 x2 y1 = 0, y2 = x11 x2 ~
y = (y1 , y2 ) = x11 (x1 , x2 )
h~
x i . x2 , 0,
y
~
y = (y1 , y2 ) = x22 (x1 , x2 ) h~
x i .
() . () W = R2 .
: ~
z = (z1 , z2 ) R2 .
( ):
~
z = (z1 , z2 ) = k~
x + l~
y = k (x1 , x2 ) + l (y1 , y2 ),
:
k=
z1 y2 z2 y1
x1 y2 x2 y1
l=
()
x1 z2 x2 z1
x1 y2 x2 y1
~
x, ~
y W W R2 , 3.1.3 (
3.1.5): ~
z = k~
x + l~
y W. ~
z
R2 W W = R2 .
h~
x i , W. W = {~
0}, W = h~
x i W = R2 .
2
~
3.1.7 {0}, R h~
x i
R2 . :

,

.
W R2 W = {~
0} W = R2 W = h~
x i, ~
0,~
xW
JJ
II
3.1.10 F(R, R) f : R
R.
f F(R, R) f (x ) = f (x )
f (x ) = f (x ).
FA (R, R) F (R, R)
F(R, R).
45 212
3.1.11 V K
k1 , k2 , , kn K. :
W := {(a1 , a2 , , an ) K | k1 a1 + k2 a2 + + kn an = 0}
n
Kn . :
~
0 = (0, 0, , 0) W.
~ = ( a1 , a 2 , , n )
~
= (b1 , b2 , , bn ) W, k1 a1 + k2 a2 + + kn an = 0
k1 b1 + k2 b2 + + kn bn = 0. 0 = (k1 a1 + k2 a2 + +
kn an ) + (k1 b1 + k2 b2 + + kn bn ) = k1 (a1 + b1 ) + k2 (a2 + b2 ) + + kn (an + bn ).

~+~
= (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , , an + bn ) W. r K,
~ = (a1 , a2 , , an ) W, r~
= (ra1 , ra2 , , ran ) Kn , :
k1 (ra1 )+k2 (ra2 )+ +kn (ran ) = (k1 r )a1 +(k2 r )a2 + +(kn r )an = r (k1 a1 +k2 a2 + +kn an ) =
r0 = 0. r~
W. W Kn .
3.1.12 3.1.11
:
k1 x1 + k2 x2 + + kn xn = 0
()
n- (a1 , a2 , , an ) K . ()
n x1 , x2 , , xn () k1 , k2 , , kn
K.

46 212
{(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) R4 | 2a1 3a2 + 8an + a4 = 0}
R4
2x1 3x2 + 8x3 + x4 = 0.
JJ
II
3.1.13 K[t ]
K, n 0. Kn [t ] n,
K[t ].
Mn n (K) n n K.
A = (ai,j ) Mn n (K) n n .
1. A - aij = aji , 1 i, j, n.
Sn n (K) :
Sn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = aji , 1 i, j, n }

2. A - aji = aij , 1 i, j, n.
An n (K) :
An n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aji = aij , 1 i, j, n }

3. A - aij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, , n i > j.
ATn n (K) :
ATn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0, i, j = 1, , n : i > j}

4. A - aij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, , n i < j.
KTn n (K) :
KTn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0, i, j = 1, , n : i < j}

5. Dn n (K) Bn n (K)
:

,

.
JJ
II
47 212
Dn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0 i, j = 1, , n : i , j}
Bn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Dn n (K) | aii = ajj i, j = 1, , n }

:

2.3
:
0
1 2
5
8 , B = 1 0 3 ,
2 3 0
3
1 4
A = 4 2
5 8
1 4 5
4 0 0
C = 0 2 6 , D = 1 5 0
: A S33 (R), B A33 (R), C AT33 (R), D KT33 (R).

3.1.14
Dn n (K), Bn n (K), Sn n (K), An n (K), ATn n (K), KTn n (K)

Mn n (K).
3.2.

V. V
K,
.

,

.
JJ
II
48 212
3.2.1 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
V. S ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ,
V :
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn ,
ki K, i = 1, 2, , n.
ki .
S ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ,
: hSi h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn i. :
hSi = h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn i := {k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn | ki K, i = 1, 2, , n }
3
3.2.2 R R,
3(1, 0, 0) +
2(4, 3, 1) 7(6, 1, 0) + (7, 8, 9)
~
x1 = (1,
x2 = (4, 3, 1), ~
x3 = (6, 1, 0), ~
x4 =
0, 0), ~
(7, 8, 9) k1 = 3, k2 = 2, k3 = 7, k4 = 1.
C2 C, i (2, 2) 8(3 + 5i, 4) + 7(1, 1 + i )

~
x1 = (2,
2), ~
x2 = (3 + 5i, 4), ~
x3 = (1, 1 + i ),
k1 = i, k2 = 8 k3 = 7.
3.2.3 . S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , ~
xn +1 , , } V. S {~
xi }
V :
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x 2 + + kn ~
xn + kn +1 ~
xn +1 +
- ki K .

,

.
JJ
II
49 212
3.2.4 K[t ]
K. , , P (t ) K[t ]
: P (t ) = k0 + k1 t + k2 t 2 + + kn t n , n N0 ki K, n 0.
km = 0, m > n, P (t )
{1, t, t 2 , , t n , }.

{1, t, t 2 , , t n , } :
K[t ] = h1, t, t , , t , i.
2
3.2.5 K K.
Kn :
~
e1 := (1, 0, 0, , 0, 0), ~
e2 := (0, 1, 0, , 0, 0), , ~
en := (0, 0, 0, , 0, 1)
: h~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en i = K . ~
x = (x1 , x2 , , xn ) Kn {~
e }ni=1 .
:
n
~
x = (x1 , x2 , , xn )
= x1 (1, 0, 0, , 0, 0) +
x2 (0, 1, 0, , 0, 0) +
xn (0, 0, 0, , 0, 1) =
= x1 ~
e1 + x2~
e 2 + + xn ~
en .
JJ
II
50 212
3.2.4 3.2.5
h1, t, t 2 , , t n , i h~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en i
K[t ] Kn . .
3.2.6 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V. hSi = h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn i S
V S
V S.
W V S, hSi W.
3.2.7 S V () V,
hSi V S.
,
,
.
3.2.8 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
V K. :
1. (1) S,
~
xi . , i, j = 1, 2, , n:
h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xj , , ~
xn i = h~
x1 , , ~
xj , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i
2. (2) S,
~
xi - K. , i = 1, 2, , n,
k K, k , 0:
h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i = h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i

,

.
JJ
II
51 212
3. (3) S,
~
xi ~
xi + k~
xj , k , 0 i , j.
, i, j = 1, 2, , n, k K, k , 0 i , j:
h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i = h~
x1 , , ~
xi + k~
xj , , ~
xn i

(1), (2), (3) 3.2.8
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn .
.
3.2.9 ~
x1 , ~
x2 , ~
x3 V
(): 2~
x1 + 3~
x2 4~
x3 = ~
0. : h~
x1 , ~
x2 i = h~
x2 , ~
x 3 i.
(2), (3), (2), (1),
(), :
h~
x1 , ~
x2 i = h2~
x1 , ~
x2 i = h2~
x1 + 3~
x2 , ~
x2 i = h4~
x3 , ~
x2 i = h~
x3 , ~
x2 i = h~
x2 , ~
x3 i
3.2.10 R3
~
x = (1, 0, 1) ~
y = (0, 2, 0). :
h~
x, ~
yi = h(1, 0, 1), (0, 2, 0)i = {k (1, 0, 1) + l (0, 2, 0) | k, l R} =
{(k, 0, k ) + (0, 2l, 0) | k, l R} = {(k, 2l, k ) | k, l R}
(2, 2, 2) h~
x, ~
yi ( k =
2, l = 1).
3.2.11 R3 R, :
~
1 = (1, 0, 1), ~
1 = (0, 1, 0), ~
1 = (0, 1, 1)
: R3 = h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 , i.
h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i. :
JJ
II
52 212
h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i = {k1 + l2 + m3 R | k, l, m R} =
3
{k (1, 0, 1) + l (0, 1, 0) + m (0, 1, 1) R3 | k, l, m R} =

{(k, l + m, k + m ) R3 | k, l, m R}
h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i R3 , ~
x = (x, y, z )
R3 ~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 ,
(k, l + m, k + m ), k, l, m R.
~
x = (x, y, z ) h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i - k, l, m R, : ~
x = (x, y, z ) =
(k, l + m, k + m ). : ~
x = (x, y, z ) h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i -
k = x, y = l + m, z = k + m
k, l, m x, y, z.
, y z = l k. x + y z = l.
m = y l = y (x + y z ) = z x. : k = x, l = x + y z, m = z x,
. ~
x = (x, y, z )
~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 :
~
x = (x, y, z ) = x~
1 + (x + y z )~
2 + (z x )~
3
: h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i = R3 .
3.2.12 R3 :
~
x = (1, 1, 0), ~
y = (0, 0, 1), ~
z = (1, 1, 1), w
~ = (1, 1, 1).
: h~
x, ~
yi = h~
z, w
~ i.

,

.
JJ
II
53 212
3.2.13 K[t ]
K. n N0 {1, t, t 2 , , t n }
K[t ].
K[t ] {1, t, t 2 , , t n }
n
0 ( ):
h1, t, t 2 , , t n i = {P (t ) K[t ] | deg P (t ) n } {0}

Kn [t ]. Kn [t ]
K[t ] n.
, ,
V. .
3.2.14 V K , S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
V, V = hSi. ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn
V S V.
3.2.14 .
3.2.15 V
K S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }. ~
x V
S.
k1 , k2 , , kn K, : ~
x = k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 +
+ kn ~
xn .
3.2.16
1. 3.2.5 Kn
S = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
e n },
:
Kn = h~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en i
~
ei = (0, , 1, , 0) 1 i-
0.
,

.
JJ
II
54 212
2. 3.2.13 Kn [t ]
n
S = {1, t, t 2 , , t n }, Kn [t ] = h1, t, t 2 , , t n i.
3. {1, i } C
R, C R.
3.2.17 1. K .
R R
Q . R- R R S = {1} ( r R : r = r1).
R Q
.
2. .
{~
e1 = (1, 0), ~
e2 = (0, 1)}
R2 R, 3.2.5. k R k , 0,
{~
e1 = (1, 0), ~
= (0, k )} R2 ( ).

,

.
3.2.18
W :
JJ
II
k1 x1 + k2 x2 + + kn xn = 0
()
3.1.11.
:
( ) ki = 0, i = 1, 2, , n. (a1 , a2 , , an ) Kn
() W = Kn -
55 212
3.2.5.
() ( ) ki , 0. :
() ki1
k1
ki
x1 +
k2
ki
x2 + +
ki 1
ki
xi 1 + xi +
ki +1
ki
xi +1 + +
kn
ki
xn = 0
()
( ()).
() ,
l1 :=
k1
ki
, l2 :=
k2
ki
, , li 1 :=
ki 1
ki
, li +1 :=
ki +1
ki
, , ln :=
kn
ki
:
xi = l1 x1 + l2 x2 + + li 1 xi 1 + li +1 xi +1 + + ln xn
()
(), ().
~
(), n-
~ = (a1 , a2 , , an ) Kn : k1 ai + k1 a2 + + kn an = 0.

~ (), (),
:
ai = l1 a1 + l2 a2 + + li 1 ai 1 + li +1 ai +1 + + ln an
()
:
~ = (a1 , a2 , , ai 1 , ai , ai +1 , , an ) =
(1 , , ai 1 , l1 a1 + l2 a2 + + li 1 ai 1 + li +1 ai +1 + + ln an , ai +1 , , an ) =
a1 (1, 0, , 0, l1 , 0, , 0) + a2 (0, 1, , 0, l2 , 0, , 0)+
+ ai 1 (0, 0, , 1, li 1 , 0, , 0) + ai +1 (0, 0, , 0, li +1 , 1, , 0)+
,

.
JJ
II
56 212
an (0, 0, , 0, ln , 0, , 1)

~ (), :
~1 := (1, 0, , 0, l1 , 0, , 0), ,
~i 1 := (0, 0, , 1, li 1 , 0, , 0),
~i +1 := (0, 0, , 0, li +1 , 1, , 0), ,
~n := (0, 0, , 0, ln , 0, , 1)
lj , j , i, i-.
~
kj
~
~
~
~
h1 , , n i W h1 , , n i. lj = ki , j , i,
~j , j , i, ()

W. , 3.1.11, W Kn ,
~1 , ,
~n i W. , :
h
W =
~i 1 ,
~i +1 , ,
~n
1 , ,
3.3.
.

.
JJ
II
57 212
3.3.1.
.
.
3.3.1 {Wi | i I } V,
I ( ) .
Wi := {~
xV | ~
x W i , i I }
i I
V.
3.2.6 , S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V, hSi S
V S.
3.2.6 3.3.1.
3.3.2 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
V. hSi S
V S:
hS i =
\
{W V | W V S W}

.
3.3.3 K m n x1 , x2 , , xn aij , 1 m, 1 j n,
K:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = 0
(1 )
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = 0
(2 )
JJ
II
58 212
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = 0
(m )
m n- ().
~ = ( a1 , a 2 , , a n )
Kn (),
~ (1 ), (2 ), , (m )
().
: , , () Kn . , i , i = 1, 2, , m, (i ).
3.1.11 i Kn .
= 1 2 n , 3.3.1 Kn .
3.3.2.

().
V K.
3.3.1 ( )
V V.
V .
.
3.3.4 V K, W1 , W2
V. :
1. W1 W2 V.
,

.
JJ
II
59 212
2. W1 W2 W2 W1 .

3.3.5 W1 , W2 V W2 W1 .
3.3.4 V
.
.
3.3.6 W1 , W2 , , Wn V.
W1 , W2 , , Wn
V:
W1 + W2 + + Wn := {~
x1 + ~
x2 + + ~
xn | ~
xi Wi , i = 1, 2, , n }

+ V V
.
.
3.3.7 W1 + W2 + + Wn
W1 , W2 , , Wn V, V
Wi . W1 + W2 + + Wn V
W1 , W2 , , Wn .
W V Wi W, i = 1, 2, , n,
W1 + W2 + + Wn W.
3.3.8 1.
V : {Wi | i I } V, I
. Wi
V:
X
nX
Wi :=
~
xi V | ~
xi Wi ~
xi = ~
0,
i I
i I
,

.
JJ
II
60 212
o
i I
3.3.7 i I Wi
V Wi V
.
2. 3.3.7 W1 + W2 + + Wn = hni=1 Wi i,

W1 , W2 , , Wn .
, ,
.
3.3.9 W1 , W2 , , Wn V.
W1 + W2 + + Wn Wi ,
:
Wi (W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi +1 + + Wn ) = {~
0}, i = 1, 2, , n

,

.
Wi
.
W1 + W2 + + Wn , :
JJ
II
W1 W2 Wn
3.3.10 W1 , W2 , 3.3.9 W1 +W2 , W1 W2 , - W1 W2 =

{~
0} .
61 212

.
.
3.3.11 F(R, R) R R,
FA (R, R) F (R, R)
.
F(R, R) = FA (R, R) F (R, R)

f : R
R . g : R
R
h : R
R :
x R : g(x ) :=
f (x ) + f (x )
2
h (x ) :=
f (x ) f (x )
2
1
[f
2
12 [f
3.3.12 Mn n (K) n n-
K, Sn n (K)
An n (K) ,
3.1.
3.3.13 3.3.11 :
Mn n (K) = Sn n (K) An n (K)
g(x ) =
(x ) + f (x )] = g(x ) h (x ) =
(x ) f (x )] =
(x ) f (x )] =
h (x ). g h . g(x ) + h (x ) =
1
[f (x ) + f (x )] + 12 [f (x ) f (x )] = f (x ). f
2
.
FA (R, R) + F (R, R) : F(R, R) = FA (R, R) + F (R, R).
, , 3.3.10,
FA (R, R) F (R, R) = {~
0} ~
0 ~
0(x ) = 0, x R.
f FA (R, R) F (R, R), f . , x R,
: f (x ) = f (x ) = f (x ). 2f (x ) = 0 f (x ) = 0, x R.
f = ~
0. FA (R, R) F (R, R) = {~
0} .
1
[f
2

,

.
JJ
II
62 212
.
:
3.3.14 1. {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V. ~
x V ( h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn i),
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , :
~
x = k1 ~
x1 + + kn ~
x n = l1 ~
x 1 + + ln ~
xn = ki = li , i = 1, 2, , n
~
x
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn .
2. W1 , W2 , , Wn n V.
~
x W1 + W2 + + Wn ,
Wi , :
~
x =~
x1 + + ~
xn ~
x =~
y1 + + ~
yn , ~
xi , ~
yi Wi , i = 1, , n
: ~
xi = ~
yi , i = 1, , n.
~
x
W1 , W2 , , Wn .
3.3.15 W1 , W2 , , Wn n
V. :
1. W1 + W2 + + Wn : W1 W2 Wn
2. ~
x W1 + W2 + + Wn
Wi .

,

.
JJ
II
63 212
3. ~
x1 + +~
xn = ~
0, ~
xi Wi , i = 1, , n, : ~
xi = ~
0, i = 1, , n.

