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Xiii Sympozjumkwmik PL
Xiii Sympozjumkwmik PL
TH
XIII SYMPOSIUM
XIII
SYMPOZJUM
STATECZNOCI
KONSTRUKCJI
Proceedings of
STABILITY of STRUCTURES
XIII-th SYMPOSIUM
Zakopane 2012
Editors:
Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska
Radosaw J. Mania
Organisers
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTE
Marian Krlak - chairman
Andrzej Garstecki, Ryszard Grdzki, Stefan Joniak, Zbigniew Koakowski, Maria
Koteko, Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska, Vasily Krasowsky (Ukraine), Tomasz Kubiak,
Joseph Loughlan (Great Britain), Martin Macdonald (Great Britain), Krzysztof
Magnucki, Arkadij Manevich (Ukraina), Aleksander Muc, Jan Ravinger (Slovakia),
James Rhodes (Great Britain), Shigeru Shimizu (Japan), Czesaw Szymczak, Lech
Tomski, Marek Trombski, Czesaw Woniak, Jerzy Zielnica
ORGANISING COMMITTE
Zbigniew Koakowski chairman
Tomasz Kubiak v-ce chairman
Radosaw Mania scientific secretary
Jacek Jankowski, Anna Kuniarek, Mariusz Urbaniak, Piotr Wuka
Papers (on the rights of manuscripts) were accepted for publishing by the
Scientific Committee members
ISBN 83-914019-7-9
Publisher:
Katedra Wytrzymaoci Materiaw i Konstrukcji Politechniki dzkiej
ul. Stefanowskiego 1/15, 90-924 d
tel. +48 042 631 22 14,
tel./fax: +48 042 636 49 85
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Printed:
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XIII SYMPOZJUM
STATECZNOCI KONSTRUKCJI
ZAKOPANE, 2012
The Proceedings of
Stability of Structures XIIIth Symposium
are dedicated to our Jubilee Particpants:
CONTENTS
Keynote lectures
Krlak M., Mania R.J.,
Local buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled multicell beams
subjected to bending ............................................................................................ 17
Loughlan J., Yidris N.,
The local-flexural-distortional elasto-plastic interactive failure mechanics of
steel thin-walled lipped channel columns ............................................................ 25
Manevich A. I.,
Dynamics of viscoelastic Timoshenko beam on elastic or viscoelastic
foundation ............................................................................................................ 43
Ravinger J.,
Stability and vibration.......................................................................................... 63
Rhodes J., Zaras J., Koteko M., Macdonald M.,
Collaborative research on thin-walled structures by the University of
Strathclyde and the Technical University of Lodz ............................................... 85
Shimizu S.,
Earthquake and tsunami disaster of 11.3.2011 - a brief review ........................... 93
Szymczak C.,
Selected problems of stability of thin-walled columns with bisymmetric open
cross-section ........................................................................................................ 111
Tomski L., Szmidla J., Uzny S.,
Vibrations and the stability of a column subjected to an active and a passive
specific load ......................................................................................................... 129
Zielnica J.,
Stability of plates in elastic-plastic state of stress ................................................ 153
Session papers
Barski M., Muc A., Kdziora P.,
Buckling of multilayered laminated compressed plates with different cut-out
shapes .................................................................................................................. 177
Baejewski P., Marcinowski J.,
Buckling resistance of steel spherical roofs subjected to an external pressure .... 185
Chybinski M., Garstecki A., Rzeszut K.,
Effect of imperfection configuration on equilibrium path in nonlinear stability .. 193
Cicho C., Koczubiej S.,
Geometrically nonlinear analysis of thin-walled structures with open crosssection using FE shell-beam models .................................................................... 195
Czechowski L.,
Dynamic response of viscoplastic thin-walled girders in torsion ......................... 203
Dbski H.,
Experimental investigation of post-buckling behaviour of composite column
with top-hat cross-section .................................................................................... 211
Dbski H., Kubiak T., Teter A.,
Buckling and post-buckling behaviour of channel-section composite columns
with various sequences of plies ............................................................................ 221
Domagalski L., Jdrysiak J.,
Postbuckling problems of thin periodic plates ..................................................... 231
Dyk K., Taczaa M.,
Stability of offshore structures stiffeners under lateral loads ............................... 241
Ferdynus M.,
An influence of global initial deflections on post-critical behaviour of isotropic
square-tube columns with dimples ....................................................................... 251
Fory P.,
Optimal design of uniform stability of shells stiffened by ribs ............................ 257
10
11
12
13
14
KEYNOTE LECTURES
15
16
The paper deals with local buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled multicell beam/girder subjected to bending. There are some design hints according the
cross-section stiffening method giving significant increase of local buckling stress
value what is proved by numerical computations. The results of performed analysis
are presented in tables and graphs. The Finite Element software - ANSYS was
applied in modelling and calculations.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled box beams are frequently used in civil engineering and mechanical
structures as large load carrying members. Their cross section takes the form of a plate
girder, often made of segments which are jointed together on the field of location.
At the beginning we consider the box beam it is one cell girder of rectangular crosssection. Its dimensions are given in Fig. 1. The considered beam/girder is subjected to
simple, pure bending with the plane of bending overlapping the vertical plane of beam
symmetry. It is assumed that thickness of all beam walls is constant and equal to t0.
Further, it is assumed that:
the relationship of wall thickness t0 to the width of beam flange b is: b t0 200 ,
the relationship of total beam height h to its width is h b 2 ,
beam is made of steel with Youngs modulus E = 2105 MPa and Poisson ratio
0.3.
Due to bending one flange is compressed whereas the second is stretched with the
stresses of the same absolute magnitude. The webs (side walls) are subjected to in-plane
bending with linearly varying stresses. According to the buckling analysis of plates
subjected to pure in-plane bending [4] they undergo local buckling. For the given above
geometrical and material parameters, the compressed flange of the girder as well as the
webs buckle with critical stress value lower than 20 MPa. Therefore, the load carrying
capacity of such beam/girder is comparatively low and material properties are not fully
exploited. One of methods which lead to increase the capacity of such girders is to
reinforce a compressed flange and a compressed part of webs by adding longitudinal ribs
of appropriate bending stiffness. The largest number of works dealing with the rib
stiffening of thin-walled girders were published in the seventieth of last century - for
example [11],[10],[3]. However, a similar effect as by ribbing can be achieved by
introducing multi-cell design of a bent girder.
17
N n 2n 1 3n 2 for
n 2,3,4
Beam with n the cell number parameter equal to 1 ( n 1) is not considered. The
critical load of such beam is lower than a simple rectangular box girder (it is rectangular
cross-section with only one cell as in Fig. 1).
In the case of analysed local buckling and load carrying capacity, for easy
comparison of critical stress values for beams of different number of cells (it means
different value of n cell number parameter), in subsequent considerations it was assumed
that all analysed beams:
are made of the same isotropic material (equal E Youngs modulus and Poisson
ratio),
their cross-section area A is equal and identical to the cross-section area of a box
girder of dimensions b 2.5b and walls thickness t0, it is A 7bt0 ,
for a beam with a cell number parameter n, a thickness tn (1) of all beam walls is
the same,
a bending moment acts in the plane of symmetry of beam cross section.
Equating the cross section area A 7bt0 of a box girder with the area of multi-cell
beam defined by the cell number parameter n, leads to the formula for wall thickness of
multi-cell beam:
19
tn
7n
t0
13n 5
(1)
Then, the formula for cross section area of a beam which cell number parameter is n can
be written as follows:
An
13n 5
btn
n
(2)
From the geometrical relationships the formula for coordinate ycn of the multi-cell beam
cross-section centre of gravity can be derived in the form of:
ycn
n
n
1
0.75 2 3n 3 4 i b
13n 5
2n
i 2
(3)
what gives the location of beam neutral axis as well. It is worth mentioning that due to
location of bn bn cells only in the upper part of a beam cross-section, it is in its
compressed region, the neutral axis position is always above the lowest cell wall
( ycn b , see Fig. 2). Knowing a neutral axis location, the formula for beam cross-section
second moment of inertia, with respect to this neutral axis is as follows:
J zcn J z1n A a 2
(4)
a b ycn
(5)
where it is introduced:
J zcn
3
13 n 1 2 6 n2 i 2
t nb3
n 1
6
,
75
3
n
4
n
n
n
i 1
(6)
In Table 1 some exemplary values of tn t0 , An b,t0 , ycn b and J zcn b,t0 for cell
number parameter n 3,4,..,8 are collected.
Table 1.
tn
0.6176t0
0.5957t0
0.5833t0
0.5753t0
0.5698t0
0.5656t0
An
11.333bt3
11.750bt4
12.0bt5
12.166bt6
12.286bt7
12.375bt8
Ycn
0.9877b
0.9495b
0.9258b
0.9098b
0.8983b
0.8895b
Jzcn
4.5405t0b
4.7066t0b
4.6796t0b
20
4.7329t0b
4.7763t0b
4.8102t0b3
21
5. RESULTS
The critical loads for bent multi-cell beams under consideration were determined in
eigen-buckling linear analysis (Fig. 4). There were multi-cell beam segments of length
5 b modelled to minimize the influence of boundary conditions on the local buckling
mode. The reference box girder (one cell beam) was of width b 300 mm and wall
thickness
calculated with application formula (1) for walls thickness. The results of these
computations are summed up in Table 2.
Table 2. Critical stress value for multi-cell beams
crn
crn cr 0
15.40
40.79
76.08
122.88
180.85
249.81
329.68
420.31
2.646
4.937
7.974
11.736
16.211
21.394
27.275
As its clearly seen from the bottom row of Table 2, the basic advantage of multicell application is a significant increase of critical stress value. For the same amount of
material (equal cross-section area) the local buckling phenomena will occur for many
times greater load than in a box girder. Similar conclusion is valid for nonlinear buckling
and post-buckling analysis when the ultimate load is determined. In practice the number
22
M / Mcr
1,6
1,2
0,8
0,4
0,0
0,000
0,001
0,002
0,003
angle of rotation
Fig. 5. Nonlinear analysis - n = 3 three cell beam
6. CONCLUSIONS
The results of carried out numerical analysis for multi-cell beams/girders of equal
cross-section area, made of the same material and exactly in the same way supported
allow one to state the following conclusions:
local buckling stress of walls increases with the increase of parameter n - the
number of cells adjacent to beam upper flange,
the effect of local buckling stress increase is significant - e.g., for cell number
parameter n 3 the growth is of five times,
for some value of parameter n the beam cross-section can undergo yielding before
local buckling of it walls occurs,
23
24
This paper outlines appropriate finite element modelling strategies and solution
procedures for the determination of the local-flexural-distortional elasto-plastic
interactive response of steel thin-walled lipped channel columns subjected to
uniform compressional displacement loading. The modelling procedures are able to
describe the complete loading history of the lipped channel columns from the onset
of local buckling through post-local buckling behaviour leading to local-flexuraldistortional interaction including material yielding and yield propagation. The
interactive failure mechanics of the columns is readily predicted using the
developed finite element simulation procedures. This includes the yield failure
mechanism at ultimate conditions and its location along the column length as well
as the subsequent elasto-plastic unloading of the column. The numerical
simulations take due account of the influence of geometrical imperfections on the
compressive ultimate failures of the columns and the results from the finite element
models are shown to give good agreement with the ultimate loads and failure
mechanisms from experimental tests. As an aid to our understanding, finite element
simulations are presented for the different possible interactions with local buckling
and it is clearly demonstrated that local-flexural-distortional interaction coupled
with the influence of material yielding is the worst case scenario.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled columns can buckle locally with many local buckles along the column
length or they may be more prone to intermediate or global buckling effects such as
distortional buckling or the overall modes of torsional, flexural or torsional-flexural
buckling. Clearly, interaction is possible between the different modes of behaviour and
coupled instabilities can be encountered in design. Local-distortional buckling can occur
or, indeed, the interaction between local buckling and overall flexural behaviour may be
of influence. Coupled local-flexural-distortional buckling is also a possibility and
analysis procedures should be capable of encapsulating all the various possibilities in
order to ensure safe and reliable structural designs. Actual structural behaviour will
depend on many factors including cross-sectional geometry, column length, end support
conditions and column material properties. The influence of geometrical imperfections
will also be of significance and this will be particularly true in the presence of coupled
post-buckling interactions. The considerable flexibility of the finite element method of
analysis makes it ideally suitable for dealing with the complex interactive failure
mechanics of thin-walled compression members and this approach has been employed in
25
The failure mechanisms witnessed in the tests were noted to be all symmetrically
disposed about the geometrical Y-axis of symmetry of the lipped channel cross-sections
and also, there was no evidence of global flexural-torsional behaviour during the tests of
the fixed-ended columns. Bearing this in mind, consideration is given here in the
modelling process only to the interaction between local and distortional buckling and
overall column bending. It is clear that symmetry conditions can be applied to the finite
element models in this case and that the coupled post-buckling local-flexural-distortional
interaction behaviour can be readily determined in this way.
One symmetrical full length half of the column is therefore modelled in a fine mesh
discretisation of the CQUAD4 shell elements. Firstly, all nodes lying on the axis of
geometrical symmetry at the centre of the web are constrained from movement in the Xdirection and also from rotation about the Z-axis along the member length. For the case
of fixed-ended conditions, the flange nodes are constrained from movement in the X29
X = 0
X = 0
Y
X
Y = 0
Y = 0
31
X =
0
X =
0
Y
X
Y
X
Y = 0
Y = 0
Fig. 4. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit localdistortional interaction
found to be small during local-flexural interaction but become more effectual when
subsequently interacting with the distortional mode of behaviour leading to localflexural-distortional interaction as the loading progresses. To gain a better knowledge and
understanding of the local-distortional interaction of the columns, in the first instance, we
simply maintain the Y constraints at the flange/web junctions to eliminate column
bending and release the X constraints at the flange/lip junctions to allow the possibility
of deflections in the distortional mode. The constrained model is as shown in Fig. 4 and
32
Midline Dimensions
Column
No.
bw (mm)
bf (mm)
bl (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
178.04
178.70
178.54
179.54
178.64
152.24
151.84
151.54
151.54
151.04
127.34
127.34
127.64
127.04
127.04
101.05
100.64
100.58
100.44
100.54
62.70
63.13
62.84
63.04
63.04
56.08
56.87
56.79
56.64
57.04
49.04
49.65
49.61
49.04
49.54
63.04
63.04
63.04
63.04
63.04
12.22
11.80
12.29
11.77
11.87
10.52
10.52
11.02
10.92
10.58
9.72
8.52
9.52
9.02
9.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
t (mm)
L (mm)
Pult (kN)
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
28.80
31.50
31.36
31.75
31.85
29.80
29.35
30.00
28.10
29.50
29.17
26.74
29.85
30.10
29.80
29.10
32.35
29.80
32.70
29.80
Fig. 5.
The growth of the natural interactive buckling deformations with applied load and the
development of the associated failure mechanism for test column 4 are illustrated in some
detail in Figure 6. As a result of the local imperfections applied to this column model, the
local deformed state will be in evidence and begin to grow from the onset of loading.
Eight locations are shown on the non-linear equilibrium curve and the deformed state at
each of these locations is as indicated. At point 1, which is just above the critical local
buckling load for the perfect column, it is seen that there are eight buckles along the
column length giving a local buckle node at the centre of the column. The loss in column
axial stiffness through points 1-4 is due to geometric non-linearity as a result of local
form change across the column cross-section and along the column length and it is of
note that the buckle amplitudes appear to become more prominent in the lower half of the
column as the loading progresses towards point 4. The considerable loss in axial stiffness
through points 4-6 is due to a local-flexural-distortional interaction phase of behaviour
which is coupled with the growth of membrane yielding at the section junctions and to
yield propagation across the section. At point 5, it is of note that the tangent axial
stiffness of the column is zero and that there is slight unloading of the column from 5-6
as membrane yielding at the section junctions serves to promote distortional buckling.
The initiation and development of distortional buckling from 5-6 is clearly evident and
this results in membrane yield propagation across the section and thus a plastic
mechanism is triggered at point 6 which leads to elasto-plastic unloading. During the
more severe unloading phase of behaviour through points 6-8, von Mises membrane
yielding becomes more concentrated in the mechanism region and thus a permanent
failure mechanism is formed at point 8. The final failure mechanism from the simulation
process can be seen from Figure 6 to compare favourably with the test failure mechanism
37
Fig. 8.
The Growth of the natural interactive buckling deformations with applied load and
the development of the associated failure mechanism for test column 8 are illustrated in
Fig. 8. As a result of the coupled local-distortional imperfection system applied to this
column model, the locally deformed state along the column length will be in evidence
and begin to grow from the onset of loading. Eight locations are shown on the non-linear
equilibrium curve and the deformed state at each of these locations is as indicated. At
point 1, which is just below the critical local buckling load for the perfect column, it is
seen that there are twelve buckles along the column length and that amplitude modulation
is in existence with lighter buckles towards the ends of the column and heavier buckles
over the central region. The loss in column axial stiffness through points 1-4 is due to
geometric non-linearity as a result of local form change across the column cross-section
and along the column length. The loss in axial stiffness from 4-5 is due to local-flexuraldistortional interaction coupled with the growth of membrane yielding at the section
junctions. At point 5, the tangent axial stiffness of the column is noted to be zero and
distortional buckling deflections are clearly evident. The development of distortional
buckling results in membrane yield propagation across the section and thus a plastic
mechanism is triggered just beyond point 5 which then leads to fairly sharp elasto-plastic
unloading towards point 6. During further more gradual unloading through points 6-8,
von Mises membrane yielding becomes more concentrated in the mechanism region and
thus a permanent failure mechanism is formed at point 8. The final failure mechanism
from the simulation process can be seen from Fig. 8 to compare remarkably well with the
test failure mechanism with regard to both, its shape across the section and its location
along the column length. As the von Mises membrane yielding becomes more
concentrated in the mechanism region, it is of note that the elastic buckles elsewhere on
39
41
42
Dynamics of Timoshenko beam (TB) made of viscoelastic material and resting on elastic or
viscoelastic foundation is studied on the base of new dimensionless equations. Generalized
dispersion relations for TB on elastic and viscoelastic foundations are derived and
compared with those for classical Euler-Bernoulli and Rayleigh models. The action of a
moving load on TB resting on the linear foundation is investigated, and the effects of shear
deformability of the beam, viscous friction in the foundation and the force velocity on
stationary running waves are studied.
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of high-velocity transport during the last decades has attracted the
increasing interest to refined models of beam structures and their materials. One of such
models is Timoshenko beam model, taking into account the shear deformability. It is well
known that TB model can result in essential corrections to predictions of classical EulerBernoulli (E-B) model in cases of relatively short beams and composite materials with
high shear deformability. But for beams resting on a foundation under concentrated loads
one may expect considerable shear deformability effect even in case of infinite (or semiinfinite) beams due to localization of the stress-strain state in vicinity of the force
application point.
For dynamic loads the special attention should be paid to material models of the
beam and foundation. Oscillations of beams in the vicinity of resonances can be correctly
predicted only with account of the internal friction, i.e., viscoelastic properties of the
material. This relates also to the foundation. Studies on dynamics of TB with account of
the material viscoelasticity (without a foundation) were presented in several works (see,
e.g., [1, 2]), elastic TB on elastic or viscoelastic foundation was considered in [3-8] and
others papers.
In this work the transverse oscillations and waves in viscoelastic Timoshenko beam
resting on elastic or viscoelastic foundation are studied. We use new form of
dimensionless equations for TB including only two generalized parameters for the beam
and two parameters for the foundation. First we study features of dispersion curves for
free waves in TB on the elastic foundation, in particaular, connected with existence of
two spectra of natural frequencies of the TB, and the influence of the internal and
external friction on them. Then the action of a moving load on the TB is investigated. A
stationary running wave is studied and it is shown that the account of the viscous friction
together with the shear deformability results in important dynamical effects.
43
q f w f y f
y
t
(1)
The full transverse load on the beam q0 ( x, t ) (apart from the inertia forces) equals
to
q0 ( x, t ) qe q f qe w f y f
y
t
(2)
y
,
x
(3)
where y ( x, t ) is the transverse displacement (here both the angles and are counted
off in one direction). The longitudinal displacement of a point on distance z from the
neutral axis and the longitudinal deformations are expressed through the angle :
u z , x z x .
Constitutive relations are assumed according to the Voigt law for normal stresses
x as well as for shear ones in the form
44
x E x k1
E 1 1 x , G k2
G 1 2 ,
t
t
t
t
(4)
,
M EJ 1
t x
Q k A k AG 1 ,
t x
(5a, b)
where k is the coefficient depending upon the cross section shape [9], A and J are the
cross section area and the moment of inertia.
The equations of the forces balance for the beam loaded by the load (2) with
account of the rotary inertia are as follows
Q
2 y
y
2
M
A 2 wf y f
qe 0 , J 2 Q
0.
x
t
t
t
x
(6a, b)
These equations with account of the above relations result in two differential
equations of motion in y and :
y
2 y
y
k G A 1 A 2 w f y f
qe 0 ,
t x x
t
t
(7a)
2
y
2
k
GA
1
EJ
1
t2
t x
t x 2
(7b)
displacement y ( x, t ) yields:
(2)
4 y
E
4 y
2 J 4 y
2 y
EJ 1
J 1
1 2 2
A 1 2
4
4
t x
t x t
k G t
t t
k G
J 2
EJ
2
y
1
1 2 wf y f
qe
t k GA t k GA
t x
t
(8)
45
J
x
c
E
y
2
2
, Y
, t , c
, r0
r0
A
r0
r0
(9)
w f r02
f r0 c
q r0
E
c
, , q
, w
,
.
r0
EA
EA
k G
EA
c is the sound velocity in the beam material, r0 is the cross section radius
Here
of gyration,
2Y
Y
Y
1
wY
q 0 , (10, a)
2
2
Y
1
1
2 2 0
(10, b)
Excluding from these equations we come to the single equation with respect to
displacement Y ( , ) (corresponding to equation (8)):
(2)
2
4Y
4Y
4Y
4
2 2
4
2
2
2
Y
1 2 2 q wY
(11)
Y
2
2
2 2 0
46
(12)
(2)
2
4
4
4
4
2 2
4
2
2
2
q
1 1 2 2 w
1
(13)
Note that the operator on here is the same as the operator on Y in (11), but the
operators on q are different (as well as boundary conditions for Y and ).
