Latest

International
Teaching
Strategies
in
English
for
tertiary
level
that
are
applicable
in
Philippine setting
Submitted by
Mary Joy B. Castillo
BSED MT 2-1N
Submitted to
Marjerie Q. Cipriano
First Journal in English

The teaching and learning of English as a foreign language (EFL) has been the
major concern of researchers, pedagogics and teachers. It is widely discussed
and investigated all over the world. In non-English speaking contexts like
Vietnam, it is necessary to investigate how the EFL curriculum is interpreted by
teachers and how the teaching and learning of English has responded to the
students needs. It is expected that this paper will partly contribute to the
discussion through the investigation of classroom practices.
Teaching is as a limited set of activities involved in implementing a language
curriculum at the classroom level (Brown, 1995). Teaching consists of those
activities directly related to delivery of instruction. These activities which are
organized and facilitated cause learning (Dilts, Haber & Bialik, 1994). That
means teaching effectiveness is directly connected to the teachers success in
helping students to master the curriculum (Bailey, 2006), or successfully
achieves the learning by students intended by the teacher (Kyriacou, 2009). In
addition, Campbell, Kyriakides, Muijs and Robinson (2004) state that teaching
effectiveness is the impact that classroom factors, such as teaching methods,
teacher expectations, classroom organization, and use of classroom resources,
have on students performance. Teaching effectiveness requires teachers to

have a lot of qualities. In the light of literature and based on the objectives of the
research, the following qualities of teachers or aspects of teaching effectiveness
have been determined.
Planning and Preparing for the Lesson
Planning a language lesson has been noted as important aspects of teaching
effectiveness. Students think that evidence of a plan shows them that the teacher
has devoted time to thinking about the class. It shows students that the teacher is
professional and he or she respects them (Harmer, 1998). In addition, a welldesigned lesson plan gives the lesson a framework of what objectives the
students have to achieve by the end of the lesson; what the teacher and the
students are going to do. A good lesson plan needs to contain a judicious
combination of coherence and diversity (Harmer, 1998). That is to say, logical
activities and tasks must be planned and they must have connection with each
other, and thus students will have many different things to do during the lesson to
enhance their knowledge, skills and motivation.
Researchers like Ur (1996), Harmer (1998), Baker and West up (2000),
Woodward, (2001), Branson (2005), Screvener (2005), Kyriacou (2007) and
Morine-Dershimer (2011) have indicated that when planning a language lesson,
there are at least eight areas a language teacher needs to think about: a) the
objectives of the lesson to identify what the students will learn: The objectives
must focus on language areas such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation,
language function, and language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and
writing; b) the activities or tasks carried out during the class: They must be
planned in accordance with the students abilities and language needs to achieve
the objectives; d) the time allocation to each part or activity of the lesson must be
divided equally and relevantly for each activity; e) classroom management
methods: The teacher has to think about how to organize each activity; f)
solutions to unexpected situations during the class: For example, what a teacher
should do if the students find the lesson is too difficult; g) the resources and
technology used during the lesson including material, cassette, tape or CD,
poster or pictures and so on; and h) the methods to assess the objectives of the
lesson: That means at the end of the class the teacher must check whether the
students have achieved the set objectives. Overall, the above factors decide
teaching effectiveness, teachers should take them into account when they plan a
lesson in order to meet students needs and the curriculum goals.
Managing the Classroom
It is important to organize lessons well and manage the classroom effectively as
Baker and West up (2000) indicate, a teacher needs to teach the syllabus and
help students learn well and succeed. In order to manage classrooms effectively,
EFL teachers must be thoroughly prepared and keep their students actively
involved in the teaching and learning process through a lot of tasks and
techniques (Landau, 2009), including: a) Arranging the classroom for effective
instruction like pair and group work because pair work and group work is a
cooperative activity (Wright, 2005). They promote learner responsibility and
autonomy (Brown, 2000), encourage students to participate in learning tasks to

reach a goal, give students lots of practice in using the target language (Magrath,
2010), allows the weaker, and quieter students to work with the stronger to
increase their talking time (Marzano et al., 2005); b) Balancing teacher talking
time and student talking time is also an important element of teaching
effectiveness. Teachers must talk less in class, but plan how and when students
can have more speaking (Marzano et al., 2005). What is more, according to
McLeod, Fisher, and Hoover (2003), the efficient use of time is an important
variable in helping students achieve learning goals and making the classroom a
pleasant place for teachers and students; c) Giving clear instructions help
teachers save time and support students in doing tasks quickly and effectively
(Dornyei & Murphey, 2003). In the non-native speaking context, when telling
students what to do, teachers should use simple, short and clear English phrases
as often as possible; d) Teachers should be aware of what students are doing
and how they are feeling so managing disruptive behavior constructively is of
vital importance. Doing so, it allows teachers to monitor and pace instruction
based on the individual needs of students. As a result, it leads to a successful
and effective language lesson.
Motivating Students to Learn
Motivation plays an important role in foreign and second language acquisition.
Teachers should employ different techniques or strategies to draw students
attention and to make them interested in a language lesson even when students
are not initially interested in it (Harmer, 1998). Researchers indicate that teachers
must make sure that they include a variety of teaching approaches in their
lessons, to keep students motivated and to help them learn better and achieve
learning objectives (Baker & West up, 2000; Westwood, 2008). In addition,
topics, issues, or subject matter should be interesting, relevant and intrinsically
motivating, and learning experiences should take place in real-life situations
where the relevant knowledge and skills will really be needed and used. Another
important aspect is that, as Ushioda (2008) emphasizes, teachers can effectively
motivate students by encouraging them to be responsible for their own learning,
maintaining a well-organized learning environment, setting high expectation and
providing consolidation and encouragement during class hours. Last but not
least, giving feedback, as Kyriacou (2009) identifies, is one of the most powerful
modification techniques for increasing learning outcomes in students. Providing
feedback in a timely manner will enhance learning. According to Harmer (1998),
feedback is often considered as a vital part of the teacher s role and one of the
things that students expect from their teachers. That is why language teachers
should develop different techniques to give meaningful feedback to attract
students attention in the learning. Overall, getting students involved and
motivated in learning requires teachers finding ways of developing and sustaining
motivation through the long and hard process of learning a language. Doing so,
teachers will be able to help students achieve their learning goals (Johnson &
Johnson, 2003).
Interacting and Communicating with Students
Teachers must be responsible for pulling students into participation in learning
activities and for creating a warm, comfortable and relaxing classroom
atmosphere. Teacher-student interaction plays an important role in ensuring the

comfort and sense of belonging in the classroom (Engle hart, 2009). A positive
teacher-student interaction brings achievement to students. Teachers must show
concern and respect to students. Other jobs teachers have to do are to make
contact with students during the lesson, pay attention to what they are doing, ask
the students questions and invite them to take other opportunities (Harmer,
1998). Also, Westwood (2008) indicates that teachers not only focus on teaching
skills but also create a positive classroom climate in which students feel valued,
trusted and supported. The teacher has to demonstrate enthusiasm,
involvement, and interest in lesson presentation, in helping students acquire the
target language. Language teachers not only know how to convey their
knowledge to students and help them to improve their skills, but they must
sometimes praise or criticize their work during the class hours (Wright, 2005;
Westwood, 2008). Overall, teaching effectiveness requires EFL teachers to have
a lot of qualities. They must have knowledge of the target language, good skills
and pedagogy. In addition, on implementing a language lesson, teachers have to
carry out what they have mentioned in the lesson plan such elements as
objectives of the lesson, content topic, and techniques and strategies of teaching,
managing the class, motivating, communicating and interacting with the students.