3.3.15
3.2.15.
3.3.16 W1 , W2 , , Wn n
V. :
1. V = W1 W2 Wn .
2. ~
x V ~
x =~
x1 + + ~
xn
~
xi Wi .
.
3.3.17 Kn n-
K. :
Kn = h~
e1 i h~
e2 i h~
en i
~
ei = (0, 0, , 0, 1, 0, , 0, 0) Kn 1 i-
0.
x = (k1 , , kn ) Kn
3.2.16 ~
~
ei , ~
x = k1 ~
e1 + +kn ~
en . ki ~
ei h~
ei i,
~
x h~
e1 i + h~
e2 i + + h~
en i, Kn = h~
e1 i + h~
e2 i + + h~
en i.
~
x1 + + ~
xn = ~
0, ~
xi h~
ei i, i = 1, , n. ki K ~
xi = ki ~
ei ,
i = 1, , n. ~
0=~
x1 + + ~
x n = k1 ~
e 1 + + kn ~
en . k1~
e 1 + + kn ~
en =
k1 (1, 0, , 0, 0) + + kn (0, 0, , 0, 1) = (k1 , , kn ), ki = 0,
~
xi = 0, i = 1, , n. 3.3.15,
h~
e1 i + h~
e2 i + + h~
en i . Kn = h~
e1 i h~
e2 i h~
en i.

,

.
JJ
II
64 212
3.3.18 R3 :
W1 := {(x, y, z ) R3 | x = y = z }, W2 := {(x, y, z ) R3 | x = 0}
: R3 = W1 W2 .
W1 , W2 R3 .
W1 W2 = {(0, 0, 0)} = {~
0}.
~
x = (x, y, z ) R3 , : ~
x =~
x1 + ~
x2 , ~
x1 W1 ,
~
x2 W2 . : ~
x = (x, y, z ) = (x, x, x )+(0, y x, z x )
~
x1 := (x, x, x ) W1 ~
x2 := (0, y x, z x ) W2 .

.
. W1 , W2 W3
V W1 W2 = W1 W3 ,
W2 = W3 ; , , ,
:

,

.
3.3.19 W = {(x, 0) R2 | x R}
R2 . Zn , n 1, R2 : R2 = W Zn ,
n 1, Z1 , Zn , n 1.
3.4.
3.4.1 R3 :
~
x1 = (2, 1, 3), ~
x2 = (3, 2, 5), ~
x3 = (1, 1, 1)
~
x = (6, 2, 7)
~
x1 , ~
x2 , ~
x3 .
JJ
II
65 212
3.4.2 ;
1. E := {(a, b, c, d ) R4 | ab 0} R,
.
()
()
2. {(k1 , , kn ) K | k1 + + kn = 0} K .
n
()
()
3. W = {(k1 , , kn ) Kn | k1 + + kn = 1} Kn .
()
()
()

,

.
()
7. W (xn )n 0 , :
xn2 = xn 2 , n 2, A(R).
()
()
6. W() P (t ) R , P () = 0, R[t ].
()
()
5. W n, (n 1),
R[t ].
()
4. {(k1 , , kn ) K | k1 = kn } K .
n
JJ
II
()
8. W n- (k1 , k2 , , kn )
k1 k2 . . . kn = 0, Kn .
66 212
()
()

3.4.3 p, q R, .
V := {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn +2 = pxn +1 + qxn }
A(R) R.
3.4.4 ~
x =
(1, 2, ) ~
x1 = (3, 0, 2), ~
x2 = (2, 1, 5)
R3 .
3
3.4.5 R .
3.4.6 R2 [t ] R,
:
W1 = ht 2 + t, t + 1i, W2 = ht 2 + t + 2, t + 3i
W1 W2 .

,

.
3.4.7 R3 :

~
x = (2, 3, 1), ~
y = (1, 2, 2), ~
z = (3, 7, 0), w
~ = (5, 0, 7)
: h~
x, ~
yi = h~
z, w
~ i.
3.4.8 ~
x, ~
y, ~
z V
: k1 ~
x + k2 ~
y + k3 ~
z=~
0. k1 k3 , 0, : h~
x, ~
yi = h~
y, ~
z i.
3.4.9
1. W1 = {(x, y) R | x 0, y R}.
JJ
II
67 212
2. W2 = {(x, 2x + 1) R | x R}.
2
3. W3 = {(2x, x ) R2 | x R}.
4. W4 = {(x, x ) R2 | x R}.
R2 . W3 W4 W3 + W4 R2 ;
W3 W4 R2 ;
3.4.10 : K3 = h~
x1 i h~
x2 i h~
x3 i, :
~
x1 = (1, 0, 0), ~
x2 = (1, 1, 0), ~
x3 = (1, 1, 1)
3.4.11 U, V, W E,
U V. :
U + (V W) = (U + V) (U + W
3.4.12 R3 :
W1 = {(a, b, 0) | a, b R}, W2 = {(0, 0, c ) | c R}, W1 = {(d, 0, d ) | d R},

.
R3 = W1 W2 W3 .

3.4.13 :
R2 [t ] = h1, t 1, (t 2)(t 1)i

3.4.14 M22 (R)
2 2 R:
W=
n x y
z0
| x, y, z R ,
Z=
n x 0!
0y
| x, z R
JJ
II
68 212
W, Z M22 (R) W Z W + Z.
3.4.15
x + 2y + z = 0, x + y + 2z = 0, 2x + y + z = 0
3.4.16 2 2 :
1
5
A=
2
3
a, b R, C =
A, B.
2
4
B=
7
b
37 3
1
1
A=
1
1
, B=
1
1
1
1
!
, C=
1
1
3
3
W M22 (R), :
D=
1
0
2
2
!
, E=
1
1
2
2
!
, F =
3.4.17 V M22 (R), :
3
3
1
1
: V W V + W.
3.4.18 Mm n (K) m n
K. Mm n (K).

,

.
JJ
II
3.4.19 A(R) , p, q R q , 0.
69 212
V = {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn = pxn 1 + qxn 2 }
. V
A(R) .

.
, ,
.
K V
K. VK V
K.
JJ
II
70 212
4.1.
{~
x1 , , ~
xn } V.
k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn ~
x1 , , ~
xn (k1 , k2 , , kn ) , (0, 0, , 0), ki
.
4.1.1 X := {~
x1 , , ~
xn } V.
X - ~
x1 , , ~
xn V. :
k1 , k2 , , kn K
0, :
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x 2 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0
A V A
.

:
4.1.2 X V X . X := {~
x1 , , ~
xn }, X
, :
k1 , , kn K : k1 ~
x1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0
k1 = k2 = = kn = 0
A V A .
JJ
II
71 212
4.1.3 V
V. .
C , , CC ,
R CR .
{1, i } C. {1, i } CC , : (i )1 + 1i = 0
1, i - C.
{1, i } CR . ,
, k, l
k1 + li = 0 (k, l ) , (0, 0).
4.1.4 X :=
{~
x1 , , ~
xn } :
k1 , , kn K, k1 ~
x1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0.
k1 = kn = 0,
X . X .
.
4.1.5 R3 R,
:
B = {~
e1 = (1, 0, 0), ~
e2 = (0, 1, 0), ~
e3 = (0, 0, 1)}
JJ
II
X = {~
x1 = (0, 1, 1), ~
x2 = (1, 0, 1), ~
x3 = (1, 1, 0)}
72 212
Y = {~
y1 = (1, 1, 0), ~
y2 = (1, 0, 1), ~
y3 = (1, 2, 3)}
1. k1 , k2 , k3 K, : () : k1~
e 1 + k2 ~
e2 + k3~
e3 =
~
0. k1 (1, 0, 0) + k2 (0, 1, 0) + k3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0), (k1 , 0, 0) +
(0, k2 , 0) + (0, 0, k3 ) = (0, 0, 0). (k1 , k2 , k3 ) = (0, 0, 0), k1 = k2 = k3 = 0. B .
2. k1 , k2 , k3 K, : () : k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + k3 ~
x3 = ~
0.
k1 (0, 1, 1) + k2 (1, 0, 1) + k3 (1, 1, 0) = (0, 0, 0), (0, k1 , k1 ) +
(k2 , 0, k2 ) + (k3 , k3 , 0) = (0, 0, 0). (k2 + k3 , k1 + k3 , k1 + k2 ) =
(0, 0, 0). k1 , k2 , k3 :
k2 + k3 = 0, k1 + k3 = 0, k1 + k2 = 0
k2 k1 = 0,
, 2k1 = 0, k1 = 0.
k2 = k3 = 0 ()
k1 = k2 = k3 = 0.
X .
3. k1 , k2 , k3 K, : () : k1 ~
y1 + k 2 ~
y2 + k3 ~
y3 = ~
0.
k1 (1, 1, 0) + k2 (1, 0, 1) + k3 (1, 2, 3) = (0, 0, 0), (k1 , k1 , 0) +
(k2 , 0, k2 ) + (k3 , 2k3 , 3k3 ) = (0, 0, 0). (k1 k2 + k3 , k1 +
2k3 , k2 + 3k3 ) = (0, 0, 0). k1 , k2 , k3
:
k1 k2 + k3 = 0, k1 + 2k3 = 0, k2 + 3k3 = 0
k1 = 2k3 , k2 = 3k3 ,
.
{(2t, 3t, t ) | t R}. t , 0, ..
t = 1, - k1 = 2, k2 = 3, k3 = 1
JJ
II
73 212
2~
y1 + 3~
y2 + ~
y3 = ~
0. Y
.
4.1.6 4.1.5
Kn K,
{~
e1 = (1, 0, 0, , 0), ~
e2 = (0, 1, 0, , 0), ~
en = (0, 0, 0, , 1)}
4.1.7
1. ~
x V. {~
x } -
~
x ,~
0. ~
0 .
2. ~
x1 , ~
x2 V. {~
x1 , ~
x2 } -
~
x1 , ~
x2 . ~
x1 = k~
x2 ~
x2 = l~
x1 ,
k, l K.
4.1.8 C3 C,
~
x = (1, 0, i ) ~
y = (1 + i, 1, 1). ~
x, ~
y ,
4.1.7 k ~
x = k~
y
~
y = k~
x . (1, 0, i ) = k (1 + i, 1, 1) = (k + ki, k, k ),
k + ki = 1, k = 0, k = i .
~
y = k~
x . {~
x, ~
y} .
4.1.9 Kn [t ] K
n, n + 1 P0 (t ), P1 (t ), , Pn (t ), deg Pi (t ) = i,
i = 0, 1, , n. {P0 (t ), P1 (t ), , Pn (t )} .
JJ
II
74 212
Pi (t ) i, :
Pi (t ) = ai0 + ai1 t + ai2 t 2 + + aii 1 t i 1 + aii t i , aii , 0,
0in
P (t ) := k0 P0 (t ) + k1 P1 (t ) + + kn Pn (t ) = 0, ki K, i = 0, 1, , n.
P (t ) = b0 + b1 t + b2 t 2 + + bn t n ,
:
(0) b0 = k0 a00 + k1 a10 + k2 a20 + + kn an0 .
(1) b1 = k1 a11 + k2 a21 + k3 a31 + + kn an1 .
..
.
(n 1) bn 1 = kn 1 an 1n 1 + kn ann 1 .
(n) bn = kn ann .
P (t ) , bi = 0,
i = 0, 1, , n. ann , 0, (n) kn = 0.
(n 1), an 1n 1 , 0, kn 1 = 0.
kn = kn 1 = = k1 = k0 = 0,
P0 (t ), P1 (t ), , Pn (t ) .
JJ
II
75 212
4.1.10 R2 R
~
x = (x1 , x2 ) ~
y = (y1 , y2 ). {~
x, ~
y}
- x1 y2 x2 y1 , 0.
4.1.11 R2 .
.
4.1.12 K[t ]
K. 3.2.4 K[t ] = h1, t, t 2 , , t n , i, K[t ]
K 1, t, t 2 , , t n , . .
S {1, t, t 2 , , t n , } . {t n1 , t n2 , , t nk },
n1 , n2 , , nk 0 - . l1 t n1 + l2 t n2 + +
lk t nk = 0, P (t ) = l1 t n1 + l2 t n2 + + lk t nk , l1 = l2 = = lk = 0. S
1, t, t 2 , , t n , K[t ]
.

. (
) ,
.
4.1.7.
4.1.13 VK K.
1. V .
2. V .
4.1.14 1. X = {~
x1 , , ~
xn } V - ~
xi .
JJ
II
76 212
2. X = {~
x1 , , ~
xn } V
~
x V. X {~
x } = {~
x1 , , ~
xn , ~
x }
- ~
x ~
x1 , , ~
xn .
4.1.15 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V.
:
1. S .
2. hSi
S ( k1 ~
x 1 + + kn ~
xn = l1 ~
x 1 + + ln ~
xn ,
k1 = l1 , k2 = l2 , , kn = ln ).
4.1.15 3.3.15, .
4.1.16 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V.
:
1. S .
JJ
II
2. h~
x1 i + h~
x2 i + + h~
xn i .
3. hSi = h~
x1 i h~
x2 i h~
xn i.
77 212
4.1.17 1. ~
x = (3 + 2, 1 + 2), ~
y = (7, 1 + 2 2)
R2 R2
R, ~
x, ~
y R2
Q.
2. ~
x = (1 i, i ), ~
y = (2, 1 + i ) C2
2
C R.
3. a , {1, a } R
R Q.
4.1.18 r R,
~
x = (r, 1, 1), ~
y = (1, r, 1), ~
z = (1, 1, r )
R3 ;
4.1.19 F(R, R) R R,

f1 (t ) = e t , f2 (t ) = e 2t , f3 (t ) = e 3t
F(R, R). n
.
4.1.20 a, b, c R,

~
x = (1, 1, 1, a ), ~
y = (1, 0, 1, b), ~
z = (2, 2, 2, c )
JJ
II
R .
4.1.21 S = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
VK , ~
x V
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , ~
x < hSi. {~
x1 + ~
x, ~
x2 +
~
x, , ~
xn + ~
x } .
78 212
4.2.
V K.
,

.
4.2.1 B VK V
( K) :
1. B .
2. B V, V = hSi.
4.2.2 B = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } V.
:
1. B V.
2. V
B.
3. V = h~
e1 i h~
e2 i h~
en i.
JJ
II
79 212

.
.
,
, .
4.2.3 K n 1.
1. k K \ {0}, {k } K
K.
: - k K ,
K l K:
l = (lk 1 )k. {k } K.
2. B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } , , Kn ,
( 1 i ):
~
ei = (0, 0, , 0, 1, 0, , 0), 1 i n
, B Kn . B Kn .
3. B = {1, t, t , , t } Kn [t ]
n, K.
2
: B = {1, t, t 2 , , t n } Kn [t ] ( 3.2.16). 4.1.9

B . B
Kn [t ].

.
4.2.4 [ ] VK
K F G V :
JJ
II
80 212
1. F .
:

2. G V.
B V : F B G.
4.2.5 [ ] G = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V. B G
V, {i1 , i2 , , ik } {1, 2, , n }
B = {~
xi1 , ~
x i2 , , ~
xik } V.

4.2.6 [ ] VK K, {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xk }
V. ~
xk +1 , ~
x k +2 , , ~
xn ,
n 1, {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xk , ~
xk +1 , ~
x k +2 , , ~
xn } V.
4.2.7
~
x = (2, 1, 4, 3), ~
y = (2, 1, 2, 0)
R4 . ~
x, ~
y
~
z, w
~ {~
x, ~
y, ~
z, w
~ } R4 .
JJ
II
81 212
1. k~
x + l~
y=~
0. k (2, 1, 4, 3) + l (2, 1, 2, 0) = (0, 0, 0, 0) (2k + 2l, k + l, 4k +
2l, 3k ) = (0, 0, 0, 0). k = l = 0 ~
x, ~
y
.
2. {~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3 , ~
e4 } R4 . ~
e1
~
x ~
y, :
~
e1 = a~
x + b~
y, : (1, 0, 0, 0) = a (2, 1, 4, 3) + b(2, 1, 2, 0)
(1, 0, 0, 0) = (2a + 2b, 1 + b, 4a + 2b, 3a )
. , 4.1.14,
{~
x, ~
y, ~
e1 } .
~
e2 {~
x, ~
y, ~
e1 },
x, ~
y, ~
e1 , ~
e2 } . B0
B0 := {~
R4 ( 4.3.13,
). B0 R4 . :
~
x ~
y = (0, 0, 2, 3) = 2~
e3 + 3~
e4
~
e3 =
~
y~
e1
~
e4 =
[~
x ~
y 2~
e3 ] =
1
3
~
e2
[~
x 2~
y + 2~
e1 + ~
e2 ]
2d
3
)~
e1 + (b
c
2
d
3
)~
e2 + (
d
3
c )~
x +(
c
2
JJ
II
82 212
~
r = (a, b, c, d ) R4 {~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3 , ~
e 4 }:
~
r = a~
e1 + b~
e2 + c~
e3 + d~
e4 , , :
~
r = (a c +
:
1
~
y = 2~
e1 + ~
e2 + 2~
e3 . :
1
~
x 2~
y = (2, 1, 0, 3) = 2~
e1 ~
e2 + 3~
e4
1
2d
3
)~
y
B0 R4 . ~
z=~
e1 w
~ =~
e2
.
4.3.
VK
K , V . 4.1.5
, .

.

.
4.3.1 [ ] G V
V, F V V.
|F| |G|.
4.3.2 V K .