3. FREE WAVES IN INFINITE LONG BEAM. DISPERSION RELATIONS
3.1. ELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM ON THE ELASTIC (WINKLER) FOUNDATION
Consider first free waves in infinite long elastic Timoshenko beam on elastic
foundation. Equation (11) at 0 , 0 , q 0 is reduced to
4Y
4Y
4Y 2Y
2
2
w
1
Y 0
4
2 2
4 2
2
2
(14)
Y ( , ) Y0 ei ( k ) ,
(15)
k 4 1 2 k 2 1 2 2 w 1 2 k 2 0 .
For a given wave number
k roots are:
2
1,2
where
1
1 1 k 2 w
2
D ,
D 1 ( 1)k 2 w 4 w(1 k 2 ) k 4
2
(16)
(17
(18)
D 1 ( 1) k 2 w 4 k 2 , D 1 ( 1) k 2 w 4 (k 2 w) (19)
2
It follows from the first expression (19) that always D 0 , and the both roots 1,2
(17) are real. It is also seen from (17), (18) that both they are positive. So 1,2 are real.
47
k4 w
.
k2 1
(20)
For the Euler-Bernoulli model the second terms in equations (14) (and (16))
vanishes, and one has k 4 w .
Consider first the dimensionless dispersion curves
v k for a beam on
Winkler foundation for E-B and Rayleigh models. These curves are constructed in Fig. 2,
and b, respectively, for three values of the foundation stiffness parameter w 0; 0.1
and 0.5.
b
and
v k
foundation in E-B (a) and Rayleigh (b) models at three values of the foundation
stiffness parameter
48
22 12
1 ( 1) k 2 w1 4 k 2
(21)
w 0.2 (b) (bold curves T(1) and T(2) for the first and second spectrum, respectively),
and for comparison the curves for E-B and Rayleigh models are given.
In the case of weak foundation dispersion curves differ from those for case of
beam without foundation (Fig. 3a) only with lifting their left parts. The elastic
foundation practically does not influence the second spectrum and significantly
influences the first spectrum; as a result, parts of two spectra corresponding to small k ,
become closer with increasing w . The asymptotics at k 0 for the first branch of TB is
similar to that of E-B and Rayleigh model, as well as the non-propagating zone for
w 0 ; for large k discrepancies between three these models become considerable.
49
a)
Fig. 3. Dispersion curves
b)
with weak foundation w 0.2 (bold curves, two spectra) and for E-B and
Rayleigh models (dashed and dotted curves)
a)
b)
Fig. 4. Dispersion curves for frequency k for Timoshenko beam with strong
foundation 10 , w 0.1 (a) and w 0.2 (b) (bold curves, two spectra) and
for E-B and Rayleigh models (thin curves EB, R)
w 1 (b).
These curves (Fig. 4) illustrate an interesting peculiarity of strong foundation
effect. When w 1 , both branches for TB originates from the same point (Fig. 4a), so
50
30 on a larger scale.
Analytically this feature of TB on elastic foundation can be demonstrated easily for
the simplest limit case of long waves k 0 . Putting in (16), (17) k 0 , one has
2
1,2
(k 0)
1
1 w
2
D 1 w ,
D ,
(22)
whence
2
1,2
(k 0)
1
1 w
2
1 w
(23)
1 (k 0) w ,
at w 1 :
1 (k 0)
2 (k 0)
2 (k 0) w .
(24)
(25)
At changing w the first and the second spectra exchange with their limit points
(and with corresponding analytical dependencies on these stiffness). The first branch in
limit k 0 is determined by the smaller of these stiffnesses, the second one - by the
larger one. This demonstrates the equivalence of two branches for TB in certain sense.
Note also that for large k (short waves) the curve for Rayleigh model approaches
the second branch for Timoshenko model;
3.2. VISCOELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM ON THE VISCOELASTIC FOUNDATION
For viscoelastic foundation, seeking the solution of equation (11) for q 0 in the
form of harmonic waves (15) Y ( , ) Y0 ei ( k ) we come to the frequency equation
with complex coefficients:
1 i k 1 1 i k 1 i
1 i 1 k ( w i ) 0
2
2 2
(26)
4 ib3 3 b2 2 ib1 b0 0 ,
(27)
b0 k 4 w 1 k 2 , b1 w1 k 2 2 k 4 ,
(28)
b2 1 1 k 2 w 1 k 2 2 k 4 , b3 1 (1 )k 2
Table 1. Influence of internal friction ( ) on the complex frequencies for different wave
numbers
k (at 3 , w 0.2 , 0 )
Im(1 )
Re(1 )
0.
0.25
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
0.4472 (0.4472)
0.4573 (0.4583)
0.6424 (0.7745)
0.4333 (0.4472)
0.4574 (0.4582))
0.6418 (0.7720)
0.4472 (0.4472)
0.4578 ( 0.4581)
0.6400 (0.7644)
0
0
0
0.00184
0.00525
0.0295
0
0.0104
0.0589
Re(2 )
Im(2 )
0.5773
0.8109
1.2058
0.6528
0.8068
1.1923
0.5713
0.7945
1.1509
0
0
0
0.0502
0.0781
0.1788
0.0833
0.1563
0.3578
Table 2. Influence of external friction ( ) on the complex frequencies for different wave
numbers
0.25
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
k (at 3 , w 0.2 , 0 )
Re(1 )
0.5
1
Im(1 )
0.4294 (0.4294)
0.4488 (0.4472))
0.6345 (0.7720))
0.3708 (0.3708)
0.4121 (0.4123)
0.6078 (0.7644)
0.125
0.1069
0.1114
0.25
0.225
0.2272
Re(2 )
Im(2 )
0.5773
0.8036
1.2022
0.5773
0.7893
1.1935
0
0.0181
0.0136
0
0.025
0.0228
p1,2 1 i 1 , p3,4 2 i 2
52
(29)
1,2 1 i 1 , 3,4 2 i 2
(30)
Y1,2 ( , ) Y0,1 ei ( k
1 i 1 ))
Y0,1 e1 ei ( k
1 )
, Y3,4 ( , ) Y0,2 e 2 ei ( k
2 )
which describe decaying harmonic waves. Real parts j of the complex frequencies
j (30) determine cyclic frequencies of the waves (oscillations), imaginary parts their
damping characteristics.
The influence of the damping parameters , on the complex frequencies is
illustrated in Tables 1, 2 for 3 , w 0.2 ; wave numbers k 0 , k 0.5 and k 1
represent cases of very long, moderately short and very short wavelengths. In the 3 rd
column in the brackets the values of frequency 1 in E-B beam theory are given (i.e., for
Y
2Y
Y
2Y
f ( z ) ,
,
f
(
z
)
v* f ( z ) ,
v*2 f ( z ) ,
2
transforms into the ordinary differential equation with respect to f :
( v )2 f VI c5 f V c4 f IV c3 f c2 f c1 f w f 0 .
(31)
c1 w v v , c2 v 2 w w v 2 v2 ,
(32)
where
c3 v3 w v v 2 , c4 1 (1 )v 2 v 4 v 2 ,
c5 2 v (1 ) v3 .
The characteristic equation looks like
( v )2 6 c5 5 c4 4 c3 3 c2 2 c1 w 0
(33)
Solutions of equation (13) for the bending angle (which are necessary for
formulation of boundary conditions) can be written similarly in the form of running wave
(34)
with the same coefficients (32) and the same characteristic equation (33). So solutions for
Y and can be written in a similar form, only with different constants.
Consider first the case of elastic Timoshenko beam on elastic foundation.
54
c40 f IV c20 f w f 0
(35)
c40 4 c20 2 w 0 ,
(36)
where
c20 v 2 w w v 2 , c40 1 (1 )v 2 v 4
(37)
The equation (36) for not too large velocities v has two pairs of complex conjugate
roots
0
0
1,2
0 i 0 ; 3,4
0 i 0 ,
(38)
1 w c2
,
2 c4 2c4
1 w c2
2 c4 2c4
(39)
The general solution for equation (35) should be written separately for the positive
semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ) and negative semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ). For z 0 the
solution which vanishes in infinity can be written as (the bar above denotes the complex
conjugation):
f e
03 z
Ce
04 z
( z 0)
(40,a)
f De
10 z
De
02 z
( z 0)
(40,b)
Ae
03 z
Ae
04 z
( z 0 ),
B e
10 z
Be
02 z
. ( z 0)
(41, a, b)
and v*
gives
f (1 v*2 ) .
(42)
Substituting solutions (39)-(41) into (42) we obtain the following relations between
the constants (here and below we drop upper indexes 0):
55
3 C 1 1 v*2 32 A, 1 D 1 1 v*2 12 B
(43)
3)
, 4)
P* ( P *
P
) (45)
EA
2) A A B B
(46,a,b)
3) 1 B 2 B 3 A 4 A
(46, c)
4) (1 D 2 D) (3C 4C ) P
(46, d)
C Cx iC y , C Cx iC y , D Dx iDy ,
(47)
x Dx , Ax Bx
(48, a, b)
0 Bx 0 By 0 Ax 0 Ay
(48, c)
(2 0 Dx 2 0 Dy ) (2 0Cx 2 0Cy ) P
(48, d)
x 01 Ax 02 Ay , Cy 02 Ax 01 Ay
(49)
Dx 01 Bx 02 By , Dy 02 Bx 01 By
where
1 (1 v2 )
0 2
0 2
, 2 (1 v2 )
56
0 2
0 2
(50)
0 2
0 2
w
c4
So
1 (1 v2 )
c4
c4
, 2 (1 v2 )
.
w
w
(51)
Set of equations (48), (49) determines eight constants. It can be easily seen that
Cx
P2
P1
,
C
y
8 0 (1 v2 )
8 0 (1 v2 )
(52)
Pe z 2
f ( z)
cos 0 z 10 sin 0 z ,
2
0
4(1 v )
(53)
Pe z 2
f ( z)
cos 0 z 10 sin 0 z
2
0
4(1 v )
(54)
The profiles of the running wave ( f ( z ) and f ( z ) ) are presented in Fig. 5 for
three values of the shear deformability parameter at w 0.01 , v* 0.1 , P* 1 . The
profile of the wave in TB model is more sharp than in the Rayleigh model (and in E-B
model) corresponding to 0 . The maximal deflection (at 0 ) for given v* value
increases with rise of , but this is not true for any v* . In Fig. 6, a, b, the maximal
deflection Ym f (0) is shown as a function of the velocity v* for different values
(a) and as a function of for different v* values (b) (at w 0.01 ).
Maximal deflection tends to infinity at critical velocity which is determined by the
condition that the denominator in (53) tends to 0:
0 (1 v2 ) 0
(55)
This condition with account of (37) and (39) gives the equation
4w(1 v2 )(1 v2 ) w v2 w v2 2 (1 v2 ) 0
57
(56)
Fig. 5. Profile of the running wave for three values of shear deformability parameter
elastic beam, elastic foundation ( w 0.01 ,
a)
Fig. 6. Maximal deflection
v 0.1 , P 1 ).
*
b)
c)
58
w ( w 0.01 , P* 1 ).
c40 f IV c20 f v f w f 0
(57)
c40 4 c20 2 v w 0 .
(58)
again has two pairs of complex roots which for not too large v are close to roots 10 4
(38), (39) of the corresponding biquadrate equation. Roots of (58) can be found by the
small parameter method. Putting them in the form
0 (1)
( v )
(59)
one has after substitution of (59) in (58) and dropping higher degrees of :
(1)
2 2c4 ( 0 )2 c2
v
2 2c4 ( 0 )2 c2
(60)
(61)
2 4 wc4 c22
0
0 i 0
and the complex conjugate value for the root 20 0 i 0 . For roots 3,4
(1)
one obtains similarly 3,4
i (1) . So we have following two pairs of roots of (58):
1,2 0 i , 3,4 0 i
(62)
0 (1) , 0 (1)
(63)
General solutions for functions f (equation (57)) and for the positive semiinfinite beam ( z 0 ) and negative semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ) can be written similarly to
(40), (41) (but without the upper index 0)
f e
3 z
Ce
3 z
Ae
Ae
4 z
4 z
( z 0 ) , f De
1 z
B e
( z 0 ),
De
1 z
2 z
Be
2 z
(z 0)
(64a,b)
. ( z 0)
(65a, b)
Boundary conditions (44) yield to the same equations (46), but now instead of (48)
we come to equalities:
59
x Dx , Ax Bx , 0 Bx By 0 Ax Ay
(2 Dx 2 Dy ) (2 Cx 2 Cy ) P
0
(66a, b,c)
(66d)
a)
b)
Fig. 7. Profile of the running wave for three values of foundation viscous friction parameter
; a)
3,
b)
x 01 Ax 2 Ay , Cy 2 Ax 01 Ay
(67a,b)
Dx 1 Bx 2 By , Dy 2 Bx 1 By
(67c,d)
, respectively.
Equations (66), (67) determine all the constants. The obtained expressions for the
constants are not presented here because of their complexity. Then solution of (64) is
written in the real form as follows
60
f ( z ) 2 e
cos z y sin z , f ( z ) 2 e
D cos
x
z Dy sin z (54)
Some numerical results are represented in Figs. 7, 8. In Fig. 7 profiles of the running
wave are shown for three values of foundation viscous friction parameter ; at
v* (viscoelastic foundation,
w 0.01 , 0.1 , 3 , P* 1 )
These results show that only the simultaneous account of viscous friction in the
foundation and shear deformability of the beam allow to obtain realistic description of
stationary running wave in beams on the linear foundation under moving loads.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this work the transverse oscillations and waves in viscoelastic Timoshenko beam
resting on elastic or viscoelastic foundation have been studied. A new form of
dimensionless equations for TB resting on a linear foundation has been derived which
includes only two generalized parameters for the beam and two parameters for the
foundation.
61
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
62
1. INTRODUCTION
Taking into account the stiffness and inertia forces the dynamic behaviour of the
structures can be followed. The dynamic investigation usually starts with an example of
free vibration. It means to evaluate the natural frequency. The simplest stability problem
of the structures is the buckling of the column. This problem can be established preparing
the equilibrium conditions on the deformed structure. In general, however, for the
evaluation of the stability problems we must evaluate the strains for the deformed
differential element what means to apply geometric non-linear theory.
If we put together the dynamic and stability, we obtain a lot of tasks: dynamic
buckling, dynamic post buckling behaviour, parametric resonance etc. The introduction
example is the vibration of the column loaded in compression but even so the
investigation of this simplest example represents a lot of problems.
Using a not very complicated equipment, we are able to measure the natural
frequency. The comparison of the frequency measured experimentally and evaluated
numerically is the basis of the non-destructive methods for the investigation of the
properties of the structure. Generally, it can be said that in the design of the structure, the
stability effects have to be taken into consideration. These two ideas are the reason for
our following the problem of the combination of vibration and stability.
Leonard Euler was probably the first scientist who solved the stability problems. The
former solutions are supposed to be the linear stability. It means that we suppose an ideal
structure. The differences between theory and reality forced researchers to search for
more accurate models. Especially the slender web as the main part of thin-walled structure
has significant post-buckling reserves and for a description of them it is necessary to
accept a geometric non-linear theory. The problem of the vibration of the non-linear
system is formulated by Bolotin [4]. Burgreen [5] solved the problem of the vibration of
an imperfect column in early 50's. Some valuable results have been achieved by Volmir
63
x,u
py
z,w
q u , v , wT
(1)
In the post-buckling behaviour of the slender web the plate displacements are much
bigger than in-plane (web) displacements (w u, v) and so the strains are
w,2x
w
u, x
, xx
1 2
v, y
,y
z w, yy
2w w
u, y v, x
w
, x , y , xy
(2)
q0 0,0, w0 T
Due to that the initial strains are
64
(3)
w02,x
w
0 ,xx
1 2
0 w0 ,y
z w0 ,yy
2
2w w
2 w
0 ,x 0 ,y 0 ,xy
(4)
The w represents the global displacements and w0 is part related to the initial
displacement.
The linear elastic material has been assumed
x
1
(5)
y D 0 w , where D
1
2
stresses.
The global potential energy of the slender web is
U U i U e
where
Ui
1
2
0 dV
T
(6)
U e q q0 T p d
WEB
LOADED
IN
For the simplification we suppose the square rectangular slender web loaded in
compression simple supported all around.
65
have to define the external force as F tdy . Consequently, the average stress can be
0
F
defined as
. For the approximate solution, we take displacement functions as
b.t
2x
w S x1 S y1 , w0 0 S x1 S y1 , u 1 1 2 S x 2C y 2 3 S x 2 ,
b
ix
iy
2y
.
v 11
, . . . C yi cos
2 C x 2 S y 2 3 S y 2 , where S xi sin
b
b
b
S 1 ,2 ,3 , 1 , 2 , 3 T .
16b
02 ,1,1 , ,1,1 T
2 Et 2
(Euler's elastic critical stress), the dimensionless
12 1 2 b 2
load as
, ( cr 4 E ) and the dimensionless parameters of the
4 E cr
equation
0.34125 2 02 1
cr
(9)
b
F
b.t
cr 4.0 E
=0.3
0.34125 2 02 1
0
1
0
0.01
0.1
0.5
F b
u ,w 1
(11)
1
(12)
2
Assuming the linear elastic material, the stresses are in quadrates as well.
(13)
E 0 2
The potential energy of the internal forces is a product of the elongations and the
stresses, then, finally, the variational coefficients are up to the fours
u ,x w,x 2 z .wxx 2
1 T
. ( 2 ).( 2 ) 4
(14)
2
The system of conditional equations may be arranged as a partial derivation
according to the variational coefficients
Ui
U
... 3
i
(15)
du du
f
u,x
dx dx
For the increments
(16)
d ( u u )
du du du du du
u,x
f
dx
dx
dx dx dx dx
f f
(17)
1 2
dw 1 dw
f
w,x
2
dx 2 dx
(18)
d ( w w )
dw 1 d ( w w ) 1 dw
f
dx
dx
dx 2
2 dx
f f
1 dw
dw dw dw
.
2 dx
dx dx dx
2
w,x .w,x
1 dw dw . dw 1 dw
2 dx
dx dx
2 dx
(19)
1
w,x 2
2
According to these rules the increment of the strain can be arranged as follows
1
2
Then the variation of the increment of the elongation is prepared
68
(20)
(21)
t1
T U dt Wdt 0
t0
where
t0
2 q qdV
1
(22)
is
the
increment
of
the
kinetic
energy,
the time intervals, - the mass density, V - the volume (in our case it is the volume of the
beam/column), p ,p - the external load , the increment of the external load. The dots
mean the time derivation.
We assume the linear elastic material (Eq. (5)). For the increments, we have
D
In the case of the beam type of structures, the volume integration can be changed
into the integration over the cross section and the integration over the length:
A, I - the cross section area, the moment of inertia. The longitudinal axe is situated into
centre of the gravity of the cross section.
We use the Ritz variational method
u BS . S ,
w BD . D
(23)
u BS 1 . S t ,
w BD1 . D t
(24)
Note. In some dynamic process where we can have different boundary condition for
the static behaviour and for the vibration, it is useful to have different basic variational
functions for the displacements and for the increment of the displacements.
69
1
3
stiffness matrix,
a
f INTD
BTD1XX EI
f EXT D B TD1 p D dx - the increment of the vector of the bending external forces,
0
a
K INC S BTSX 1 EAB SX 1dx - the incremental stiffness matrix of the axial stiffness.
0
the
incremental
axial-bending
1
1
f INT S BTS 1X EA u, x w,2x w02, x dx - the vector of the axial internal forces,
2
2
70
fEXT S BTS 1p S dx - the increment of the vector of the axial external forces.
0
It is evident that Eq.(25) represents the system of the differential equations of the
second degree.
The axial and the bending displacement can be collected by
D , D
S
S
The system of conditional equations (Eq. (25)) could be written as
K M K INC f INT f EXT f EXT 0
(26)
where
K
K M M D
K INC DS
K
, K INC INC D
K M S
K INC SD K INC S
(28)
f INT f EXT 0
(29)
As previously explained in the introduction Part 2.3, we are not able to compile this
system of cubic algebraic equations. (Note. We are able to arrange this system in some
simple examples only.)
Eq. (28) is the basis for the incremental solution and for the Newton-Raphson
iteration as well.
71
f INT f EXT 0
(30)
We have got the increment of the external load. The increments of the parameters of
the displacements can be obtained from Eq. (28)
1
K INC f EXT
(31)
D i D D
(32)
r i f INT f EXT
(33)
For the correction of the roots (displacement parameters), we assume the constant
level of the external load ( f EXT 0 ) . Then it can be evaluated from Eq. (28)
1
i K INC .r i
(34)
i 1 i i
(35)
( i 1 )T . i 1 ( i )T . i
( i 1 )T . i
0.001, (0.0001)
(36)
K INC J
(37)
The incremental stiffness matrix is the same as the Jacoby matrix of the NewtonRaphson iteration. The Jacoby matrix characterises the tangent plane to the non-linear
surface and is defined as
J ij
*
K Gnel
ij
i
*
where K Gnel
is the system of non-linear (in our case cubic) algebraic equations.
72
(38)
D K INC
det
0 , Dk 0 .