Second Journal in English

The use of motivational strategies is of immense significance to English as a
Second Language (ESL) teaching. Teachers have a decisive role to play in the
selection and implementation of these strategies. The current study aimed to
investigate the use of motivational strategies by a group of 19 technical writing
instructors at VIT University, Vellore. Apart from conducting semi- structured
interviews, the Motivational Strategies Questionnaire (Cheng & Drnyei, 2007)
was adapted to study the frequency of use 27 strategies by the instructors.

Statistical analysis was carried out through descriptive statistical procedures

such as frequencies, means, standard deviation and reliability test. The results
show that the mean values of Give clear instructions about how to carry out a
task by modeling every step that students will need to do and Give good
reasons to students as to why a particular activity is meaningful or important
strategies, under the Present task properly category, were higher than that of the
other motivational strategies.
Motivation has been broadly recognized by scholars and researchers as one
of the major factors that determine the level and success of second
language learning. Motivation is identified as a combination of internal and
external factors that arouses desire and forces us to be continually interested in
attaining a certain goal.
Motivation is believed to determine why people decide to do what they do, how
long they are willing to sustain the activity and how hard they are going to pursue
it. Teachers are the most vital sources of second language learners
motivation to learn a language. They act as initiators, facilitators, mentors,
consultants and moral supporters. So teachers have a huge responsibility to
enhance learners motivation and keep it alive throughout the learning process.
To create and sustain motivation, implementation of motivational strategies and
the role of the teacher is recognized as being highly significant at all
stages of the motivational process.
A. Major Strategies
a) Promote learners self-confidence: Self-confidence plays a significant role in
generating stimuli of can-do-spirit among learners. Self-confidence is not directly
related to ones ability rather to what they think they know or can do. Self-esteem
involves the generative aspect of the self, to allow the evaluation not just of
current relational value, but expected value in future interactions. Our results
show that 37.8% instructors claimed to very frequently create self-confidence and
32.6% seldom do so in the classroom. This strategy comes out with an average
mean of 3.7, which is slightly higher than the other strategies except present
task properly
b) Creating a pleasant classroom climate: Classroom climate reduces the feeling
of discomfort and increases the pleasant feeling for learning. Attitude towards
language learning determines that a teacher should be aware of student anxiety
created by the tense classroom climate ,which is one of the most
important factors that weaken second language motivation. Among various
strategies only two strategies, Avoid 'social comparison' amongst your
students (i.e. comparing them to each other for example when listing their
grades in public) and Use short and interesting opening activities to start
each class (e.g. fun games) have a low mean of 3.5 and a high standard
deviation of 1.4327, 1.3068 respectively. So, it seems the instructors want
to avoid social comparison and use interesting activities to start a class. It is
found that 34.2% of the instructors adapted to the classroom climate.
c) Present task properly: Dornier suggests that task preparation should involve

strategies to stimulate students eagerness to perform the task. Task

presentation is a major constitute of the direct socialization of student
motivation. In this study, the two prominent strategies Give clear
instructions about how to carry out a task by modeling every step that
students will need to do with a mean of 4.105 and Give good reasons to
students as to why a particular activity is meaningful or important with a
mean of 4.316, were followed by most of the instructors to induce
motivation among the learners. Low standard deviation of 07375 and 0.6710
show the significance of the results. This major strategy comes out with
the highest percentage of 47.3, which reflects the most frequent usage of task
presentation in language classrooms.
d) Make the learning tasks stimulating: Prabhu points out that a task is
incidental rather than systematic in nature. Task stimulating strategies were
frequently used by the teachers in their classrooms, which in turn become more
manageable and have a friendly atmosphere. However lack of time and resource
prevent them from using this strategy often. Hence, 32.7% of the instructors used
this strategy sometimes, 28.07% often and 23.6% always. This major strategy
obtained an average mean of 3.4, which was lower than that of all the
major strategies.
e) Promote learners autonomy: Learners autonomy was recognized as a
potential effective motivational strategy in the Hungarian study. Valerian
emphasized that self-determination paradigms were more effective than other
paradigms in motivation. Enhancement in students motivation occurs when
they are given the responsibility for their autonomous learning, where
they can predict the success or failure through their effort. In this study
324% of the instructors often provided an independent learning situation,
26.3% invariably and 25.4% occasionally in classroom. The average mean
of this strategy was 3.6, which was close to promote learners self-confident
strategy.
f) Recognize students effort: The learners with high interest exert
substantially more effort that learners with low interest. As per the results, 36.7%
of the instructors recognized the learners effort frequently, and 31.5% rarely
recognized it. The mean of 3.6 was identified from the results.
Teachers have a decisive role to play in the selection and implementation of
these strategies
Create and sustain motivation, implementation of motivational strategies and the
role of the teacher is recognized as being highly significant at all stages of
the motivational process.

Third Journal in English

This resource offers strategies for academic staff who teach students from a wide
range of cultural backgrounds, in particular, students whose first language is not
English. Although the ideas and suggestions in the resource are focused on the
teaching of international students, the pedagogy and strategies are equally
pertinent for teaching all students. The aim of this resource is to help staff to
engage international students in their learning and to develop students personal
and intellectual confidence so they may progress towards the goal of
independent learning. Underpinning many of the suggested teaching strategies is
the view that new and not so new international students require additional
patience and coaching from teachers to help them adjust to the different culture
of university study in New Zealand. It is widely recognized that in addition to the
usual intellectual, social and financial challenges of tertiary education, many new
international students must also deal with culture shock and language problems
which can negatively impact on their capacity to engage in their work.
Furthermore, the learning context and teaching approaches may be radically
different to what the students have previously experienced and mastered.
Working with international students can provide opportunities for wonderfully
enriching teaching experiences. We hope this resource will help you make the
most of these opportunities. Andrea Haines, Doreen Hartnall, Dorothy Spiller,
Grant Harris and Peter Denham

Building effective relationships within the classroom

Challenges for international students may:

Lack language and social confidence to participate effectively in the

classroom;

Experience negativity or indifference from local students;

Not understand local culture and social norms;

Not understand learning expectations and teacher-student relationships in

the New Zealand classroom;

Generally, feel isolated, alienated and uncertain.

Teaching strategies

Learn the correct pronunciation of your students names.

Provide opportunities for students to learn about each other. Ask students
to write a brief pen portrait of themselves in one of the early sessions; ask
students to interview each other for a few minutes and then report back to

the whole group set three or four specific questions such as where they
have come from, what courses they are taking, what other commitments
they have in their week, what leisure interests they have.

Provide some background information about yourself.

Be available to your students out of class at particular times provide

office hours or email availability if that suits the way you work.

Provide a positive model within the class e.g. punctuality, preparedness,

respect for difference, asking questions rather than giving answers.

Invite examples from other cultures.

Be open-minded.

Model thinking skills such as grouping, ranking or critiquing ideas.

Build a positive learning environment by allowing time at the beginning of

semester for students within the class to meet and mingle.

Use icebreakers to create a positive environment.

Plan regular smaller group activities.

Mix groups and rotate tasks such as recording or reporting ideas.

Build in small paired tasks in early sessions related to course work.

Encourage students to sit in a different place each time or to work with

different classmates.

Explain objectives clearly and their connection with the course.

Take time at the beginning of the course (and sometime later) to go over
the course outline, objectives, assessment requirements and set readings.