.
4.3.3 B1 B2 VK . |B1 | = |B2 |.
JJ
II
83 212
4.3.4 VK
K. B V
V :
dimK V := |B|,
B V
VK dimK V <
. .
4.3.5
, ,
.
.
dimK V.
CC dimC C = 1, 1 C
C C. 1 , 0 1
C. z
z = z1 1 C. {1}
CC dimC C = 1.
CR 2
{1, i } C R. {1, i }
R. z
z = a + bi = a1 + bi, a, b R, {1, i }
CR . dimR C = 2.
4.3.6 [ ]
VK .
dimK V = . ,
, .. ,
JJ
II
84 212
.
dimK V = VK ,
.
, , ,
. VK , , (
) .
VK .
, .
, ,
.
1. dimQ R = , .
2. dimK K[t ] = , K
.
3. dimR F(S, R) = , S , 4.3.15

.
, ,
.
JJ
II
85 212
.
4.2.5:
4.3.7 W V (
). W
, dimK W < .
4.3.8 K n 1.
1. dimK K = 1.
: - k K, {k }
K dimK K = 1.
2. dimK K = n.
: B = {~
e1 , , ~
en }, ~
ei = (0, 0, , 0, 1, 0, , 0)
( 1 i ), Kn . dimK Kn = n.
3. dimK Kn [t ] = n + 1.
: B = {1, t, t , , t } Kn [t ],
dimK Kn [t ] = n + 1.
2
4.3.9 R4 :

V = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x1 x2 + x3 x4 = 0}
W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0}
V W.
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) V W.
x1 x2 + x3 x4 = 0 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0, x1 = x3 x2 = x4 .
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 x1 = x3 x2 = x4 ,
C W. :
JJ
II
86 212
V W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x1 = x3 , x2 = x4 }
= {(x1 , x2 , x1 , x2 ) R4 | x1 , x2 R}
= {x1 (1, 0, 1, 0) + x2 (0, 1, 0, 1) R4 | x1 , x2 R}
VW = h~
1 , ~
2 i, ~
1 = (1, 0, 1, 0), ~
2 = (0, 1, 0, 1).
B = {~
1 , ~
2 } ,
V W. dimR V W = 2.
4.3.10 V1 , V2 , , Vn K. :
dimK (V1 V2 Vn ) = dimK V1 + dimK V2 + + dimK Vn
4.3.11 1. dimR (R C) = 3.
2. 4.3.10 2. 4.3.8.
Kn = K K K (n-).
4.3.12 V :
k1 x1 + k2 x2 + + kn xn = 0
:
V := {(x1 , x2 , , xn ) Rn | k1 x1 + k2 x2 + + kn xn = 0}
ki R, 1 i n. V.
: :
1. ki = 0, i = 1, 2, , n, V = Rn . dimR V = n,
, .. , V.
JJ
II
87 212
2. (k1 , k2 , , kn ) , (0, 0, , 0). ,

ki , 0. 3.2.18 Rn
~1 := (1, 0, , 0, l1 , 0, , 0), ,
~i 1 := (0, 0, , 1, li 1 , 0, , 0),
~i +1 := (0, 0, , 0, li +1 , 1, , 0), ,
~n := (0, 0, , 0, ln , 0, , 1)
lj := kj , j , i, i-, i
V.
~1 , ,
~i 1 ,
~i +1 , ,
~n }
B = {
~1 + 2
~2 +
V. 1
~i 1 + i +1
~i +1 + + n
~n = ~
+ i 1
0.
(1 , 2 , , i 1 , , i +1 , , n ) = (0, 0, , 0), := 1 l1 + 2 l2 + + n ln . 1 = = n = 0, B
. dimR V = n 1, B V
n 1 .
.
4.3.13 1. dimK V = n, V
n .
2. dimK V = n, V n .
3. dimK V = n, V n
.
4. dimK V = n, B V 2
3 .
JJ
II
88 212
(a) B .
(b) B V.
(c) B n .
4.3.14 B = {~
1 , , ~
n } V
K. :
B0 := {~
1 , ~
1 + ~
2 , , ~
1 + ~
2 + + ~
n }
V.
: |B| = |B0 |, 4.3.13,
B0 .
k1~
1 + k2 (~
1 + ~
2 ) + + kn (~
1 + ~
2 + + ~
n ) = ~
0
(k1 + k2 + + kn )~
1 + (k2 + + kn )~
2 + + (kn 1 + kn )~
n 1 + kn~
n = ~
0
{~
1 , , ~
n } , :
k1 + k2 + + kn = k2 + + kn = = kn 1 + kn = kn = 0
k1 = = kn = 0. B0
.
4.3.15 Kn [t ].
1. P (t ) Kn [t ] n.
JJ
II
89 212
B := {P (t ), P 0 (t ), P 00 (t ), , P (n ) (t )}
Kn [t ], P (k ) (t ) k- P (t ).
: deg P (t ) = n, deg P 0 (t ) = n 1, deg P 00 (t ) = n 2,
, deg P (n 1) (t ) = 1, deg P (n ) (t ) = 0. 4.1.9 B
. |B| = n + 1 4.3.8
dimK Kn [t ] = n + 1, 4.3.13 B Kn [t ].
2. K.
C := {1, (t ), (t )2 , , (t )n }
Kn [t ].
1., C
n + 1 = dimK Kn [t ], 4.3.13 C Kn [t ].
: P (t ) Kn [t ]
;
: Taylor ,
P (t ) :
P (t ) = P ( ) +
P 0 ( )
1!
(t ) +
P 00 ( )
2!
(t )2 + +
P (n ) ( )
n!
(t )n
P (k ) ( )
,
k!
0 k n.
4.3.16 Kn [t ]
Kn [t ]:
1. {1, 1 + t, 1 + t + t 2 , , 1 + t + t 2 + + t n }.
2. {1 + t, t + t 2 , , t n 1 + t n }.
3. {1, 1 t, (1 t )2 , , (1 t )n }.
JJ
II
90 212
4.4.
W V K,
W V
K, W, .
.

.
4.4.1 VK
K, W V.
1. W .
2. dimK W dimK V.
3. dimK W = dimK V - W = V.
4.4.2 1. 4.4.1 .
.
2. {~
0} , , 0.
{~
0}.
W V dimK W = 0, W = {~
0} .
.
JJ
II
91 212
4.4.3 VK
K, Z W V. :
1. W + Z .
2. dimK (W + Z) = dimK W + dimK Z.
4.4.4 Rn [t ]:
V := {P (t ) Rn [t ] | P (t ) = P (t )}
W := {P (t ) Rn [t ] | P (t ) = P (t )}
V W : Rn [t ] = V W.
V W;

,
.
4.4.5 VK
K. W V, ( ) Z
V : V = W Z.
4.4.6 Z 4.4.5
.
Z .
V = R2 W = {(x, 0) R2 | x R} R2
(1, 0). Zn := {(x, nx )
R2 | x R}, n 1, R2 : R2 =
W Z1 = W Z2 = W Z3 = ( ).
JJ
II
92 212
4.4.7 VK
K, W1 , W2 , , Wn V.
:
1. W1 + W2 + + Wn .
2. dimK (W1 + W2 + + Wn ) = dimK W1 + dimK W2 + + dimK Wn .
4.4.8 V1 V2 2
E, 3, V1 V2 , {~
0} .
, 2. 4.4.3
( ).

, 4.4.3.
4.4.9 VK
K, Z W V. :
dimK (W + Z) = dimK W + dimK Z dimK (W Z)
4.4.10 EK K dimK =
4, V, W E dimK V = 2 dimK W = 3.
dimK (V W) : V W
- dimK (V W) = 2.
:
JJ
II
93 212
dimK (V + W) = dimK V + dimK W dimK (V W)
4.4.9, : dimK (V + W) = 2 + 3 dimK (V W) = 5 dimK (V W).

V + W R4 , dimK (V + W) = dimR R4 = 4.
dimR (VW) 5 4 = 1. VW
V, dimR (V W) dimR V = 2. : 1 dimR (V W) 2.
dimR (V W) = 2, dimR V = 2 V W V, V W = V,
V W. V W, V W = V
dimR (V W) = dimR V = 2.
4.4.11 EK K dimK =
7, V, W E dimK V = 4 dimK W = 5.
dimK (V W) : V W
- dimK (V W) = 4.
4.4.12 EK
K, V, W, Z E.
:
dimK (V W Z) dimK V + dimK W + dimK Z

dimK (V W) dimK (V Z) dimK (W Z) + dimK (V W Z).
4.5.

.
K E K. dimK E = n,
JJ
II
94 212
B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en }
E.
X E:
X := {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm } E
hXi := h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm i E
.
4.5.1 r(~
xi ) ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm E
E :
r(~
xi ) := dimK h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm i
r(~
xi ) {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm }

{~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm }. dimK E = n h~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm i E,
:
r(~
xi ) n = dimK E
4.5.2 , ; r(~
xi )
X = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm } X
(1 ), (2 ), (3 ) .
B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } E,
X
B:
~
x1 = a11~
e1 + a12~
e2 + + a1n ~
en
~
x2 = a21~
e1 + a22~
e2 + + a2n ~
en
JJ
II
95 212
()
~
xm = am1~
e1 + am2~
e2 + + amn ~
en
.
4.5.3 ,
:
aii , 0, i = 1, 2, , m
aij = 0, i > j.
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm : r(~
xi ) = m.
4.5.4 4.5.3 :
aii , 0, i = 1, 2, , m
aij = 0, i < j.
4.5.3.
4.5.5 E 5 K B = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3 , ~
e4 , ~
e5 } E.
E:
A1 = ~
e1 + 2~
e2 4~
e3 + 3~
e4 + ~
e5
A2 = 2~
e1 + 5~
e2 3~
e3 + 4~
e4 + 8~
e5
A3 = 6~
e1 + 17~
e2 7~
e3 + 10~
e4 + 22~
e5
A4 = ~
e1 + 3~
e2 3~
e3 + 2~
e4
4.5.3 r(Ai ) .

B:
JJ
II
96 212
A1
A2
A3
A4
1
2
4
3
1
2
5
3
4
8
6
17
7
10
22
1
3
3
2
0

A1
A20 = A2 2A1
A30 = A3 6A1
A40 = A4 A1
1
2
4
3
1
0
1
5
2
6
0
5
17
8
16
0
1
1
1
1
A1
A2
A3 = A3 5A2
A4 = A4 A2
1
2
4
3
1
0
1
5
2
6
0
0
8
2
14
0
0
4
1
7
00
00
A1
A2
A3
1
2
4
3
1
0
1
5
2
6
0
0
8
2
14
00
A4 = A4
000
00
0
0
0
0
0
1 00
A
2 3
JJ
II
97 212
4.5.2 :
r(A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) = r(A1 , A20 , A300 )

A1 = ~
e1 + 2~
e2 4~
e3 + 3~
e4 + ~
e5
A20 = ~
e2 + 5~
e23 2~
e4 + 6~
e5
A300 = 8~
e3 + 2~
e4 14~
e5
4.5.3, r(A1 , A20 , A300 ) = 3. :
r(A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) = 3
4.5.6 :
~1 = (1, 4, 1, 3), X
~2 = (2, 1, 3, 1), X
~3 = (0, 2, 1, 5)
X
R .
4.5.7 C4 :
A1 = (1, i, 1 + i, i )
JJ
II
A2 = (i, 0, 2 i, 1 + i )
A3 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
A4 = (3i, 2 i, 4 + 3i, i )
98 212
4.6.
4.6.1 ;
.
1. {1, } R Q.
()
()
2. {1, i } C R.
()
()
3. {1, i } C C.
()
()
5. {~
x1 , ~
x2 , ~
x2 , ~
x4 } VK dimK V = 3.
()
()
4. {~
x2 , ~
x4 , ~
x6 } VK {~
x1 , ~
x2 , ~
x3 , ~
x4 , ~
x5 , ~
x6 } VK .
()
()
4.6.2 V C
, {~
1 , , ~
n } VC . V
R, {~
1 , , ~
n , i~
1 , , i~
n }
VR . :
dimR V = 2 dimC V
4.6.3 V K.
V dimK V = 1.
JJ
II
99 212
4.6.4 V R4 :

~
x1 = (1, 1, 2, 4), ~
x2 = (2, 1, 5, 2), ~
x3 = (1, 1, 4, 0), ~
x4 = (2, 1, 1, 5),
V R4 .
4.6.5 R3 :
V = {(x, y, z ) R3 | y = z }
V R W R
: R3 = V W. W ;
3
4.6.6 V K.
{~
e1 , , ~
ei , , ~
en } V,
{~
e1 , , ~
ei + ~
ej , , ~
en } V,
K i , j.
4.6.7 V K.
{~
e1 , , ~
ei , , ~
en } V.
:
1.
{~
e1 + ~
e2 , ~
e2 + ~
e3 , , ~
en 1 + ~
en , ~
en + ~
e1 }
.
2. n .
4.6.8 R4 :
V = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x2 2x3 + x4 = 0}
W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x1 = x4 x2 = 2x3 }
Z = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 | x2 + x3 + x4 = 0}
X = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R | x1 + x2 = 0 x2 = 2x4 }
JJ
II
100 212
: V W Z X.
4.6.9 , R, :
~
x = (1, 1, 3), ~
y = (5, 2, 9), ~
z = (1, , 2)
4.6.10 M(22 (C) 2 2
C .
{A, B, C, D } .
A=
1+i
!
,
B=
i
2i
1+i
C=
0
0
1
1
!
,
D=
3i
5 + 3i
2 i
i
4.6.11
1. R, R
1 1
1
1
1 1
~
x1 = (, , ), ~
x2 = ( , , ), ~
x3 = ( , , )
2 2
2
2
2 2
.
2. , R R4 ;
JJ
II
101 212
()
~
x1 = (3, 2, 1, 3), ~
x2 = (1, 0, 2, 4), ~
x3 = (1, 3, , )
()
~
x1 = (1, 2, , 1), ~
x2 = (, 1, 2, 3), ~
x3 = (0, 1, , 0)
3. R, R3 [t ]
P1 (t ) = 3t 3 + t 2 4t + 6, P2 (t ) = t 3 + t 2 + 4t + 4, P3 (t ) = t 3 4t +
.
4. R, M22 (R)
A=
1
3
2
4
!
,
B=
0
1
1
0
!
,
C=
2 1
4
4.6.12 R3 :
~
x = (1, 1, 2), ~
y = (3, 1, 2)
{~
x, ~
y, ~
z }, ~
z = (1, , 1),
R3 .
4.6.13
1. V R ,
V := {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R | x1 = x3 }
JJ
II
2. V R4 ,
V := {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R4 | x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0}

4.6.14 V K.
X := {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V.
102 212
1.
{~
x1 + ~
x2 , ~
x2 + ~
x3 , , ~
x n 1 + ~
xn , ~
xn + ~
x1 }
.
2.
{~
x1 , k2 ~
x1 + ~
x2 , k3 ~
x1 + ~
x3 , , kn 1 ~
x1 + ~
x n , kn ~
x1 + ~
xn }
, ki K, 2 i n. .
4.6.15 V
K. W V dimK W + 1 < dimK V,
Z V : W Z V W , Z , V.
4.6.16 V K.

W 0 W 1 W k 1 W k
k. V
V.
4.6.17
P (t ) = t 3 t 2 + 3, Q (t ) = 2t 3 5t 2 + 3t + 10, R (t ) = 3t 3 + 3t 2 + t + 1
R3 [t ].
4.6.18 M22 (R)

!
!
1 5
1 1
A=
, B=
4 2
1 5
JJ
II
103 212
C=
2
5
!
,
1
5
D=
4.6.19 :
P0 (t ) = 1, P1 (t ) = 1 + t, P2 (t ) = 1 + t + t 2 , , Pn (t ) = 1 + t + t 2 + + t n
Kn [t ].
P (t ) = a0 + a1 t + + an t n .
4.6.20 Rn
:
~
x1 = (1, 1, 0, , 0, 0, 0), ~
x2 = (0, 1, 1, , 0, 0, 0),
~
xn 1 = (0, 0, 0, , 0, 1, 1), ~
xn = (1, 0, 0, , 0, 0, 1)
4.6.21 V 3 3 R, :
A = b
b
0
e
c
e
0
V M33 (R), ,
.
JJ
II
4.6.22 V 3 3 R, :
A = b
2c
a
b
2b
2c
a
V M33 (R),
, .
104 212
4.6.23 S n . F(S, R) R f : S
R.
s S
(
s : S
R, t 7 s (t ) =
1, t = s
0, t , s
B := {s | s S} F(S, R).
F(S, R);
4.6.24 A(R) , p, q R q , 0.
V = {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn = pxn 1 + qxn 2 }
.
V.
JJ
II
105 212
.

.
, ,
.
K.
.
, .

, .
JJ
II
106 212
5.1.
- -
K E F
K.
5.1.1 f : E
F
:
1. ~
x, ~
y E: f (~
x +~
y) = f (~
x ) + f (~
y ).
2. ~
x E, k K: f (k~
x ) = kf (~
x ).
,
.
.
5.1.2 f : E
F
EK FK .
.

.
1. f (~
0) = ~
0.
2. f (~
x ) = f (~
x ), ~
x E.
JJ
II
3. f (~
x ~
y) = f (~
x ) f (~
y), ~
x, ~
y E.
4. n 1, ~
x1 , , ~
xn E, 1 , , n K:
107 212
f (1 ~
x 1 + + n ~
xn ) = 1 f (~
x1 ) + + n f (~
xn ).
5.1.3 E, F K. f : E
F :
f (~
x + ~
y) = f (~
x ) + f (~
y), ~
x, ~
y E, , K
5.1.4 E, F K.
1. OE,F : E
F, : OE,F (~
x) = ~
0,
.
2. IdE : E
E, : IdE (~
x) = ~
x ,
.
3. r K . r E
fr : E
E, ~
x 7 fr (~
x ) = r~
x . fr .
r = 1 f1 = IdE , r = 0 f0 = OE,E .
4. f : R3
R2 , f (x, y, z ) = (x + y, z ). f .
5. f : C
R : f (a + bi ) = a,
a, b R. f .
6. n 1 Kn [t ]
n K. f : Kn +1
Kn [t ]

f ( a0 , a 1 , , a n ) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t 2 + + an t n
.
7. D : R[t ]
R[t ] P (t ) = a0 + a1 t +
a2 t 2 + + an t n D (P (t )) = a1 + 2a2 t + + nan t n 1
. D Rn [t ]
R n [t ]
Rn [t ]
Rn 1 [t ].
8. [0, 2 ] ,
f : R2
R2 , (x, y) 7 f (x, y) = (x cos() y sin(), x sin() + y(cos())
.