(39)
If any condition of Eq. (39) is not satisfying, the path is unstable. The point between
the stable and unstable paths is called the bifurcation point. In the bifurcation point, we
have
D K INC
det
(40)
f EXT 0
(41)
(42)
sin( t )
(43)
(44)
K INC 2 K M
det
0.
(45)
The eigenvalues represent the squares of circular frequencies, and eigenvectors are
the parameters of the modes of the vibration.
73
VIBRATION OF
COMPRESSION
THE
SIMPLE
SUPPORTED
COLUMN
LOADED
IN
In Part 2.5, we have started the derivation using the Hamilton's principle and
generally prepared the conditional equation for the dynamic process. In Part 2.10., we
have arranged the equations for the evaluation of the vibration.
One simple and interesting example is the vibration of the imperfect column. For the
application of the action of the force, we must suppose one support as the hinge and the
other support as the roller (the sliding support) (Fig 3). (Note. We have drawn the column
in horizontal position.)
w0
E,A,I,
l
z,w
w 1 sin
x
l
, w0 0 sin
2x 2
, u x, sin
l 3
l
F 2 2
1 02 , 3
12 02
EA l 2
8l
The equation for the static behaviour can be arranged in the form
F
2 EI
, FEU 2 is Euler's elastic critical force.
F 1 0 , where F
FEU
l
1
The incremental stiffness matrix is K INC
4 EI l
l4
Putting this into Eq.(9.59), we obtain the result
2 02 .1 F
where 02
2 l
l2 2
F.
(46)
4 EI
is the square of the circular frequency of the simple supported column.
Al 4
74
N=-F
x
E,A,I,
z,w
Fig. 4. The simple supported column with initial displacement - fixed support
For the displacements and the initial displacements, we take
. 2 , 3 T
w 1 sin(x / l ) , w0 0 sin(x / l ) , u x, sin(2x / l )
But for the increment of the displacement, we assume
w 1 sin(x / l ) , u 3 . sin(2x / l )
Now, we have used different basic variational functions for the displacements and
for the initial displacements:
Finally, the incremental stiffness matrix is:
K INC
4 EI l
l4
2 l
l2 2
F EA
4 l 12
l4 2 2
Then we get the expression for the square of the circular frequency
2 02 .1 F
1 12
where r
2 r 2
I
is the radii of inertia.
A
75
(47)
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.5
0.5
w0/r=1.
0
w0/r=0.
1
wc
VIBRATION
STATIC
5.0
N=-F
A
0
0.5
B
10.0
B
(w0=0)
wc/r
w0/r=0.
5
w0/r=1.
0
(/0)
2
0.5
1.0
1.5
76
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
F
w0=0.01 w01+0.1
w02
0.5
0.5
wd
1
w01
w02
VIBRATION
w02
STATIC
0
w0=0.05 w01+0.5
wd/r
5.0
(/0)2
w02
0
10.0
w0=0.1 w01+1.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Fig. 6. The stability and the vibration for the imperfect column with the initial
displacement as the second mode of the buckling
Side view
Screw
Manometer
Ball
bearing
Tested beam
Top view
Tested beam
77
sin(x/l)
0.06 kg
,A
l
w
Fig. 9. The effects of end-bearing of the beam to the mass matrix
The mass matrix taking into account the effect of the end bearing will be
l
* 0.015
K M A 2 * 0.06 * sin
2
l
78
F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
Jckl
0.5
Jckl
0.5
(/0)
wc/r
5.0
10.0
0.5
1.0
Fig. 10. The results from the measurements of the steel hollow thin-walled section Jckl
Timber beam 47 / 47 mm , A 2209 mm 2 , I 406640 mm 4 , r 13.57 mm , l 2040 mm
E 10200 MPa , 472 kg / m 3 , Fcr 9836.7 N , 0 147.3 s 1
Timber beam
F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
0.5
1.0
Timber
47/47
Timber
42/32
Timber
47/47
Timber
42/32
0.5
(/0)2
wc/r
0
5.0
10.0
0.5
79
1.0
F/Fcr
1.0
w0 0.0433
0.8
w0 0.173
w0 0.433
0.4
w0
w0
r
0.3
0.6
Fcr=14.54*106 N
E=20 GPa, =2500 kg/m3
6.0
m
0.4
0.3
9.0 m
wc/r
0
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.4
Fig. 12. The load versus the displacement for the different values of initial displacements
80
F/Fcr
1.0
w0 0.0433
0.8
w0 0.173
w0 0.433
F
STATIC
w
w0
0.4
Mode of buckling
Fcr=14.54*106 N
Modes of vibration
F*= F/ Fcr
*
2
F =0, 01=4567 s-2
F*=0, 202=15170 s-2
F*=0.6, 2=3121.3 s-
w0
r
VIBRATIO
N
F*=0.95, 2=520.5 s2
Fcr=14.54*106 N
012=4567 s-2
(/0)2
0
0.4
Fig.13.
0.
8
1.0
We have arranged the load conditions to get the mode of the buckling different to
the mode of the vibration. In this case, the relationship between the load and the square of
the circular frequency is non-linear (Fig. 13). Analogously as in the case of the column,
we suppose a different edge condition for the static load and for the vibration. If the point
of the load application is fixed during the vibration process, we can take into
consideration the effects of initial displacements. (We have supposed the same mode of
initial displacements as the mode of buckling is.)
The modes of vibration for a different level of the load are presented as well
(Fig. 13). In this case, we have supposed the frame without the initial imperfections. We
can see that in the case of the higher level of the load (F/Fcr>0.6), the mode of vibration
is similar to the mode of the buckling.
3.6. VIBRATION AND RESIDUAL STRESSES
The residual stresses are typical in the welded steel structures, but we can meet the
residual stresses even in concrete, timbers and many others structures as well. The
question is if the residual stresses have any influence for the circular frequency. The
situation is much different in the beam type structures in comparison to the plate
structures.
The residual stresses have been mentioned in Eq.(5). In the case of the beam
structures, this equation will be reduced
, x E.( , x 0 , x ) w
81
w dV
,x
In the case of the beam type of structures, the volume integration can be changed
into the integration over the cross section and the integration over the length.
a
V
0A
All the derivations and the variations of the displacements functions are not any
function of the cross section.
a
u u .u w .w w .w dA w z. dA dx
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
w
xx
w
0
A
A
wdA 0,
z.
wdA 0
... . w dV 0
(48)
It is evident that the residual stresses in the case of the beam structures do not
have any influence on the circular frequency.
Note. In the case of the statically indeterminate structure, Eq (48) is not valid and
the residual stresses could have the influence into the vibration.
There is a much different situation in the case of the plate structures. In this case, the
volume integration is divided into the integration over the thickness and the integration
over the neutral surface. The integration of the residual stresses over the thickness is not
zero and thus,
t/2
t/2
. w dV
. w dz d w dz d 0
V
t / 2
t / 2
Finally, in the case of the plate structures, the residual stresses have an influence
on the circular frequency.
Continuing the example from Part 2.2 we can get the result for the square of the
circular frequency of the square slender web loaded in compression
2 02 . 1 K 3 2 02
where 02
(55)
4 Et 2
is the square of the circular frequency of a simply supported
3b 4 1 2
It is evident that, in comparison to the column, the circular frequency of the slender
web is influenced by the initial displacement even in the case of the moving supports.
82
u S x 2 .C y 2 . 2 S x 2 .3 , v Cx 2 .S y 2 . 2 S y 2 . 3
The result can be arranged in the form
2 02 .1
21 12 9 2 2 3 1 2 2
0
8
8
(56)
Fig. 14 shows the assumptions for the distribution of the residual stresses in the
square slender web loaded in compression. We suppose the constant residual stresses
through the thickness and then the approximate circular frequency can be expressed by
the equation
2 02 . 1 xw yw K 3 2 02
where xw
(57)
yw
xw
, yw
.
cr
cr
One can see the residual stresses produce shifting of the level of the load.
fy
wy
p
fy
Fig. 14. The distribution of the residual stresses in the slender web
4. CONCLUSION
The presented theory and results prove the influence of the natural frequency on the
level of the load, on the geometrical imperfections and the residual stresses, too. This
knowledge can be used as an inverse idea. Measuring of the natural frequencies can give
us a picture of the stresses and imperfections in a thin-walled structure. It is true that the
relationship of frequencies versus stresses and imperfections represent a high theory, but
this is not a barrier for a further investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been supported by Slovak Scientific Grant Agency No. 1/0629/12.
83
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
84
This paper describes the collaborative research carried out into various aspects of
the behaviour of thin-walled structures at the University of Strathclyde and the
Technical University of Lodz over the past 40 years or so. The two Universities
have had links over the past 45 years, and collaboration has been carried out in
many disciplines. The collaboration between the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Strathclyde and the Department of Strength of Materials at Lodz has
been largely concentrated on thin-walled structures, and some aspects of this
collaboration are outlined in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
The link between the University of Strathclyde and the Technical University of
d was initiated in 1967 when Sir Samuel Curran, the Principal of the University of
Strathclyde and Professor Jerzy Werner, the Rector of the Technical University of d
signed an official agreement establishing the academic co-operation between these
Universities.
The forty five years of the co-operation with the University of Strathclyde has also
played a unique role in the history of the relations between the Technical University of
d and other foreign universities. There was a justified opinion that could very well be
the best working academic co-operation between any British and Polish university.
For a number of years the main components of the co-operation were the
collaboration and exchange of staff members between the universities which has involved
approximately 60 university study units and 300 members of staff since its inception.
Joint PhD projects have also been carried out, involving 34 participants from Lodz. A
number of special 5x5 and 3x3 seminars have been carried out over the years, in which
teams of 5 or 3 members from one university visit and give lectures at the other
university. A number of common Symposia and Conferences have been organized as part
85
After crushing
Before crushing
The very large degree of compression involved in the crushing of such members
causes progressive buckling and failure of individual sections occurring progressively,
and the behaviour can be adequately predicted by relatively simple plastic mechanism
analysis.
A number of collaborative projects have been carried out on the application of
plastic mechanism analysis to evaluate the capacity of thin-walled members, for example
[17], [18], [19], [20]
3.4. WEB CRIPPLING IN LIGHT GAUGE STEEL BEAMS
In recent years substantial efforts have been applied to the examination of web
crippling in thin-walled beams subject to local loads and support reactions. Traditionally
web crippling has been considered in design specifications using empirical formulae
derived purely on the basis of testing. This has the fundamental limitation that the
formulae so derived are only directly applicable to the cases tested, and more generally
applicable approaches would be desired.
88
90
91
92
A brief review is presented in this paper on the disaster of the earthquake and
Tsunami which attacked Japan in 11 March 2011.
The JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) records, reports published by JSCE
(Japan Society of Civil Engineering) and Japan Bridge Association and so on are
referred as source of this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
In 11 March 2011, Japan faced the unprecedented disaster in its modern history, that
is, the earthquake disaster followed by the tsunami disaster. Due to the seismic tremor and
the following tsunami, not only the structures but also the system of cities were seriously,
and in many cities, almost completely, destroyed.
In this paper, the author tries to introduce a brief review of the earthquake and
tsunami disaster, by using the records and announcements issued by the Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA), the reports of the investigating committees organized by
Japan Bridge Association, reports of Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI) and
so on, together with the data by JMA, National Research Institute for Earth Science and
Disaster Prevention (NIED).
It should be noted that this paper is aimed to introduce the outlines of the disaster
with above records and reports, and that this is not the author's original research work.
In addition, the earthquake and Tsunami caused a serious nuclear power plant
accident. However, in this paper, no description is given on the nuclear plant accident,
because it is beyond the author's capacity.
2. OUTLINE OF THE EARTHQUAKE
2.1 GENERAL1)2)3)
The earthquake occurred in 14:46, 18.1 seconds (estimated), 11th, March, 2011. The
epicentre is 38 deg 06.2 N-Lat, 142 deg 51.6 E, off of the Sanriku Coast, North-East
(Tohoku) of Japan (see Fig.1), and the Magnitude of this earthquake is estimated as
Mw=9.0. This is the fourth-largest earthquake in the world observed in the human history.
JMA gives the name of this earthquake as The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku
Earthquake, although it is usually called as East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster. In
this paper, the earthquake is denominated as the East Japan Earthquake or very simply
the Earthquake.
93
Sendai
Sendai
Sanriku Coast
Epicentre
Ishinomaki
Tokyo
Nagano
Tokyo
Mt.Fujiyama
epicentre
Pacific
Plate
Hypocentre
subducting
hypocentre
(where rupture initiated)
95
Pacific
Plate
rupture surface
interface of plates
Japan Trench
Pacific
Ocean
North American
Plate
Tsunami
Pacific
Ocean
moves
Compression
Pacific
Earthquak
e
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Rupture
Asperity
Ishinomaki
4m
8m
12m
20m 16m
(1) 24m
Sendai
According to survey made by The
(2)
Geospatial Information Authority of
7),
Japan (GSI) due to the earthquake, the
ground of North East Japan moves for
hypocentre
ocean-ward
and
downward.
The
maximum movement was observed in Narita Airport
(3)
16m
Ishinomaki City, which is located at a
Tokyo
12m
8m
peninsula east of Sendai City and is the
4m
nearest city to the epicentre, and the
200 km
movement is 5.3m for East, 1.16m for
down.
Fig. 5. Estimated Rupture Zone (by JMA)
96
400
200
0
40
100
160
220
Sec.
-200
-400
Ishinomaki
City
-600
14:48
14:47
14:49
Gal
400
200
0
80
-200
-400
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
Sec.
Narita Airport
14:48
14:49
14:50
97
inundation depth
run-up height
deep water
tsunami height
tsunami height
inundation height
sea level
The system must issue the tsunami warning with using the first tremor which is
corresponding to the first rupture of the asperity. That is, when the warning is issued,
98
Miyako
Osaka
Kamaishi
Fukushima
Ishinomaki
Tokyo
Sanriku Coast
the second tremor corresponding to the second rupture is not measured exactly yet, and at
that stage, the whole aspect of the earthquake is not known. In the result, the system
estimated that the maximum tsunami height (Fig. 7) as 6 m at 14:49. After this event, the
offshore installed GPS ocean wave meter sensed over 6m as the deep water tsunami
height. The tsunami height at the coast is generally over twice of the deep water height.
Therefore, JMA re-issued the tsunami warning of the height of "over 10m" at 15:14.
However, at this stage, very few people in the stricken area can have the news of re-issue
of the warning, because TV / radio cannot be used due to the blackout of the electric
power. In addition, many of the coast area cities, towns and villages are guarded by the
tsunami prevent wall. Therefore, some people felt safe for the 6m tsunami, and missed the
opportunity to evacuate.
Sendai
Onagawa
Kochi
Photo 2 shows an example of a tsunami prevent wall, in Miyako City in Sanriku Coast,
North of Sendai (see Fig. 8), having its height of 10m in maximum. However, in practice,
tsunami height exceeded the wall, and the wall was destroyed by the water pressure of
99
100
cm/sec/sec
4000
Kobe
Ishinomaki
2000
0
0.1
10
100
Hz
Photo 5 (a) is the damage of the wire poles of the Shinkansen High Speed Train. As
shown in this photo, the poles are snapped at the bottom part.
Photo 5 (b) shows the collapse of the suspended ceiling of a building located at the
Bay Shore area of Tokyo. It is found in this photo that a part of the suspended ceiling is
just falling. In Tokyo, two fatalities are reported due to the collapse of the suspended
102
A truss bridge in Photo 6 (b) lost two spans due to tsunami. In this bridge, according
to the survey of JSCE and an eyewitness account, the losing two spans moved upward at
first, then carried away. The one of the span of this bridge was found about 140m from
the bridge, and another one was about 600m 3).
103
A building shown in Photo 7 (b) turned over due to tsunami. This building was
supported by piles, but due to tsunami pressure piles were pulled out from the ground.
104
After the Kobe earthquake in 1995, many buildings have been subjected to the
seismic retrofit work. However, the seismic retrofit work is for seismic tremor, and it is
not effective for the tsunami pressure. Photo 7 (d) shows a building which had 3 stories
and has been subjected to retrofit work. In spite of the retrofit work, as it is found in the
photo, the upper part of the building was carried away by tsunami, and columns and walls
of the building were destroyed seriously.
The tsunami carried many object such as ships and even aircraft. Photo 8 (a) shows a
ship drifted into the inland. In the cities near the port, many houses and buildings are
destroyed by the drifting of ships. In Photo 8 (b), an aircraft drifted and stuck into a
building at the Self Defence Air Force Base located between Sendai City and Ishinomaki
City.
The tsunami also hit infrastructure or other important facilities of cities.
Photo 9 (a) is a damaged hospital. This hospital is a 4 stories RC-made building,
having been subjected to the seismic retrofit work. In the photo, the additional bracings
attached through the retrofit work can be found. In this hospital, the trace of tsunami
inundation was found at the ceiling of the top story (about 14m from the ground level).
105
Tokyo Bay
Tokyo Port
2000 m
Sendai
Haneda Airport
Liquefacted Area
Tokyo
100 km
106
Gal
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0
60
120
180
240
300
Sec
Gal*Sec
200.00
Up tp 160 Sec.
After 200 Sec.
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
0.10
1.00
Period(Sec.)
10.00
107
100.00
108
The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, in 2011 disaster and natural
phenomena report, 2011, JMA (in Japanese).
On The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Report No.1 No.8, JMA
Announcement, 2011 (in Japanese).
Special Committee on 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, Report of the emergency survey,
JSCE, 2011 (in Japanese)
Survey Report of Bridges Damaged by the East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster, Japan
Bridge Association, 2011.12 (in Japanese)
Railway Journal, Vol.45, No.9, 2011 (in Japanese)
Picture from You Tube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gp-w51cB-Ao)
Diastrophism due to the main shock of 3.11 Earthquake, Geospatial Information Authority
of Japan (GSI) :http://www.gsi.go.jp/chibankansi/ chikakukansi40005.html (in Japanese)
Disaster Prevention System Institute, http://www.bo-sai.co.jp/tunami.htm
Press Release, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism, 2011.4.
From NHK TV News.
The Yomiuri Shimbun (Newspaper) http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/photo/ 20110322-9518621-L.jpg.
Newspaper Photo Album of the Great East Japan Earthquake Disasters, The Asahi
Shimbun, 2011.4.
NASA
Home
Page,
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/japanquake/
109
110
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled columns and beams are widely used in many engineering structures.
In this paper, problems of members with bisymmetric open cross-section within the
classical assumptions of the theory of non-deformable cross-section [1] are considered.
The theory has been confirmed by many investigations, theoretical and experimental, as
sufficiently accurate for engineering applications and it gives grounds for many
national code requirements. As commonly known, torsion of members with bisymmetric
cross- section is independent of bending and thus our attention focused mainly on the
former one. The stability problems of thin-walled members has been explored in-depth
and documented in many books and monographs [1 - 6]. Torsional buckling and initial
post- buckling behaviour for the I-columns with variable flanges is presented in the paper
[7]. It should be added that in this paper, the possibility of crossing by the buckling load
of the columns with variable cross-section the limits described by the loads corresponding
to extreme cross-sections, firstly mentioned in [8] has been confirmed. Moreover, stability
and symmetry properties of the bifurcation point are investigated. Some additional
problems dealing with torsional buckling, initial post-buckling behaviour of axially
compressed I columns and columns with cruciform cross-sections accounting for effects
initial stresses due to welding or hot-rolling are presented in [9]. The results of the
investigations point out that decrease of buckling loads due to the initial stresses is
possible but the bifurcation points are symmetrical and stable and therefore additional
reduction of the critical loads caused by initial geometrical imperfection does not occur
[10]. In paper [11] the effect of elastic restraint in the mid-span cross-section of a simply
supported I column, a column with cruciform cross-section on torsional, the flexural
buckling loads and the initial post-buckling behaviour of columns is considered. It has
been observed that usually the post buckling paths confirm the stability of bifurcations
111
r 0 xi yj zk
where:
112
(1)
w
z
h
x
y, v
Fig. 1.
Let us assume that when the column buckles, the cross-section moves and rotates
along z axis as a rigid contour. Taking into account the assumptions of the classical
thin-walled beam theory [1]:
a) cross-section of the column is not deformable,
b) shear deformation is negligible,
c) strains are small and elastic,
the position vector r of the same point on the deformed surface can be written as
r y sin i y cos j z wk x
a r
a r
(2)
where:
w, - axial displacement and angle of the cross-section rotation,
a sin i cos j unit vector,
dr
x 0, y h / 2 - first derivative of the vector r at point (0. h/2) with respect
dz
to z .
The vector of displacement u of the point in question may be expressed as
u r r 0 u C i vC j wC k
(3)
Substitution of Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) into Eq.(4) yields, after some algebra, the following
expression on the displacement vector
113
1 w2 h2 2 / 4 .
Only one non-zero component of the strain tensor z may be derived from the relationship
in which the assumption of the small strains is taken into account
z wC 0.5 uC 2 vC 2
(5)
Now using Eqns. (3, 4, 5) the strain z can be expressed in terms of displacements w
and
2
2
(6)
z w / l 2 1 w/ l 0.5 y 2 2 0.5 x 2 1 w/ l 2 1 w
z f z
(7)
where:
z - normal stress.
d z
cr
(8)
dz
The normal stress due to bending of the column after the torsional buckling may be
written as expansion of the relation (7) into the Taylors series at the bifurcation point
Et
Et E1 2 E 2 3
(9)
where:
z cr ,
E1 0.5 d 2f/d z2 cr ,
E2 1 / 6 d f/d
3
z3
(10)
cr .
0A
V d A d 0.5 Gt I d 2 d z P w d z
114
(11)
w 0.5r 2 2
(12)
where:
r 2 x2 y2.