Make time to review key language and concepts.

Remind students of how new topics/modules relate to what they have

previously learnt.

Examine assumptions that underpin the course shared values, common

terms and concepts, and background knowledge that we might easily take
for granted.

Clarify expectations at the beginning of the course and revisit these later
on the expectations of the course and your own expectations (e.g. that
people are expected to be punctual, participate in all activities, prepare
reading ahead, and listen to each other without interruption).

Give opportunities for articulation of ideas; this is a chance to practice the

terms in the discourse and to move towards fuller understanding by
putting thoughts into words. This can be done through small group work,
reporting back or tasks such as small presentations. This reduces the
pressure of being called on to contribute in front of the whole class.

Check understanding watch pace of delivery, phrasing and accent.

Repeat and rephrase ideas and comments examples help you to slow
down and explain the main idea.

Reinforce the spoken word with the written form where it is likely to be
helpful.

Check for ambiguity and confusion.

Integrating learning strategies into teaching

Challenges for international students may:

Be unfamiliar with learning approaches;

Have difficulty articulating their uncertainties;

Need opportunities to practice tasks. Teaching strategies

Establish a buddy system for the semester have students work in pairs
on assigned tasks such as recapping an idea, summarizing a concept,
applying an idea to a problem or a different concept.

Use regular icebreakers.

Invite students to bring in examples from their own cultures.

Have students work in pairs or in groups. Have them draw up a sheet with

two columns - on one side are general concepts, theories, ideas from the
reading, on the other side are particular examples or evidence. Students
then have to match the general idea with the appropriate supporting
example or item of evidence (See Angelo & Cross, 1993).

Ask students to write a one sentence summary of the main point of the
class.

Use chain notes. In the lecture pass around a large envelope which has a
question written on it relating to the session. Students write their
responses on cards and put them in the envelope. This encourages the
students to engage in a lively way with the material, but will also give you
rapid feedback on the students understanding (Angelo & Cross, 1993).

Have students exchange lecture notes with a class - mate at the beginning
of a tutorial and give each other feedback on the notes.

Ask students to explain a course concept to a particular audience and/or

use a particular format. Examples include a letter to a friend who may be
considering the course, a letter to the newspaper, an explanation to a
school class, a conversation with their mother, an interview with the author
of an article.

Forth Journal in English

This study aims to discuss students and teachers awareness of various
aspects of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and in light of the results,
consider the pedagogical implications. Both students and teachers showed
positive attitude with some reservation toward four domains of CLT: group/pair
work, grammar, student/teacher role, and peer/teacher correction. The results
also showed that the difficultiesteacher-related, student-related, and
educational-system relatedencountered by non-native English teachers were
complex. Teacher-related constraints included teachers low confidence in
spoken English, deficiency in strategic and sociolinguistic competence,
unfamiliarity with the target culture, lack of proper training in CLT, and low
willingness to prepare communicative materials. Student-related constraints were
mainly due to students insufficient proficiency, and educational-system related
limitations consisting of large classes and grammar-based examinations. The
findings of this study, which corroborated those of previous studies, suggest that
many of the difficulties encountered by both Taiwanese students and English
teachers over the past decades still persist to this day.
Beginning in the 1970s, voice for improving studentscommunicative competence
became louder; the thought of adopting another practical teaching method
emerged. The Grammar-Translation and Audio-lingual have been two of the most
popular teaching approaches in Taiwan. As a result, communicative competence
has long been neglected by Taiwanese teachers and students. Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) is one of the methods which accentuates its goal of
language teaching on communicative competence (Hymes, 1972). It is seen as a
teaching innovation and has widely spread over the past two decades. CLT is
arguably todays most popular teaching method in the field of English language
teaching (ELT). From its introduction into discussions of language and language
learning, the term communicative competence has prompted reflection.
Although it is extensively practiced in the English as a second language (ESL)

setting, CLT is not successfully applied in the English as a foreign language

(EFL) setting. English teachers from countries such as China, Greece, South
Korea, and Turkey have made attempts to implement CLT; however, research
has shown that English teachers from these countries have faced many
constraints that have hindered them from fully adopting this approach (Burnaby
and Sun, 1989; Eveyik-Aydin, 2003; Karavas-Doukas, 1996; Li, 1998). Some of
the more common constraints include large classes, grammar-based
examinations, teachers low English proficiency and lack of cultural knowledge,
lack of communicative teaching materials, and students low English proficiency.
The results from the above studies affirmed the importance of understanding and
taking into account teachers and students attitudes toward an innovative
teaching approach (CLT) when attempting to implement such an approach.
Communicative Language Teaching is an approach which highlights
communicative competence as the goal of language teaching. It is one of the
communication-based English teaching approaches emphasizing the pragmatic,
authentic, and functional use of the target language for meaningful purposes.
(Brown, 1994) According to Larsen-Freeman (2000), CLT consists of the
following characteristics. Its primary goal is to develop communicative
competence in language learners, enabling them to communicate using the
target language, which requires not only knowledge of linguistic form and
meaning but also function. Language learners acquire the ability to differentiate
between the various functions that a form may have and to choose the
appropriate form that is suitable to the given context. They learn to negotiate
meaning in a conversation. In CLT, the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator,
advisor, and co-communicator,and the role of the students is to communicate
by participating in meaning-negotiation activities and to manage their own
learning. Students work, not only as a whole group, but also in pairs and small
groups. Activities considered truly communicative are those that include an
information gap, choice, and feedback (Morrow, 1981, as cited in LarsenFreeman, 2000). Information gap refers to the need of one interlocutor to obtain
an unknown piece of information from the other. Choice is being able to decide
what one will say and how one will say it, and feedback from participants in a
conversation ascertains that the communication is purposeful.
Data were collected through the Communicative Language Teaching Attitude
Scale (COLTAS) that was developed by Eveyik-Aydin (2003). Although this
instrument was intended for the Turkish EFL context, it is, nevertheless,
applicable to the Taiwan EFL context because of the similarities in both settings
and also because the statements are not so specific as to limit it to one particular
setting. This instrument is a five-point Likert type attitude scale consisting of 36
statements developed based on the fundamental characteristics of CLT and
categorized into four domains: group/pair work activities, place of grammar,
student/teacher role, and peer/teacher correction (see Appendix A). Of all the
statements, half of them have been designated as negative because they
support the traditional perspective on language teaching, while the other half
have been designated as positive because they reflect the principles of CLT.
In this instrument, the positive items on the scale, those that reflect the principles
of CLT, were assigned a high score of 5 for strongly agree (SA) down to a
low score of 1 for strongly disagree(SD). The negative items on the scale,
those that reflect a traditional view of language teaching, were assigned a
reverse score of 1 for strongly agree up to 5 for strongly disagree. Thus,

the participants who were more in favor of the communicative approach would
have selected a larger number of scores between 4 and 5, and those who were
more in favor of the traditional approach would have selected a larger number of
scores between 1 and 2. The higher the scores obtained on COLTAS, the more
favorable were the participants attitudes toward CLT, and the lower the score,
the less favorable the participants attitudes. Scores for each participant were
calculated and placed within the following categories. Scores between 180 and
144 (36x4) revealed a very favorable attitude toward CLT, whereas scores
between 36 and 72 (36x2) revealed a very unfavorable attitude. A score of 108
(36x3) revealed a neutral attitude toward CLT. Scores between 109 and 143
showed a favorable attitude with some reservations toward CLT, while scores
between 73 and 107 reflected unfavorable attitudes with some reservations. The
importance of communication is generally accepted by teachers and students
alike, researchers indicated that Asian learners seem reluctant or unwilling to
communicate using the target language.