.
JJ
II
108 212
f , , .
5.1.5 5.1.4
.
5.1.6 f : R3
R2 , f (x, y, z ) := (x + 1, y). f
;
5.1.7
.
.
f : C
C, f (a + bi ) = b + ai, a, b R.
C R, f . :

z = a1 + b1 i w = a2 + b2 i . f (z + w) = f (a1 + b1 i )+(a2 + b2 i ) =

f (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i = (b1 + b2 ) + (a1 + a2 )i = (b1 + a1 i ) + (b2 + a2 i ) = f (z ) + f (w).

r R, f (rz ) = f r (a1 + b1 i ) = f (ra1 + rb1 i ) = rb1 + ra1 i = r (b1 + a1 i ) =
rf (z ). f : CR
CR . f C
.
f : CC
CC f (zw) = zf (w), z, w C. f (zw) =

f (a1 + b1 i )(a2 + b2 i ) = f (a1 a2 +b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i = (a1 b2 + b1 a2 ) + (a1 a2 + b1 b2 )i,
zf (w) = (a1 + b1 i )(b2 + a2 i ) = (a1 b2 b1 a2 ) + (a1 a2 + b1 b2 )i.
z = w = i f (zw) , zf (w) f .
.

.
JJ
II
109 212
5.1.8 f : C
C, f (z1 , z2 ) = z1 + z 2 , z
z, C2
C C,
C2 C R.
2
K
. E K,
E
K
. .
5.1.9 E K. f : E
K E.
E E* .

.
5.1.10 K .
1. a1 , a2 , , an K.
f :K
K, ~
x = (x1 , x2 , , xn ) 7 f (~
x ) = a 1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + + an x n
n
, .
2. f : Kn
K , ()
a1 , a2 , , an K, : f (x1 , x2 , , xn ) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn ,
(x1 , x2 , , xn ) Kn .
.

.
5.1.11 f : R3
R, f (x, y, z ) := 3x + 2y 5z .
JJ
II
5.1.12 K n, m N. f : Kn
Km ,
:
110 212
1. f .
2. m f1 , , fm : Kn
K :
f (~
x ) = f1 (~
x ), f2 (~
x ), , fm (~
x) .
3. nm {aij }11ijnm K, , ~
x = (x1 , x 2 , , x n )
Kn :
f (x1 , x2 , , xn ) = (a11 x1 + + a1n xn , , am1 x1 + + amn xn )
5.1.13
f : R5
R3 , (x1 , , x5 ) 7 f (x1 , , x5 ) = (x1 2x3 , 4x5 + 8x4 , x2 3x5 + 6x1 + 5x3 )
g:C
C , (x, y, z ) 7 g(x, y, z ) = (x + iz, 3ix 2y + iz, 4y + 5iz )
3
5.1.12 f, g .
5.1.14 A n n K.
Mn n (K) m n K
f : Mn n (K)
Mn n (K), M 7 f (M ) := MA AM
f .
: 2,
f (M1 + M2 ) = (M1 + M2 )A A(M1 + M2 ) = M1 A + M2 A AM1 AM2 = (M1 A
AM1 ) + (M2 A AM2 ) = f (M1 ) + f (M2 ). r K, : f (rM ) = (rM )A A(rM ) =
r (MA) (Ar )M = r (MA) r (AM ) = r (MA AM ) = rf (M ). f .
5.1.15 A m n K.
Kn Km n m
, K.
~ 7 fA (X
~ ) := AX
~
fA : Kn
Km , X
f .
.

.
JJ
II
111 212
5.2.
5.1.2 . .
.
5.2.1 f : E
F
E, F K. V E W F .
1. f (V) V f :
f (V) := {~
y F | ~
x V : f (~
x) = ~
y}
2. f 1 (W) W f
:
f 1 (W) := {~
x E | f (~
x ) W}
, , f 1 ({~
0}) f (E)
, :
5.2.2 f : E
F
E, F K.
1. Im(f ) f E f , :
Im(f ) := f (E) = {~
y F | ~
x E : f (~
x) = ~
y}
2. Ker(f ) f f 1 ({~
0})
{~
0} F f , :
Ker(f ) := f 1 ({~
0}) = {~
x E | f (~
x) = ~
0}
.

.
JJ
II
112 212
5.2.3
:

f : R3
R2 , (x, y, z ) 7 f (x, y, z ) := (x + y, y)
5.1.12 f . Im(f )
Ker(f ) f . (x, y, z ) Ker(f ). f (x, y, z ) = (0, 0)
(x + y, y) = (0, 0). x = y y = 0, x = y = 0.
Ker(f ) = {(x, y, z ) R3 | x = y = 0} = {(0, 0, z ) R3 | z R}. Ker(f )
R3 (0, 0, 1)
. (a, b) Im(f ). (x, y, z )
R3 f (x, y, z ) = (a, b), (x + y, y) = (a, b). x + y = a
y = b, x = a b. Im(f ) = {(a b, b) R2 | a, b R} =
{a (1, 0) b(1, 1) | a, b R}. Im(f ) R2
~
e = (1, 0) ~
= (1, 1) .
dimR Im(f ) = 2 dimR R2 = 2, Im(f ) = R2 (
).
5.2.4 f : E
F
E, F K.
.

.
1. V E, f (V) V f
F .
2. W F , f 1 (W) W
f E.
{~
0} F E
, .
JJ
II
113 212
5.2.5 f : E
F
E, F K.
1. Ker(f ) f E.
2. Im(f ) f F .
f : E
F 1-1 E
F .
5.2.6 f : E
F
E, F K.

F : V E Ker(f ) V W Im(f )
F(V ) := f (V) 1-1 . F
F1 (W) := f 1 (W).
.

.
5.2.7 f : E
F
E, F K.
1. f f 1-1, :
~
x, ~
y E : f (~
x ) = f (~
y) = ~
x =~
y
2. f f :
~
y F, ~
x E : f (~
x) = ~
y
JJ
II
114 212
3. f f 1-1 .
5.2.8 E F K. E
F f : E
F.
E F .
E F - g : F
E.
K .
5.2.9 E, F G K.
:
1. E E.
2. E F F E.
3. E F F G, E G.
K .
5.2.10 f : E
F E, F K.
1. f , : f : E F .
2. f , : f : E F .

3. f , : f : E
F.
.

.
JJ
II
5.2.11 f : E
F g : F
E
E, F K. f g = IdF , g
f .
115 212
5.2.12 f : E
F
E, F K.
1. f - Ker(f ) = {~
0}.
2. f - Im(f ) = F .
3. f - g : F
E :
f g = IdF g f = IdE . f
g = f 1 .
5.2.13
f : R3
R3 , f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) := (x1 , x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 + x3 )
f .
: ~
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) Ker(f ). f (~
x) = ~
0, f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
: (x1 , x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 + x3 ) = (0, 0, 0). : x1 = 0,
x1 + x2 = 0, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 xi = 0, i = 1, 2, 3. ~
x =~
0,
~
Ker(f ) = {0}, f . ~
y = (y1 , y 2 , y 3 ) R 3 .
x ) = f (y1 , y2 y1 , y3 y2 ) =
~
x := (y1 , y2 y1 , y3 y2 ) R3 , : f (~
(y1 , y1 + y2 y1 , y1 + y2 y1 + y3 y2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = ~
y. f
f . f 1 : R3
R3 :
1
f (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (y1 , y2 y1 , y3 y2 ).
5.2.14 1.
f : R3
R2 , f (x, y, z ) = (4x 2y z, 3x 4y + z )
.
2.
f : R2
R3 , f (x, y, z ) = (2x y, x + 2y, 0)
.
.

.
JJ
II
116 212
5.3.
,
,

. .
5.3.1 [ ] f : E
F E, F K.
B = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } E C = {w
~ 1, w
~ 2, , w
~ n }
F . f : E
F :
f (~
ei ) = w
~ i , i = 1, 2, , n.
()
5.3.2 R R,
~1 = (1, 1, 0),~2 = (1, 0, 4),~3 = (0, 0, 1). B =
{~1 ,~2 , ~
e3 } R3 .
R
5.3.1 f : R3
f (~1 ) = 2, f (~2 ) = 7, f (~3 ) = 1.
~
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 R3 .
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ~
x
B. :
.

.
JJ
II
~
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 = x2~1 + (x1 x2 )~2 + (4x1 4x2 x3~3
117 212
5.3.1, : f (x1 , x2 , x3 =
2x2 + (7)(x1 x2 ) + (1)(4x1 4x2 x3 ) = 11x1 + 13x2 + x3 .
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 11x1 + 13x2 + x3 .
5.3.3 f, g : E
F , E, F K. f = g
f (~
ei ) = g(~
ei ), i = 1, , n, {~
e1 , , ~
en } E.
f = OE,F , f ,
f (~
ei ) = ~
0, i = 1, , n.
5.3.4 ,
f : E
F ,
, E.
.
5.4.
,
.
5.4.1 f : E
F
E F K. E F ,
f Im(f )
r(f ):
r(f ) := dimK Im(f )
5.4.2 [ ] E F K. f : E
F
JJ
II
118 212
, :
:

dimK E = dimK Ker(f ) + r(f )
5.4.3 :
f : R3
R3 , (x, y, z ) 7 f (x, y, z ) = (x + 2y, y z, x + 2z )
r(f ) f Im(f )
Ker(f ).
(x, y, z ) Ker(f ) f (x, y, z ) = (x + 2y, y z, x + 2z ) = (0, 0, 0),
x, y, z (x, y, z ) :
x + 2y = 0, y z = 0, x + 2z = 0

{(2t, t, t ) | t R}. Ker(f ) = {(2t, t, t ) R3 | t R} = {t (2, 1, 1) R3 | t R}.
~
:= (2, 1, 1)
Ker(f ) dimR Ker(f ) = 1.
dimR R3 = dimR Ker(f ) + r(f ) 3 = 1 + r(f ),
r(f ) = 2. Im(f ). :
Im(f ) = {f (x, y, z ) | (x, y, z ) R3 } = {(x + 2y, y z, x + 2z ) | (x, y, z ) R3 }
JJ
II
119 212
= {(x, y, x ) + (2y, z + 2z ) | (x, y, z ) R }

3
= {(x (1, 0, 1) + y(0, 1, 0) + y(2, 0, 0) + z (0, 1, 2) | (x, y, z ) R3 } =

= {x (1, 0, 1) + y(2, 1, 0) + z (0, 1, 2) | (x, y, z ) R3 }
Im(f ) = h~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 i,
~
1 = (1, 0, 1), ~
2 = (2, 1, 0), ~
3 = (0, 1, 2)
~
1 , ~
2
Im(f ) ~
3 = 2~
1 ~
2 . {~
1 , ~
2 } Im(f ).
r(f ) = 2.
5.4.4 B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3 } R3 ( ),
f : R3
R3 :
f (~
e1 ) = ~
e1 ~
e2 + ~
e3 , f (~
e2 ) = 2~
e1 , f (~
e3 ) = ~
e1 + ~
e2 + 2~
e3
f .
: f . ~
x
R3 . ~
x
B: ~
x = x1 ~
e1 + x2~
e 2 + x3 ~
e3 , xi R, 1 i 3. : f (~
x ) = f (x1~
e1 + x2~
e2 + x3~
e3 ) =
x1 f (~
e1 ) + x2 f (~
e2 ) + x3 f (~
e3 ) = x1 (~
e1 ~
e2 + ~
e3 ) + x2 (2~
e1 ) + x3 (~
e1 + ~
e2 + 2~
e3 ) = (x1 + 2x2 +
x3 )~
e1 + (x1 + x3 )~
e2 + (x1 + 2x3 )~
e3 . f ( B)
:
.

.
f (~
x ) = f (x1 ~
e 1 + x2 ~
e2 + x3~
e3 ) = (x1 + 2x2 + x3 )~
e1 + (x1 + x3 )~
e2 + (x1 + 2x3 )~
e3
f . ~
x = x1 ~
e1 + x2~
e2 + x3~
e3 Ker(f ).
f (~
x ) = (x1 + 2x2 + x3 )~
e1 + (x1 + x3 )~
e2 + (x1 + 2x3 )~
e3 = ~
0, , ~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3
, :
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x3 0, x1 + 2x3 = 0
x1 , x2 , x3 , x1 =
x2 = x3 = 0. ~
x =~
0 Ker(f ) = {~
0}. f
JJ
II
120 212
dimR Ker(f ) = 0. dimR R3 = dimR Ker(f ) + r(f )

3 = r(f ). dimR Im(f ) = 3.
Im(f ) = R3 , f . f .

.

.
5.4.5 E F K. :
1. E F .
2. dimK E = dimK F .
Kn , , n,
.
5.4.6 E K
dimK E = n. E Kn : E Kn .
5.4.7 K , n, m 1 .
:
JJ
II
121 212
1. Kn Km .
2. n = m.
5.4.8 5.4.6 5.4.7 . , ,

K ( , , )
Kn , n 1 .
.
.
4.4.9 .
5.4.9 E
K, V W E. :
dimK (V + W) = dimK V + dimK W dimK (V W)
5.4.10 f : V W
V + W 5.4.9
.
5.4.11 E
K, V W E. V W = {~
0}, :
JJ
II
122 212
VW VW

.
5.4.12 [ ] E F K. f : E
F ,
:
1. dimK E = dimK F f , f .
2. dimK E = dimK F f , f .
5.4.13 E K B =
{~
e1 , ~
e2 , ~
e3 } E. w
~1 = ~
e1 ~
e2 + ~
e3 , w
~ 2 = 2~
e1 , w
~3 = ~
e1 + ~
e2 + 2~
e3
5.3.1,
f : E
E :
f (~
e1 ) = ~
e1 ~
e2 + ~
e3 , f (~
e2 ) = 2~
e1 , f (~
e3 ) = ~
e1 + ~
e2 + 2~
e3 .
f .
: f B.
5.4.14 E
K, f : E
E g : E
E
: f g = IdE .
f g g = f 1 .
5.5.
JJ
II

123 212

.
K.
5.5.1 E F K,
HomK (E, F) := {f : E
F | f }
E F .
HomK (E, F)
K.
.
E F K, f, g : E
F
.
: f + g f g
f + g : E
F, ~
x 7 (f + g)(~
x ) := f (~
x ) + g(~
x)
f + g .
~
x, ~
y E k, l K. (f + g)(k~
x + l~
y) = f (k~
x + l~
y) + g(k~
x + l~
y) =
kf (~
x )+ lf (~
y)+ kg(~
x )+ lg(~
y) = k (f (~
x )+ g(~
x ))+ l (f (~
y)+ g(~
y)) = k [(f + g)(~
x )]+ l [(f + g)(~
y)].
: k K,
kf f k
kf : E
F, ~
x 7 (kf )(~
x ) := kf (~
x)
kf .
~
x, ~
y E , K. (kf )(~
x + ~
y) = k [f (~
x + ~
y)] = k [f (~
x ) + f (~
y)] =
kf (~
x ) + kf (~
y) = kf (~
x ) + kf (~
y) = (kf )(~
x ) + (kf )(~
y ).
.

.
JJ
II
124 212
5.5.2 ,
HomK (E, F) K.
E F ,
HomK (E, F) :
dimK HomK (E, F) = dimK E dimK F
E = F 5.5.2 :
5.5.3 E K,
HomK (E, E) E
E
K.
E ,
HomK (E, E) :
dimK HomK (E, E) = (dimK E)2

K
, 5.4.2.
.

.
5.5.4 E K,
HomK (E, K) K.
E ,
E* = HomK (E, K) :
JJ
II
dimK HomK (E, K) = dimK E* = dimK E
125 212
5.5.5 E
K. E E* : E E* .
5.5.6 5.5.5 E
K E* ,

. f : E
E*
, 5.4.5,
E. E E E* .

.
,
,
. f : E
F g : F
G ,
g f : E
G, : (g f )(~
x ) := g(f (~
x )). ,
, .
5.5.7 ( ) ( ) .
() E, F G K, h1 , h2 :
H
E, f : E
F , g1 , g2 : F
G :
h1
h2
:
1. (h1 + h2 ) f = h1 f + h2 f .
/ E
/ F
g1
g2
/ G
.

.
JJ
II
126 212
2. f (g1 + g2 ) = f g1 + f g2 .
3. IdF f = f = f IdE .
4. g1 (f h1 ) = (g1 f ) h1 .
( ) f : E
F g : F
G , k K, :
:

(kg) f = g (kf ) = k (g f ).
5.5.8 5.5.7.
E = H = F = G,
E E .
HomK (E, E) .
5.5.9 E K,
HomK (E, E) EndK (E), E.
E f : E
E.
, f : E
E E n 1
E
, f n : E
f n . f n (~
x ) = f (f (f ( f ) ))(~
x ) f n
. f 3 (~
x ) = f (f (f (~
x ))). f 0 = IdE .
5.5.10 f, g, h :
E
E, k K, :
1. (f g) h = f (g h ).
2. (f + g) h = f h + g h f (g + h ) = f g + f h.
3. k (f g) = (kf ) g = f (kg).
4. IdE f = f = f IdE .
.