Substituting Eq. (12) into the total potential energy (11) one can express it as a functional
of displacements w, and their derivatives. The Euler conditions of stationary total
potential energy with respect to both displacements, allow us to derive two nonlinear
differential equations that after elimination of the displacement w can be reduced to the
governing nonlinear differential equation depending only on the rotation angle
E 3PE / E AI 3PE
2 0
1
I I / E A 4
2
1 0
2
t
IV
3E I
(12)
IV
where:
I 0 - polar moment of inertia,
I - warping constant,
I 00 I 00 I 02 / A,
I 0 I 0 I 0 I / A.
If the column material is linear Et E, E1 E 2 0 then the equation obtained leads to
those presented in [2].
115
z s 1 z s 2 2 z s 3 3 z ...,
(14)
P Pcr sP 1 s 2 P 2 ...,
1 2P
E t I 1 2 Pcr E1 / E t2 A 1
Et I
cr
E1 / E t2
P 1 I 0 / A 1
IV
IV
Pcr I 0 / A Gt I d 1 0,
Pcr I 0 / A Gt I d 2 2 P 1 I E1 / E t A 1IV
IV
P 1 I 0 / A 2 2 P 2 I E1 / E t A 1IV P 2 I 0 / A 1
(15)
In order to find the solution of the equations for simply supported column (Fig. 2), the
following boundary conditions are assumed
i 0 i l 0, i0 i 0 for i 1,2,3.
(16)
Moreover, after equating the perturbation parameter to the rotation angle in mid span
cross-section s 0 and substituting ( z 0.5l ) into Eq. (14) we arrive at
(17)
Using the boundary conditions (16) and (17) in the solution of the first equation (15) we
can obtain
1 z sin z / l , Pcr A / I 0 Gt I d Et I / l 2 / 1 2 / l 2 E1 I / Et I 0
116
(18)
P 2 0.75 / l E t I 00 4 Pcr E1 I 02 / E t A 4 / l
2
3Pcr E 2 / E t AI 0
3Pcr I 0 I E1 / E t / A / 3 3E 2 I / l / 4 / I 0 / A 2 / l E1 I / E t A
2
(20)
P / Pcr 1 P 2 / Pcr 02
(21)
It is easy to show that if the column material is linearly elastic E1 E 2 0 then the
results (18) and (20) correspond to those obtained in [2]. The relation (21) shows that the
critical buckling point is symmetric but stability property of the point depends on the
positive sign of P 2 .
Note, that to calculate the critical buckling load (18) and to determine the coefficient
of the post equilibrium buckling path it is necessary to determine the modules E t , E1 and
Pcrf 2 Et I x / l 2 , P f 2 4 Et I x 1 6 / l E 2 I xx / Et I x / 8l 4
2
(22)
117
(23)
2t
P
t
0.3 m
2t
0.3 m
0.002
y
E
(24)
where:
1.25
Pcr/Plcr
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
5
Fig. 3.
l [m]
10
Ratio of critical torsional buckling loads related to nonlinear and linear material
The ratio of the elastic modulus to the shear one is assumed to be constant for whole
range, linear and nonlinear, of the column material behaviour. Fig. 3 presents graphs
plotting ratio of the torsional buckling load Pcr to the same load Pcrl for the linear
constitutive equation versus the column length. The post-buckling equilibrium paths
P / Pcr after torsional buckling corresponding to the column length 5 and 10 m are shown
118
1.025
P/Pcr
Linear material
l= 5 m
Nonlinear material
l=5 m
l=10 m
1.02
1.015
l= 10 m
1.01
1.005
1
0
Fig. 4.
0.05
0 [m]
0.1
Pcr/Plcr
0.99
5
Fig. 5.
7.5
l [m]
10
Ratio of critical flexural buckling loads related to nonlinear and linear material
1.0005
Linear material
l=5 m
l=10 m
P/Pcr
1
Nonlinear material
l=10 m
l= 5 m
0.9995
0.05 v0 [m]
0
Fig. 6.
0.1
2
2 E t 3 12G b
2
3 b E l
(25)
P
2b
t
l
2b
8
6
Pcr [MN] 4
2
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
b [m]
Fig. 8.
120
b
2 1 1.6
P
b
t 2
1 0.75
2 0
Pcr
l 12G b
2E l
1.1
(26)
1.1
torsional buckling
b= 0.2 m
b = 0.1 m
P/Pcr
flexural buckling
b
P/Pcr
1.05
1.05
1
0
Fig. 9.
0.1
0.2
0.1
vl
0.2
Post-buckling equilibrium paths for simply supported column with cruciform crosssection
Similar problem dealing with the effect of nonlinear mid span restraint on torsional
buckling and initial post-buckling behaviour of a thin-walled column subjected to axial
compressive loads is discussed in [23].
4. EFFECT OF INITIAL CURVATURE ON TORSIONAL BUCKLING AND INITIAL
POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
4.1. STATE OF STRAIN AND STRESS
Let us consider a simply supported I column axially compressed with an initial small
curvature u0(z) of its axis in the plane x-z presented in Fig 10. It is assumed that the
column is made of linearly elastic material. The position vector of an arbitrary point on
the cross-section surface of the column can be written as
r 0 x u0 i yj z xu 0 zk
(27)
If the compression loads grow, the column deflection increases until the critical torsional
buckling load is reached. Obviously, it is assumed that the flexural buckling load is higher
than the torsional one. The position vector the same point on deformed cross-section after
torsional buckling has the following form
121
r y
1 u
i y cos
2
u cos
1 u
j z wk x
a r
a r
(28)
where:
a sin i cos j - unit vector,
dr
x 0, y h / 2 - first derivative of the vector r at point (0. h/2) with respect
dz
to z .
After subtracting the Eqn. (27) from Eqn. (28) we arrive at the displacement vector of the
point in question
u r r 0 u C i vC j wC k
u
(29)
w
z
h
y, v
z,w
l/2
u0
P
l/2
x,u
Fig. 10. Displacements of the column cross-section and simply supported I column with
initial curvature in x-z plane
The longitudinal strain may be calculated from the formula (5). The results are very
complex, therefore it is expanded into the Taylor series and the terms necessary to
described the total potential energy with sufficient accuracy are taken into account
(30)
Note, that if the initial curvature of the column axis vanishes and the torsional buckling
occurs u u0 0 then the relation (30) leads to the formula derived in (2).
122
0A
(31)
By substituting Eqn. (30) into Eqn. (31) and integrating over the cross-section area we
have
V 0.5E Aw 2 0.25 u 2 u 0 2
0
l
Aw u 2 u 0 2 u 2 I x sin2 I y u u 0 cos 2
I 2 0.25I 00 4 I 0 w 2 0.5I 0 2 u 2 u 0
dz 0.5GI
(32)
2
d dz P wdz
From the Euler condition of stationary total potential energy (32) with respect to
displacement w the following relation is obtained
2
w 0.5 u 2 u 0 0.5I 0 / A 2
(33)
Substitution of Eqn. (33) into Eqn. (32) enables us to obtain the total potential energy
expressed only by the angle of cross-section rotation and its derivatives. The Euler
condition of stationary total potential energy applied to the modified total potential energy
leads to the governing system of two nonlinear differential equations
EI IV PI 0 / A GI d 1.5EI 00 2 E I x I y u 2 EI y u 0u
EI y u u 0
IV
Pu u 0 Pu 0 E I x I y u 2 0.5EI y u 0 2
(34)
column after torsional buckling (2) and the flexural one (3), respectively.
4.3. EFFECT OF INITIAL CURVATURE OF COLUMN AXIS ON CRITICAL
TORSIONAL BUCKLING
The critical load of torsional buckling of the column with an initial deflection
u 0 z may be determined on the basis of the system of differential equations (34) with aid
z s1 z s 2 2 z s 3 3 z ...,
(35)
P Pcr sP 1 s 2 P 2 ...,
where:
Before torsional buckling state the rotation angle vanishes 0 and the column prebuckling equilibrium path u(z) is described by the second equation Eqn. (34) that may be
rearranged into form
EI y u IV Pu EI y u 0IV
(36)
Having substituted the solution of the differential equation (36) into the first equation of
the system (34) we arrive at the second equilibrium path after torsional buckling. That
path intersecting with the pre-buckling path determines the bifurcation point of the
torsional buckling sought.
4.4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Let us consider a simply supported column presented in Fig. 10 with the initial
deflection
u0 u 0 sin z / l
(37)
where:
u 0 - maximum deflection in mid-cross section of the column.
The solution of Eqn. (36) for the initial deflection assumed (37), describing the prebuckling equilibrium path and may be written after some algebra as
u z
u0
1 P /
Pcrf
sin
z
l
(38)
where:
Pcrf
2 EI y
l2
After substituting the relation (38) into the first equation of the system (34) and
some rearranging we arrive at the differential equation for the first approximation of the
second equilibrium path 1 z (35) and the torsional buckling load
124
EI1
IV
4
Ix Iy
Iy
z
2
Pcr I 0 / A GI d 1 E u 0 sin2
2
l
l
P
1 Pcr
1 crf
Pcrf
Pcr
1 0
(39)
The critical torsional buckling load Pcr can be estimated from the Eqn. (39) by means of
the Galerkins method by utilizing an approximated mode function
1 z 0 sin
(40)
P
t
0.2 m
l=8 m
0.4 m
E = 210 GPa, G = 80.77 GPa, t = 0.01 m
Fig. 11. Geometry of simply supported I column - numerical example
Figure 12 shows the influence of mid-span deflection of the column on the critical
torsional buckling load. The relation presents possibility to reduce the critical load due to
initial curvature of the column axis. It should be emphasised that the reduction is not as
drastic as in case of, for example, unsymmetrical point of bifurcation [3] and for other
geometry and mechanical parameters of the column it does not occur. The second
example is related the same simply supported column of length l = 4 m and different the
flange width b = 0.16 0.34 m. The effect of the flange width on the critical load of the
column with the initial curvature is described by the relation [37]. The results of this
investigation are presented in Fig. 13. It is worth pointing out that the reduction of the
critical load is observed only for the flange width smaller than 0.3 m. If the width of
flanges is greater than 0.3 m then the critical load increases.
125
320
315
Pcr
[MN]
310
305
300
0
0.5
1.5
u0 [cm]
Fig. 12. Example 1. Critical torsional buckling load vs. mid-span initial deflection
10
b=34 cm
8
b=32
6
Pcr [MN]
4
b=28
b=24
b=20
b=16
2
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
u0 [cm]
Fig. 13. Example 2. Critical torsional buckling load vs. mid-span initial deflection for
different the flange with b
5. FINAL CONCLUSIONS
The theoretical investigations of the torsional and flexural buckling and the initial
post-buckling behaviour of the axially loaded columns with bisymmetric cross-section are
presented. The columns are made of elastic nonlinear material. In some numerical
examples the Ramberg-Osgood constitutive equation is assumed. Next, the effect of the
column axis curvature on stability behaviour of the column made of linear elastic material
is considered, as well. Based on those theoretical investigations and results of the
numerical examples, the following conclusions are drawn:
- The torsional buckling load of the I column made of nonlinearly elastic material
may be smaller than the load corresponding the linear elastic material only for short
columns. For longer columns the critical load may exceed the load of the column
made of linear elastic material about 25 per cent. Herein the elastic modulus of the
126
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Vlasov V.Z., Thin-walled elastic beams, Fizmatgiz, Moscow, 1959 (in Russian).
Bleich F., Buckling strength of metal structures, Mc Graw-Hill , New York 1952.
Trahair N.S., Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Structures, Chapman & Hall, London 1993.
Timishenko S. P., Gere J..M., Theory of Elastic Stability, Mc Graw-Hill, New York 1961.
Baant Z. P., Cedolin L., Stability of Structures, Dover Publications, 2003.
Chai H. Yoo, Sung Lee, Stability of Structures, Principles and Applications, ButterworthHeinemann, 2011.
Szymczak C., Buckling and post-buckling behavior of thin-walled I column, Comput.
Structures, 1980, pp. 481-487.
Cywiski Z., Kolbrunner C.F., Drillknicken dunnwandiger I Stabe mit veranderlichen
doppelt-symmetrichen Quersnitten, Institut fur Bauwissen-schafliche Forschung, Verlag
Leeman, Zurich, 18, 1971.
Szymczak C., Effect of residual stresses on buckling and initial post-buckling behaviour of
thin-walled columns, Archives of Civil Engineering, 1998, pp. 287-297.
Thompson J.M.T., Hunt G.W., A General Theory of Elastic Stability, Wiley & Sons,
London, 1973.
Szymczak C., Effect of elastic restraints on buckling loads and initial post-buckling
behaviour of thin-walled column, Archives of Civil Engineering, 1999, pp. 635-649.
Budkowska B., Szymczak C., Sensitivity analysis of critical torsional buckling load of
thin-walled I-column resting on elastic foundation, Thin-Walled Structures, 1992, pp. 3744.
Szymczak C., Sensitivity analysis of critical loads of flexural-torsional buckling of thinwalled I beam, Archives of Civil Engineering, 1999, pp. 491-503.
Szymczak C., Sensitivity analysis of thin-walled members, problems and applications,
Thin-Walled Structures, 2003, pp. 271-290.
Szymczak C., On torsional buckling of thin-walled I columns with variable cross-section,
Int. J. Solids Structures, 1983, pp. 509-518.
Pontryagin L. S., Boltyansky V. G., Gamkrelidze R. V., Mishchenko E. P., Mathematical
Theory of Optimal Processes, Moscow, Fizmatgiz, 1961 (in Russian)
127
128
1. INTRODUCTION
The specific load, considered in the paper, was formulated and introduced into
literature by Tomski in 1994 (comp. [14]). The specific load is a group load in which two
basic types of loads can be distinguished:
generalised load with the force directed towards the pole (positive or negative)
(comp. [20, 25, 27]),
a load generated by the follower force directed towards the pole (positive or
negative) (comp. [16, 22, 23, 26]).
The introduced two types of the specific load combine in themselves features of the
other loads of slender systems presented before (before 1994). Generalised load with the
force directed towards the positive pole combines in itself features of generalised load
(comp. [5, 8]) and features of the load by a force directed towards the pole (positive
(comp. [3, 4, 6, 12]) or negative (comp. [4, 6])). The load by a follower force directed
towards the pole combines in itself features of the Becks load (non-conservative load)
(comp. [1, 2, 9, 10]) and features of the load by a force directed towards the pole (positive
or negative). The pole is a constant point through which direction of force action is
passing in the considered cases of loading. Specific load is the real load and its realisation
is possible by application of suitably constructed loading heads. The loading heads can be
129
Fig. 1.
Index i takes the values 0 and 1. Index i = 1 corresponds to the active load. Index
i = 0 corresponds to the passive load. Concentrated mass mi is present at the two ends of
the column due to construction of the system.
130
1
1
W x, t
T A
dx
2
t
2
0
l
W x, t
.
mi
x il
t
i 0
2
(1)
Potential energy of the system is equal to a sum of elastic strain energy of bending
and potential energy from both the active and passive load, and can be presented as
follows:
l
l
2W x, t
1
1 W x, t
EJ
dx
dx
2
x 2
2 0 x
W x, t
1
i
H iW il , t 1 M i
.
x
i 0 2
x il
(2)
The problem of free vibrations and stability of the considered systems was
formulated on the basis of Hamiltons principle, which in the case of conservative
systems - takes form:
131
T V dt 0 .
(3)
t1
Next, substituting energies given by equations (1) and (2) into relationship (3), the
following equation is obtained:
x l
x l
2
W x, t W x, t
3W x, t
W
x
,
t
EJ
x 2
x
x 3
x
0
x
0
t1
l 4
x l
W x, t
P W x, t W x, t
W
x
,
t
dx
x
x 4
x 0
0
t2
2W x, t
W x, t dx
x 2
H i
2 W il, t W il, t H
1i
i 0
M i W x, t
W il , t
W il, t x x il
H i
M i
W x, t
i
W il, t 1
M i
x il
W x, t
W x, t
x
x il
x il
l
1
W x, t
2W x, t
2W x, t
W
x
,
t
dx
mi
W x, t dt 0
2
2
x x il
t
t
i 0
x il
. (4)
0
EJ
4W x, t
x 4
2W x, t
x 2
2W x, t
t 2
0,
(5)
EJ
1i EJ
2W x, t
x 2
M i 0
(6)
x il
W x, t
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1i P
mi
0.
3
x x il
x
t 2
x il
x il
3
132
(7)
1
H i
M i
i
1
W il , t
i 0
W x, t
x il
(8)
W x, t
W x, t
W il , t
W il , t 0.
x
x
x il
x il
d 4 y x
dx 4
d 2 y x
2 y x 0 ,
dx 2
(9)
while:
W x, t yx cos t , 2
A 2
EJ
, k2
P
.
EJ
(10a-c)
The boundary conditions (given by equations (6) and (7)), after separation of
variables, are modified into form:
y II x
1 y III x
i
x il
x il
yI x
M i* 0 ,
x il
*
i
mi
(11)
2
y x x il 0 ,
A
(12)
where:
M i*
H
Mi
, H i* i .
EJ
EJ
(13a-d)
lCi
1
W x, t
,
H i PW il, t
1i
l Di
x x il lDi
l l
l
W x, t
M i P 1i
lCi Ci Di W il, t Ci
x
l
l
Di
Di
x il
(14a)
(14b)
heads, loading and receiving load, built of circular elements Ak0 (i = 0), Ak1
(i = 1):
l0i ri
1
W x, t
,
H i PW il, t
1i
Ri ri
x x il Ri ri
ri l0i Ri l0i .
l r
W x, t
M i PW il, t 0i i 1i
Ri ri
x x il
Ri ri
(15a)
(15b)
Generalised load by the force directed towards the positive pole is conservative
because condition (8) is fulfilled.
The boundary conditions concerning the generalised load by the force directed
towards the positive pole are obtained substituting equations describing transversal forces
and bending moments (14) and (15) into relationship (6) and (7):
the boundary conditions in the case of the column where loading and receiving
heads are built of linear elements Al0 (i = 0), Al1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
x
EJ
l l
W x, t
l
P 1i
lCi Ci Di W il, t Ci 0 .
x x il
lDi
lDi
x il
3W x, t
lCi lDi
1 W x, t
i
P 1 W il , t
3
x
lDi
x
lDi
x il
x il
1 mi
i
2W x, t
0,
t 2
x il
(16a)
(16b)
134
generalised passive load by the force directed towards the positive pole
active load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
passive load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
Fig. 2. Diagram presented the possible combinations of specific loads: active and passive
135
2W x, t
x 2
x il
EJ
ri l0i Ri l0i 0,
l r
i W x, t
P W il , t 0i i 1
Ri ri
x
Ri ri
x il
W x, t
W x, t
l0i Ri
1
i
EJ
P 1 W il , t
x
Ri ri
x
Ri ri
x il
x il
2W x, t
1 mi
0.
t 2
x il
(17a)
(17b)
y II x
x il
y III x
l l
l
y I x lCi Ci Di 1i yil Ci
x il
l Di
l Di
x il
0 ,
lCi lDi
1
i
1 y il
yI x
x il
l
lDi
Di
2
1 mi
y il 0 ,
A
(18a)
(18b)
the boundary conditions in the case of the column where loading and receiving
heads are built of circular elements (Ak0 (i = 0), Ak1 (i = 1)) after separation of variables:
y II x
x il
ri l0i Ri l0i 0 ,
l r
yil 0i i 1i y I x
il
Ri ri
Ri ri
y III x
x il
l0i Ri
1
i
1 y il
yI x
il
Ri ri
Ri ri
2
1 mi
y il 0 .
A
(19a)
(19b)
In Fig. 2, the column subjected to the specific load (active (denotation index 1 and
passive (denotation index 0)) by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
was denoted by letter B. Two methods of realization of the considered load: in the first
one the loading heads are built of linear elements (denotation by letter l) while in the
136
W il, t 1i lCi
W x, t
,
x x il
(20a,b)
column, in which loading heads are built of circular elements Bk0 (i = 0),
Bk1 (i = 1) :
W il, t 1i Ri l0i
W x, t
.
x x il
(21a,b)
EJ
2W x, t
3W x, t
1
1
i
1
EJ
i
x 2
l
lCi
x 3
x il Ci
x il
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1 P
mi
0,
x
t 2
x il
x il
(22)
column, in which loading heads are built of circular elements Bk0 (i = 0),
Bk1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
3W x, t
1
1
i
Mi
1 EJ
2
x
Ri l0i
Ri l0i
x 3
x il
x il
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1 P
mi
0.
x
t 2
x il
x il
(23)
In the case of application of loading heads built of linear and circular elements,
transversal forces and bending moments at the ends, where the active load and passive
137
H i 1i P
W x, t
, M 0 M1 0 .
x
x il
(24a-d)
After taking into account the relationship (24), natural boundary conditions (22) and
(23) are modified into the form:
column, in which loading heads are built of linear elements Bl0 (i = 0),
Bl1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
1
3W x, t
2W x, t
1i EJ
mi
0,
2
3
2
lCi
x
t
x il
x il
x il
(25)
column, in which loading heads are built of circular elements Bk0 (i = 0),
Bk1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
1
3W x, t
2W x, t
i
1
EJ
m
0.
i
3
2
Ri l0i
x 2
t
x il
x il
x il
(26)
y II x
x il
1
2
i
1 y III x
mi
y il 0 ,
x il
lCi
A
(27)
column, in which loading heads are built of circular elements Bk0 (i = 0),
Bl1 (i = 1) :
y II x
x il
1
2
i
1 y III x
mi
y il 0 .
x il
Ri l0i
A
(28)
Ai
i 1
Wi x, t
m W1 l , t m W1 0, t
t dxi 21 t 20 t .
0
2
(29)
The components of potential energy of the systems Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 (table 1) are
the combined result of an action of the active load (active head), the passive load being
reaction of the base (passive head) and construction of the heads.
Table 1.
Passive load
Bl1
Bk0
Elastic strain energy of bending
2
EJ i
i 1
V1
2Wi x, t
x 2 dx .