Latest
International
Teaching
Strategies
in
Mathematics
for
tertiary
level
that
are applicable
in
Philippine
setting

Submitted by
Mary Joy B. Castillo
BSED MT 2-1N

Submitted to
Marjerie Q. Cipriano
First Journal in Mathematics

Motivating students to be (enthusiastically) receptive is one of the most important

aspects of mathematics instruction and a critical aspect of the Common Core
State Standards. Effective teachers should focus attention on the less interested
students as well as the motivated ones. Presented in this blog post are nine
techniques, based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which can be used to
motivate secondary school students in mathematics.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation involves rewards that occur outside the learner's control.
These may include token economic rewards for good performance, peer
acceptance of good performance, avoidance of "punishment" by performing well,
praise for good work and so on.
However, many students demonstrate intrinsic goals in their desire to
understand a topic or concept (task-related), to outperform others (ego-related),
or to impress others (social-related). The last goal straddles the fence between
intrinsic and extrinsic.
With these basic concepts in mind, there are specific techniques which might be
expanded, embellished and adapted to the teacher's personality and, above all,
made appropriate for the learner's level of ability and environment. The strategies
are the important parts to remember -- examples are provided merely to help
understand the techniques.
Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation in Math
1. Call Attention to a Void in Students' Knowledge
This motivational technique involves making students aware of a void in their
knowledge and capitalizes on their desire to learn more. For instance, you may
present a few simple exercises involving familiar situations, followed by exercises
involving unfamiliar situations on the same topic. The more dramatically you do
this, the more effective the motivation.
2. Show a Sequential Achievement

Closely related to the preceding technique is that of having students appreciate a

logical sequence of concepts. This differs from the previous method in that it
depends on students' desire to increase, but not complete, their knowledge. One
example of a sequential process is how special quadrilaterals lead from one to
another, from the point of view of their properties.
3. Discovering a Pattern
Setting up a contrived situation that leads students to "discovering" a pattern can
often be quite motivating, as they take pleasure in finding and then "owning" an
idea. An example could be adding the numbers from 1 to 100. Rather than
adding in sequence, students add the first and last (1 + 100 = 101), and then the
second and next-to-last (2 + 99 = 101), and so on. Then all one has to do to get
the required sum is multiplying 50 X 101 = 5,050. The exercise will give students
an enlightening experience.
4. Present a Challenge
When students are challenged intellectually, they react with enthusiasm. Great
care must be taken in selecting the challenge. The problem (if that is the type of
challenge) must definitely lead into the lesson and be within reach of the
students' abilities.
5. Entice the Class with a Gee-Whiz Mathematical Result
To motivate basic belief in probability, a very effect motivation is a class
discussion of the famous "Birthday Problem," which gives the unexpectedly high
probability of birthday matches in relatively small groups. Its amazing -- even
unbelievable -- result will leave the class in awe.
6. Indicate the Usefulness of a Topic
Introduce a practical application of genuine interest to the class at the beginning
of a lesson. For example, in the high school geometry course, a student could be
asked to find the diameter of a plate where all the information he or she has is a
section smaller that a semicircle. The applications chosen should be brief and
uncomplicated to motivate the lesson rather than detract from it.
7. Use Recreational Mathematics
Recreational motivation consists of puzzles, games, paradoxes or facilities. In
addition to being selected for their specific motivational gain, these devices must
be brief and simple. An effective execution of this technique will allow students to
complete the "recreation" without much effort.
8. Tell a Pertinent Story

A story of a historical event (for example, math involved in building the Brooklyn
Bridge) or contrived situation can motivate students. Teachers should not rush
while telling the story. A hurried presentation minimizes the potential motivation of
the strategy.
9. Get Students Actively Involved in Justifying Mathematical Curiosities
One of the more effective techniques for motivating students is asking them to
justify one of many pertinent mathematical curiosities. The students should be
familiar and comfortable with the mathematical curiosity before you "challenge"
them to defend it.
Teachers of mathematics must understand the basic motives already present in
their learners. The teacher can then play on these motivations to maximize
engagement and enhance the effectiveness of the teaching process. Exploiting
student motivations and affinities can lead to the development of artificial
mathematical problems and situations. But if such methods generate genuine
interest in a topic, the techniques are eminently fair and desirable.
For motivating the students in Mathematics, these are the strategies for them not
only for primary or secondary but also in tertiary. We also need motivation. We
also need attention and a creative lesson from the teacher just to take our
attention and interest to the subject Mathematics.
There are several ways to help students make the transition from passive
listeners to active participants in their own learning (Orzechowksi, 1995):

Start off slowly; students may not have much experience in active
learning.

Introduce change at the beginning of a course, rather than midway

through.

Avoid giving students the impression that you are "experimenting" with
them.
LECTURES
Evidence from a number of disciplines suggests that oral presentations to
large groups of passive students contribute very little to real learning. In
physics, standard lectures do not help most students develop conceptual
understanding of fundamental processes in electricity and in mechanics
(Arons, 1983; McDermott and Shaffer, 1992; McDermott et al., 1994).
Similarly, student grades in a large general chemistry lecture course do
not correlate with the lecturing skills and experience of the instructor (Birk
and Foster, 1993).

Second Journal in Mathematics

Teaching Problem Solving Skills
Strategy training has been helpful to students with LD when learning
mathematical concepts and procedures. The following are a few examples
of strategies that are useful to teachers when instructing students with LD in
problem solving.
RIDE (Mercer, Mercer, & Pullen, 2011)
RIDE is a strategy used to assist students with solving word problems.
Students
who experience difficulty with abstract reasoning, attention,
memory, and/or visual
spatial skills may benefit from the strategy. Ensure that
steps are taught through demonstration and plenty of opportunities for practice

are provided before asking

students to independently use the strategy.
Visually display the strategy on a chart or
class website as a reminder.
R-- Remember the problem correctly
I-- Identify the relevant information
D-- Determine the operations and unit for expressing the answer
E-- Enter the correct numbers, calculate and check the answer
FAST DRAW (Mercer & Miller, 1992)
Like RIDE, FAST DRAW is another strategy used to solve word problems.
Teach each step in the sequence allowing sufficient time for guided practice prior
to asking
students to independently implement the strategy. Create a visual
display and post in the classroom or student notebooks to assist students.
F Find what youre solving for.
A Ask yourself, What are the parts of the problem?
S Set up the numbers.
T Tie down the sign.
D Discover the sign.
R Read the problem.
A Answer, or draw and check.
W Write the answer.
TINS Strategy (Owen, 2003)
The TINS strategy allows students to use different steps to analyze and solve
word problems
TThought - Think about what you need to do to solve this
problem and circle the key words.
I Information - Circle and write the information needed to solve
this problem;
draw a picture; cross out unneeded information.
problem.
answer.

N Number - Sentence Write a number sentence to represent the

SSolution - Sentence Write a solution sentence that explains your

Support Vocabulary Development

Strategies that can help students improve their mathematic
vocabulary include (a) preteach vocabulary, (b) mnemonic techniques, and (c)
key word approaches.
These strategies are only a few strategies available to
help enhance students
mathematics vocabulary comprehension.
Pre-teach Vocabulary
Use representations, both pictorial and concrete, to emphasize the
meaning of math vocabulary (Sliva, 2004).