.
JJ
II
127 212
K,
: E E
E, (f, g) 7 f g ( ),
1. - 4. K-
K.
E K, EndK (E)
E ( ) K.
5.5.11 E K,
f, g K- HomK (E, E), f, g : E
E
( E). : f g = g f .
E = R2 :
f :R
R , (x, y) 7 f (x, y) = (y, x )
g : R2
R2 , (x, y) 7 g(x, y) = (x, y)
(x, y) R2 , :
f (g(x, y)) = f (x, y) = (y, x ) , (y, x ) = g(y, x ) = g(f (x, y))

:
f g ,gf
K- R f g = g f K-.
C R
R-.
, .
JJ
II
128 212
5.6.

.
, , ,
.
.

.
5.6.1 E, F G K.
1. f : E
F , k K, k , 0, :
Im(kf ) = Im(f )
2. f, g : E
F , :
Im(f + g) Im(f ) + Im(g)
3. f : E
F g : F
G , :
Im(g f ) Im(g)
4. f : E
E , :
JJ
II
129 212
Im(f n +1 ) Im(f n ) Im(f 2 ) Im(f )
5.6.2 5.6.1
.
5.6.3 E F K,
B = {~
e1 , , ~
en } E. f : E
F ,
r(f ) f (~
e1 ), , f (~
en ):
r(f ) = rhf (~
e1 ), , f (~
en )i
: rh~
e1 ), , f (~
en i = dimK h~
e1 ), , f (~
en i, Im(f ) = h~
e1 ), , f (~
en i.
Im(f ) h~
e1 ), , f (~
en i. ~
z Im(f ). ~
x E : f (~
x) = ~
z .
B E, ~
x = x1~
e 1 + + xn ~
en ,
xi K, 1 i n. ~
z = f (~
x ) = x1 f (~
e1 ) + + xn f (~
en ) h~
e1 ), , f (~
en i.
Im(f ) h~
e1 ), , f (~
en i.

1. E F
K, f : E
F .
(a) :
r(kf ) = r(f ), k K \ {0}
(1)
: 5.6.1 Im(kf ) = Im(f ). r(kf ) = dimK Im(kf ) = dimK Im(f ) = r(f ).
JJ
II
130 212
(b) :
r(f ) min{dimK E, dimK F}
(2)
: Im(f ) F , r(f ) = dimK Im(f )

dimK F. r(f ) = dimK E
dimK Ker(f ). r(f ) dimK E r(f ) min{dimK E, dimK F}.
2. E F
K, f, g : E
F :
f
g
/ F
|r(f ) r(g)| r(f + g) r(f ) + r(g)
(3)
: 5.6.1 Im(f + g) Im(f ) + Im(g). : r(f + g) = dimK Im(f + g) dimK (Im(f ) + Im(g)).
5.4.9 :
r(f + g) dimK (Im(f ) + Im(g)) =

dimK Im(f ) + dimK Im(g) dimK (Im(f ) Im(g))
r(f ) + r(g)
f = f + g + (g),
(f + g) (g) (1), :
.

.
JJ
II
r(f ) = r[(f + g) + (g)] r(f + g) + r(g) = r(f + g) + r(g)
131 212
: r(f ) r(g) r(f + g). f g,

: r(g) r(f ) r(f + g). |r(f ) r(g)| r(f + g).
: |r(f ) r(g)| r(f + g) r(f ) + r(g).
3. E, F G
K, f : E
F g : F
G :
/ F
/ G
(a) :
r(g f ) min{r(f ), r(g)}
(4)
: 5.6.1 : Im(g f ) Im(g).

, : r(g f ) = dimK Im(g f ) dimK Im(g) =
r(g). g f : E
G, :
dimK E = dimK Ker(g f ) + r(g f )

f : E
F,
:
dimK E = dimK Ker(f ) + r(f )
.

.
dimK Ker(f ) + r(f ) = dimK Ker(g f ) + r(g f )

r(g f ) r(f ) = dimK Ker(f ) dimK Ker(g f )

Ker(f ) Ker(g f ). : ~
x Ker(f ), f (~
x) = ~
0
g(f (~
x )) = g(~
0) = ~
0. ~
x Ker(g f ). dimK Ker(f ) dimK Ker(g
f ). r(g f ) r(f ) 0,
r(g f ) r(f ). : r(g f ) min{r(f ), r(g).
JJ
II
132 212
(b) :
r(g f ) = r(f ) Im(f ) Ker(g) = {~
0}
( 5)
(c) :
r(g f ) = r(g) Im(f ) + Ker(g) = F
(6)
(d) :
r(g f ) = r(f ) = r(g) F = Im(f ) Ker(g)
(7)
5.6.4 (5), (6) (7).

5.6.5 f, g : E
E , E K dimK E = n. g
, :
r(f g) = r(g f ) = r(f )
: (4)
dimK E = n, :
.

.
r(f ) = r(f g g1 ) r(f g) r(f )
JJ
II
r(f ) = r(g1 g f ) r(g f ) r(f )
133 212
r(f ) = r(f g) r(f ) = r(g f )
5.7.
5.7.1 ; .
1. f : R2
R2 , f (x, y) = (2x y, x ).
()
()
2. f : R
R , f (x, y, z ) = (z, x + y).
3
()
3. f : R
R , f (x, y) = (x , y ).
2
()
()
()
4. f : R
R , f (x ) = (2x, x ).
()
()
5. f : R
R , f (x ) = (1, 1).
2
()
()
6. f : R
R , f (x, y) = (xy, y, x ).
2
()
()
7. f : R3
R2 , f (x, y, z ) = (|x |, 0).
()
()
8. f : Mn n (R)
Mn n (R), f (A) = A .
2
()
()
9. f : Mn n (R)
Mn n (R), f (A) = A + X , X n n .
()
JJ
II
134 212
()
10. f : Rn [t ]
Rn [t ], f (P (t )) = P (t )P (t ).
()
()
5.7.2 :
f1 : R 3
R2 , f1 (x, y, z ) = (x + y + z, x + y)
f2 : R3
R2 , f2 (x, y, z ) = (2x + z, x + y)
f3 : R3
R2 , f3 (x, y, z ) = (2y, x )
1. F := {f1 , f2 , f3 } HomR (R3 , R2 )

: R3
R2 .
2. F HomR (R3 , R2 ).
5.7.3 a0 , a1 , , an K.

f : Kn [t ]
Kn +1 , P (t ) 7 f (P (t )) := (P (a0 ), P (a1 ), , P (an ))
. f .
5.7.4 fi : R3
R2 , i = 1, 2, 3.
5.7.5
B := {~
e1 = (1, 2, 3), ~
e2 = (2, 5, 3), ~
e3 = (1, 0, 1)}
R3
.

.
JJ
II
135 212
w
~ 1 = (1, 0), w
~ 2 = (1, 0), w
~ 3 = (1, 1)
R2 . f : R3
R2 : f (~
ei ) =
w
~ i , 1 i 3.
5.7.6
B := {~
e1 = 1, ~
e2 = t, ~
e3 = t 2 }
R2 [t ]
w
~ 1 = 1 + t, w
~ 2 = 3 t2, w
~ 3 = 4 + 2t 3t 2
R2 [t ]. f : R2 [t ]
R2 [t ] :
f (~
ei ) = w
~ i , 1 i 3.
5.7.7 f : V
W , V, W
K.
:
1. f .
2. f V W.
5.7.8 f : Rn
Rn
B = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } Rn
.

.
w
~ 1 = (0, 0, , 0, 0), w
~ 2 = (1, 0, , 0, 0), w
~ 3 = (0, 2, , 0, 0), , w
~ n = (0, 0, , n 1, 0)
JJ
II
f (~
ei ) = w
~ i , 1 i n. f n = 0
Ker(f ) Im(f ).
136 212
5.7.9 f : E
E , E
K. f n = 0,
f n 1 , 0 (0 : E
E). ~
x E,
:
1. f n 1 (~
x) , ~
0.
2. {~
x , f (~
x ), f 2 (~
x ), , f n 1 (~
x )} V .
5.7.10
:
f : R4
R3 , f (x, y, z, w) := (x y + z + w, x + 2y z + w, 3y 2z )
5.7.11 f : E
E , E K. r(f ) = r(f 2 ).
E = Ker(f ) Im(f ).
5.7.12 f : E
E , E K.
dimK Ker(f ) = dimK Ker(f 2 ). E = Ker(f ) Im(f ).
5.7.13 f : E
E , E K, K \ {0}. f 2 = f ,
E = Ker(f ) Im(f ).
5.7.14 B = {~
1 , ~
2 , ~
3 , ~
4 } R . R,
R4 :
f : R4
.

.
f (~
1 ) = ~
1 + ~
4 , f (~
2 ) = 2~
1 + ~
2 , f (~
3 ) = 2~
2 + ~
3 , f (~
4 ) = 2~
3 + ~
4
JJ
II
137 212
.
5.7.15 K f : Kn [t ]
Kn [t ]
: f (P (t )) = P (t + 1). f
f .
5.7.16
:
f : R4
R3 , f (x, y, z, w) := (x z + 2w, 2x + y + 2z, y + 4w)
:
1. (1, 3, k ) Im(f ) f
k = 5.
2. a, b R (1, a, 1, b)
Ker(f ) f ;
5.7.17 f : E
E , E K. f 2 = 0.
:
1. Im(f ) Ker(f ).
2. dimK Ker(f )
dimK E
2
3. 2. Im(f ) = Ker(f ).
5.7.18 f, g : E
K ( ),
E K.
:
h : E
K , h (~
x ) := (f (~
x ), g(~
x ))
JJ
II
138 212
1. h .
2. Ker(h ) = Ker(f ) Ker(g).
3. Im(h ) = K2 ( h ) f , 0 , g.
5.7.19 f, g : E
E , E K. dimK E = n,
f + g = IdE . :
r(f ) + r(g) n
5.7.20 f : E
E , E
K. m 1,
:
E = Ker(f m ) Im(f m )
.

.
JJ
II
139 212
.

.
JJ
II
140 212
:
1. ( ) ~
x ~
x
(5) : ( ) ~
x + ~
x = ( + ) ~
x = ~
x .
( ~
x )
(1), (4), (3) :
~
x ~
x
=
=
=
=
[( ) ~
x +~
x ] ( ~
x)
( ) ~
x + [ ~
x ( ~
x )]
( ) ~
x +~
0
( ) ~
x
2. (~
x ~
y) ~
y,
(~
x ~
y) + ~
y. (1), (4), (3)
:
(~
x ~
y) + ~
y
=
=
=
=
[(~
x ~
y) + ~
y]
[~
x + (~
y) + ~
y)]
(~
x +~
0)
~
x
(~
x ~
y) + ~
y = ~
x
( ~
y) (1), (4),
(3) :
[ (~
x ~
y) + ~
y] ( ~
y) = ~
x ~
y =
(~
x ~
y) + ( ~
y ~
y) = ~
x ~
y =
~
(~
x ~
y) + 0 = ~
x ~
y =
(~
x ~
y) = ~
x ~
y

,

.
JJ
II
141 212
3. 1. = . 0 ~
x =
~
x ~
x , ~
0
(4). 0 ~
x =~
0.
4. 1. = 0 = 1.
(1) ~
x = (1 ~
x ), ~
x
(8). (1) ~
x = ~
x.
5. 4. (~
x ) (1) [(1) ~
x )]. (7) (8), (~
x ) = (1) [(1) ~
x )] =
[(1)(1)] ~
x = 1~
x =~
x.
6. 4., (6), : (~
x +~
y) =
(1) (~
x +~
y) = (1) ~
x + (1) ~
y = ~
x ~
y.
7. 2. ~
x =~
y. (~
x ~
x) =
~
x ~
x , ~
0
~
0, (4).
~
0=~
0.
8. , 0 ~
x = ~
0.
, 0, K
1 K 1 = 1 = 1 .
~
x =~
0 1 ,
1 ( ~
x ) = 1 ~
0

,

.
JJ
II
()
142 212
(7) (8),
() ( 1 ) ~
x) = 1 ~
x = ~
x . ()
~
0 5.
. ~
x = 0.
2
2.1.4

,

.
JJ
II
143 212
:
1. ~
x =~
01 (3) ~
02 , : ~
01 + ~
02 = ~
01 . ~
x =~
02
(3) ~
01 , :
~
02 + ~
01 = ~
02 . (2) ~
01 + ~
02 = ~
02 + ~
01 .
~
~
01 = 02 .
2. ~
x +~
x1 = ~
0 ~
x2 (~
x +~
x1 ) +
~
~
x2 = 0 + ~
x2 , ~
x2
(3). (1), (2), (3),
~
x +~
x2 = ~
0, :
~
x2 = (~
x +~
x1 ) + ~
x2 = ~
x + (~
x1 + ~
x2 ) = ~
x + (~
x2 + ~
x1 ) =
(~
x +~
x2 ) + ~
x1 = ~
0+~
x1 = ~
x1 + ~
0=~
x1 .
3. ~
x = ~
y ( ~
y)
~
x ( ~
y) = ~
y ( ~
y) = ~
0.
(~
x ~
y) = 0. , 0, 8 2.1.4,
~
x ~
y=~
0. ~
y
~
x ~
y+~
y=~
y+~
0 ~
x +~
0=~
x =~
y.
4. 3. 1 ~
x = 2 ~
x
(1 2 ) ~
x =~
0. 1 , 2 , 8. 2.1.4,
~
x =~
0.
JJ
II
144 212
2.1.5

: (1), (3), (4), (6), (7). (2), (5), (8)

. V = V1 V2 Vn .
= (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ), = (~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn ) = (~
z1 , ~
z2 , , ~
zn )
V, k K.
1. (1) Vi ,
i = 1, 2, , n, :
+ ( + ) = (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + [(~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn ) + (~
z1 , ~
z2 , , ~
zn )] =
(~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + (~
y1 + ~
z1 , ~
y2 + ~
z2 , , ~
yn + ~
zn ) =
(~
x1 + (~
y1 + ~
z1 ), ~
x2 + (~
y2 + ~
z2 ) , , ~
xn + (~
yn + ~
zn )) =
((~
x1 + ~
y1 ) + ~
z1 , (~
x2 + ~
y2 ) + ~
z2 , , (~
x2 + ~
y2 ) + ~
z2 ) =
(~
x1 + ~
y1 , ~
x2 + ~
y2 , , ~
x2 + ~
y2 ) + (~
z1 , ~
z2 , , ~
zn ) =
[(~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + (~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn )] + (~
z1 , ~
z2 , , ~
zn ) = ( + ) + .
2. ~
0 := (~
01 , ~
02 , , ~
0n ), ~
0i
Vi . (3)
Vi , i = 1, 2, , n, :

,

.
+~
0 = (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + (~
01 , ~
02 , , ~
0n ) = (~
x1 + ~
01 , ~
x2 + ~
02 , , ~
xn + ~
0n ) =
JJ
II
(~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) = .
~
0 + = . ~
0 V.
3. := (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ).
(4) Vi , i = 1, 2, , n, :
145 212
+ ( ) = (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) =
(~
x1 + (~
x 1 ), ~
x2 + (~
x2 ), , ~
xn + (~
xn )) = (~
01 , ~
02 , , ~
0n ) = ~
0.
( ) + = ~
0. .
4. (6) Vi ,
i = 1, 2, , n, :
k ( + ) = k [(~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + (~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn )] =
k (~
x1 + ~
y1 , ~
x2 + ~
y2 , , ~
xn + ~
yn ) = (k (~
x1 + ~
y1 ), k (~
x2 + ~
y2 ), , k (~
xn + ~
yn )) =
(k ~
x1 + k ~
y1 , k ~
x2 + k ~
y2 , , k ~
xn + k ~
yn ) =
(k ~
x1 , k ~
x2 , , k ~
xn ) + (k ~
y1 , k ~
y2 , , k ~
yn ) =
k (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) + k (~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn ) = k + k .
5. (7) Vi ,
i = 1, 2, , n, :
k (l ) = k [l (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn )] = k (l ~
x1 , l ~
x2 , , l ~
xn ) =
(k (l ~
x 1 ), k (l ~
x 2 ), , k (l ~
xn )) = (kl ~
x1 , kl ~
x2 , , kl ~
xn ) =
kl (~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ) = kl .
JJ
II
2.2.6
146 212
: F(S, V),
(1), . . . , (8)
V.
f, g, h : S
V , k, l K.
1. f +(g + h ) = (f + g)+ h - x S [f +(g + h )](x ) = [(f + g)h ](x ).
[f + (g + h )](x ) = f (x ) + (g + h )(x ) = f (x ) + [g(x ) + h (x )].
(1) V,
[f (x ) + g(x )] + h (x ) = (f + g)(x ) + h (x ) = [(f + g) + h ](x ). [f + (g + h )](x ) =
[(f + g)+ h ](x ). x V, f +(g + h ) = (f + g)+ h.
2. f + g = g + f 1.
3. ~
0 : S
V, ~
0(x ) = ~
0. x S,
~
~
~
(f + 0)(x ) = f (x ) + 0(x ) = f (x ) + 0. f (x ) V, (3) V,
f (x ) + ~
0 = f (x ). (f + ~
0)(x ) = f (x ), x S,
~
f + 0 = f . ~
0+f = f.
4. f : S
V : (f )(x ) := f (x ).
[f + (f )](x ) = f (x ) + (f )(x ) = f (x ) f (x ) = ~
0=~
0(x ). f + (f ) = ~
0
(f ) + f = ~
0.
5. (k + l ) f = k f + l f - x S [(k + l ) f ](x ) = (k f + l f )(x ).