0
l
(30)
P
V21 11 P12
2
V20
(31a)
P
01 P 02 .
2
(31b)
1
V31 PW0 .
2
P W x, t . (32b)
V30 R0 1
2 x
x 0
(32a)
where:
1 2 l Wi x, t
dx,
2 i 1 0 x
2
11 01
x l
l W x, t
12 C1 1
2 x
W0 W1 l , t lC1
W1 x, t
x
x l
(33ac)
2
, 02
l W x, t
00 1
,
2 x
x 0
l W x, t
, 1 C1 1
x
lD1
W W l , t lC1 W1 x, t
0 1
lD1
lD1
lD1
x
140
x l
x l
1
lD1
W1 l , t ,
(34ac)
Fig. 3.
V V1 V2k V3k .
(35)
k 0
( EJ )i
4Wi ( x, t ) P 2Wi ( x, t )
2Wi ( x, t )
A
)
0,
i
2
x 4
x 2
t2
i 1, 2 .
(36)
Geometrical boundary conditions in relation to the fixing point of column rods in the
passive head Bk0 (x = 0) and in the active head Al1, Bl1 (x = l) are presented in the table 2.
The conditions (37e), (38) (comp. equations: (20a,b), (21a,b)) were obtained on the basis
of geometrical relationships resulting from the constructions of the heads realising the
active and passive load by the follower force directed towards the pole (comp. [15, 16,
18]).
141
System
Boundary conditions
W1 ( x, t )
x
W1 (0, t ) W2 (0, t ),
Al1-Bk0
Bl1-Bk0
W1 (0, t ) R0 l00
Bl1-Bk0
W1 (l , t ) lC1
Table 3.
W1 ( x, t )
x
(37a,b)
x 0
W2 ( x, t )
x
x l
(37c,d)
(37e)
x 0
x l
(38)
R0 l00 ( EJ )i
i 1
Al1-Bk0
Bl1-Bk0
2W1 ( x, t )
m0
t 2
( EJ )i
i 1
3Wi ( x, t )
x 3
2W1 ( x, t )
m1
t 2
x l
x l
x 0
i 1
2Wi ( x, t )
x 2
x 0
(39)
l W ( x, t )
PlC1 1 C1 1
lD1 x
l W ( x, t )
P 1 C1 1
lD1 x
x l
x l
W1 ( x, t )
0, (40a)
lD1
W1 ( x, t )
lD1
(40b)
x l
0.
3Wi ( x, t )
lC1 ( EJ )i
x 3
i 1
2
( EJ )i
0.
2Wi ( x, t )
(
EJ
)
i x 2
i 1
3
Wi ( x, t )
x 3
3
x 0
Bl1-Bk0
x l
W1 ( x, t )
x
System
Al1-Bk0
x 0
W1 ( x, t )
x
W1 (l1, t ) W2 (l2 , t ) ,
W2 ( x, t )
x
x l
2Wi ( x, t )
( EJ )i
x 2
i 1
2
x l
2W1 ( x, t )
m1
t 2
x l
0 (41)
Wi ( x, t ) yi ( x)cos( t ) ,
(42)
i 1, 2 .
(43)
(44)
1
2
( A)i 2
P
, ki2
.
( EJ )i
2( EJ )i
1
2
(45a,b)
(46a,b)
After substituting the solutions (44) into adequate boundary conditions (comp. table
2, table 3) and after previous separation of variables (comp. equation (42)), the system of
eight uniform equations was obtained. Transcendental equation for natural frequency of
the considered columns was obtained as a result of zeroing of characteristic determinant
of the system of equations.
5.3. THE RESULTS OF NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
In the frame of research into the considered systems, numerical computations
concerning stability and free vibrations of the systems Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 subjected to
active and passive specific load were carried out. Range of changes in the values of
critical load and course of changes in natural frequency in relation to external load for the
chosen geometrical and physical parameters of the active and passive heads realising the
chosen cases of the specific load was determined.
143
Fig. 4.
Test stand to carry out research into free vibrations of the column (comp. [11, 13,
16])
The test stand is equipped with loading heads 1(1), 1(2). The head 1(2) has got
possibility of transversal movement along slideways 2(1). The head 1(1) can move
horizontally along slideways 2(2) and 2(3), in longitudinal and transversal directions,
adequately. Screw systems, displacement of which generates the load of the tested
systems, are part of the heads 1(1) and 1(2). Loading force is measured by dynamometers
3(1), 3(2). In the plates 4(1), 4(2), 4(3) structures providing required boundary conditions
in relation to fixing and loading of the tested systems were mounted. Method of loading
the column and constructional solution of the active and passive heads are presented in
Fig. 5. (comp. [7, 15, 21]). Construction of the tested column consists of two rods with
bending rigidities (EJ)1, (EJ)2 and mass per unit length (A)1, (A)2, where: (EJ)1 = (EJ)2,
(A)1 = (A)2, (EJ)1 + (EJ)2 = EJ, (A)1 + (A)2 = A.
144
Fig. 5.
Constructional diagram of the system Bl1- Bk0 subjected to the active load and the
passive load by the follower force directed towards the pole (comp. [7, 15, 21])
The passive head consists of enclosure 11 fixed on the plate 4(2) of the test stand.
An outer race 12 is mounted in enclosure 11 while an inner race 13 in element 14. Two
rods of the column 5, fitted to element 14 by forced-in joint, are mounted in mandrel 15.
The head generating active load (comp. [7]) was built of a lever 10, rotationally placed in
ball rolling bearings 17 mounted in 18. Enclosure 18 of the bearings is fixed on the plate
4(3) of the test stand. Component elements of the head receiving active load are as
follows: fork 19, bolt 16 with lC1 in length and cube 20. Rods of the column 5(1), 5(2) are
fastened to the cube 20. The mandrel 21 with mounted rolling bearings 22 is an element
of structural node which connects a beam 10 to the bolt 16. Infinitive rigidity of elements
of the heads 10, 11, 14, 16, 20 and mandrels 15, 21 was assumed. The measurement
system consists of modal hammer 9 (Brel&Kjaer, type 8200 + 2646) and analyser 6
(Brel&Kjaer, type 3560C) connected to computer 7 with installed software for data
processing.
5.3.2. EXPERIMENT RESEARCH (SYSTEM Bl1 - Bk0)
The results of numerical simulations and experimental research for the considered
case of system loading (column Bl1 - Bk0) are presented taking into account the solution to
boundary problem. The results of numerical computations (lines) and experimental
145
(A)1
[kg/m]
0.315
Fig. 6.
(EJ)2
[Nm2]
76.34
(A)2
[kg/m]
0.315
l
[m]
0.56
lC1
[m]
0.6
R0
[m]
0.058
l00
[m]
0.025
m0
[kg]
0.24
m1
[kg]
0.3
Curves in the plane: load natural frequency of the column Bl1 - Bk0
W (0, t ) W (l , t )
W ( x, t )
x
x 0
W ( x, t )
x
x l
0.
146
(47ad)
Fig. 7a. Change in the critical load parameter *c in relation to the value of parameter R0*
of the system Al1- Bk0
Exemplary results of the changes in the value of critical load are presented in Figs.
7ab in which change in the critical load parameter *c (the critical load regarding the total
flexural rigidity of the column) in relation to function of the radius R0 of the passive head
is determined, where:
c*
Pc l 2
.
EJ
(48)
Numerical computations were carried out for several chosen values of geometrical
parameters of the active head, including the length lC1 of rigid bolt (column Bl1 - Bk0) or
the length lC1, lD1 (column Al1- Bk0). Accepted values of the length describing geometry of
the active and passive heads are related to the length of the column l:
lC* 1
lC1 *
l
R * l00
, lD1 D1 , R0* 0 , l00
.
l
l
l
l
147
(49ad)
Fig. 7b. Change in the critical load parameter *c in relation to the value of parameter R0* of
the system Bl1- Bk0
The values of radius R0 (parameter R*0()) of the passive head for which realisation
of considered cases of loading is impossible are marked in Figs. 7ab using asymptotes.
Singular points () in the curves of changes in the critical load are present if the condition
(50a) is fulfilled columns Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 and (50b) column Al1 - Bk0.
*
lC* 1 R0* l00
1 ,
(50a)
*
lC* 1 lD* 1 R0* l00
1 .
(50b)
148
Fig. 8a. Frequency curves in the plane: load parameter * parameter of natural frequency
* in relation to parameter l*D1 the column Al1 - Bk0
Fig. 8b. Frequency curves in the plane: load parameter * parameter of natural frequency
* in relation to parameter R*0 the column Bl1 - Bk0
P l2
,
EJ 1 EJ 2
A 1 A 2 1 l
.
1*
2 4
EJ 1 EJ 2
(51a,b)
The value of critical load for the presented curves of changes in natural frequencies
is determined for *1 = 0. On the basis of changes in curve of natural frequency *1 of the
system Al1 - Bk0 (comp. Fig. 8a) it was confirmed that the value of critical load is
independent on the value of parameter l*D1. To compare the obtained courses of changes
in eigenvalues, computations considering the range of changes in basic natural frequency
in relation to external load were carried out for the constant values of the concentrated
masses m0, m1 at the ends of the systems, whereas:
m0*
m0
m1
.
, m1*
l A 1 A 2
l A 1 A 2
(52a,b)
In the presented diagrams slope of the basic natural frequency *1 for the load
parameter * = 0 can be negative, positive or equal to zero in dependence on the changes
in the values of parameters of the active and passive heads. The change in slope of the
discussed curve of eigenvalues makes it possible to count the considered systems as one
of two types: divergence (d*1 /d*|*=0<0) divergence pseudo-flutter (d*1 /d*|*=0>0)
(comp. [17, 19]).
6. SUMMARY
The problem of vibrations and stability of the columns subjected to active and
passive specific load was solved in the paper. Loads: active and passive by the follower
force directed towards the pole and generalised load by the force directed towards the
pole can be realised in two constructional variants of the active and passive heads. The
heads built of linear elements and the heads built of elements with circular contour
(constant curvature) should be distinguished. Possibilities of technical realisation of the
load for different variants of models of the active and passive heads in the case of specific
load and construction of the heads were presented. The boundary conditions of the
considered columns on the basis of total mechanical energy, shown bending moment and
transversal force at the ends of the system, were determined in the frame of theoretical
research. The numerical simulations, connected to changes in the critical load and
changes in natural frequency in relation to the chosen geometrical and physical
parameters of the heads realising the load, were carried out for the selected cases of load
of the columns. On the basis of performed numerical computations it was stated that such
the values of geometrical parameters of the loading and receiving heads exist for which
maximum of the critical load is obtained. It was found that there are such the values of
parameters of the active and passive head for which the tested systems are of divergence
pseudo-flutter type. In the case of the column subjected to the active load and the passive
load by the follower force directed towards the pole, the results of the conducted
experimental research were additionally presented. Correctness of the built mathematical
150
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
151
152
1. INTRODUCTION
Stability and strength analysis of plates including geometrical and material
nonlinearities and elastic-plastic deformations is much more complicated than the
respective elastic analysis. Serious problems are encountered in the solution of the
resulting problem equations because these equations are transcendental ones, where the
coefficients of the local stiffnesses depend on the external load acting the plate. Thus,
approximate and numerical methods are involved in numerical procedures in order to
determine buckling loads. If the external loads are simple and proportional ones, the
solution of the elastic-plastic problem is not more difficult when compared to the
analogous elastic problem. However, the degree of complication increases if the external
load is complex, and multi-parametrical, what frequently happens for plate and shell
structures.
When considering the elastic-plastic material properties, it is necessary to consider
two types of problems. The first one is the determination of the point of the first plastic
deformation to occur and the second one is the choice of the stress-strain relations for the
material behaviour in the elastic-plastic state of stress. A law defining the limit of elastic
behaviour under any possible combination of stresses is yield criterion. The law applies
not only to loading from the initial state, but also to reloading of an element unloaded
from a previous plastic state. There is a useful and immediate simplification resulting
from the experimental fact that the yielding is practically unaffected by a uniform
hydrostatic tension or compression. Various criteria have been suggested in the past to
predict the yielding of metals under complex stresses. The two entirely satisfactory and
widely used criteria are those due to Tresca and Huber - Mises. From a series of
experiments on the extrusion of metals, Tresca concluded that yielding occurred when the
maximum shear stress reached a critical value. M.T. Huber and R. von Mises suggested,
from purely theoretical considerations, that yielding occurred when J2 (the second
deviatoric stress) attained a critical value.
153
2
2
2
i
3
3
2
2
xy
2
yz
2
zx
(1)
For the plane stress, using the principal strain components, we get
2
3
2
12 1 2 22 14 12
(2)
2z
3
2
12 1 2 22 12
2z
3
(3)
h / 2
i 2
z dz
i
(4)
we can omit the integration with respect to variable z in normal direction to the plate
middle surface. If we use equation (3), we obtain
154
3
2 P
i , z2
3 i2
,
4 P
dz
d i
2 P
(5)
Then
3 3
3
8P 2
i1
d
i
(6)
i2
Here i1 are i 2 effective strains in upper and lower layers of the plate, respectively:
i1 i 2
(7)
When the bending neutral line is localized half the plate thickness, we get
i1
i1
i
i d i 2 i i d i
i2
(8)
i1
1 h3
3 1 2
I
D
i
i
i
4 i31
E i31
i1
i d i
(9)
We introduce an expression
4
1 h
I P I
3
3 i1
3 i1
i d i
(10)
4
1
M 1 1 z dz 1 2
3
2
h
2
z 2 dz, ...
(11)
1
1
M1 1 2 I P , M 2 2 1 I P , 2M12 12I P
2
2
(12)
W i i dz
h
155
(13)
i2
4 2
2 z2
z P , i
P
3
3 i
(14)
2
W P
3
h 2
z 2 dz
1
I P P
2
(15)
1
2
I P P dx dy
(16)
If the plate is loaded by the forces perpendicular to plate middle surface, then the work of
the external forces on virtual displacements w is given by
q w dx dy
(17)
Once the work of internal and external forces are compared, we get the variational
equation of equilibrium
1
2
I P P dx dy q w dx dy
A
(18)
This equation can be used to approximate solution of nonlinear elastic and elastic-plastic
problems of beam bending. If Iliushin method [5] is adopted, we take the deflection
function of the rectangular plate in the following form:
a4
f w x, y ,
D
(19)
Here w x, y is a deflection function accepted for the elastic solution. The quadratic form
for nonlinear or elastic-plastic problems is as follows:
a4 2
f P
D
(20)
a4
f w,
D
156
a4
2 f f P
D
(21)
q qo qx, y
(22)
The following form of the deflection function is taken in the elastic solutions:
wy
a4
qo wx, y
D
(23)
where qo is a constant, and a is a specified plate dimension. Once expressions (21) and
(22) are substituted into (19), we get
I f
P f P Dqo qx, y w w dx dy 0 ,
(24)
or
I f P P dx dy
2
qo f
qx, y w dx dy
(25)
The above formula is a relation between the specified plate load parameter qo and the
specified parameter of deflection function f. We compare relations (23) and (19); in the
elastic stress state is wy=w and qo=f, then we get
I f P P dx dy
2
qx, y w dx dy
(26)
I P
h3
3 i31
i1
d
i
(27)
We accept a nonlinear relation between effective stress and strain in the form (see [5]):
i E i 1 i
(28)
qo f
P dx dy P dxdy
A
qx, y w dxdy
157
(29)
qo f 1
qx, y wdxdy
P dxdy
(30)
where
i1
i31
2
i d i
(31)
a
b
x
a
y
,
a
(32)
we accept the deflection functions in the elastic and elastic-plastic regions in the form:
qo a 4
a4
w qo
m cos cos
,
D
D
2
2
fa 4
a4
w f
w f
m cos cos
D
D
2
2
ws
(33)
m 2 4
64
m 2 4
64
2 2
(34)
i
h
p p
P
32
2
4
3
3ha D 1 2
(35)
and if we express this parameter by a maximum value of the effective stress in the plate
middle surface, we get
o
2 1 2 4
R,
576a 2 1 2 4
3 4 p h 2 1 2
(36)
When equation (30) is multiplied by coefficient from expression o in (36)2, then we get
158
k o 1
P dd
wdd
(37)
Taking in mind the symmetry of external load and plate support, we can limit the solution
to a rectangular plate with 0 1, 0 1 / . If we substitute deflection function
into the above expression we obtain a relation between effective strain and the external
load.
k o 1
1 2
1 1/
Rdd
(38)
Integral in the above equation depends on the function , which represents plastic
deformation. A relation between maximum deflection and effective strain in the plate
central point can be found from relations (33)2 and (36):
wo
4 3h 2 a 2
9 2 D 1 2 4
p o
(39)
If the plate has two opposite edges firmly fixed, and the other edges are simply supported,
the solution procedure is the same as above, but deflection function has to be taken in the
form:
x
y
(40)
wx, y m cos 1 cos
2a
2a
The quadratic form for elastic-plastic solution is of the form (see [5], [15]):
m 2 4
16
3 4 2 1
cos 2
1 cos
4 2
2 4
2
1 cos
cos
4
4
2
6
k o 1
6 2 2 4
and
wo f
4
D
cos 2
1 1/
Rdd ,
8 3 p a 2 h 2
o R
(41)
5
8 2 4
2
5
9 D 8 2 4
2
The expressions presented above can be applied for plate with edge lengths ratio not
greater than 2 2.5. For lengthen plates, that are commonly called beam-plate with a
2
159
P
wo
m 2 4
R,
4
R 1 cos ,
p h2a 2
R,
k o 1 Rd ,
(42)
4
144a
144a
3
o , with o
f , and k
qo
2
3 2
9
D
3 p h
3 p 3h 2
Here o and wo are values of the parameters in the center of the plate. If all plate edges are
firmly fixed, we get:
11
k o 1
Rd ,
2
wo
2 3h 2 a 2 p
9 2 D
R 21 cos 2 , o
R
,
2
(43)
o , gdzie k
18a
3 2 h 2 p
qo , o
18a
3 2 h 2 p
4
3
(44)
1
1 2
E
, 2
, s , K
, Es i
1 4
1 4
9K
31 2
i
(45)
4
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
1 Es 11 2 2 , 2 Es 1 2 2 2 , 12 Es12 ,
where 1, 2 , 12, and 1, 2 , 12 are stress and strain tensor components in the plate
layer at distance z from the neutral surface. According to the K-L theory, we have:
1 e1 z1, 2 e2 z 2 , 12 2z12
(46)
e1, e2, e12 are strain components at the plate middle surface, and 1, 2 , 12 are curvatures:
2w
x 2
2w
y 2
12
2w
xy
(47)
e1
u 1 w
u 1 w
u v w w
, e1
, e12
x 2 x
x 2 x
x y x y
(48)
Effective strain and effective stress for plane stress are accepted as:
2 2
2
2
1 22 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 34 12
, i 12 22 1 2 3 12
(49)
3
4
1
4
1 1
E E
1 E s 1 1 2 2 s t 1 i E s 1 1
2 i ,
3
2
i
3 i
2 i
4
1
4
1 1
E E
2 E s 1 2 2 1 s t 2 i E s 1 2
1 i ,
3
2
i
3 i
2 i
(50)
E E
1
12 E s 12 s t 12 i .
3
i
1
1
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
(51)
3
2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 12 12 1 2 1 2
4
i
Where:
1
9 i
161
i
where
j , e j z j , j
i 1 R
(52)
j , j 1 1 2e2 2 12 12 B 1 2 1 2 ,
j , e j 1e1 2e2 12e12 B 1 2 e1 e2 ,
1
,
9K
2
2 Es
(53)
1 2 2 Es Et
4 Es
1
9K
9 i2 K
M j
h/2
i zdz, j 1,2, M 12
h / 2
12 zdz
(54)
h / 2
Taking in mind relations (45), (50), (52), we get the following, if integration is performed
according to (54)
M 1
h3 4
1
1
Es Et
j j 1 B 1 2
Es 1 1 2 2
,
2
12 3
2
1 R
i
h3 4
1
1
E E
M 2 Es 1 2 2 1 s 2 t j j 2 B 1 2
,
12 3
2
1 R
i
(55)
Es Et
h3
2
j , j 12 .
Es 12
2
12
1 R
i
3
M12
2 M12
x 2
2 M12 2 M 2
2w
2w
2w
T
0.
1
2
12
xy
xy
y 2
x 2
y 2
(56)
4w
4w
4w
4w
4 w
D* 1 4 2 3 3 2 2 4
5
x y
x y
xy 3
y 4
x
2w
2w
2w
1 2 2 2 2 12
0,
xy
x
y
162
(57)
3
4
1 1 1
3
2
Et
Es
3 1 2 1
1 B 1 2 2
E B 1 2
, 2 31 t 12 1
,
R
E
1 R
s
Et
Es
2
1 2 2 12
B1 B 1 2 2
1 R
E 12 1 B 1 2
E B 1 2 2
3
, 5 1 1 t 2
,
1 R
4 Es
1 R
4 31 t
Es
E h2
D s , 1 1 , 2 2 , 12 12
9
i
i
i
(58)
Stability equation (57) is the fundamental equation which can be used to determine
critical loads for a series of specific cases of rectangular plates of different types, also
sandwich plates, with different boundary conditions, and under various external loads.
If we substitute in this equation Es 3E / 21 and Et / Es 1,0 , this equation can be
adopted for an elastic plate made of incompressible material, with K.
According to Prandtl-Reuss incremental J2 plastic flow theory, which uses plastic
potential, related to flow function F, we get:
ijp
F
ij
(59)
Where is a parameter If we take in mind material incompressibility, then we get strainstress relations for elastic-plastic stress state in the following form:
eij
sij
2
F
1
, m
m
ij
3K
(60)
1
sij sij k02 0.