 Pretest students knowledge of glossary terms in their math textbook and

teach vocabulary that is unknown or incorrect.
Mnemonic Techniques
Teach mnemonic techniques to help remember word meanings.
Use mnemonic instruction to help students improve their memory of new
information (The Access Center, 2006).
Key Word Approach
Use the keyword approach (e.g., visualize a visor as the keyword for
divisor; visualize quotation marks as the keyword for quotient
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002).
Assist with Teaching Algebraic
Concepts Algebra is introduced in elementary school as students
learn algebraic
reasoning involving patterns, symbolism, and
representations. Students experience difficulty with algebra for various reasons
including difficulty understanding the
vocabulary required for algebraic
reasoning, difficulties with problem solving, and
difficulties understanding
patterns and functions necessary for algebraic reasoning. Possible strategies
to assist with teaching algebraic concepts include, but are not
limited to, (a)
teaching key vocabulary needed for algebra, (b) providing models for
identifying and extending patterns, (c) modeling think aloud procedures
for students to
serve as examples for solving equations and word problems,
(d) incorporating
technology usage (e.g., graphing calculators) (Bryant, 2008),
and (e) implementing Star Strategy described below (Gagnon & Maccini, 2001).
S Search the word problem.
T Translate the words into an equation in picture form
A Answer the problem
R Review the problem.
Assist with the Use of Metacognitive Skills
Metacognition refers to individuals awareness of how they think and plan
activities. Metacognition also involves strategizing, monitoring success
and effort, and knowing when to change directions or to try a different approach
to problem solving. Many students with learning difficulties benefit from the use
of metacognitive skills to help them focus on what they are doing and to plan for
how to employ strategies as
needed and change directions when
appropriate (Mevarech & Amrany, 2008). A few examples of how to incorporate
metacognitive strategies include:
Demonstrating think-alouds so students become aware of how one
talks oneself through a learning task.
Demonstrating the use of graphic organizers, schematics, and visual
imagery.
Explicit, direct instruction accompanied by modeling of selfmonitoring,

self-talk, and

self-checks.

Third Journal in Mathematics

1. Presenting and Comparing Multiple Solutions Teachers should present
multiple solutions to a given problem and instruct students to compare problemsolving procedures. Doing so helps students to develop flexibility (i.e.,
understanding that a problem may be solved accurately using different
procedures and being able to use efficient procedures) and may support
conceptual understanding of the procedure. To learn more about this process,
view the example and guidelines below.
Using Manipulative
Manipulative is concrete objectsfor example, an abacus or popsicle sticks
that students can use to develop a conceptual understanding of mathematic
topics. These objects help students represent the mathematical idea they are
trying to learn or the problem they are trying to solve. For example, the teacher
might demonstrate the idea of fractions by slicing a pie into pieces. It is important
that the teacher make explicit the connection between the concrete object and
the abstract concept being taught. Once a student has gained a basic
understanding of the mathematic concept, the concrete objects should be
replaced by visual representations such as tally marks or number lines.
Selecting Appropriate Instructional Tasks
According to NCTM (1991), appropriate instructional tasks can be approached in
more than one interesting and legitimate way; some have more than one
reasonable solution. These tasks, consequently, facilitate significant classroom
discourse, for they require that students reason about different strategies and
outcomes, weigh the pros and cons of alternatives, and pursue particular paths.
To select the most appropriate instructional tasks for their students, the teacher
should consider the mathematics content, the students interests and
preferences, and the students learning needs. Then the teacher needs to
carefully consider the wide array of available materials (e.g., textbook exercises,
supplemental practice sheets, teacher-created materials) and choose those most
suited to the tasks.
Teachers should also provide the tools necessary for completing the task. These
may be as simple as graph paper or as complex as a graphing calculator.
Electronic technology, such as computer software, can be used to enhance the
teaching and learning of mathematics by allowing students to explore
mathematics applications in depth and to view greater numbers of examples than
is otherwise feasible in a classroom.
2. Assessing Student Understanding
The NCTM Assessment Principle states, Assessment should support the
learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers
and students. Two types of assessment that can be used to inform instruction
are formative assessment and error analysis.

3. Formative Assessment
Teachers can use formative assessment, both informal and formal, to determine
what students have learned and what concepts they are struggling with. One
type of formative assessment is curriculum-based measurement (CBM).
Teachers can use CBMa form of progress monitoringto evaluate not only
their students progress but also the effectiveness of their current instructional
methods.
5. Error Analysis
Another method of assessing student understanding, or misunderstanding, is to
identify and analyze the errors a student repeatedly makes when solving a
mathematical problem. If the reasons for the students incorrect answers are not
apparent, the teacher can ask the student to describe the procedure he or she
used to solve the problem. In either case, the teacher can use the information
from the error analysis to provide instruction to help the student understand the
correct procedure for solving the problem. In the example below, the teacher was
unable to easily recognize the procedure used by the student to complete the
problem, so the teacher asked the student to explain how he solved the problem.
7. Use Assessments
Math is typically a progression-based subject. Skills build one upon another, and
the order in which they're taught is predetermined. Because of this, a math
teacher doesn't have to think much about what to teach when, but it is necessary
to use assessments to determine student understanding. Formative
assessments, or informal assessments meant to check in on student learning
and drive future instruction, should be used frequently. This can help teachers
identify students who struggle and allow additional small group or one-on-one
instruction.

Forth Journal in Mathematics

As teachers of all grade levels know very well, it is extremely difficult to teach
students higher order math algorithms when they are not fluent with their basic
facts (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). If students are not
automatic in responding to math facts, their attention is necessarily taken away
from the multiple steps necessary to solve more complex problems.
Think about long division. Students must be able to come up with the answers to
multiplication, subtraction and division facts all in the context of the higher order
algorithm. Less than automatic facility with math facts often results in either
errors in the algorithm or fact errors. Both kinds of errors appear to be the result
of carelessness when in fact it is the result of being distracted by having to figure
out the answers to facts. Below are 12 principles necessary to successfully
teaching math facts.
Teaching strategies and their usage create great challenges for mathematic
teachers in specific since the nature of mathematics comprises a set of
interrelated minor skills. Mathematic teachers should create variable
environments and they are the ones responsible for managing them the thing
that makes taking the proper decision on the proper strategy to be used so
difficult.
The tendencies mathematic teachers have, the way they acquire the minor skills,
and the role of mathematics in modern life are all of the factors that affect in
deciding which of the strategies suitable for teaching lessons of mathematics to
choose. Those who adopt the constructional view that the most effective way of
teaching mathematics is the one that provides students with the chance to relate
their previous experiences with the one they are being taught. They believe that
such experiences have great role in easing students' comprehension process.
They also stress the important role of the social interactions that accompany the
learning process which according to them have much importance over the
product; hence, they prefer using strategies like the group work, brain storming,

plays, alternate learning, role playing and strategies of the like.