F(S, V) (5) V, : [(k + l ) f ](x ) =
(k + l ) f (x ) = k f (x ) + l f (x ) = (k f )(x ) + (l f )(x ) = (k f + l f )(x ).
(k + l ) f = k f + l f .
6. k (f + g) = k f + k g
5.

,

.
JJ
II
147 212
7. k (l f ) = (kl ) f - x S : [k (l f )](x ) = [(kl ) f ](x ).

F(S, V)
(7) V, : [k (l f )](x ) = k [(l f )(x )] =
k [l f (x )] = (kl ) f (x ) = [(kl ) f ](x ). k (l f ) = (kl ) f .
8. 1 f = f - x S : (1 f )(x ) = f (x ).
(8) V, : (1 f )(x ) = 1 f (x ) = f (x ). 1 f = f .
2
2.2.10

,

.
JJ
II
148 212
: S = N0 V = K 2.2.10, A(K) =
F(S, K). (n )n 0 + (n )n 0 (n )n 0 , (n )n 0
+ n 7 (n ) = n n 7 (n ) = n .
k (n )n 0 k
n 7 (n ) = n k. , 2.2.10,
F(S, K) K,
A(K) K.
2
2.2.12

,

.
JJ
II
149 212
: S = Nm Nn V = K 2.2.10,
2.2.12.
2
2.3.2

,

.
JJ
II
150 212
: W -, ~
x W.
0~
x W 3. 3.1.3 . 0~
x = ~
0,
~
0 W. ~
x W, (1)~
x W. (1)~
x = ~
x ,
~
x W.
2
3.1.4

,

.
JJ
II
151 212
:
3.1.3 3.1.4.
2
3.1.6

,

.
JJ
II
152 212
: 1., 2. 3.1.3
.
3. h~
x i :
~
0 = 0~
x h~
x i.
~, ~
h~
x i, k, l K, :
~ = k~
x ~
= l~
x .
~
~ + = k~
x + l~
x = (k + l )~
x h~
x i.
~ = k~
x h~
x i, r K, :
r~
= r (k~
x ) = (rk )~
x h~
x i.
2
3.1.7

,

.
JJ
II
153 212
: ~
0 = 0~
x1 + 0~
x2 + 0~
xn , ~
0 hSi hSi , .
~
~, hSi.
~ = k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn ~
= l1 ~
x 1 + l2 ~
x2 + + ln ~
xn , ki , li K,
1 i n.
~+~
= (k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn ) + (l1 ~
x1 + l2 ~
x 2 + + ln ~
xn ) =
(k1 + l1 )~
x1 + (k2 + l2 )~
x2 + + (kn + ln )~
xn hSi. hSi
V. r K, r~
= r (k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x 2 + + kn ~
xn ) = (rk1 )~
x1 + (rk2 )~
x2 + + (rkn )~
xn hSi.
hSi V. hSi S
i = 1, 2, , n, ~
xi = 0~
x1 + 0~
x2 + + 0~
xi 1 + 1~
xi + 0~
xi +1 + + 0~
xn hSi.
S hSi. W V S W,
~ =
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x 2 + + kn ~
xn hSi. W S,
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , 3.1.3
n S, k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn W.
~ W.
hSi W.
2
3.2.6

,

.
JJ
II
154 212
: 1. ,
(2).
2. ~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i. ~
x = l1 ~
x1 + + li ~
xi + + ln ~
xn . k , 0,
: ~
x = l1 ~
x1 + + (li k 1 )k~
xi + + ln ~
xn .
~
x h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i
h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i. ~
x h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i, ~
x = m1 ~
x1 + +
mi (k~
xi ) + + mn ~
xn . ~
x = m1 ~
x1 + + (mi k )~
x i + + mn ~
xn
~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i. h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
x n i.
h~
x1 , , k~
xi , , ~
xn i = h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i.
3. ~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i, ~
x = l1 ~
x 1 + + li ~
x i + + lj ~
xj +
+ ln ~
xn , li K, 1 i n. ~
x = l1 ~
x1 +
+ li (~
xi + k~
xj ) + + (lj kli )~
xj + + ln ~
xn ,
li k~
xj ~
x . ~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi + k~
xj , , ~
xn i
h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i h~
x1 , , ~
xi +k~
xj , , ~
xn i. ~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi +
k~
xj , , ~
xn i, ~
x = m1 ~
x1 + + mi (~
xi + k~
xj ) + + m j ~
x j + + mn ~
x n, mi K,
1 i n. ~
x = m1 ~
x1 + + mi ~
xi + +(mi k + mj )~
xj +
+mn ~
xn . ~
x h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i h~
x1 , , ~
xi +k~
xj , , ~
xn i
h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
xn i. h~
x1 , , ~
xi + k~
xj , , ~
xn i = h~
x1 , , ~
xi , , ~
x n i.
3.2.8

,

.
JJ
II
155 212
: 3.1.4 V
~
0 V. ~
0 Wi , I, ~
0 i I Wi . i I Wi , .
~
x, ~
y i I Wi . ~
x, ~
y Wi , i I.
, i I, Wi V, ~
x +~
y Wi , i I.
~
x +~
y i I Wi i I Wi
. k K ~
x i I Wi , ~
x Wi , i I.
i I, Wi V, k~
x Wi , i I.
k~
x i I Wi . i I Wi
V.
2
3.3.1

,

.
JJ
II
156 212
: Z .
3.2.6 hSi W V S W.
hSi , hSi Z.
hSi V S
W Z.
Z hSi. hSi = Z.
2
3.3.2

,

.
JJ
II
157 212
: 2. 1. W1 W2 , W1 W2 = W2 W2 W1 ,
W1 W2 = W1 . .
1. 2. W1 W2 V W1
W2 , W1 * W2 . W2 W1 .
W1 * W2 , ( ) ~
x 0 W1
~
x < W2 . ~
y W2 . ~
x0 , ~
y
W1 W2 , ~
x0 + ~
y W1 W2 .
~
x0 + ~
y W1 ~
x0 + ~
y W2 . ~
x0 + ~
y W2 , ~
y W2
W2 , (~
x0 + ~
y) ~
y = ~
x0 W2 .
~
x0 < W2 . ~
x0 + ~
y W1 , ~
x0 W1 W1 ,
(~
x0 + ~
y) ~
x0 = ~
y W1 . ~
y W2
W1 , W2 W1 .
W2 * W1 , , W1 W2 .
2
3.3.4

,

.
JJ
II
158 212
: 3.1.4 ~
0 V
, Wi . ~
0 = ~
0+~
0 + + ~
0,
~
0 W1 + W2 + + Wn .
~
x = ~
x1 + + ~
xn ~
y = ~
y1 + + ~
yn W1 + W2 + + Wn .

( (1), (2)), : ~
x +~
y = (~
x1 + + ~
xn ) + (~
y1 + + ~
yn ) = (~
x1 + ~
y1 ) +
+ (~
xn + ~
yn ). Wi V ~
xi , ~
yi Wi , i = 1, , n,
~
xi + ~
yi Wi , i = 1, , n. ~
x +~
y W1 + W2 + + Wn . k K
~
x =~
x1 + + ~
xn W1 + W2 + + Wn , k~
x = k (~
x1 + + ~
xn ) = k~
x1 + + k~
xn .
Wi V ~
xi Wi , i = 1, , n, k~
xi Wi , i = 1, , n.
k~
x W1 + W2 + + Wn . W1 + W2 + + Wn
V.
i = 1, 2, , n, ~
xi Wi . , (3),
~
xi = ~
0 + + ~
0+~
xi + ~
0 + + ~
0 ~
0 Wi , ~
xi W1 +W2 + +Wn .
Wi W1 + W2 + + Wn , i = 1, 2, , n. W
V Wi W, i = 1, 2, , n. W
~
xi , ~
xi Wi , i = 1, 2, , n,
~
x1 + + ~
xn .
W1 + W2 + + Wn W1 + W2 + + Wn W.
2
3.3.7

,

.
JJ
II
159 212
: : 1. 2. 3. 1.
1. 2. Wi ~
x
W1 Wn
Wi :
~
x =~
x1 + + ~
xn = ~
y1 + + ~
yn , ~
xi , ~
yi Wi , i = 1, , n
()
i = 1, 2, , n, ~
yi ,
~
x1 + + ~
xi 1 + (~
xi ~
yi ) + ~
xi +1 + + ~
xn = ~
y1 + + ~
yi 1 + ~
yi +1 + + ~
yn . ~
x1 , , ~
x i 1 , ~
x i +1 , , ~
xn ,
~
x1 , , ~
xi 1 , ~
xi +1 , , ~
xn .
2.1.1 :
~
xi ~
yi = (~
y1 ~
x1 ) + + (~
yi 1 ~
xi 1 ) + (~
yi +1 ~
xi +1 ) + + (~
yn ~
xn )
()
(), Wi , ~
xi , ~
yi Wi .
W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi +1 + + Wn , ~
xj , ~
yj W j ,
j = 1, , n, j , i. ~
xi ~
yi Wi (W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi +1 + + Wn ).
Wi , {~
0},
~
xi = ~
yi . i = 1, 2, , n,
~
x W1 , , Wn .
2. 3. 2. ~
x1 + + ~
xn = ~
0, ~
xi Wi ,
i = 1, , n. ~
x1 + + ~
xn = ~
0+ +~
0 ~
0
Wi , ~
xi = ~
0, i = 1, , n.
3. 1. 3. ~
x V
Wi (W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi +1 + + Wn ). ~
x Wi
~
x =~
x1 + + ~
xi 1 + ~
xi +1 + + ~
xn , ~
xi Wi , i = 1, , i 1, i + 1, , n.
~
x , 2.1.1,

~
x1 + + ~
xi 1 + (~
x) + ~
xi +1 + + ~
xn = ~
0

,

.
JJ
II
160 212
( )
Wi ~
x Wi , ~
x Wi .
( ), W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi + Wi +1 + + Wn .
, ~
x =~
0 ~
xj = 0, j = 1, , i 1, i + 1, , n.
Wi (W1 + + Wi 1 + Wi +1 + + Wn ) = {~
0}.
i = 1, 2, , n, 3.3.9 W1 + W2 + + Wn
.
2
3.3.15

,

.
JJ
II
161 212
: 1. 2. V = W1 W2 Wn ,
V W1 + + Wn ,
Wi .
3.3.15 W1 + + Wn .
2. 1. 2. V = W1 + + Wn . ,
3.3.15,
.
2
3.3.16

,

.
JJ
II
162 212
: R2 (0, 0).
2
3.3.5

,

.
JJ
II
163 212
: R2 :
Z1 := {(0, x ) R2 | x R}, Zn := {((n 1)x, nx ) R2 | x R}, n 2.

2
3.3.19

,

.
JJ
II
164 212
: 3.1.9.
3.4.5

,

.
JJ
II
165 212
: mn Eij , 1 i m, 1 j n,
Eij (i, j)- 1 0. :
Eij =
0
..
.
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
0
..
.
0
..
.
..
.
0
..
.
1
..
.
0
..
.
..
.
0
..
.
0
..
.
0
1 j- i-.
Mm n (K) = hEij i1i m,1jn .
2
3.4.18
JJ
II
166 212
: 1. ~
x = ~
0, 1~
x = ~
0. 1 , 0, {~
0}
, {~
x } , ~
x ,~
0.
~
x , ~
0, k K : k~
x = ~
0. k , 0, k 1
k 1 k~
x = ~
0, k 1 (k~
x ) = k 1 ~
0 = ~
0.
1
~
(k k )~
x = 1~
x = ~
x = 0,
. k = 0, {~
x } .
2. ~
x1 , ~
x2 , k~
x1 + l~
x2 = ~
0, k, l K
l
x2 l , 0, ~
x2 = kl ~
x1 .
k , 0 l , 0. k , 0, ~
x1 = k ~
~
~
x2 = l~
x1 , l~
x1 + (1)~
x2 = 0, ~
x1 , ~
x2
~
x1 = k~
x2 , ~
x1 + (k )~
x2 = ~
0, ~
x1 , ~
x2
.
2
4.1.7
JJ
II
167 212
: 1. X = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn }
V, X0 := {~
xi1 , ~
xi2 , , ~
xik } X, {i1 , i2 , , ik } {1, 2, , n }. i1 ~
xi1 + + ik ~
xik = ~
0. {~
xik+1 , ~
xik+2 , , ~
x in }
X ( X = {~
xi1 , ~
xi2 , , ~
xik , ~
xik+1 , , ~
xin }), i1 ~
xi1 + + ik ~
xik + 0~
xik+1 + + 0~
xin = ~
0. X
, i1 = i2 = = in = 0. X0
.
2. X = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V,
X0 () . ~
xn +1 , , ~
xm
X0 , X0 = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , ~
xn +1 , , ~
xm }. X ,
k1 , k2 , , kn , 0, :
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0. : k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 +
+ kn ~
xn + 0~
xn +1 + + 0~
xm = ~
0. ki -,
~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , ~
xn +1 , , ~
xm .
2
4.1.13
JJ
II
168 212
: 1. X k1 , , kn
K, , : k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + ki 1 ~
xi 1 + ki ~
xi +
ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0. , , ki , 0. ki1 ,
ki1 k1 ~
x1 + ki1 k2 ~
x2 + + ki1 ki 1 ~
xi 1 + ~
xi + ki1 ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + ki1 kn ~
xn = ~
0.
1
1
~
xi = (ki k1 )~
x1 + (ki k2 )~
x2 + + (ki1 ki 1 )~
xi 1 +
(ki1 ki +1 )~
xi +1 + + (ki1 kn )~
xn . ~
xi
X.
X, .. ~
xi ,
, k1 , , ki 1 , ki +1 , , kn K,
~
x i = k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 + + ki 1 ~
xi 1 + ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + kn ~
xn .
k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + ki 1 ~
xi 1 +(1)~
xi + ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0
- ( ~
xi 1 , 0)
X . X
.
2. X {~
x } .
() : k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + ki 1 ~
xi 1 + ki ~
xi + ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + kn ~
xn + k~
x = ~
0,
k1 , , kn , k K 0.
k = 0, k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 + + ki 1 ~
xi 1 + ki ~
xi + ki +1 ~
xi +1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0,
, {~
x1 , , ~
xn },
k1 = = kn = 0, k1 , , kn , k
, 0. k , 0, () k 1 ,
~
x = (k 1 k1 )~
x1 + + k 1 kn ~
xn ~
x
~
x1 , , ~
xn . 1.
4.1.14
JJ
II
169 212
: 1. 2. k1 ~
x 1 + + kn ~
xn = l1 ~
x 1 + + ln ~
xn , ki , li K, 1 i n.
(k1 l1 )~
x1 + + (kn ln )~
xn = ~
0,
~
x1 , , ~
xn ki li = 0,
i = 1, , n. ki = li , i = 1, , n.
2. 1. k1 ~
x1 + + kn ~
xn = ~
0, ki K, 1 i n. 0~
x = ~
0,
~
x V, k1 ~
x1 + + kn ~
xn = 0~
x1 + + 0~
xn .
2. k1 = k2 = = kn = 0.
2
4.1.15
JJ
II
170 212
: 1. 2.
2
4.1.16
JJ
II
171 212
: 4.1.15
4.1.16.
2
4.2.2
JJ
II
172 212
: H H V
:
1. H H .
2. H H : F H G.
H := {H V | F H G H }
H -
, V 1. 2.
H -
F G, H
H G G .
B H .
B V
F
G: F B G. B B.
B ,
V. ~
x G G. ~
x B, ~
x
B. ~
x < B. B0 := B
{~
x }. B0 B B0 G
B,
B. B , 4.1.14
~
x B.
G V, B
G. ,
~
x B.
JJ
II
173 212
~
x G
B. G V,
B V. B V
F G.
2
4.2.4
JJ
II
174 212
: F = , F F G, 4.2.4 B V
B G. {i1 , i2 , , ik } {1, 2, , n }
B = {~
xi1 , ~
xi2 , , ~
xik } V.
2
4.2.5
JJ
II
175 212
: F = {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xk }. V , G0 V. G := F G0 .
G V
F :: F G. 4.2.4 B V
F B G. ~
x k +1 , ~
xk +2 , , ~
xn ,
n 1, {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xk , ~
xk +1 , ~
x k +2 , , ~
xn } V. 2
4.2.6
JJ
II
176 212
: : |F| > |G|