2
Here k0 is yield point at pure shear. Then, we get
F ij
F
F skl
ij skl ij
ij
163
(61)
(62)
(63)
1
d 1 d 2 1 , d 2 1 d 2 d 1 2 ,
E
E
1
d1 d 12 2 12 , 3K
G
d1
(64)
At unloading =0. Assuming that the work of plastic deformation Wp for a material with
stress-hardening properties does not depend on loading path, and it is exceptionally a
function of effective stress, we get
W p F i , and dW p
F i
d i
i
(65)
On the other hand, the increment of plastic deformation, in relation with (64), can be
written as
p
dWp 1d1p 2 d 2p 12d12
23 i2
(66)
3 F ' ( i )
d i
2 i2
(67)
1
1
dW p 1d1p 1
1
E
E
to
(68)
Where Et0 is tangent modulus determined in uniaxial laboratory tension test. Taking that
i 1 in uniaxial stress state, and if relation (66) is generalized for a compound stress
state, from equations (64) and (62), we get
3 1 1 i
2 Et E i
(69)
Using the above relations we develop stress-strain equations for stability problems of
plates:
12
a11
, 2
4a11
, 3
D*
1 2
Eh .
9
(71)
Relation (57) presents the stability equation of an elastic rectangular plate, if k=1 is
substituted in Esq. (70) and (71).
Numerical calculations made on the basis of both plasticity theories presented by
Zielnica [2001] show that plastic flow theory gives higher critical loads than deformation
theory. We present an example of stability of elastic-plastic rectangular plate compressed
by normal force N1=1h along side b of the plate. Stability equation (57), after
substitution 1 1, 2 12 0, takes the form of
4w
x 4
4w
x 2y 2
4w
y 4
2w 1
x 2 D*
(72)
3
4
1 1 1
t 1 B 2
3 B1 B
, 3 1 2 1 t
,
s 1 R
2 s 1 R
3
5 1 1 t
4 s
B2
Es h 2
Et
*
1 R , D 9 , k E ,
(73)
Es
3
, R s t 4 s
E
1 2
w wo sin
mx
ny
sin
,
a
b
(74)
When deflection function (74) is substituted into equation (72), we get at n=1, an
expression for critical load.
2
m2
2
a
1* D* k , k 1 2 3 5 2 ,
b
m
b
(75)
165
Eeff
2 EEt
E Et
(76)
Where Et is tangent modulus. The other papers in sequence are based on the assumption
that strains at the moment of stability loss are pure plastic. Assumptions are introduced
about material orthotropy of load resisting faces and core, the bending stiffness is small
and the core remains elastic and resists transversal shear only. Seide and Stowell [3]
investigated stability of a rectangular plate, where curvatures 1, 2 and 12 are
determined with the assumption that transversal sections, plane before deformation are
also plane after deformation, and transversal shear is taken into account.
1 wx
Q1
Q
Q
Q
1
, 2 w y 2 , 12 wx 1 wz 2
d13 x
d 23 y
2
d13 y
d 23 x
(77)
Here w is plate deflection, Q1, Q2, are transversal forces, d13, d23 are shear stifnesses of the
core, x, y are coordinates, subscripts denotes differentiation with respect to a respective
variable. Relations between moments and curvatures during stability loss are as follows:
(78)
Here d11, d12=d21, d22, d33 are local stiffness coefficients, that can be determined
experimentally during bending and torsion tests. These coefficients are taken to be
d11 d 22 D
Et c t h 2
2 1 2
However, for pure plastic stress state, incompressibility of material is taken into account
and under uniaxial compression, these coefficients are as follows:
d11
1
1
1
Es t c t 2 1 3E o / Es , d12 d 21 d 33 d 22 Es t c t 2 ,
6
2
2
(80)
Equations of equilibrium for sandwich rectangular plate (see Grigoljuk [3]) are taken in
the following form
(81)
mx
ny
mx
ny
sin
, Q1 Q10 cos
sin
,
a
b
a
b
mx
ny
Q2 Q20 sin
cos
.
a
b
w wo sin
(82)
Here wo , Q10, Q20 are parameters, a, and b are sandwich plate main dimensions, m, and
n are numbers of buckling halfwaves of the plate along x, and y directions.
A real contribution into elastic-plastic stability analysis of plate structures has
Bijlaard [3], who introduced the so called method of split rigidities. Under the assumption
that deflection surfaces of homogeneous and sandwich plates are identical, the critical
load can be found from the relation
(83)
Where Po is critical load of load resisting faces working independently, P1 is the critical
load of sandwich plate with a very high shear stiffness of the core, and P2 is critical force
of the sandwich plate assuming that the stiffness of the core is taken into consideration,
and the load resisting faces have very low bending stiffness. Beyond the elastic limit
forces Po and P1 are multiplied by certain coefficient.
Both basic plasticity theories and both yield conditions can be used in the analysis of
elastic-plastic sandwich plates. Also, unloading of the material can be regarded in the
analysis. However, this concept is accompanied by a very compound solution procedu-res
adopted in the numerical analysis. Most of all it is assumed that load resisting faces are
loaded into elastic-plastic state of stress, whereas the core is elastic one and it resists shear
forces only. This causes that all the assumptions, theoretical background, plate
deformation and constitutive relations of elastic-plastic stability problem used in the
analysis of unilayered and homogeneous plates are also valid for sandwich plates.
Grigoljuk [3] obtained the following set of equilibrium equations of an elastic-plastic
sandwich plate, loaded by compressive a edge pressure in one direction
2
b11 xx b33 yy b12 b33 xy Gw wx 0,
c
2
b22 yy b33 xx b12 b33 xy Gw w y 0,
c
2
t
b11wxxxx 2b12 2b33 wxxyy b22w yyyy
6
(84)
c t 2 b
2
11 xxxx
The above set of equation is approximated with the following displacement functions:
167
o sin x 1 sin y 2 , 1
2m2
a2
, 2
(85)
2n2
b2
Critical load for sandwich elastic-plastic plate can be fund from the following relation:
cr
t
b1112 2b12 2b33 b2222
121
Gw c t 2
2
b11b3313 b11b22 b12
b11b33 2b12b33 12 2
2ct 1
2Gw
b1112 2b12 2b33 12 b2222
c
b b
2
11 331
(86)
2
2Gw
b11 b33 1 b22 b33 2 4G2w .
c
c
Stiffness coefficients bij in the above equation for elastic-plastic state of stress were
already given in this text.
2.4. ELASTIC-PLASTIC LARGE DEFORMATION STUDY ON SANDWICH STRIP
PLATES WITH METAL FOAM CORE
Numerical and experimental investigations on stability of sandwich beams under
bending are presented here in a concise form. The finite element method model of the
beam-plate is formulated and critical loads are calculated. The analysis is elastic-plastic
one and fundamental plasticity theories with H-M-H plasticity condition are used to
determine the equilibrium paths and critical loads. The experimental tests have been
carried out in the laboratory using especially designed test stand and strength test
machine. The results of these two investigation methods are compared and discussed.
The fundamentals of the theory of sandwich structures are widely described in
literature (see [11, 13]). Stability problems of deformable structures are widely presented
by Volmir in [18]. Local buckling of sandwich structures in the form of wrinkling of faces
on elastic foundation-cores is described in monographs [1, 13]. Jang et al. [6] presented
two families of finite element models of anisotropic, aluminium alloy, open-cell foams
and their predictions of elastic properties and compressive strength by direct comparison
to experimental results. The random foam models were used to establish the elastic
properties and the strength of such foams. The results were evaluated by direct
comparison to measured properties and were also critically compared to corresponding
results from Kelvin cell models. Plastic deformation in regular and random honeycombs
has been studied using a finite element model. Accounting for the gradual plastification of
the cross section, the development of plastic zones near the triple points in regular
hexagonal structures has been analyzed in detail. Theoretical and experimental
investigations of faces wrinkling in sandwich structures are described in the papers [4, 9,
10, and 17]. Analytical models of collapse mechanisms of sandwich beams under
168
We consider a simply supported sandwich beam with a metal foam core. The beam of
length L, depth H loaded by two transversal forces F is presented in Fig. 1. Material
properties were taken directly from laboratory experimental tests. The dimensions of the
beams are presented below in the text. In order to analyze the considered beam a finite
element method geometrical model was created, see Fig. 2, and 3. The entire beam was
meshed using plate-shell and 3D solid finite elements, with geometrical and material
nonlinearities included.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.
Frontal (up) and 3-D (below) view of the FEM mesh of the beam
The beam has two planes of symmetry, x-y and x-z, thus, only one quarter of the
beam was analysed. The upper and the lower faces of the beam were modelled using a
thin-shell quadrilateral elastic-plastic finite element with six degrees of freedom at each
node. The core was modelled by a 3D solid finite element. Before calculations the nodes
on contact surfaces between the core and faces were merged.
169
Fig. 4. Deformed and undeformed mesh of the beam at the final step of load increment
The entire model has 2754 nodes and 2500 finite elements. Bilinear stress-strain
curves with no strain-hardening (elastic perfectly plastic) were taken to describe the
material behaviour in the elastic-plastic state of stress, both for the faces and for the core.
The material constants determined in laboratory tests are as follows: Young modulus and
Poisson ratio for faces Ef=65600MPa, f=0.33, Young modulus and Poisson ratio for core
Ec=1200MPa, c=0.3, yield limit for faces: Rp02=112MPa, yield limit for core:
Rp02=1,6MPa, width of the cross section w=50mm, height of the cross section H=39mm,
face thickness is h=1mm. The nonlinear analysis was performed with 112 load increment
steps of constant value until the maximum deflection value was quite large to reveal the
instabilities in the numerical solution process.
Fig. 3 shows the applied external load and the boundary conditions of the FEM
model. The undeformed and deformed configurations of the beam mesh at the last step of
load increment are presented in Fig. 4 with actual deflection shown. It can be seen that the
maximum deflection is of the beam height order. Fig. 5 presents the contours of the
170
600
500
400
300
max.vert. deflection
disp. uy
200
100
0
0
deflection uy [mm]
171
Sxx stress
v Mises stress
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
300
200
400
500
600
Fig. 9. The stresses vs. force F diagram at node 2634 (central section of the beam)
Fig. 8 presents load force F versus maximum deflection curve corresponding with
nonlinear solution related both with geometric and material behaviour. At initial stage of
force F increment one can see the linear equilibrium path, whereas if force F reaches the
value of about 470 MPa the curve starts to be highly nonlinear, approaching
asymptotically to about 600 MPa with large vertical deflection. It is to note that the
deflection was normalized to the difference between the maximum deflection (at the
centre section of the beam), and the deflection of the force F application section. Finally,
Fig. 9 presents nonlinear equilibrium paths for normal stress x and equivalent stress eq at
node 2634 which is localized in the middle cross section of the beam. One can see here
that the maximum equivalent stress eq at the last step of the nonlinear solution is slightly
greater then the yield limit for the beam material.
The numerical FEM calculation and experimental investigations on sandwich beams
with metal foam core lead to the following main conclusions:
1) The load - deflection curves from experimental test and the finite element numerical
solutions are very close each other.
2) Local elastic-plastic buckling-wrinkling of the faces occurs for the beams with a
rigid core.
172
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Allen H.G. Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels, London: Pergamon Press,
1969.
Conde Y., Pollien A., Mortensen A., Functional grading of metal foam cores for yieldlimited lightweight sandwich beams, Scrip. Materialia, 54, 2006, 539-543.
Grigoljuk E., Buckling of sandwich constructions beyond the elastic limit, Journal of the
Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 6, 1958, 253-266.
Hadi B., Wrinkling of sandwich column: comparison between finite element analysis and
analytical solutions, Composite Structures, 53, 2001, 477-482.
Iljushin A.A., Plasticity (in Russian), Gostiechizdat, Moscow, 1948.
Jang W.Y., Kyriakides S, Kraynik A.M., On the compressive strength of open-cell metal
foams with Kelvin and random cell structures, International Journal of Solids and
Structures, 47, 2010, 28722883.
Jaskua L., Zielnica J., Large displacement stability analysis of elastic-plastic
unsymmetrical sandwich cylindrical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, 49, 2011, 611-617.
Koakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K., Selected Problems of Instabilities in Composite
Structures, Lodz, 1999, pp. 222.
Koissin V, Shipsha A, Skvortsov V., Effect of physical nonlinearity on local buckling in
sandwich beams, Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials, 12(7), 2010, 477-494.
Lotoing L., Drapier S., Vautrin A., First applications of a novel unified model for global
and local buckling of sandwich columns, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids, 21,
2002, 683-701.
Libove C., Butdorf S.B., A general small-deflection theory for flat sandwich plates, NACA
TN 1526, 1948.
Magnucka-Blandzi E, Magnucki K., Effective design of a sandwich beam with a metal
foam core, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, 432-438.
Plantema F.J., Sandwich construction: The bending and buckling of sandwich beams,
plates and shells, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966.
Qin Q.H., Wang T.J., An analytical solution for the large deflections of a slender sandwich
beam with a metallic foam core under transverse loading by a flat punch, Composite
Structures, 88, 2009, 509-518.
Solomenko N.C., Abramjan K.G., Sorokin W.W., Strength and stability of plates and
shells of ship body (in Russian). Sudostroenie, St. Pet., 1967, 487.
Steeves C.A., Fleck N.A., Collapse mechanisms of sandwich beams with composite faces
and a foam core, loaded in three-point bending. Part I: analytical models and minimum
weight design, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 46, 2004, 561-583.
Stiftinger M.A., Rammerstorfer F.G., Face layer wrinkling in sandwich shells
Theoretical and experimental investigations, Thin-Walled Structures, 29 (1-4), 1997, 113127.
Volmir A., Stability of deformable systems, (in Russian), Moscow: Izd. Nauka, Fiz-MatLit, 1967.
Zielnica J., Stability of shells in the elastic-plastic range, WPP, Poznan, 2001, pp.258.
Zielnica J., Paczos P., Numerical and experimental investigations of load carrying capacity
of three-layered beams, Modelowanie Inynierskie, 41, 2011, 463-468.
173
174
SESSION PAPERS
175
176
1. INTRODUCTION
The need for a cut-out in a subcomponent is typically required by practical concerns.
Plates with holes occur widely in engineering applications, with the holes serving access,
inspection, or connection purposes. These holes cause stress concentrations that often
initiate failure at the holes. In some applications, these structural elements are required
primarily to resist buckling, and in other cases they must carry load well into the
postbuckling range in order to yield weight savings. Thus the understanding of their
buckling behaviour is needed for their design. The basic knowledge provides valuable
insight into modelling complex structures with general purpose finite element codes,
which is a step that takes place at a later phase in the design process.
Martin [1] published probably the first paper dealing with the buckling and
postbuckling analysis of square uniaxial compression-loaded composite plates with a
central circular cut-out in 1972. In 1978, Knauss et al. [2] presented an experimental
investigations of the buckling behaviour of rectangular composite plates with a circular
cutouts sizes up to d/W = 0.3. A survey of buckling studies conducted in the Eastern
Europe was presented by Preobrazhenskii [3] in 1981. Nemeth et al. [4, 5] presented an
approximate solution for buckling of rectangular, compression loaded, specially
orthotropic, quasi-isotropic and quasi-orthotropic plates with a centrally located circular
cut-out. Brit [6] presented results of a parametric study of the buckling behaviour of
clamped and simply supported rectangular plates with a circular or elliptical cut-out in
1993.
The main objective of the present study is to describe and characterize several of the
key behavioural characteristics of the buckling problems for rectangular multilayered
composite plates with cutouts and subjected to compressive loads. The analysis deals with
the simply-supported boundary conditions and it is conducted with the use of the finite
element package ANSYS. The main goal is to introduce the buckling concentration factor
that in similar manner as the stress concentration factor identifies buckling phenomena
with respect to the existence of cutouts. The analysis is mainly devoted to the study of
various geometrical and material effects on the buckling loads and modes.
177
( m / a )2
Px 1 R 2m
(1)
where:
m ( na ) /( mb ),
R Py / Px .
a, b are the panel dimensions in the x and y directions, respectively and m, n denote the
wave numbers. For symmetric laminates the term T 33 is not equal to zero only. For
convenience of the considerations it is possible to introduce buckling coefficient k as
follows:
T33 / D11D22
Px 1 R 2m
(2)
Let us note that the buckling coefficient is the function of two parameters, i.e: the aspect
ratio and buckling mode m and the material ratio D11/D22 which further will be identified
with the orthotropy ratio:
Ex
Ey
(3)
Now, using the above definitions it is possible to introduce the buckling concentration
factor as the ratio of a buckling load for plates with a hole to a buckling load for plates
without a hole, i.e.:
Kb
Px with hole
Px without hole
(4)
one can notice that the above value is the function of the orthotropy ratio , the aspect
ratio and buckling mode m (for a/b>1 n=1) and the geometry of the hole described b*y
the ratio d/b where d means the diameter of the circular hole. For other shapes of holes
the appropriate geometrical parameters are defined in the next section.
178
(5)
The parameter , which is a positive and real number, controls the size of the cutout. The
integer n and the parameter c determines the shape of cutout. The parameter w is the
bluntness factor which changes the radius of curvature at the corner of the cutout. For
example, for w = 0, i = 1, c =1 the circular shape can be obtained, w = 0.1, n = 3, c =1 the square shape and w = 0.25, n = 2, c =1 - the triangular shape.
179
Fig. 2. Mesh for an elliptic hole 3840 FE (mapped mesh) and for a triangular hole 1900 FE
As it may be noticed from the assumed values of the parameters those values do not cover
different possible shape orientations and sizes and they can be treated only as the
preliminary information and are the beginning of the particular parametric studies in this
area, of course, except of the case of circular openings. The plotted distributions of the
buckling loads are referred to the geometrical ratio d/b that is proportional to the ratio of
the hole dimension in the y direction to the width of the plate b in the y directions. The
considered values of the orthotropy parameter correspond directly to the analyzed
values of the fibre orientations, i.e. >1 to the case of fibres oriented at the parallel
direction to x axis, =1 fibres oriented at 450 and <1fibers oriented at 900 parallel to
the y axis. For all shapes of holes the area occupied by them is identical and equal to the
area of the circular hole, .i.e. d 2 / 4 .
The results of numerical computations are plotted in Fig. 3. They present the
sensitivity of buckling loads to fibre orientations. For isotropic properties (Fig. 3b) the
plate can buckle for very small openings and the buckling loads are almost independent
on the shape of cutouts. The orthotropy enhances plate resistance to buckling (Figs 3a,
3b) even up to the value d/b=0.15.
180
R=1
1
Kb
0.95
0.9
0.85
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.8
= 17.573
0.75
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
d/b
c) fibres oriented at 0
R = 1.0
Kb
0.96
0.92
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.88
= 1.0
0.84
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
d/b
b) fibres oriented at 45
181
0.2
0.25
R=1
1
Kb
0.9
0.8
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.7
= 0.075
0.6
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
d/b
c) fibres oriented at 90
One can observe unexpected fact of the increase of buckling concentration factor
over 1 (Fig. 3a) that is the result of the change of the buckling mode (it is equal to m+1)
over that for plate without a hole (it is equal to m). The buckling loads are the highest for
the elliptical holes since the elliptical semi-axis is greater at the x direction than at y
direction. The triangular shape of the hole gives almost the identical buckling loads as the
circular. Although for loading and boundary conditions the considered problem possesses
geometrical symmetry with respect to the angle 450 the results are not symmetrical for
fibres oriented at 00 and 900 since the positions of elliptical and triangular cutouts do not
have such symmetry.
Figure 4 shows the buckling modes for different shapes of openings. As it may be
observed they are identical to that for plates without hole. The hole is represented by a
white colour. Those results are strongly affected by the orthotropy factor. However, as it
was mentioned above for some geometrical and material properties the buckling modes
can vary depend on the shape of holes. For a/b>1 the wave number at the y direction is
always equal to 1.
182
Fig.4. Buckling modes for different shapes of holes fibres oriented at 450 (=1)
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Buckling analysis of laminated plates has been performed numerically through a
shear deformation shell theory for different shapes of holes and orthotropy parameters. To
describe those results in a concise manner a new factor is proposed that is called as the
buckling concentration factor. The results are strongly affected by the orthotropy
parameter. However, it should be mentioned that a further parametric studies are needed
in this area.
183
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Martin J., Buckling and postbuckling of laminated composite square plates with reinforced
central circular holes, 1972, Ph D Dissertation, Case, Western Reserve Univ.
Knauss J.F., Starnes J.H. Jr., Henneke E.G., The compressive failure of graphite/epoxy
plates with circular holes, Reserch Report VPI-E-78-5, Virginia Pol. Inst. State Univ.,
1978.
Preobrazhenskii I.N., Research pertaining to stability of thin plates with holes, Soviet
Appl. Mechanics, 1981, 16, 557-564.
Nemeth M.P., Buckling behaviour of orthotropic composite plates with centrally located
cutouts, 1983, Ph D Dissertation, Virginia Pol. Inst. State Univ.
Nemeth M.P., Johnson, E.R., Stein E., Kamat M.P., Buckling behaviour of orthotropic
composite plates with centrally located cutouts, Report VPI-E-83-21, 1983, Virginia Pol.
Inst. State Univ.
Britt V.O., Shear and compression buckling analysis for anisotropic panels with centrally
located elliptical cutouts, Proc. AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 33rd Structures, Structural
Dynamics and Materials Conf., AIAA Paper No 93-1565, La Jolla, Ca., USA, 1993.
Whitney J.M., Leissa A.N., Analysis of heterogeneous anisotropic plates, Journal of
Applied Mechanics, 36, 1969, ss. 261-6.
Abuelfoutouh N. M., Preliminary design of unstiffened composite shells. Proc. Symp. 7th
Technical Conf. ASC; 1993, pp. 693786.
