Report on Thermocouple

Submitted By:

Muhammad Wasiq Tanveer

14-ME-01

Submitted To:

Engr. Habib

Group:

A1

Department Of Mechanical
Engineering

University Of Engineering And

Technology, Taxila

Introduction
The thermocouple is a simple, widely used component for measuring
temperature. This article provides a basic overview of thermocouples,
describes common challenges encountered when designing with them, and
suggests

two

signal

conditioning

solutions. The first solution combines both reference-junction compensation

and signal conditioning in a single analog IC for convenience and ease of use;
the second solution separates the reference-junction compensation from the
signal

conditioning

to

provide digital-output temperature sensing with greater flexibility and

accuracy.

Principle of operation:
In 1821, the German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that
when different metals are joined at the ends and there is a temperature
difference between the joints a magnetic field is observed. At the time
Seebeck referred to this as thermo-magnetism, the magnetic field he
observed was later shown to be due to thermo-electric current. In practical
use the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire is
what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high
and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of
wire used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be
taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although current flows very little,
power can be generated by a single thermocouple junction. Power generation
using multiple thermocouples, as in a thermopile, is common.

K-type thermocouple (chromelalumel) in the standard thermocouple measurement configuration. The

measured voltage can be used to calculate temperature , provided that temperature is known.

The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the

figure. Briefly, the desired temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs
the characteristic function E(T) of the thermocouple, the measured
voltage V, and the reference junctions' temperature Tref. The solution to the
equation E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden
from the user since the reference junction block (with Tref thermometer),
voltmeter, and equation solver are combined into a single product.

Thermocouple Theory
A thermocouple, shown in Figure 1, consists of two wires of dissimilar
metals joined together at one end, called the measurement (hot) junction.
The other end, where the wires are not joined, is connected to the signal
conditioning circuitry traces, typically made of copper. This junction between
the thermocouple metals and the copper traces is called the reference
(cold) junction.

The voltage produced at the reference junction depends on the

temperatures at both the measurement junction and the reference junction.
Since the thermocouple is a differential device rather than an absolute
temperature
junction

measurement

temperature

temperature

reading.

compensation

device,

must

be

This

process

(cold

known

to

is

the

reference

get

an

accurate

absolute

known

as

reference

junction

junction

compensation.)

Thermocouples have become the industry-standard method for cost-effective

measurement of a wide range of temperatures with reasonable accuracy.
They are used in a variety of applications up to approximately +2500C in
boilers,

water

heaters,

ovens,

and aircraft enginesto name just a few. The most popular thermocouple is
the type K, consisting of Chromel and Alumel (trademarked nickel alloys
containing chromium, and aluminum, manganese, and silicon, respectively),
with a measurement range of 200C to +1250C.
Advantages

Temperature range: Most practical temperature ranges, from

cryogenics to jet-engine exhaust, can be served using thermocouples.
Depending

on

the

metal

wires

used,

thermocouple is capable of measuring temperature in the range 200C to

+2500C.
Robust: Thermocouples are rugged devices that are immune to shock
and vibration and are suitable for use in hazardous environments.

 Rapid response: Because they are small and have low thermal
capacity, thermocouples respond rapidly to temperature changes, especially
if the sensing junction is exposed. They can respond to rapidly changing
temperatures

within

few

hundred milliseconds.
No self-heating: Because thermocouples require no excitation power,
they are not prone to self-heating and are intrinsically safe.

Disadvantages

Complex signal conditioning: Substantial signal conditioning is necessary to

convert the thermocouple voltage into a usable temperature reading.
Traditionally, signal conditioning has required a large investment in design
time

to

avoid

introducing

errors that degrade accuracy.

Accuracy: In addition to the inherent inaccuracies in thermocouples
due to their metallurgical properties, a thermocouple measurement is only as
accurate

as

the

reference

junction temperature can be measured, traditionally within 1C to 2C.

Susceptibility to corrosion: Because thermocouples consist of two
dissimilar metals, in some environments corrosion over time may result in
deteriorating accuracy. Hence, they may need protection; and care and
maintenance are essential.
Susceptibility to noise: When measuring microvolt-level signal
changes, noise from stray electrical and magnetic fields can be a problem.
Twisting the thermocouple wire pair can greatly reduce magnetic field pickup.
Using a shielded cable or running wires in metal conduit and guarding can
reduce electric field pickup. The measuring device should provide signal
filtering, either in hardware or by software, with strong rejection of the line
frequency (50 Hz/60 Hz) and its harmonics.

Types of Thermocouple
Type J Thermocouple
The type J is also very common. It has a smaller temperature range and a
shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the Type K. It is equivalent to
the Type K in terms of expense and reliability.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -346 to 1,400F (-210 to 760C)

Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy:

Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

Applications:

Type

The Type J Is Well Suited To Oxidizing Atmospheres

Thermocouple

(Nickel-Chromium

Nickel-

Alumel):
The type K is the most common type of thermocouple. Its inexpensive,
accurate, reliable, and has a wide temperature range. The type K is
commonly found in nuclear applications because of its relative radiation
hardness.