. G = {~
x1 , , ~
xn }.
|F| > n. F
n + 1 F F 0 := {~
y1 , , ~
yn , ~
yn +1 } F
n + 1 .
G F 0
V.
F ,
4.1.13 F 0 . G
V, ~
y1 F 0
G.
~
y1 = k 1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 + + kn ~
xn , ki K, 1 i n
( 1)
ki = 0, i = 1, , n, ~
y1 = ~
0 {~
y1 }
F 0
{~
0} 4.1.7. i = 1, , n
ki , 0. , ~
x1 , , ~
xn ,
k1 , 0. (1) k11 ,
y1 + (k11 k2 )~
x2 + + (k11 kn )~
xn
(1)0
~
x1 = k11 ~
{~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V ~
x1
~
y1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn , {~
y1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V.
~
y2 {~
y1 , ~
x2 ,
,~
xn }, :
~
y 2 = l1 ~
y1 + l 2 ~
x2 + + ln ~
xn , li K, 1 i n
(2)
li = 0, i = 2, , n, ~
y2 = l1 ~
y1 , ~
y1 , ~
y2
, {~
y1 , ~
y2 }
JJ
II
177 212
F 0 . i = 2, , n
li , 0. , ~
x2 , , ~
xn ,
l2 , 0. (2) l21 ,
~
x2 = l21 ~
y2 + (l21 l1 )~
y1 + (l21 l3 )~
x3 + + (l21 ln )~
xn
(2)0
{~
y1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn } V ~
x2
~
y1 , ~
y2 , ~
x3 , , ~
xn , {~
y1 , ~
y2 , ~
x3 , , ~
xn }
V.
~
x1 , ~
x2
G ~
y1 , ~
y2 {~
y1 , ~
y2 , ~
x3 , , ~
xn }
V.
G F 0 , n ,
G F 0 ,
{~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn } V. ,
(n + 1) , ~
yn +1 {~
y1 , ~
y2 ,
,~
yn }, :
~
yn + 1 = m 1 ~
y1 + m 2 ~
y2 + + m n ~
yn , mi K, 1 i n
( n + 1)
4.1.14 F = {~
y1 , ~
y2 , , ~
yn , ~
yn +1 }
.
|F| > |G|. |F| |G|.
2
4.3.1
JJ
II
178 212
: B V, B
. V , V
G. 4.3.1
|B| |G| < .
2
4.3.2
JJ
II
179 212
: 4.3.1:
B1 , B2 , V.
1. B1 B2 V,
: |B1 | |B2 |.
2. B2 B1 V,
: |B2 | |B1 |.
: |B1 | = |B2 |.
2
4.3.3
JJ
II
180 212
: n = 2
. B1 = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en } V1 B2 = {~
1 , ~
2 , , ~
m }
V2 .
B := {(~
e1 , ~
0), (~
e2 , ~
0), , (~
en , ~
0), (~
0, ~
1 ), (~
0, ~
2 ), , (~
0, ~
m )}
V1 V2 . B V1 V2 .
(~
x, ~
y) V1 V2 . ~
x V1 B1
V1 , ~
x = k1 ~
e1 + k2~
e 2 + + kn ~
en , ki K, 1 i n. ~
y V2
B2 V2 , ~
y = l1~
1 + l2~
2 + + lm ~
m , lj K,
1 j m.
(~
x, ~
y ) = (k1 ~
e 1 + k2 ~
e 2 + + kn ~
en , l1~
1 + l2~
2 + + lm ~
m ) =
k1 (~
e1 , ~
0) + k2 (~
e2 , ~
0) + + kn (~
en , ~
0) + l1 (~
0, ~
1 ) + l2 (~
0, ~
2 ) + + lm (~
0, ~
m )
B V1 V2 .
B . ki , lj K, 1 i n, 1 j m,
:
k1 (~
e1 , ~
0) + k2 (~
e2 , ~
0) + + kn (~
en , ~
0) + l1 (~
0, ~
1 ) + l2 (~
0, ~
2 ) + + lm (~
0, ~
m ) = (~
0, ~
0)

(k1~
e 1 + k2 ~
e2 + + kn ~
en , l1~
1 + l2~
2 + + lm ~
m ) = (~
0, ~
0)

k1 ~
e 1 + k2 ~
e2 + + kn ~
en = ~
0,
l1~
1 + l2~
2 + + lm ~
m = ~
0
B1 B2 ki = 0, i = 1, 2, , n
lj = 0, j = 1, 2, , m. B ,
V1 V2 .
JJ
II
181 212
dimK (V1 V2 ) = |B| = n + m = |B1 | + |B2 | = dimK V1 + dimK V2
2
4.3.10
JJ
II
182 212
: 1. 4.2.6, F
V V. dimK V = n, |F| n.
2. 4.2.5, G V
V. dimK V = n, |G| n.
3. 1.
4. B (a ), (b), B
V. B (a ), (c ), (a ) 4.2.6,
B B0 V. dimK V = n, B0 n
. B B0 |B| = n, B = B0 , B
V. B (b), (c ), (b) 4.2.5,
B B0 V. dimK V = n, B0 n
. B0 B |B| = n, B = B0 , B
V.
2
4.3.13
JJ
II
183 212
: dimK V = n < .
1. - 2. 4.3.13, V,
W, n + 1 . W
n. C := {~
1 , , ~
m } W
. C V, m n. ~
y W
C {~
y} = {~
1 , , ~
m , ~
y} m + 1 C . 4.1.14 ~
y
C, C W,
W . W , , dimK W = m = |C| n = dimK V.
3. V = W, dimK W = dimK V. dimK W = dimK V :=
n C W. C n
W, V.
4.3.13 C V.
V = hCi = W.
2
4.4.1
JJ
II
184 212
: C = {~
e1 , , ~
en } W D = {~
1 , , ~
m } Z.
1. 2. W + Z , W Z = {~
0} .
C D = {~
e1 , , ~
en , ~
1 , , ~
m },
W+Z, W+Z. k1~
e1 + +kn ~
en +l1~
1 + +lm ~
m = ~
0,
ki , lj K, 1 i n, 1 j m. :
k1~
e 1 + + kn ~
en = (l1 )~
1 + + (lm )~
m
()
(), W,
W. (),
Z, Z. )
WZ = {~
0}. k1~
e1 + + kn ~
en = ~
0 (l1 )~
1 + +(lm )~
m = ~
0.
{~
e1 , , ~
en } {~
1 , , ~
n } W
Z . k1 = = kn = 0 l1 = = lm = 0.
C D . ~
x W + Z
W + Z. w
~ W ~
z Z ~
x =w
~ +~
z.
C W, w
~ = k1~
e1 + + kn ~
en , ki K,
1 i n. D Z, ~
z = l1~
1 + + lm ~
m ,
lj K, 1 j m. ~
x =w
~ +~
z = k1 ~
e 1 + + kn ~
en + l1~
1 + + lm ~
m ,
C D W + Z. C D
W + Z :
dimK (W + Z) = |C D| = n + m = |C| + |D| = dimK W + dim Z.

2. 1. 1. 2. C D
W+Z. |CD| = dimK Z+dimK Z =
dimK (W + Z), 4.3.13 C D
W + Z. 1., W Z = {~
0} .
~
x W Z. ~
x W, C = {~
e1 , ~
en }
W, ~
x = k1 ~
e 1 + + kn ~
en , ki K, 1 i n. ~
x Z,
JJ
II
185 212
D = {~
1 , ~
m } Z, ~
x = l1~
1 + + lm ~
m ,
lj K, 1 j m. ~
x = k1~
e 1 + + kn ~
en = l1~
1 + + lm ~
m
k1 ~
e1 + + kn ~
en + (l1 )~
1 + + (lm )~
m = ~
0. , ,
{~
e1 , , ~
en , ~
1 , , ~
n } W + Z, ki = 0 = lj , 1 i n, 1 j m.
~
x =~
0. W Z = {~
0}, W + Z
.
2
4.4.3
JJ
II
186 212
: dimK V = n < . 4.4.1 W

dimK W = m n = dimK V. C = {~
1 , , ~
m }
W. 4.2.6 D :=
{~
m +1 , , ~
n } V, B := C D = {~
1 , , ~
m , ~
m +1 , , ~
n }
V. Z := hDi = h~
m +1 , , ~
n i. D
V ( B), D
Z. V = W Z. ~
x V. B
V, ~
x = k1~
1 + + km ~
m + km +1~
m +1 + + kn~
n .
w
~ = k1~
1 + + km ~
m ~
z = km +1~
m + 1 + + kn ~
n , W =
h~
1 , , ~
m i Z = h~
m +1 , , ~
n i, w
~ W ~
z Z.
~
x V ~
x=w
~ +~
z , w
~ W ~
z Z. V = W + Z.
dimK V = |B| = n + m = |C| + |D| = dimK W + dim Z, 4.4.3
W + Z . V = W Z.
2
;;
JJ
II
187 212
: C = {~
f1 , , ~
fk } W Z. W Z
W, 4.2.6, C W: {~
e1 , ~
en } W
D := {~
f1 , , ~
fk , ~
e1 , ~
en } W. W Z
Z, 4.2.6, C Z: {~
1 , ~
m } Z
E := {~
f1 , , ~
fk , ~
1 , ~
m } Z. :
1. dimK (W Z) = |C| = k.
2. dimK W = |D| = k + n.
3. dimK Z = |E| = k + m.
4. dimK W + dimK Z dimK (W Z) = (k + n ) + (k + m ) k = k + n + m.
B := {~
f1 , , ~
fk , ~
e1 , ~
en , ~
1 , ~
m }
W + Z, : dimK (W + Z) = |B| = k + n + m =
dimK W + dimK Z dimK (W Z) .
i , j , r K, 1 i k, 1 j n, 1 r m,
:
1 ~
f 1 + + k ~
f k + 1 ~
e 1 + + n ~
en + 1~
1 + + m ~
m = ~
0
JJ
II
188 212
( 1)
1 )~
e 1 + + n ~
en = (1 )~
f1 + + (k )~
fk + (1 )~
1 + + (m )~
m
( 2)
(2) W
Z. () W Z. {~
f1 , , ~
fk }
W Z, 1 , , k K
: 1 )~
e 1 + + n ~
en = 1~
f1 + + k ~
fk . :
1 ~
f1 + + k ~
fk + (1 )~
e1 + + (n )~
en = ~
0
(3)
f1 , , ~
fk , ~
e1 , ~
en } W,
{~
i = 0 = j , 1 i k, 1 j n. (1)
1 ~
f 1 + + k ~
fk + 1~
1 + + m ~
m = ~
0
(4)
{~
f1 , , ~
fk , ~
1 , ~
m } Z,
(4) i = 0 = j , 1 i k, 1 j m.
i , j , r 0 B .
B W+Z. ,
4.4.3, W Z
W + Z.
2
4.4.9
JJ
II
189 212
: ~
x1 + 2 ~
x 2 + + m ~
xm = ~
0. () :
1 (a11~
e1 + a12~
e2 + + a1n ~
en ) + 2 (a21~
e1 + a22~
e2 + + a2n ~
en ) + + m (am1~
e1 + am2~
e2 +
+ amn ~
en ) = ~
0.
(1 a11 + 2 a21 + + m am1 )~

e1 +
(1 a12 + 2 a22 + + m am2 )~
e2 +

(1 a1n + 2 a2n + + m amn )~
en = ~
0.
~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
en , :
1 a11 + 2 a21 + + m am1 = 0
1 a12 + 2 a22 + + m am2 = 0

1 a1n + 2 a2n + + m amn = 0
1 a11 = 0
1 a12 + 2 a22 = 0

1 a1n + 2 a2n + + m amm = 0
aii , 0, i = 1, 2, , m,
: 1 = 2 = = m = 0. {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xm }
r(~
xi ) = m.
2
4.5.3
JJ
II
190 212
: 1. ~
0+~
0=~
0, f f (~
0) = f (~
0+~
0) =
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
f (0) + f (0). 0 = f (0) f (0) = [f (0) + f (0)] f (0) = f (0) + [f (0) f (~
0)] =
f (~
0) + ~
0 = f (~
0) .
2. f : f (~
0) = f ((1)~
0) = (1)f (~
0) =
~
f (0).
3. f 2. : f (~
x ~
y) = f (~
x+
(~
y)) = f (~
x ) + f (~
y) = f (~
x ) f (~
y).
4. n 1 ~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xn .
n = 1 2. 5.1.1. n = 2,
5.1.1 : f (1 ~
x 1 + 2 ~
x2 ) = f (1 ~
x1 ) + f (2 ~
x2 ) = 1 f (~
x1 ) + 2 f (~
x2 ).
n 2 . ,
, f (1 ~
x1 + + n ~
xn + n +1 ~
xn +1 ) = f ((1 ~
x1 + + n ~
xn ) +
n +1 ~
xn +1 ) = f (1 ~
x1 + +n ~
xn )+f (n +1 ~
xn +1 ) = 1 f (~
x1 )+2 f (~
x2 )+ +n f (~
xn )+n +1 f (~
xn +1 ).
4. n 1.
2
5.1.2
.

.
JJ
II
191 212
: f ,
5.1.2. , f
= = 1 = 0 .
2
5.1.3
.

.
JJ
II
192 212
: 1. ~
x = (x1 , x 2 , , x n ), ~
y = (y1 , y2 , , yn ) Kn . : f (~
x +~
y) =
f ((x1 , x2 , , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , , yn )) = f (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , , xn + yn ) = a1 (x1 + y1 ) +
a2 (x2 + y2 ) + + an (xn + yn ) = (a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn ) + (a1 y1 + a2 y2 + + an yn ) =
f (~
x ) + f (~
y). 1. 5.1.1. K, :
f (~
x ) = f ((x1 , x2 , , xn )) = f (x1 , x2 , , xn ) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + an xn = (a1 x1 +
a2 x2 + + an xn ) = f (~
x ). 2. 5.1.1,
f .
2. f : Kn
K . a1 := f (~
e1 ), a2 :=
f (~
e2 ), , an := f (~
en ), ~
e1 = (1, 0, , 0), ~
e2 = (0, 1, , 0), , ~
en = (0, 0, , 1)
Kn . ~
x = (x1 , x2 , , xn ) Kn , ~
x =
x1 ~
e1 + x2~
e 2 + + xn ~
en . , f , :
f (~
x ) = f (x1~
e1 + x2~
e2 + + xn ~
en ) = x1 f (~
e1 )+ x2 f (~
e2 )+ + xn f (~
en ) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn .
a1 , a2 , , an .
2
5.1.10
.

.
JJ
II
193 212
: 1. 2. f m fi : Kn
K, fi (~
x ) = i- f (~
x ). fi
, i = 1, 2, , m. ~
x, ~
y Kn , K. f (~
x + ~
y) = f1 (~
x+

~
y), f2 (~
x + ~
y), , fm (~
x + ~
y) . f
f (~
x + ~
y)
=
=
=
=
f (~
x ) + f (~
y)
(f1 (~
x ), f2 (~
x ), , fm (~
x )) + (f1 (~
y), f2 (~
y), , fm (~
y))
(f1 (~
x ), f2 (~
x ), , fm (~
x )) + (f1 (~
y), f2 (~
y), , fm (~
y))
(f1 (~
x ) + f1 (~
y), f2 (~
x ) + f2 (~
y), , fm (~
x ) + fm (~
y))
fi (~
x + ~
y) = fi (~
x ) + f1 (~
y), i = 1, 2, , m, fi .
2. 3. 5.1.10.
2. 1. Km
fi , 1 i m, f .
5.1.12
JJ
II
194 212
: 1. V E, ~
0 V.
f , f (~
0) = ~
0. ~
0 f (V)
f (V) -. ~
z, w
~ f (V), , K. ~
x, ~
y V
f (~
x) = ~
z f (~
y) = w.
~ V E,
~
x + ~
y V. f (~
x + ~
y) f (V), f :
f (~
x + ~
y) = f (~
x ) + f (~
y) = ~
z + w
~ f (V). f (V)
F .
2. f f (~
0) = ~
0, W
1
~
~
E 0 W. 0 f (W) f 1 (W) . ~
x, ~
y f 1 (W) , K. f (~
x ), f (~
y) W, W
F , f (~
x ) + f (~
y) W. f
f (~
x ) + f (~
y) = f (~
x + ~
y) W, ~
x + ~
y f 1 (W).
1
2
f (W) E.
5.2.4
.

.
JJ
II
195 212
: V E, 5.2.4 f (V)
F , f (V) Im(f ) = f (E).
F . V1 , V2 E
Ker(f ): Ker(f ) Vi , i = 1, 2, : F(V1 ) = F(V2 ),
f (V1 ) = f (V2 ). V1 = V2 . ~
x V1 . f (~
x ) f (V1 ) = f (V2 ).
~
y V2 f (~
x ) = f (~
y), f (~
x ~
y) = ~
0 ~
x ~
y
Ker(f ). Ker(f ) V2 , ~
z := ~
x ~
y V2 . ~
x =~
z+~
y
V2 . V1 V2 . V2 V1 .
V1 = V2 F 1-1. W F
W Im(f ) = f (E). V := f 1 (W). 5.2.4 V
E. Ker(f ) V F(V) = W. ~
x Ker(f ),
f (~
x) = ~
0 W. ~
x f 1 (W) = V Ker(f ) V. ,
~ W, w
~ Im(f ) = f (E)
f (V) = F (f 1 (W)) W. w
w
~ = f (~
x ) ~
x E. ~
x f 1 (W) = V
w
~ = f (~
x ) f (f 1 (W)) = f (V). W = f (f 1 (W)) = f (V)
F(V) = W, F .
2
5.2.6
.

.
JJ
II
196 212
: ~
x, ~
y F g(~
x ) = g(~
y). f (g(~
x ) = f (g(~
y)),
f g = IdF , ~
x = (f g)(~
x ) = f (g(~
x )) = f (g(~
y)) = (f g)(~
y) = ~
y.
g . ~
y F . ~
y
f g = IdF , (f g)(~
y) = f (g(~
y)) = ~
y. f .
2
5.2.11
.