184
1. INTRODUCTION
Spherical caps are quite frequently encountered in such engineering structures as
pressure vessels, silos, tanks (compare Fig. 1) and chemical installations. In a case of
external pressure the spherical shells are liable to sudden buckling. This phenomenon is in
many cases decisive as far as designing criteria are concerned.
Classical books on shell structures [1] and structural stability [2, 3] give no a chance
to design properly a spherical shell subjected to an action of external pressure. Eurocode
185
186
R 14000
777.8
t
18
(1)
The factor Cc is equal to 0.7 for considered boundary conditions (see Table 15.1 in [5]).
Since
E
210 103
(2)
Cc
0.7 31.28
20 f y , k
20 235
r0 7000
0.5
R 14000
and
(3)
1.1
0.039 .
R/t
(4)
Because
r
1.1
R
E
Cc and 0
R
t 20 f y ,k
R/t
(5)
pRcr
t
Cc E 0.294 MPa
2
R
3(1 )
2
The factor Cpl = 0.9 for considered boundary conditions (see Table 15.2 in [5]).
The plastic reference resistance can be obtained from the formula:
187
(6)
2t
0.544 MPa .
R
Now, the relative slenderness can be calculated:
pRpl f y ,k C pl
p Rp l
p Rcr
1.360 .
(7)
(8)
The fabrication quality parameter Q can be taken from the Table 15.3 in [5]. For
class B (high quality) Q = 25.
The characteristic imperfection amplitude can be obtained from the formula:
wk
1
Q
R t 14.31 mm .
(9)
The squash limit relative slenderness 0, the plastic range factor , and the interaction
exponent should be taken as follows: (see Table 15.1 in [5]).
(10)
The elastic imperfection reduction factor should be obtained from the formula (15.11)
from [5]:
0.7
0.2286 .
0.7 5
1 1.9 wk / t
(11)
The plastic limit relative slenderness p should be determined from the formula (15.14)
from [5]:
0.873 .
(12)
Because > p , the buckling strength reduction factor can be calculated from the
formula:
0.124 .
2
(13)
(14)
pRd
pRk
(15)
M 1.1 .
pRd obtained in such a way is the buckling resistance of the roof. Due to the fact that
(16)
Due to requirements of [4] and [5] the maximum amplitude of imperfection of such
a shape cannot be greater than 22 mm for the Class A (excellent quality), 36 mm for the
Class B (high quality), and 58 mm for the Class C (normal quality) if length of oval
dimple is assumed 3,6 m.
189
The example of equilibrium path obtained as a result of GMNIA analysis was shown
in the Fig. 6. It refers to the imperfection mode in the form of the single dimple and the
imperfection amplitude wk = 0.5t. Node 1 of the mesh was located exactly at the cap
center and the node 198 is the node from the dimple area where the amplitude occurs.
The equivalent stress distribution (due to Huber-Mises-Hencky exertion criterion) in
the stage of the sudden drop of resistance was shown in the Fig. 7.
Results of GMNIA analyses for all three imperfection modes and different imperfection
amplitudes are presented in Fig. 8. One can see that the lowest value of elastic plastic
buckling resistance pRd was obtained for the case of the single dimple and the amplitude
wk = 0.5t.
40
p Rd [kPa]
35
30
Node 198
25
Node 1
20
15
10
u z /t
5
0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
190
1.75
2.00
The buckling pressure resistance obtained in this way guarantee/secure the safety of
externally pressurized spherical caps. The approach presented in the paper should be
strongly recommended in any case of spherical shells subjected to the action of external
pressure.
191
192
b)
c)
Fig. 1. Snap-through: (a) Mises truss, (b) Equilibrium path for Mises truss, (c) experiment
The paper presents the results of experiments on steel girders in real scale, nonlinear
FEM analyses of the girder and theoretical analyses on a model structure. It was proved
that initial geometric imperfections can drastically influence the equilibrium paths.
Moreover, it was demonstrated that special interaction of imperfections can involve the
snap-through. It did not lead to structural failure. However, when it has a cyclic character
fatigue cracks can be initiated. This can appear when variable loads oscillate around the
critical snap-through load level.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
194
1. INTRODUCTION
The Finite Element Method (FEM) has created new quality in the development of
methods of thin-walled structures analysis thus stimulating evolution of the thin-walled
theory and ensuring the numerical analysis of large structure systems with great exactness.
In general, two finite element procedures of analysis are possible. In the first case, the
thin-walled structure is treated as the full space shell structure, which is natural
approximation of the real structure but can be laborious and costly. In the second case,
geometrically linear feature of the thin-walled structure is conserved but the thin-walled
beam displacements theory is enriched. Inspiring suggestions, limited however only to the
linear analysis of simple plane frames with I-beam cross-section, could be found in
Szmidt [7] where the FE model is composed of two parts, namely 3D part (shell type) and
1D part (beam type) and the procedure of the joint stiffness matrix computation has been
presented. Later on, such approach was also used in Cicho, Pluciski [2], Szymczak et.
all [5], Wagner, Gruttman [8], Chavan, Wriggers [1] and is derived in the paper.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
It is assumed that the translational displacements in the common nodes of the shell
parts and thin-walled beams cross-sections are equal
u ( s ) x u (b) x,
(1)
In the other approach to the FE modelling of the thin-walled structure so-called the
transient elements are used [1, 7]. The transient element joins the node of the thin-walled
beam element with the node of the shell element with the continuity condition of
translational displacements on the walls, common for the shell and thin-walled beams,
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. An example of the finite formulation for calculation of incremental stiffness matrix
elements
Fig. 4. Example 1. (a) two-beam frame, (b) shell-beam model, (c) types of joints
1D model has been discretized using 122 beam elements ( 861 degrees of freedom).
1D/3D model with joint 1 was discretized with 106 beam elements and 96 shell
elements ( 2730 degrees of freedom), while model with joint 2 had 106 beam elements
and 138 shell elements ( 3414 degrees of freedom). 3D models had 240 and 254 shell
elements ( 4878 and 5058 degrees of freedom) (respectively). In mixed model
198
Models
1D
1D (R-H) [3]
1D (R-R) [3]
1D (R-R, 0 ) [3]
1D/3D, joint 1
3D, joint 1
1D/3D, joint 2
3D, joint 2
-59.7851
-52.6002
-59.6577
-69.1285
-54.6054
-54.0403
-66.141
-66.8592
65.5796
59.0443
65.4115
80.6036
60.383
60.2474
78.133
78.7279
In this example the critical load for spatial three-beam frame was calculated. In Fig. 5
geometric and material data are shown. In order to obtain precise buckling modes, 3D
model was discretized using 4192 shell elements ( 79206 degrees of freedom). 1D/3D
model was discretized with 317 shell elements, 3 46 beam elements and 3 29
transient elements.
199
Fig. 6. Example 2. First buckling mode. (a) 1D/3D FE model, (b) shell FE model.
The results of calculations of the critical load factor are shown in Table 1. In Fig. 6
the first buckling mode is shown. According to the results of calculations, discretization
using only beam elements is subject to significant error, while a good results agreement
for mixed and shell models can be noticed. Deformation of 1D/3D and 3D models is
practically the same.
Table 1.
Models
1D
1D/3D
3D
1
353.4203
275.6376
275.1766
513.0119
469.7605
468.1359
756.063
679.745
658.6285
200
In Fig. 8 equilibrium path (u z ) for both space joint element and transient elements
models for node w1 is shown.
201
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Chavan K.S., Wriggers P., Consistent coupling of beam and shell models for thermoelastic analysis, Int J Numer Meth Eng 2004 59(14), pp. 1861-1876.
Cicho C., Pluciski P., Shell-beam FE static and buckling analysis for thin-walled space
frames with general open cross-section, in Proceedings of Stability Structures IX-th
Symposium 2000, (in Polish).
Kim M. Y., Chang S. P., Kim S. B., Spatial stability analysis of thin-walled space frames,
Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng., 39(3), 1996, pp. 499-525.
Koczubiej S., Shell-Beam FE Model in Static and Stability Analysis of Thin-Walled
Structures With Open Cross-Section, Ph.D. thesis, Politechnika witokrzyska, Kielce
2011 (in Polish).
Kreja I., Mikulski T., Szymczak C., Application of superelements in static analysis of thinwalled structures, J Civil Eng Manage X(2), 2004, pp. 113-122.
Przemieniecki J. S., Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis, Dover Publications, New York
1985.
Szmidt J. K., Analysis of frames made up of thin-walled elements, Engineering
Transactions 23(3), 1975, pp. 447-472 (in Polish).
Wagner W., Gruttmann F., Modeling of shell-beam transitions in the presence of finite
rotations, CAMES 9(3), 2002, pp. 405-418.
202
1. INTRODUCTION
The structural stability problem has been investigated for over a century and is now
very extended. On the other hand, dynamic impulse loading of thin-walled members with
flat walls has been discussed only recently mainly for dynamic buckling of thin-walled
members or plates subjected to compressive or shear pulse loads [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11,
15]. These papers describe the phenomenon of dynamic buckling and the part of them
shows some criteria for the assessment of the dynamic stability of structural plate
structures. Mania in his works [8, 12, 13] extended the analysis of dynamic buckling of
girders taking into account strain rate effect according to Perzyna model and Stoffel [18]
assumed the application of different constitutive laws in the studies of the circular plate
high strain rate response. However, in the case of torsional loading, only a few
publications concern dynamic loads, even though some papers discuss static loads and
analysis of girders [8].
The stability of thin-walled plate structures subjected to static torsion has been
studied both theoretically and empirically. Some papers exploring dynamic stability under
the influence of a dynamic torsional torque are devoted to thin-walled cylindrical shells
[14, 19, 20, 21], but there are no works dealing with thin-walled girders. Actually, this
field of interest is still developed because the criteria of dynamic stability in torsion
werent established.
In this paper, the author studies a behavior of a structure under pulse loading in
torsion whose duration equals the fundamental natural vibration period of the given
structure. Numerical calculations were conducted to obtain the dynamic response of such
structures under rectangular pulse loading. For computations it was assumed the plate
structure with rectangular cross-section considering the materials in a elastic-plastic range
and strain rate effect. The simulation has been carried out in Ansys code using finite
element method.
203
)
Y
t
T( t
2R
Ex
Ey
Z
L = 100 mm
R = 70.5 mm
t = 1 mm or 0.5 mm
In the further part of work it assumed isotropic material with bilinear curves for a
different yield stress and for different tangential modulus in elasto-plastic range given on
diagrams. For purpose of simulation with viscoplastic material it was considered the
Perzyna model [16, 17] simply described through eq. 1, where p is the strain rate, m
and * mean the constants, o a static yield stress. For the ductile steel, Jones [6]
suggests m 0.2 and * 40.4 and such values have been taken into account in this
work.
Table 1. Materials property for an elastic range
[kg/m3]
0.3
G
[GPa]
80
97.423
0.3
11.818
2000
29.523
0.09
11.818
2000
Material
Ex [GPa]
Ey [GPa]
yx []
mat_1
200
200
mat_2_1
29.523
mat_2_2
97.423
o 1 *
7800
204
(1)
b)
Fig. 2. Drawing of element type shell281 and numerical model with loading and boundary
conditions
[ deg]
angle appeared at 0.20.3 Tp of the time of application, while after increasing the
amplitude the maximum value was observed at 0.60.8 Tp.
max
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
time [ms]
Fig. 3. The course of torsion angle dependent upon the duration of the dynamic torque
equaling 1.5 Tcr
6
b/h= 200; Tp=T=2.5 ms; mat_1
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1 ms; mat_2_1
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1.45 ms; mat_2_2
max
[ deg]
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 4. The courses of maximal torsion angle dependent upon the dynamic torque for
isotropic and orthotropic material
In Fig. 4, it was observed that the thinner structures carry the greater dynamic
torsional loading with respect to its critical loading (even over two times for the thickness
t = 0.5 [mm] and about 1.4 Tcr for grider with thickness t = 1 [mm]). For moduli along the
x axis that were higher than those along the transverse direction, the structure may bear
the greater dynamic loads (a sharp increase in the angle of rotation appears at 1.7 Tcr).
206
no yield limit
t
Re=400 MPa; E/E =10;
4
max
[ deg]
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 5. Course of maximal torsion angle dependent upon the dynamic torque for isotropic
material with bilinear characteristic for different yield stress
5
t
max
[ deg]
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
Time [ms]
Fig. 6. Comparison of curves of maximal torsion angle dependent upon duration of pulse
loading with or without consideration of strain rate effect for Tdyn=1.5 Tcr
Comparing the isotropic material with the composite in which the modulus Ex is smaller
than the modulus Ey, it was noticed that the dynamic torque remain at the same level, even
though in the latter case the angle of rotation is twice as high for the same overload. The
next diagram (Fig. 5) shows the influence of a initial yield stress on the maximal angle of
rotation for column with b/h=200 and E t / E 10 , where E t means tangential modulus
in elastic-plastic range for steel. Obviously, for the greater yield stress of material the
207
max
[ deg]
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 7. Comparison of curves of maximal torsion angle with regard to torque with
consideration or without consideration of strain rate effect
6
s 0=200 MPa
s 0=400 MPa
s 0=500 MPa
max
[ deg]
s 0=300 MPa
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 8. Curves of maximal torsion angle in the function of torsional pulse loading with
consideration of the strain rate effect
208
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Ari-Gur, J., Simonetta, SR., Dynamic pulse buckling of rectangular composite plates,
Composites Part B, 28B, 1997, pp. 301308.
Biskupski, J., Koakowski, Z., Stability of thin-walled box girders subjected to bounded
torsion, Engineering Machines Problems 3 (3), 1994, pp. 57-72.
Czechowski L., The dynamic stability in the elasto-plastic range of composite rectangular
plate subjected to the combined load /in Polish/, PhD Thesis, odz, 2007.
Czechowski L., Dynamic response of girders subjected to pulse loading in torsion, section
10, pp. 228-242.
Czechowski L., Dynamic stability of rectangular orthotropic plates subjected to combined
in-plane pulse loading in the elasto-plastic range, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Vol.12, 4, 2008, pp. 309-321.
Jones N., Several phenomena in structural impact and structural crashworthiness,
European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids, 2003; 22, 693707.
Jones N., Structural impact, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Krlak, M., Kubiak, T., Koakowski Z., Stability and Load Carrying Capacity of ThinWalled Orthotropic Poles of Regular Polygonal Cross-Section Subject to Combined Load,
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 4 (39), 2001, pp. 969-988.
Kubiak, T., Criteria for dynamic buckling estimation of thin-walled structures, ThinWalled Structures, 45 (10-11), 2007, pp. 888-892.
Mania, R., Kowal-Michalska, K., Behavior of composite columns of closed cross-section
under in-plane compressive pulse loading, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp. 902905.
Mania R.J., Dynamic buckling of thin-walled columns made of viscoplastic materials,
Scientific Bulletin of Technical Uni. of Lodz, No. 1059, 2010.
Mania R.J., Strain-rate effect in dynamic buckling of thin-walled isotropic columns.
Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering 2008; 12 (3), 189200.
Ma, H.W., Zhang, S.Y., Yang, G.T., Impact torsional buckling of plastic circular
cylindrical shells experimental study, International Journal of Impact Engineering, 22 (5),
1999, pp. 49-64.
Petry, D., Fahlbusch, G., Dynamic buckling of thin isotropic plates subjected to in-plane
impact, Thin-Walled Structures, 38, 2000, pp. 267283.
Perzyna P., Theory of viscoplasticity, Warszawa: PWN; 1966 (in Polish).
Perzyna P.,et al., Viscoplasticity application, Wroclaw, Ossolineum;1971 (in Polish).
209
210
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled structures belong to a category of load-carrying structures that have
wide field of applications in contemporary engineering. An example of their applications
can be aircraft structures, for which high stiffness and strength demands are formulated
together with a tendency to minimize the mass of the structure. One of the basic questions
connected to the design of thin-walled structures is a problem of stability loss as well as
load-carrying capacity of the system elements. Recently in the design of thin-walled loadcarrying structures an increase in number of applications of modern constructional
materials - composites in comparison to traditional structural materials could be noticed.
Widely used group of materials are polymeric composites reinforced with glass, carbon or
kevlar fibres. Application of these materials yields from advantageous ratio of their
strength to mass and a resistance to unfavourable working conditions. A lot of papers
concerning questions of stability, as well as load-carrying capacity of thin-walled
structures is available [1-6]. However, a large majority of them applies to classical
structural materials, having isotropic properties. Over a span of a few recent years many
articles describing properties of fibrous composites the laminates were published, but
they considered mainly theoretical models. There is still a lack of comprehensive
information on experimental tests on layered composites reinforced with fibres. This
inspired the author of this article to undertake a study in this subject area.
In this work, results of experimental tests on thin-walled composite columns of tophat cross-section subjected to compressive load are presented. The obtained research
results allow to verify the results given by FE models, as well as by authors own
analytical-numerical (A-N) method based on the Koiter theory [7]. The experiments
211
The columns were produced with autoclaving technique with the use of vacuum
packet, prepared in a special mould mapping the shape and the dimensions of the
composite profiles. The prepared hermetic packet, providing stable sub-atmospheric
pressure of ca -0.1 MPa was subjected to polymerization process in a laboratoryautoclave, where an overpressure of 0.4 MPa was kept in order to provide required
holding down. In case of the carbon-epoxy composite a temperature of material heating of
135 C was kept for 2 hours, what enabled finishing of the prepreg polymerization process.
In order to eliminate disadvantageous phenomena usually emerging during the composite
production process (excessive increase of thermal stresses inside the material and
restraining of proper relaxation of initial and thermal stresses) a precise heating and
cooling rate of 0.033 K/s was applied.
For the purpose of laminate texture quality check non-destructive testing (NDT)
methods were used together with optical microscopy and computer-assisted micro212
Fig. 2. Quality assessment of composite profiles with the use of non-destructive ultrasonic
methods (NDT)
Moreover, for the purpose of the laminate quality control microstructural testing
with optical microscopy (NikonMA200, Japan) was employed. It based on computer
image analysis (Image Pro Plus, NIS-Elements) and computer-assisted micro-tomography
(SkyScan 1174 micro-tomograph). In particular, a quality of the profiles fillet radii was
checked, as in these regions are especially prone to inter-layer discontinuities in the form
of delamination. Texture inspection and non-destructive testing confirmed very good
quality of the composite columns, especially in respect of material discontinuities
(internal porosity, delamination). Application of autoclaving composite production
technique enabled receiving structures having high mechanical characteristics confirmed
by performed strength tests and minimal porosity amount <1%, as well as provided
repeatability of the composite fabrication process.
213
Tensile strength
FTU [MPa]
0
90
1867.2
25.97
Young
modulus in
tension
ET [GPa]
0
90
Poisson ratio
Shear strength
FSU [MPa]
Shear
modulus
G [GPa]
Compressive
strength
FCU [MPa]
90
45
45
90
0.02
100.15
4.18
1531
214
3. NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
Discretisation of the thin-walled column model was based on 4-noded reduced
integration shell elements (S4R) in the Abaqus and 8-noded elements (Shell99) in
the Ansys software. Both types of finite elements had 6 degrees of freedom at each node.
A Layup-Ply technique was employed for the purpose of the symmetrical [0,90,0,90] s
laminate modelling - Fig. 3.
Composite Layup
[0,90,0,90]s
Fig. 3.
214
215
Fig. 4. Test stand outfit: self-aligning grips, composite column and laser sensor
During the tests the following variables were registered: the time, the compressive
force, the displacement of the cross-bar, the web deflection (with the laser sensor) and the
strains (with gauges). The sampling frequency of all parameters was 1 Hz. The
experiments were lead in standard conditions at 23 oC and at a steady cross-bar velocity
equal 1 mm/min. The tests were continued until the load reached double critical force.
The tests covered registration of the subcritical, critical and post-critical state. However,
during the tests no symptoms of the structure failure were perceived.
In the conducted experiments for the purpose of critical forces estimation the
following methods were used [20-26]:
a) the vertical-tangent line method (the mean-strains method) denoted as K1,
b) the method of straight lines intersection in the plot of mean strains denoted as K2,
c) the P-w2 method denoted as K3,
d) the inflexion-point method denoted as K4,
e) the Tereszowski method denoted as K5,
f) the Koiter method denoted as K6.
The experimental tests were conducted on 3 specimens with 3 measurements for
each of them.
5. RESULTS
The critical state analysis of the compressed thin-walled column showed a local
mode of stability loss, manifesting itself by taking a shape of 4 half-waves by all walls of
the profile - Fig. 5. For every numerical tool employed in simulations (FEM, A-N
method) a qualitative, as well as a quantitative agreement of the computational results was
obtained.
216
b)
a)
Fig. 5. First buckling mode of composite column: a) Abaqus results; b) Ansys results
The values of critical forces obtained with particular methods were collected in Table 2.
Table 2.
Computational tool
Abaqus (FEM)
Ansys (FEM)
Analytical-numerical
method (A-N)
PCR = 6629 [N]
4
Experimental results for the critical state were given below in a form of force vs
testing method plots, obtained from all measurements performed with any particular
method, together with confidence interval Fig. 6.
8000
8000.00
7500
7500.00
7000
7000.00
6500
6500.00
6000
6000.00
5500
5500.00
5000
Method
FEM/Ab
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
PCR [N]
6655.50
6629.10
6503.85
6184.84
6619.88
7102.08
6918.98
6227.82
5000.00
Mes
FEM
A-N
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
Fig. 6. Comparison of critical forces values PCR [N] determined with different methods
217
b)
a)
A-N
Experimental results
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
0.5
1.5
218
2.5
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Bazant Z.P., Cedolin L., Stability of structures. Elastic, inelastic, fracture and damage
theories. Oxford University Press 1991.
Simitses
, Hodges D H , Fundamentals of structural stability. Butterworth-Heinemann
2006.