Perhaps the most important issue in the field of teaching mathematics especially
in the first four grades, is the inability of mathematic teachers to use variety of
teaching strategies in teaching mathematical skills, with all what these strategies
include of questions and performance training and variety of analytical and
constructional- analytical processes which provide students with the opportunities
to learn the behavioral signs related to the skill learned, in an organized and
effective manner within the social contexts and real life situations. Though
teaching mathematics with all the needed skills still lies on the shoulders of
mathematic teachers, it should also be lied on the shoulders of all teachers alike
through using them in variety of teaching situations within different teaching
contents.
Though it is of great important to adopt the integrative approach in activating
students' role, most of the primary grades' teachers lack the ability to engage the
interrelated and connected processes in mathematical skills with the teaching
situations from one side and investing what students have of certain acquired
experiences in favor of learning the rest of the related skills the thing that led to
negative approaches towards using the integrative approach and other similar
strategies.
The current study gains importance from the following considerations:
-The researcher expects that the results of the study would shed light on the
teaching strategies that the mathematics teachers' are missing though such
strategies help students engage in an affective learning process.
-As far as the researcher knows, this study is the first of its kind that aims at
identifying the teaching strategies used by the mathematics teachers in the city of
Amman Jordan in the light of the variables: Teacher's gender, experience, and
qualifications.
-The study is of great use for the teachers and those who design curricula to
know the teaching strategies mathematics teachers use.
-The study participates in developing mathematics curricula and its teaching
strategies.
-The study is of great help for other researchers to develop other studies that are
complementary to this study.
School experiences appear to bear this out. In every math class Ive taken, there
have been slow kids, average kids and whiz kids. It never occurred to me that

this hierarchy might be avoidable. No doubt, math comes more easily to some
people than to others. But the question is: Can we improve the methods we use
to teach math in schools so that everyone develops proficiency?
In particular, math teachers often fail to make sufficient allowances for
the limitations of working memory and the fact that we all need extensive
practice to gain mastery in just about anything. Despite the widespread support
for problem-based or discovery-based learning, studies indicate that current
teaching approaches underestimate the amount of explicit guidance, scaffolding
and practice children need to consolidate new concepts. Asking children to make
their own discoveries before they solidify the basics is like asking them to
compose songs on guitar before they can form a C chord.

Latest
International
Teaching
Strategies
in
Science
for
tertiary
level
that
are
applicable
in
Philippine setting

Submitted by
Mary Joy B. Castillo

BSED MT 2-1N
Submitted to
Marjerie Q. Cipriano

First Journal in Science

Effective strategies for teaching science vocabulary
In order for students to develop scientific literacy, they need to gain a knowledge
of science content and practice scientific habits of mind. This is impossible
without knowledge of science vocabulary. This article shares research-based
strategies for science vocabulary instruction that are effective for all students,
including English language learners.
Traditional science lessons have often begun with teachers presenting students
with science vocabulary words and asking them to write the words, find the
definitions in a dictionary or the glossary of the textbook, match the words to
definitions, or use the words in a sentence. In this model of instruction, words are
often presented in isolation and students are tested on the words alone, without
application to concepts.
Many of us were taught this way, so we remember how little these practices
contributed to conceptual development. These traditional strategies stem from
the assumption that students absorb the meanings of many science terms simply
by writing the words and their definitions. To many English-speaking students
science words seem like a new language, and to English language learners,
these words are a new language.
The job of science education is to teach students how to use thematic patterns of
science to communicate meanings, talking science to solve problems in writing
or speaking about issues in which science is relevant. The goal of helping
students learn to communicate about science is important, but we must also be
aware of potentially harmful messages that can be unconsciously communicated
to our students. As science educators, we not only teach science but we may
communicate a mystique of science attitude, promoting the idea that science is
authoritative, impersonal and humorless, lacking creativity or values. This
communicates a view that scientists are experts or them, rather than seeing
ourselves as scientists.
Scientific writing and talk often project science as a description of the way the
world works rather than as a human social activity that tries to make sense of the
world. We instead should help our students learn that science is all around us,
influenced by human uncertainties, judgments, values, and interests. Its
important that we emphasize the human side of science. These well-established

ideas about the nature of science have a lasting effect on students, so we need
to be sensitive about the messages we communicate. Science is creative and
science is tentative, which means that scientists recognize that we understand
things based on current research. Just think how our understanding of the world
has changed as a result of the invention of telescopes or microscopes!
Science time in schools is often limited, and as a result teachers find it difficult to
include science vocabulary instruction to help students make sense of text. In
addition, teachers are often eager to teach content, and consequently provide
only a brief introduction of science terms.
English language learners have the added burden of trying to learn science in a
language they have not yet mastered. The increase of English language learners
in schools has spawned research about elementary students and science
vocabulary that focuses on ELL students and curriculum. Many teachers
mistakenly believe that ELL students must first learn English before learning
science and fail to understand cultural influences on learning.
In order for students to develop scientific literacy, they need to gain a knowledge
of science content and practice scientific habits of mind. Knowing science
vocabulary supports the development of these understandings. As Wellington
and Osborne point out, science teachers are (among other things) language
teachers.
By using scientific terms and phrases during science activities, science educators
can model scientific thinking and questioning, including the doubts and dilemmas
that are part of making sense of the world. The more opportunities we provide for
students to experience scientific endeavors, the more natural their scientific talk
will develop. Teachers can maximize these opportunities by beginning with very
young students
WORD LISTS/WORD BANKS
Many teachers use word walls to provide visual clues to words introduced in
class. Its also important for teachers and students to use the words as much as
possible. Students can look at the written words as teachers use them during
class discussions, and teachers should encourage students to use the language
of science in their verbal and written communication. Work with students to group
words by their features:
WORD GAMES
Traditional games can be adapted to help students experience the language of
science. For advanced students, making their own games using science
vocabulary promotes in-depth understanding of words and their meanings.
WORD PARTS

Teachers can reinforce the structure of words as students identify and interpret
prefix, suffix, base word and their meanings.
MULTIPLE MEANING WORDS
Words with multiple meanings can be confusing for students proficient in English
and are especially troublesome for English language learners. It is important to
discuss these meanings with students. When we confuse common definitions
with meanings used in science, students understanding suffers. For example, in
common use, theory means a hunch, while in science, a theory is a wellestablished explanation of the natural world based on solid empirical evidence.
Reflections are commonly thought of as thoughts or musings, which contrast
with reflections of light rays. Work with students to identify the different
meanings and applications of words with multiple meanings.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
When students interact with science words in multiple ways, they are able to
approach words and their meanings more fully. Graphic organizers can help to
present words with a range of contextual information.
DISCUSSIONS
Small group discussion sections often are used in large-enrollment courses to
complement the lectures. In courses with small enrollments, they can substitute
for the lecture, or both lecture and discussion formats can be used in the same
class period. The main distinction between lecture and discussion is the level of
student participation that is expected, and a whole continuum exists. Discussions
can be instructor-centered (students answer the instructor's questions) or
student-centered (students address one another, and the instructor mainly guides
the discussion toward important points). In any case, discussion sessions are
more productive when students are expected to prepare in advance.
Focused discussion is an effective way for many students to develop their
conceptual frameworks and to learn problem solving skills as they try out their
own ideas on other students and the instructor. The give and take of technical
discussion also sharpens critical and quantitative thinking skills. Classes in which
students must participate in discussion force them to go beyond merely plugging
numbers into formulas or memorizing terms. They must learn to explain in their
own words what they are thinking and doing. Students are more motivated to
prepare for a class in which they are expected to participate actively.