.
JJ
II
197 212
: 1. f , ~
x Ker(f ). f (~
x) = ~
0,
~
~
~
~
f (0) = 0, f (~
x ) = f (0). f 1-1 ~
x = 0.
~
0 Ker(f ) Ker(f ) = {~
0}. Ker(f ) = {~
0},
~
~
x, ~
y E f (~
x ) = f (~
y), f (~
x ~
y) = 0, ~
x ~
y Ker(f ) = {~
0}.
~
x =~
y f .
2. .
3. f . , f 1-1 ,
g := f 1 : F
E : f g = IdF
g f = IdE . g . ~
y1 , ~
y2 F ,
k1 , k2 K. f , ~
y1 , ~
y 2 , k1 ~
y1 + k 2 ~
y2 F
~
x1 , ~
x2 , ~
x3 E :
f (~
x1 ) = ~
y1 , f (~
x2 ) = ~
y2 , f (~
x 3 ) = k1 ~
y1 + k 2 ~
y2
(1)
g :
~
x1 = g(f (~
x1 )) = g(~
y1 ) , ~
x2 = g(f (~
x2 )) = g(~
y2 )
(2)
k1 f (x1 ) = k1 ~
y1 k2 f (x2 ) = k2 ~
y2 . f ,
f (k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x2 ) = k1 ~
y1 + k2 ~
y2 . g,
g(f (k1 ~
x 1 + k2 ~
x2 )) = k1 ~
x1 + k2 ~
x 2 = g (k1 ~
y1 + k 2 ~
y2 ). (2),

k1 g(~
y1 ) + k2 g(~
y2 ) = g ( k 1 ~
y1 + k 2 ~
y2 )
( 3)
(3) g .
g : F
E : f g = IdF g f = IdE , f
2
5.2.11.
5.2.12
JJ
II
198 212
: ~
x E E. B
E, , x1 , x2 , , xn K :
~
x = x1 ~
e 1 + x2 ~
e 2 + + xn ~
en
(1)
f : E
F
f : E
F, ~
x 7 f (~
x ) := x1 w
~ 1 + x2 w
~ 2 + + xn w
~n
( 2)
f ,
f : E
F ().
E
B, f .
f (). : ~
ei = 0~
e1 + 0~
e2 + + 1~
ei + + 0~
en ,
i = 1, 2, , n. f : f (~
ei ) = w
~ i , 1 i n.
~
x, ~
y E k, l K. ~
x, ~
y k~
x + l~
y
B:
~
x = x1 ~
e1 + x2~
e 2 + + xn ~
en
(3)
~
y = y1 ~
e 1 + y2 ~
e2 + + yn ~
en
(4)
k~
x + l~
y = z1~
e1 + z2 ~
e2 + + zn ~
en
(5)
(3) (4) k~
x + l~
y = (kx1 + ly1 )~
e1 +(kx2 + ly2 )~
e2 + +(kxn + lyn )~
en ,
: zi = kxi + lyi , 1 i n.
, f , :
f (~
x ) = x1 w
~ 1 + x2 w
~ 2 + + xn w
~n
f (~
y) = y1 w
~ 1 + y2 w
~ 2 + + yn w
~n
.

.
JJ
II
199 212
f (k~
x + l~
x ) = (kx1 + ly1 )w
~ 1 + (kx2 + ly2 )w
~ 2 + + (kxn + lyn )w
~n

kf (~
x ) + lf (~
y) = k (x1 w
~ 1 + x2 w
~ 2 + + xn w
~ n ) + + l (y1 w
~ 1 + y2 w
~ 2 + + yn w
~n)
f (k~
x + l~
y) = kf (~
x ) + lf (~
y), f .
g : E
F
(). f (~
ei ) = w
~ i = g(~
ei ), 1 i n.
g, (1) : g(~
x ) = g(x1~
e 1 + x2 ~
e2 + + xn ~
en ) = x1 g(~
e1 ) + x2 g(~
e2 ) +
+ xn g(~
en ) = x1 w
~ 1 + x2 w
~ 2 + + xn w
~ n = f (~
x ), f (~
x ) = g(~
x ). ~
x E
, f = g. f f : E
F
().
2
5.3.1
.

.
JJ
II
200 212
: E Ker(f ) E, Ker(f ) ,
4.4.1. k := dimK Ker(f ) C = {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
ek } Ker(f ). 4.2.6 ~
ek +1 , , ~
en E
B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
ek , ~
ek +1 , , ~
en } E. dimK E = n,
r(f ) = dimK Im(f ) = n k = dimK E dimK Ker(f ). ,

D := {f (~
ek +1 ), , f (~
en )}
Im(f ), r(f ) = dimK Im(f ) = |D| = n k.
D Im(f ).
D : lk +1 , , ln K
lk +1 f (~
ek +1 ) + + ln f (~
en ) = ~
0 ( f ) f (lk +1~
ek +1 +
~
+ ln ~
en ) = 0. lk +1~
ek +1 + + ln ~
en
Ker(f ) f ,
C. l1 , , lk K :
lk +1 ~
ek +1 + + ln ~
en = l1~
e1 + + lk ~
ek
.

.
(l1 )~
e1 + + (lk )~
ek + lk +1~
ek +1 + + ln ~
en = ~
0
l1 = = lk = lk +1 = = ln = 0, B := {~
e1 , ~
e2 , , ~
ek , ~
e k +1 , , ~
en }
E. D .
y Im(f ) ~
x E: f (~
x) =
D Im(f ): ~
~
y. B E, ~
x = l1 ~
e1 + + lk ~
ek + lk +1~
ek +1 + + ln ~
en ,
() lj K, 1 j n. ,
f ~
e1 , , ~
ek f (
JJ
II
201 212
f (~
ei ) = ~
0, 1 i k), : ~
y = f (~
x ) = f (l1~
e1 + + lk ~
ek + lk +1~
ek +1 + + ln ~
en ) =
l1 f (~
e1 ) + + lk f (~
ek ) + lk +1 f (~
ek +1 ) + + ln f (~
en ) = lk +1 f (~
ek +1 ) + + ln f (~
en ).
D Im(f ).
D = {f (~
ek +1 ), , f (~
en )}
Im(f ), r(f ) = dimK Im(f ) = |D| = n k = dimK E dimK Ker(f ).
dimK E = dimK Ker(f ) + r(f ).
2
5.4.2
.

.
JJ
II
202 212
: 1. 2. f : E
F , dimK E = dimK Ker(f ) +
r(f ) f . f ,
0} dimK Ker(f ) = 0. f
5.2.12 Ker(f ) = {~
, Im(f ) = F , r(f ) = dimK Im(f ) = dimK F .
dimK E = dimK F .
2. 1. dimK E = dimK F := n, B = {~
e1 , , ~
en }
C = {~
1 , , ~
n } E F .
5.3.1,
f : E
F, : f (~
ei ) = ~
i , 1 i n
g : F
E, : g(~
i ) = ~
ei , 1 i n
f g.
gf : E
E .
(g f )(~
ei ) = g(f (~
ei )) = g(~
i ) = ~
ei , 1 i n. IdE :
E
E Id(~
ei ) = ~
ei , 1 i n.
5.3.1, g f = IdE .
E F ,
f g = IdF . 5.2.12 f
g. E F .
2
5.4.5
.

.
JJ
II
203 212
: V W V + W E.
, 4.3.10, dimK (V W) = dimK V + dimK W.
:
f : V W V + W, (~
x, ~
y) 7 ~
x +~
y
( 4.3.15) f
. f , r(f ) = dimK (V +
W). f : dimK V +
dimK W = dimK Ker(f ) + dimK (V + W) dimK (V + W) = dimK V + dimK W
dimK Ker(f ). dimK Ker(f ) = dimK (V W).
Ker(f ) = {(~
x, ~
y) V W | f (~
x, ~
y) = ~
0}
= {(~
x, ~
y) V W | ~
x +~
y=~
0}
= {(~
x, ~
y) V W | ~
x = ~
y}
(~
x, ~
y) Ker(f ), ~
x = ~
y. V 3 ~
x = ~
y W,
Ker(f ) = {(~
x , ~
x) V W | ~
x V W}
.

.

g :VW
Ker(f ), ~
x 7 g(~
x ) = (~
x , ~
x)
g .
g . g , 1-1
Ker(g) = {~
x V W | g(~
x ) = (~
0, ~
0)} = {~
x V W | (~
x , ~
x ) = (~
0, ~
0)} = {~
0}.
V W Ker(f ) , dimK (V W) = dimK Ker(f ).
JJ
II
204 212
5.4.9
: 1. f , Ker(f ) = {~
0} dimK Ker(f ) =
0. dimK E = r(f ) =
dimK Im(f ). dimK F = dimK Im(f ).
4.4.1 F = Im(f ) f . f .
2. f , Im(f ) = F r(f ) = dimK Im(f ) =
dimK F. dimK E =
dimK Ker(f ) + dimK F. dimK E = dimK F,
dimK Ker(f ) = 0 Ker(f ) = {~
0}, f .
f .
2
5.4.12
.

.
JJ
II
205 212
: 1 V
K S , F(S, V) f : S
V (2.1) (2.2)
1 ( ),
K. S = E V = F ,
F(E, F) ( ) f : E
F
K. HomK (E, F)
F(E, F)
F(E, F), . :

.
OE,F : E
F, ~
x 7 OE,F (~
x) = ~
0, F(E, F),
HomK (E, F) F(E, F). HomK (E, F) , . HomK (E, F)
F(E, F) F(E, F), .
dimK E = m dimK F = n. HomK (E, F)
: dimK HomK (E, F) = mn.
B := {~
e1 , , ~
em } E C := {~
1 , , ~
n } F . i j 1 i m 1 j n.

fij : E
F, : fij (~
ek ) = ik~
j , 1 k m
~
x = x1 ~
e1 + + xm ~
em =
Pm
k =1
()
xk ~
ek , :
m
X
fij (~
x) = (
ik xk )~
j
k =1
.

.
JJ
II
206 212
nm fij HomK (E, F).

BHomK (E,F) := {fij | 1 i m, 1 j n }
HomK (E, F).

BHomK (E,F) : nm
{aij | 1 i m, 1 j n } K :
m X
n
X
aij fij = OE,F
i =1 j=1

, :
m X
n
X
i =1 j =1
aij fij ](~

ek ) =
m X
n
X
aij fij (~
ek ) = OE,F (~
ek ) = ~
0, 1 k m
() :
aij ik~
k = ~
0, 1 k m
i =1 j =1
:
n
X
i =1 j =1
m X
n
X
akj~
j = ~
0, 1 k m
j=1
JJ
II
C = {~
1 , , ~
n } F , k = 1, 2, , m:
207 212
kij = 0, 1 j n
{aij | 1 i m, 1 j n } ,
BHomK (E,F) .
BHomK (E,F) HomK (E, F): f : E

F
. f ~
ei B E,
f (~
ei ) C = {~
1 , , ~
n } F .
() {aij | 1 i m, 1 j n } K :
f (~
ei ) =
n
X
aij~
j , 1 i m
( 1)
j=1
f = i =1 j=1 aij fij .

. , 5.3.3
:
Pm Pn
f (~
ek ) =
XX

aij fij (~
ek ), k = 1, 2, , m
( 2)
i =1 j =1
, k = 1, 2, , m:
m
.
n
XX

aij fij (~
ek )
i =1 j =1
m X
n
X
aij fij (~
ek )
i =1 j=1
m X
n
X
aij ik~
j
i =1 j=1
n
X
akj~
j
j=1
= f (~
ek )
(2) f
fij . ,
BHomK (E,F) HomK (E, F).
JJ
II
208 212
BHomK (E,F) HomK (E, F),
|BHomK (E,F) | = nm, :
dimK HomK (E, F) = mn = dimK E dimK F

2
5.5.2
.

.
JJ
II
209 212
: 5.5.4 E E* .
5.4.5.
2
5.5.5
.

.
JJ
II
210 212
: 5.5.8 .
2
5.5.7
.

.
JJ
II
211 212
x ),
: 1. ~
y Im(f ), f (~
x) = ~
y ~
x E. ~
y = kf ( k1 ~
k , 0, ~
y Im(kf ). Im(f ) Im(kf ). ~
y Im(kf ),
~
y = (kf )(~
x ) = kf (~
x ) = f (k~
x ) Im(f ). Im(kf ) Im(f ), Im(f ) = Im(kf ).
2. ~
y Im(f + g). ~
y = (f + g)(~
x ), ~
x E. ~
y = f (~
x ) + g(~
x)
Im(f ) + Im(g). Im(f + g) Im(f ) + Im(g).
3. ~
y Im(g f ). ~
y = (g f )(~
x ) = g(f (~
x )) ~
x E.
~
y Im(g). Im(g f ) Im(g).
4. 3.
2
5.6.1
.

.
JJ
II
212 212

: ~
x = (0, 3, 0, 0) ~
y = (1, 2, 0, 0)
E, ~
x +~
y = (1, 1, 0, 0) < E.

,

.
JJ
II
213 212
: 3.1.11.

,

.
JJ
II
214 212
: ~
x = (1, 0, , 0), ~
y = (0, 1, , 0) W,
.

,

.
JJ
II
215 212
: 1 + t n , t n W, (1 + t n ) t n = 1 < W.

,

.
JJ
II
216 212
: (1, 1, , 1, ) W, (3)(1, 1, , 1, ) = (3, 3, , 3, ) .

,

.
JJ
II
217 212
: (1, 1, , 1, 0) W (0, 0, , 0, 1) W, (1, 1, , 1, 0) +

(0, 0, , 0, 1) = (1, 1, , 1, 1) < W.

,

.
JJ
II
218 212

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CAB := {CD D | CD AB}

CAB , , AB. CAB

(rk1 , rk2 , , rkn ) + (sk1 , sk2 , , skn ) =

. (f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s)

1. : A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mm n (K), A + B m n-

K[t ] := (an )n 0 A(K) | k N0 : an = 0, n > k .

(an )n 0 , (bn )n 0 K[t ],

(an )n 0 , (bn )n 0 K[t ] : (an )n 0 + (bn )n 0 := (an + bn )n 0 K[t ]

(an )n 0 , k K : k (an )n 0 := (kan )n 0 K[t ].

2.3.6 (an )n 0 K[t ] -

(cn )n 0 = (an )n 0 (bn )n 0 . an = 0, n > k

W1 := {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x12 + x22 = 1}, W2 := {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 , x2 0}

{(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) R4 | 2a1 3a2 + 8an + a4 = 0}

Sn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = aji , 1 i, j, n }

An n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aji = aij , 1 i, j, n }

ATn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0, i, j = 1, , n : i > j}

KTn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0, i, j = 1, , n : i < j}

Dn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Mn n (K) | aij = 0 i, j = 1, , n : i , j}

Bn n (K) := {A = (aij ) Dn n (K) | aii = ajj i, j = 1, , n }

: A S33 (R), B A33 (R), C AT33 (R), D KT33 (R).

Dn n (K), Bn n (K), Sn n (K), An n (K), ATn n (K), KTn n (K)

2(4, 3, 1) 7(6, 1, 0) + (7, 8, 9)

C2 C, i (2, 2) 8(3 + 5i, 4) + 7(1, 1 + i )

{(k, 0, k ) + (0, 2l, 0) | k, l R} = {(k, 2l, k ) | k, l R}

{k (1, 0, 1) + l (0, 1, 0) + m (0, 1, 1) R3 | k, l, m R} =

h1, t, t 2 , , t n i = {P (t ) K[t ] | deg P (t ) n } {0}

+ ai 1 (0, 0, , 1, li 1 , 0, , 0) + ai +1 (0, 0, , 0, li +1 , 1, , 0)+

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = 0

3.3.10 W1 , W2 , 3.3.9 W1 +W2 , W1 W2 , - W1 W2 =

F(R, R) = FA (R, R) F (R, R)

Mn n (K) = Sn n (K) An n (K)

V := {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn +2 = pxn +1 + qxn }

W1 = {(a, b, 0) | a, b R}, W2 = {(0, 0, c ) | c R}, W1 = {(d, 0, d ) | d R},

R2 [t ] = h1, t 1, (t 2)(t 1)i

3.4.17 V M22 (R), :

V = {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn = pxn 1 + qxn 2 }

(0) b0 = k0 a00 + k1 a10 + k2 a20 + + kn an0 .

(1) b1 = k1 a11 + k2 a21 + k3 a31 + + kn an1 .

: B = {1, t, t 2 , , t n } Kn [t ] ( 3.2.16). 4.1.9

3. dimR F(S, R) = , S , 4.3.15

dimK (V1 V2 Vn ) = dimK V1 + dimK V2 + + dimK Vn

2. (k1 , k2 , , kn ) , (0, 0, , 0). ,

2. dimK (W + Z) = dimK W + dimK Z.

2. dimK (W1 + W2 + + Wn ) = dimK W1 + dimK W2 + + dimK Wn .

dimK (W + Z) = dimK W + dimK Z dimK (W Z)

dimK (V + W) = dimK V + dimK W dimK (V W)

4.4.9, : dimK (V + W) = 2 + 3 dimK (V W) = 5 dimK (V W).

dimK (V W Z) dimK V + dimK W + dimK Z

r(A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) = r(A1 , A20 , A300 )

V := {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R4 | x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0}

V = {(xn )n 0 A(R) | xn = pxn 1 + qxn 2 }

dimK E = dimK Ker(f ) + r(f )

Im(f ) = {f (x, y, z ) | (x, y, z ) R3 } = {(x + 2y, y z, x + 2z ) | (x, y, z ) R3 }

= {(x, y, x ) + (2y, z + 2z ) | (x, y, z ) R }

= {(x (1, 0, 1) + y(0, 1, 0) + y(2, 0, 0) + z (0, 1, 2) | (x, y, z ) R3 } =

dimR Ker(f ) = 0. dimR R3 = dimR Ker(f ) + r(f )

5.4.8 5.4.6 5.4.7 . , ,