Maximum

Temperature Range:

continuous

temperature

is

around

1,100C.

Thermocouple grade wire, 454 to 2,300F (270 to 1260C)

Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

Application:

Consideration for bare wire type K thermocouple application

Type T Thermocouple (Copper/Constantan):

The Type T is a very stable thermocouple and is often used in extremely
low temperature applications such as cryogenics or ultra-low freezers. It is
found in other laboratory environments as well. The type T has excellent
repeatability

between

380F

to

392F

(200C

to

200C).

Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 700F (-270 to 370C)

Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.0C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.5C or 0.4%

Type B Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium 30% /

Platinum Rhodium 6%):
The Type B thermocouple is used in extremely high temperature
applications. It has the highest temperature limit of all of the thermocouples
listed above. It maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high

temperatures. The type B has a lower output than the other noble metals
(type

&

type

S)

at

temperatures

below

1,112F

(600C).

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, 32 to 3100F (0 to 1700C)

Extension wire, 32 to 212F (0 to 100C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 0.5%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.25%

Type E Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan):

The Type E has a stronger signal & higher accuracy than the Type K or
Type J at moderate temperature ranges of 1,000F and lower. The type E is
also

more

stable

than

the

type

K,

which

adds

to

its

accuracy.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 1600F (-270 to 870C)

Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.7C or +/- 0.5%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.0C or 0.4%

Type R Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium -13% /

Platinum):
The Type R is used in very high temperature applications. It has a
higher percentage of Rhodium than the Type S, which makes it more

expensive. The Type R is very similar to the Type S in terms of performance. It

is sometimes used in lower temperature applications because of its high
accuracy and stability. Type R has a slightly higher output and improved
stability

over

the

type

S.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to 2700F (-50 to 1480C)

Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or 0.1%

Industrial Applications
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature
range,

from

270

up

to

3000 C

(for

short

time,

in

inert

atmosphere).Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas

turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other industrial processes and fog machines.
They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences
need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0100 C
with 0.1 C accuracy. For such applications thermistors, silicon band gap
temperature sensors and resistance thermometers are more suitable

Steel Industry:
Type

B,

S,

and

the steel and iron industries

K
to

thermocouples
monitor

are

used

temperatures

extensively
and

in

chemistry

throughout the steel making process. Disposable, immersible, type S

thermocouples are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to

accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping. The cooling

curve of a small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the
carbon content of molten steel.

Gas Appliances Safety:

Many gas-fed

heating

appliances

such

as ovens and water

heaters make use of a pilot flame to ignite the main gas burner when
required. If the pilot flame goes out, unburned gas may be released, which is
an explosion risk and a health hazard. To prevent this, some appliances use a
thermocouple in a fail-safe circuit to sense when the pilot light is burning. The
tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame, generating a voltage
which operates the supply valve which feeds gas to the pilot. So long as the
pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot, and the pilot gas valve
is held open. If the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple temperature falls,
causing the voltage across the thermocouple to drop and the valve to close.

Thermopile Radiation Sensors:

Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation,

typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold
junctions

are

on

heat

sink.

It

is

possible

to

measure

radioactive intensities of only a few W/cm2 with commercially available

thermopile sensors. For example, some laser power meters are based on
such sensors; these are specifically known as thermopile laser sensor.
The principle of operation of a thermopile sensor is distinct from that of
a bolometer, as the latter relies on a change in resistance.

Manufacturing:

Thermocouples can generally be used in the testing of prototype

electrical and mechanical apparatus. For example, switchgear under test for
its current carrying capacity may have thermocouples installed and
monitored during a heat run test, to confirm that the temperature rise at
rated current does not exceed designed limits.

Power Production:

A thermocouple can produce current to drive some processes directly,

without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the
power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature
difference arises. The electrical energy generated by a thermocouple is
converted from the heat which must be supplied to the hot side to maintain
the electric potential. A continuous transfer of heat is necessary because the
current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool
down and the cold side to heat up.
Thermocouples can be connected in series to form a thermopile, where
all the hot junctions are exposed to a higher temperature and all the cold
junctions to a lower temperature. The output is the sum of the voltages
across the individual junctions, giving larger voltage and power output. In
a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, the radioactive decay of transuranic
elements as a heat source has been used to power spacecraft on missions
too far from the Sun to use solar power.

Process Plants:

Chemical production and petroleum refineries will usually employ

computers for logging and for limit testing the many temperatures associated
with a process, typically numbering in the hundreds. For such cases, a
number of thermocouple leads will be brought to a common reference block

(a large block of copper) containing the second thermocouple of each circuit.

The temperature of the block is in turn measured by a thermistor. Simple
computations are used to determine the temperature at each measured
location.

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple
http://www.thermocoupleinfo.com
http://de-de.wika.de/upload/DS_IN0023_en_co_51542.pdf