Second Journal in Science

TEACHING METHODS IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
There are different teaching methods employed in science education in Nigerian
tertiary institutions. Miles (2015) asserted that it is expected of a teacher to
implement a range of instructional strategies that will bring academic success to
all the science students. For any method to be able to bring good result in the
present age, it should be a method that promote maximum social interaction.
Social interaction between students and between teacher and student plays a
crucial role in learning (Nguyen, Williams, and Nguyen, 2012). These authors
further stressed the need for the students to be provided with a supportive, open
and interactive environment as this could help them discover knowledge. The
teaching methods commonly used in science education classes are lecture and
demonstration method.
Lecture method is often used to deliver a large amount of information to the
students in a short period (Berry, 2008). According to Gehlen-Bauum and
Weinberger (2014), lectures are designed to deliver a new information to a large
group of students. This method is known to be effective in dealing with a large
class. However, it could also be used for a small class. Research indicates that
this method dominates most of the tertiary institutions (Deslauriers, Schelew and
Wieman, 2011).

Research shows that students retention in a lecture-based science courses is

weak. According to Bok (2006), an average students only retains 42% of what he
or she learned after the end of the lecture and 20% one week later. Research
shows that teaching method like the lecture method commonly used does not
help the students to acquire sufficient functional understanding (Bernhard et al.,
2007). Berry (2008) argued that lecture method lacks the effectiveness of an
active learning approach. In the opinion of Fagen and Mazur (2003), lecture
method causes the bad reading habit among the students. Franklin, Sayre, and
Clar (2014), students taught in lecture-based classes learn less than those taught
with activitybased reformed methods. Lecture method is frequently a one way
process unaccompanied by discussion, questioning or immediate practice that
makes it a poor teaching method (Hatim, 2001; Al-Rawi, 2013). Lecture method
concentrates on information rather than learners (Al-Rawi, 2013). In the lecture
method the teacher tell the students what to do instead of activating them to
discover for themselves (Miles, 2015).
Demonstration teaching method is a useful method of teaching because it
improves students' understanding and retention (McKee, Williamson, and
Ruebush, 2007). According to AlRawi, 2013), the demonstration is effective in
teaching skills of using tools and laboratory experiment in science. However, the
time available to perform this demonstration is very limited in a classroom setting.
Therefore, a demonstration often designed to allow students to make
observations rather than through hands-on laboratory (McKee, Williamson, and
Ruebush, 2007).
Learning by memorization in science classes is common because students have
not been actively involved in the classroom activities (Mazur, 1997). It is not
surprising to see in science education a student with a good grade but cannot
link his or her classroom experience with the real-world problem Crouch,
Watkins, Fagen and Mazur, 2007). The reason is that he or she has not learned
through authentic learning instruction. Authentic learning and PI have several
common characteristics, and that is why it is important to have a review of it. In
other to have a learning where students can favorably apply classroom theory to
real - world problems and improve students academic performance in science
education, there is the need for a shift of paradigm of pedagogy. The shift must
be to an activity-oriented classroom practice. Miles (2014) supported this that
science teachers should incorporate methodologies that require a greater level of
students activity. It should be a research-based instruction that allows maximum
student-to-student interaction for learning purpose.
Peer Instruction (PI) is a research-based pedagogy for teaching large
introductory science courses Fagen and Mazur, 2003. It is a method created to
help make lectures more interactive and to get students intellectually engaged
with what is going on. It has been tested in many classes and found to be good
for improving students performance and also used to identify student difficult
areas. PI has been used in different subjects in many countries. Peer Instruction
is still a new method of teaching for teachers in many countries because of its
unique feature of CocepTest. Peer Instruction is an instructional strategy for
engaging students during class through a structured questioning process that
involves every student Crouch, Watkins, Fagen and Mazur, 2007). PI provide a
structured environment for students to voice their idea and resolve
misunderstanding by talking with their peer (Gok, 2012) Peer instruction is a

cooperative learning technique that promotes critical thinking, problemsolving,

and decision-making skills (Rao and DiCarlo, 2000). Research shows talking to
peers forced them to organize their thoughts and reminded them of the concepts
they had difficulty recalling on their own (Gok, 2012). Peer Instruction is an
interactive approach that was designed to improve the learning process
(Rosenberg, Lorenzo and Mazur, 2006). This method have the advantage of
engaging the student and making the lecture more interesting to the student. It
also has the tremendous importance of giving the lecturers significant feedback
about where the class is and what it knows. PI is more effective at developing
students conceptual understanding than traditional lecturebased instruction.
Based on the above discussion, it is obvious that there are already known
teaching pedagogies in science that actively engages students in the class.
However, PI could be a better one based on various reviewed studies that PI is a
teaching pedagogy that engages students in active learning through the use of
ConcepTest.

Third Journal in Science

Hints for More Effective Lecturing
When lecturing is the chosen or necessary teaching method, one way to keep
students engaged is to pause periodically to assess student understanding or to
initiate short student discussions (see sidebars). Calling on individual students to
answer questions or offer comments can also hold student attention; however,
some students prefer a feedback method with more anonymity. If they have an
opportunity to discuss a question in small groups, the group can offer an answer,
which removes any one student from the spotlight. Another option is to have
students write their answer on an index card, and pass the card to the end of the
row; the student seated there can select one answer to present, without
disclosing whose it is.

The literature on teaching and learning contains other examples of techniques to

maintain students' attention in a lecture setting (Eble, 1988; Davis, 1993;
Lowman, 1995; McKeachie, 1994):

Avoid direct repetition of material in a textbook so that it remains a useful

alternative resource.

Use paradoxes, puzzles, and apparent contradictions to engage students.

Make connections to current events and everyday phenomena.

Begin each class with something familiar and important to students.

End each class by summarizing the main points you have made.

Adopt a reasonable and adjustable pace that balances content coverage

and student understanding.

Consider using slides, videos, films, CD-ROMs, and computer simulations

to enhance presentations, but remember that:

The text needs to be large enough to read from the back of the room.

Students need time to summarize their observations and to draw and note
conclusions.

Maintain eye contact with students in all parts of the room.

Step out from behind the lecture bench when feasible.

Move around, but not so much that it is distracting.

Talk to the students, not the blackboard.

If using the board, avoid blocking it with AV projectors or screens.

Shift the mood and intensity.

Vary presentation techniques.

At the beginning of a course, discuss with your students several strategies for
effectively engaging in and learning from your classes. Some may just listen,

others will take notes, and still others may try to transcribe your words. Some
students may want to tape the class session. If you want to encourage a
particular form of student participation, make clear your expectations, the
reasons for them, and how students' learning will benefit.
Enhancing Learning in Large Classes
Despite the limitations of traditional lectures, many institutions are forced to offer
high-enrollment introductory science courses. Many professors who teach these
courses feel that lecturing is their only option, and can only dream of what they
could accomplish in smaller classes. However, there is a small but growing group
of science faculty members who have developed ways to engage students in the
process of thinking, questioning, and problem solving despite the large class
size. Strategies in use in introductory courses in biology and geology are
described in the sidebars.
Although many of the methods described in these sidebars are consistent with
what experts know about how students learn, they may not be welcomed by all of
the students in a class. There are several ways to help students make the
transition from passive listeners to active participants in their own learning
(Orzechowksi, 1995):

Start off slowly; students may not have much experience in active
learning.

Introduce change at the beginning of a course, rather than midway

through.

Avoid giving students the impression that you are "experimenting" with
them.

Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology at Stanford University

Professor: Sharon Long
Enrollment: 400 students
One important tool I use to engage students is to create opportunities for thought and for
active pursuit of an unknown during the class session. If I give a lecture for which I provide
notes-a common practice-I always leave blanks in critical parts of the notes. On the board or
transparency, I indicate the unknown. I pause while I talk about it, drawing the students'
attention to the hole in the notes. If possible, I ask for suggested answers or for a vote among
the possibilities. By arranging the pause in your lecture you can give the students the chance
to puzzle out the question themselves and to preview their ability to work on the questions
independently. And only by attending class can a student gain all the information-an important
draw to encourage class attendance.

In teaching formal genetics, I draw out a genetic cross first in general form (in this example, a
Drosophila eye color inheritance test):
w+y x w w
Then I put into the lecture notes-a completely blank Punnett square to show the structure of
the approach-but not to provide the answer.
The students encounter this as an unknown, because I address the contents of each line,
and each box, as a question. (Everybody, consult with your neighbor for a minute-now
second row, anybody tell me, what should be in these two blanks at the top? What would be
the genotype and phenotype for the bottom right box?)
Physical Geology at Arizona State University
Professor: Ramon Arrowsmith
Enrollment: 220 students
I show examples of geology from my own experiences, and occasionally include a few funny
slides or video or audio clips to lighten things up. I use a multimedia presentation system
composed of a vertical camera above an illuminated table on which I write or place rocks,
examples from the book, or anything else I want the students to see. The video signal is
projected on a screen in the classroom. This form of presentation has worked well and
definitely has improved students' access to the material by making things more visible. Along
with the presentation system, I use a laser disc containing movies and photographs from a
textbook publisher. I can easily switch from multimedia to laser disc output and thus weave
visual examples into my lecture. Occasionally, I show the students computer files or video
from a VHS player. The students react well to this multimedia approach, but to involve the
students I have them do a short exercise in groups, then we talk about it.
For these, I walk up the side of the auditorium and designate even and odd rows. Then I say
that the even people should turn around and face the odd people and do the exercise
together. This generates groups of 2-6 people. They all put their names onto the single sheet
they are to turn in. Then the students work together on a question for 3-4 minutes. I walk
around the room, answering their questions.
When time is up, the TA stands at the overhead projector, and I walk through the crowd (I
have a lapel mike so they can hear me), collecting their answers for each question. Then we
talk about solutions. Usually the time runs out, and the students turn their papers. Of course,
they get credit for their participation, and that provides some motivation, but I am sure
students understand the concepts better than if they were presented only in my lecture.

Forth Journal in Science

Teaching Science is not about preparing students for a world that is static and
fixed, but it concerns getting students ready to cope with changes and challenges
in their lives. Traditional direct instruction in Science generally focuses on
mastery of content with less emphasis on the development of scientific skills and
attitudes; students are the receivers while the teacher the dispenser. In most
classroom contexts, teachers are preoccupied with academic activities in pursuit
of the schools successes; often in the form of their students gaining as many A's
as possible. This scenario does not help students learn in a meaningful manner.
This study specifically examines how meaningful science learning could be
achieved via the introduction of an inquiry-based Science teaching approach.
Three trainee teachers who underwent their teaching practice In Semester 2
2011/2012 session participated in the study. The study employed qualitative
research design whereby data were mainly obtained through interview and
document analysis in the form of lesson plans and reflective journal. Occasional
observations on the way the trainee teachers apply the inquiry-based teaching
strategies and model exposed to and taught in the Science Teaching Method
course they took in the previous semester were also noted. The findings revealed
that the inquiry-based teaching strategies employed were able to stimulate
excitement among students when learning science. The ZYL teaching model was
also proposed at the end of the study. This proposed teaching model summarizes
the strategies of inquiry discovery in Science Education that can be adapted in
science teaching process
Teachers using inquiry-based instructions also include more hands-on activities
(Poon, Tan & Tan, 2009), with the teacher playing the role of a facilitator. Studies
conducted on teachers role during inquiry-based teaching revealed most
teachers found interacting with students rather daunting (ibid.) They encountered
difficulties in channelling and maintaining the students interests as the students
engage in inquiry activities (Bencze, 2009). The struggle to communicate and to
capture interest is an indication of unpreparedness among science teachers for
the social demands of inquiry-based teaching (Oliveria, 2009); hence if such
case happens, the teachers need to be specifically trained in methods that will
enhance their abilities to use directives in a polite form and to strategically share
authority with their students while concurrently upholding authority in the
classroom. This would call for careful planning. Careful planning and preparation
is also required for adequate content information to be imparted to students,
which makes it difficult for some science topic to be taught using the inquiry

method (Robertson, 2007). Due to the need for thorough preparation as well as
the uncertainty of in-class activities based on students response, most teachers
tend to resort to the more structured and organized ways of teaching (Qablan et
al., 2009). Through direct instruction, teachers can minimize the difficulties of
having to keep students motivated if they were to be left on their own to acquire
knowledge through inquiry-based learning (Bencze, 2009); it is easier for
teachers to assist students with a step-by-step guide to acquire content rather
than letting them do the activity on their own and get confused. In fact, many
researchers advocated planned experiences in science for children rather than
incidental ones using inquiry method (Mason, 1963). The direct instruction
approach is also considered the best teaching method for learning content and
new skills. Nevertheless, direct instruction also has its limitations. There is a
tendency that direct teaching restricts the development of students process skills
and abilities to make judgment (Wang & Wen, 2010). This is especially true if
students resort to memorizing information given due emphasis by teachers
during science lessons, as well as when the teacher poses a problem and then
solves it without allowing opportunity for the students to discover. Direct
instruction too works best only if the teachers possess strong working knowledge
pertaining to both current scientific content and pedagogical savoir faire. Those
without may find it difficult to provide clear explanation of concept while
addressing students ability and opportunity to understand. The tendency is that
direct instruction approach does not foster development of students scientific
attitude. The above comparisons provide sound reasons for teachers to adopt
the inquiry approach to teaching science instead of direct instruction. It is
apparent that the inquirybased approach benefits students: they gain better
understanding of content, ability to think critically and creatively (Wang & Wen,
2010) and enhanced problem solving skills. Meanwhile, the teachers skills and
knowledge also expand as they engage in activities to improve their ability to
manage class, be more prepared content wise, and enhance communication
skills in order to help facilitate students more efficiently.
Inquiry-based Science Teaching Methods
Studies suggest that prior to real teaching experience, the pre-service teachers
should be exposed to inquirybased method at college level. It is believed that
pre-service teachers who were taught to use inquiry-based method are more
likely to develop hands-on activities for their science classroom (Hohloch, Grove
& Bretz, 2007); they are also more likely to link science experiments to everyday
life. There are five inquiry-based teaching methods, namely simulation, field
study, project, demonstration of discrepant events and experiment. All five
methods were introduced in SCE550 Science Methods course, with the intention
to equip novice teachers with varieties of instructional approaches that they can
eventually apply in their science classes.
Experiment
Experiment is core of doing investigation in science classroom. Teachers tend
carry out experiment as it encourages students interest in learning science via
provision. Students often find the opportunities to manipulate objects, test
hypothesis, and work together to solve or prove something exciting. Also, through
experiments, students are usually able to see or relate concepts better, hence

contributing to sound science conceptions. For instance, Olympiou and

Zacharias (2011) study found that the use of a blended combination of physical
manipulative (PM) and virtual manipulative (VM) enhanced students conceptual
understanding in the domain of light and colour topic more than the use of PM or
VM alone. Demeo (2005) also noted that experiments particularly the
transformation of traditional laboratory instruction to one using teaching of
manipulative skills - help produce more mature type of science education. It is
said that the teachers actions of redistributing authority between teacher and
student when laboratory pedagogy is taking place, as well as the nature of
interaction when discussing science issues and findings, do contribute to such
outcome.