Krlak M and Mania R (eds ), Statics, dynamics and stability of structures Vol 1
Stability of thin-walled plate structures, Technical University of Lodz, Series of
monographs, Lodz 2011.
Thompson J.M.T., Hunt G.W., General theory of elastic stability. Wiley, New York 1973.
Kowal-Michalska K. (ed.), Dynamic Stability of Composite Plate Structures, (in Polish),
WNT, Warszawa, 2007.
Kolakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K. (eds.), Selected problems of instabilities in composite
structures, A Series of Monographs, Technical University of Lodz, 1999.
Koiter W.T., Elastic stability and post-buckling behavior, In:Proceedings of the
Symposium on Non-linear Problems, Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin 1963, pp. 257275.
219
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
220
1. INTRODUCTION
In design process of complex composite materials an important role plays the plies
arrangements, having a decisive influence on load carrying abilities of particular
components of the stress state. This applies to thin-walled composite structures stability as
well, in which a specific ply sequence can have essential influence on a value of critical
load or a structures stiffness in post-critical state [1].
This article presents experimental results of thin-walled composite columns having
channel-section subjected to compressive load. It was assumed, that the profiles are
simply supported at both ends. The purpose of the conducted research was determination
of the ply sequence influence on critical load value and the mode of stability loss of the
compressed columns. Moreover, an attempt to assess the influence of the ply sequence on
the structures stiffness in post-critical state was made. The obtained experimental results
allowed to verify numerical calculations performed with the finite element method (FEM)
using the Abaqus software.
221
Fig. 1. Dimensions and exemplary plies arrangement for column under analysis
For the used composite prepregs the following mechanical characteristics were
determined experimentally - Youngs moduli: E1 = 130.71 GPa, E2 = 6.36 GPa,
Kirchhoffs modulus: G12 = 4.18 GPa, Poissons ratio: 12 = 0.32. In destructive tests the
following features were additionally estimated: tensile strength in the 0o direction
(longitudinal): M1=1867.2 MPa and in perpendicular 90o direction M2=2597 MPa;
shearing strength for the 45 direction: 12M=100.15 MPa and compressive strength in
the two perpendicular 0 and 90 directions: cM1=1531 MPa and cM2=214 MPa,
respectively. The experimentally determined strength characteristics of the carbon-epoxy
composite were exploited in the definition of material model in the FEM calculations.
The manufactured composite columns underwent texture quality control of the
laminate with non-destructive testing (NDT) methods and microstructural inspection
considering a localization of possible flaw. The flaw can have a form of delamination or
porosity cluster. They are the most frequently occurring laminate defects and can
seriously deteriorate the material strength. Moreover, they can be sources of failure of the
composite structure. The NDT tests were done with OmniScan MXU-M ultrasonic
defectoscope, equipped with Olympus 5L64 A12 measurement head. The walls of all the
produced profiles were inspected considering flaw identification. The A-scan and the Bscan techniques were used, as they allowed to localize and to dimension the possible flaw
within the material. Additionally, microstructural research was lead with X-ray micro222
[0,90,0,90]s
[45,-45,90,0]s
The scope of numerical simulations covered also an attempt to assess the possibility
of damage occurrence in the composite in post-critical range. An assessment of material
effort, as well as an estimation of the failure load level was done with the Tsai-Wu
criterion [4], using the experimentally determined limit parameters of the composite. In
addition, a assumed FEM model validations was done with the analytical-numerical
(A-N) method [5-7], based on the Koiter theory [8].
223
Fig. 3. Stand test with self-aligning grips for compressive loading of composite columns
On the specimens internal and external surfaces in the vicinity of the biggest webs
deflection area Vishays electrical strain gauges were sticked along the loading direction.
The two CEA-06-125UW-350 series gauges had a constant k=2.1350.5 % and electrical
resistance of 350 0.3 %. In addition the deflections were measured with the
optoNCDT 1605 laser dilatometer. All the measurement elements were plugged to the
MGCplus system (Hottinger). During the tests the indications of all sensors were
registered with a frequency of 1 Hz. It is worth underlining, that no symptoms of the
columns failure were noticed during the tests. Before each test the loading setup was preloaded up to 25 % of the expected critical load in order to provide the best possible
alignment of the column and the grips. Next, the retainers were removed and the specimen
was unloaded to 0. All tests were conducted in standard conditions, at 23oC with constant
velocity of the cross-bar equal to 1 mm/min. The experiments were lead in sub-critical
range with registration of parameters needed in determination of critical loads, as well as
in post-critical range. For each of the considered ply sequences three samples were tested
and the measurements were done thrice. Thus, nine measurements were performed for each
layup in order to determine the columns sub- and post-critical characteristics.
224
(b)
(c)
a) Pcr [N]
b)
3000
3500
c)
Pcr [N]
Pcr [N]
5500
3500.00
3000.00
3250.00
2750.00
5500.00
5250.00
5000
2500
3000
3000.00
2500.00
2750.00
2250.00
5000.00
4750.00
4500
4500.00
4250.00
2000
2500
4000
2000.00
2500.00
4000.00
3750.00
1750.00
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
4898.90
FEM
4652.49
2500
5147.43
1000.00
4908.08
3000
1250.00
3500.00
4369.70
1500.00
4402.40
K4
2176.65
K3
1992.64
K2
2432.69
2904.22
K1
1000
1500.00
2415.43
2509.96
A-N
1750.00
2274.80
3061.09
FEM
1500
2000.00
3500
2282.30
3069.51
1500
2848.30
2000
2977.20
2250.00
FEM
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
3250.00
3000.00
2750.00
2500.00
Fig. 5. The mean values of critical forces obtained expeimentally and their scatters for the
respective series of samples: (a) [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) [0,90,0,90]s, (c) [45,-45,90,0]s
These results allowed to estimate the influence of the composite layup on critical
load values. The smallest values of critical forces were gained in case of the [0,90,0,90]s
profile, whereas the biggest ones - for the [45,-45,90,0]s ply sequence. On the basis of the
performed analyses a columns tendency to have higher critical load for the layups in
which the 0o-plies were located in the vicinity of the mid-plane. No increase in critical
226
Fig. 6. Post-critical deformation state: (a) [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) [0,90,0,90]s, (c) [45,-45,90,0]s
Zones, where the critical value of the failure parameter was reached indicated the
areas endangered to damage occurrence in the laminates external plies. The values of
failure load determined with the FEM in relation to the critical load were collected in
Table 1.
The obtained FEM results of the destructive forces showed, that the change of the 0plies locations (i.e.: [0,-45,45,90]s and [45,-45,90,0]s) in relation to the system having lower
loading was ca 39 %. This means, the difference in failure load was lower than in critical
loads. Interesting results of the critical and failure loads were obtained for the composites
with [0,-45,45,90]s and [0,90,0,90]s plies sequences. Note, that the critical load in case of the
[0,-45,45,90]s sequence was bigger than the critical force for the [0,90,0,90]s ply sequence.
On contrary, in case of failure loads an opposite tendency was observed. This probably was
a result of multiplication of the 0o- plies number.
Moreover, it should be noted, that among the analysed layups the cross-ply laminate
showed the biggest increase in failure force in relation to critical force ca six times.
Table 1.
Composite layup
(a) - [0,-45,45,90]s
(b) - [0,90,0,90]s
(c) - [45,-45,90,0]s
2977.2
2282.3
4402.4
10100
13693
14087
227
6000
P[N]
P/Pcr[-]
1.5
4500
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(c)
w[mm] 0
0
0
0.6
1.2
w/h[-]
0
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.8
Fig. 7. Comparison of post-critical equilibrium paths for composite columns with different
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s, (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s. obtained with the
FEM
P/Pcr[-]
P[N]
6000
1.5
4500
1
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(c)
w[mm] 0
0
0
0.6
1.2
1.8
w/h[-]
0
0.6
1.2
1.8
Fig. 8. Comparison of post-critical equilibrium paths for composite columns with different
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s, (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s obtained with A-N
method
P[N]
6000
1.5
4500
P/Pcr[-]
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(a)
(b)
0
0
0.6
1.2
(c)
w[mm]
(b)
(c)
w/h[-]
0
0
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.8
Fig. 9. Comparison of post-critical equilibrium paths for composite columns with different
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s and (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s obtained
experimentally
228
229
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Swanson S.R., Introduction to Design and Analysis with Advanced Composite Materials,
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stiffeners, Composite Structures, 60, 2005, pp.421-428.
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structures with intermediate stiffeners, Thin-Walled Structures, 39(8), 2001, pp. 649-669.
van der Heijden A.M.A. (ed.), W.T. Koiters Elastic Stability of Solids and Structures,
Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Edge Compression, ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 18, June 1951, pp. 143151.
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Venkataramaiah, K.R., Roorda J., Analysis of local plate buckling experimental data, Sixth
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Singer J., Arbocz J., Weller T., Buckling Experiments. Experimental methods in buckling
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Inc. New York Volume 1, 1998, Volume 2, 2002.
Tomblin J., Barbero E.J., Local buckling experiments on FRP columns, Thin-Walled
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Barbero E.J., Trovillion J., Prediction and measurement of the post-critical behavior of
fiber-reinforced composite columns, Composites Science and Technology 58, 1998,
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230
POSTBUCKLING PROBLEMS
OF THIN PERIODIC PLATES
. DOMAGALSKI, J. JDRYSIAK
Department of Structural Mechanics, Technical University of Lodz
al. Politechniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
The objects under considerations are thin linear-elastic plates with periodic
structure subjected to large deflections. The paper concerns the problem
of periodic plates postbuckling behaviour. The applied mathematical model
describing geometrically nonlinear problems of such plates, proposed
by Domagalski and Jdrysiak (2012), is based on the tolerance averaging technique,
cf. Woniak et al. (eds.) (2010).
1. INTRODUCTION
Plates considered in this paper are made of isotropic materials but as a result
of changing thickness or using two or more materials with different elastic properties their
behaviour is similar to behaviour of anisotropic or orthotropic ones with discontinuities of
geometric or/and material properties, cf. Fig. 1. It leads to governing equations of these
plates, which have non-continuous, highly oscillating, functional coefficients. Exact
solutions to these equations are very difficult to obtain. Therefore, various simplified
approaches, introducing effective plate properties, are proposed. Amongst them there
have to be mentioned models based on the asymptotic homogenization, e.g. homogenized
model of periodic plates proposed by Kohn and Vogelius [7].
In this paper, in order to take into account this effect in model equations,
the tolerance modelling approach is applied, cf. the books edited by Woniak, Michalak
and Jdrysiak [14] and by Woniak et al. [13]. Applications of this method to other
problems of periodic plates are shown in a series of papers, e.g. for vibrations of periodic
231
( x) / 2
( x) / 2
( x) / 2
b (x)
(x, z ) z 2 dz.
(1)
From the well-known assumptions of the nonlinear thin plate theory, e.g. relations
between the total strains E, membrane strains E0 and curvatures written as:
E E0 z
E0 ( u0 u0 w w), w,
1
2
232
(2)
~
E0 b F ,
(3)
~
2
bb , F N , () ( )() , we obtain
for periodic plates the following equations for the deflection w and the stress function F:
where
~
(bF ) 12 (ww ww),
(d w) Fw q.
(4)
A 1,, N ,
u0 (x) U 0 (x),
(5)
(6)
233
K 1,, M ,
(7)
2
d
W(), (), V () and () are called the macrodeflection, the macrostress function,
the fluctuation amplitudes of the deflection and of the stress function, respectively; U0()
are the in-plane macrodisplacements.
The additional assumption is the decomposition of the load q(x) in the form
q(x) q0 (x) q~(x) , where q0 q is the slowly-varying averaged load, and q~ is
the oscillating part, q~ 0 .
4. MODEL EQUATIONS
Applying the modelling procedure described in [13, 14], under denotations
~
~
~
~
~
~
B b , BK b g K , B KL b g K g L ,
A
D d , D
d h A , D AB d h A h B ,
AB
Q q 0 ,
Q A q~h A l 2 ,
G
h A h B l 2 ,
(8)
we arrive at the following system of equations for the macrostress function (),
the fluctuation amplitudes of the stress function K(), the macrodeflection W(),
the fluctuation amplitudes of the deflection VA():
~ eff
AB
( B
) 12 ( W W ) 12 l 2 G
(V BV A ),
B
( D W D
V B ) W Q,
AB B
DA W D ABV B l 2 G
V l 2 Q A ,
~
~L
K ( B LK ) 1 B
; , , , 1, 2; A, B 1, ...,N ; K , L 1, ...,M ,
(9)
eff
L
K
where B
.
B B
( B KL ) 1 B
Equations (9) together with micro-macro decompositions (5)-(7) constitute
the nonlinear tolerance model of thin periodic plates. This model describes the effect
of the microstructure size on the overall plate behaviour by the underlined terms.
For considered plates there have to be formulated boundary conditions only
for the macrodeflection W and the macrostress function . Moreover, the basic unknowns
of
equations
(9)
have
to
satisfy
the
following
conditions:
W (), V A (), (), K () SVd2 (, ) . For comparison we recall the governing equations
of the linear tolerance model of thin periodic plates:
A
D W D
V A Q,
A
D
W D ABV B l 2Q A ,
234
(10)
( x1 , x2 ) mn cos m x1 cos n x2 12 p1 x2 12 p 2 x1 ,
2
(11)
K
K ( x1 , x2 ) mn
cos m x1 cos n x2 ,
n
where constants p1 and p2 represent average membrane forces per unit length in the x1and x2-direction. The transversal average loads Q( x1, x2 ) and Q A( x1, x2 ) can
be expanded into double sine series:
A
Q( x1 , x2 ) Qmn sin m x1 sin n x2 , Q A ( x1 , x2 ) Qmn
sin m x1 sin n x2 . (12)
n
Application of the Galerkin method leads to the following set of nonlinear, coupled
algebraic equations for coefficients of series (11):
235
A, B p , q , r , s
d mnWmn (m p1 n p 2 )Wmn
2
i , j , k ,l
A
d ABVmnB d mn
Wmn 2
B
B
Wij kl d mn
VmnB q mn 0,
ijkl
mn
mnAB,ijklVijB kl
(12)
B i , j , k ,l
A
2 [G11AB p1 G22AB p 2 ]VmnB 2 qmn
0,
B
Wmn
Wmn
kl
LL
, VmnA 1 2 VmnA , kl
,
EM 3
(13)
A
[qmn , qmn
]
L1
A
[Qmn , Qmn
],
EM 4
L1
p ,
EM 3
(14)
E M , M if x [l / 2,l / 2) [l / 2,l / 2)
[l / 2,l / 2) (l / 2, l / 2]
(l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2,l / 2)
E (x), (x)
(l / 2, l / 2] (l / 2, l / 2],
E R , R if x [l / 2,l / 2) [l / 2, l / 2]
[l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2, l / 2]
(l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2, l / 2],
(15)
e=4, =0.2
10.0
e=4, =0.1
e=2, =0.2
8.0
p1
6.0
4.0
e=2, =0.1
2.0
e=1
0.0
0
0.5
1.5
The fluctuation shape functions hA and gK are assumed in the similar form:
237
h A g A 13 l 2 [(1 cos
2 Ay1
2 Ay 2
)(1 cos
) 1],
l
l
A 1,...,N ,
(16)
e=ER/EM
1
( p11
) crit
1.0
3.655
2.0
0.1
4.322
4.0
0.2
4.886
0.1
5.547
0.2
7.069
Following Levy [8], let us define the ratio of elastic effective width to initial width
as the ratio of the actual load carried by the plate to the load the plate would have carried
if the stress had been uniform and equal to the Youngs modulus of the matrix material EM
multiplied by the average edge strain e1. Here, this ratio is calculated from the following
formula:
L02 ~ eff p1
B2222
.
L2
e1
(17)
The graphs in Fig. 4 illustrate the dependence between ratios L02 L2 and e1/e1.crit,
where the value of critical strain corresponds to the case of no transverse load.
The results were calculated for e=ER/EM=1.0, 4.0, =0.1, 0.2. The results calculated
for a homogeneous plate (e=1.0) are identical with those obtained by Levy.
238
e1.0
q=0
e4.0, 0.1
e4.0, 0.2
0.8
q=2.25
0.6
0
2
L
L2
q=29.5
0.4
L02 ~ eff p1
B2222
L2
e1
0.2
0
0
e1 e1.crit
Fig. 4. Effect of transversal load on effective width of a square plate loaded by edge
compression
6. REMARKS
applying the tolerance modelling to the known differential equations of thin periodic
plates with large deflections the averaged equations of the nonlinear tolerance model
are derived.
this technique makes it possible to replace the governing equations with noncontinuous, periodic, highly oscillating coefficients by the system of differential
equations with constant coefficients;
the derived equations of the nonlinear tolerance model involve terms, which take into
account the effect of the microstructure size on the overall behaviour of periodic
plates;
the governing equations of the linear tolerance model take into account the effect
of the microstructure size only by the term dependent of the oscillating part
of the load.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Baron E., On modelling of periodic plates having the inhomogeneity period of an order of
the plate thickness, J. Theor. Appl. Mech., 44, 1, 2006, pp. 3-18.
Domagalski ., Jdrysiak J., Modelling of thin periodic plates subjected to large
deflections, Civ. Environm. Engnrg Rep., 5, 2010, pp. 121-136.
Domagalski ., Jdrysiak J., On the elastostatics of thin periodic plates with large
deflections, Mechanica, 2012, DOI: 10.1007/s11012-012-9546-1.
Jdrysiak J., The length-scale effect in the buckling of thin periodic plates resting on
a periodic Winkler foundation, Meccanica, 38, 2003, pp. 435-451.
Jdrysiak J., The tolerance averaging model of dynamic stability of thin plates with onedirectional periodic structure, Thin Walled Struct., 45, 2007, pp. 855-860.
Jdrysiak J., Higher order vibrations of thin periodic plates, Thin Walled Struct., 47, 2009,
pp. 890-901.
Kohn R.V., Vogelius M., A new model of thin plates with rapidly varying thickness, Int. J.
Solids Struct., 20, 1984, pp. 333-350.
Levy S., Bending of rectangular plates with large deflections, NACA Rep.
No 737, NACA Tech. Note No 846, 1942.
Michalak B., The meso-shape functions for the meso-structural models of wavy-plates,
ZAMM, 81, 2001, pp. 639-641.
Nagrko W., Woniak Cz., Nonasymptotic modelling of thin plates reinforced
by a system of stiffeners, Electronic J. Polish Agric. Univ., Civ. Engnrg, 5, 2, 2002:
online: www.ejpau.media.pl.
Timoshenko S., Woinowsky-Krieger S., Theory of plates and shells, McGraw-Hill, New
York 1959.
Woniak Cz. (ed.), Mechanics of Elastic Plates and Shells, PWN, Warszawa 2001 (in
Polish).
Woniak Cz. et al. (ed.), Mathematical modelling and analysis in continuum mechanics of
microstructured media, Wydawnictwo Politechniki lskiej, Gliwice 2010.
Woniak Cz., Michalak B, Jdrysiak J. (ed.), Thermomechanics of microheterogeneous
solids and structures. Tolerance averaging approach, Wydawnictwo Politechniki dzkiej,
d 2008.
240
The paper presents a comparison of linear and nonlinear methods for the
assessment of ship structures buckling. Typical part of offshore structure was
selected to comparison. The objective of the study is to determine the relationship
between two equivalent methods of calculation. Analysis of the behavior of
stiffened panels is based on the rules and recommended practice of Det Norske
Veritas.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
Stability of structures is one of the most important criteria during design. Buckling
of the structural components may disable the proper functioning of the structure. In the
case of oil rigs buckling can ultimately cause the overall collapse of the structure resulting
in the significant damage or loss of the rig. The problem of stability is subject to intensive
investigation to provide appropriate level of structural safety [1].
The designers and engineers use classification rules defining the dimensions of the
structures employing the criteria of strength and stability. Applying the provisions of Det
Norske Veritas, it is possible to select either of two methods for assessing the stability of
structures.
The first method is based on closed-form formulas employing ratio of the actual
stress to the allowable stress referred to as an utilisation ratio [2] and [3].
The second method is based on solution of von Karman and Marguerre equations.
This method allows for evaluation of stiffened panels and flat plates. The algorithm is
implemented in the PULS computer code enabling analyses of typical parts of structures
[4].
241
The second model (Fig. 2) is a plate stiffened with six longitudinal stiffeners
HP220x10. Span between stiffeners is 800 mm. Plating dimensions are 3000x5600 mm,
thus comprising 1/3 of the first model.
242
Models 3 and 4 are geometrically identical; the difference is the method of solution
of the buckling problem, the geometry and extent being the same. Models 1, 2 and 3 were
calculated using PULS, the fourth one was calculated according to the equations given in
the rules (the first approach).
Plate thickness for all the considered models was naturally the same: 12 mm.
2. METHOD, PROCEDURES CALCULATIONS AND MATERIALS
Calculations were done under the requirement DNV-RP-C201, being the
recommended practice for analysis of buckling of offshore structures. The rules have been
developed by Det Norske Veritas.
2.1 LINEAR ANALYTICAL METHOD
The first method (as described in Chapter 1.1) is based on the formulas given in the
rules. These are equations in which the buckling solution is based on simple models. The
complete stiffened panel including both the stiffeners and girders is idealized using
various models. The effective breadth is taken into account equal to a half of the distance
between stiffeners. In this method the whole panel is not addressed.
The results of calculations using the equations based on possible buckling modes
form an envelope. The interaction equations are considered, depending on which side the
lateral loading is applied. In the case of the loading acting on the plate side the following
equations hold (1-7).
243
N ks ,Rd
M1,Sd
N
M st, Rd 1 Sd
NE
u 1
M
N Sd z *
N Sd
N
2 Sd 1,Sd
u 1
N kp , Rd
N Rd
N Sd
M p, Rd 1
N E
M
N Sd z*
N Sd
N
2 Sd 2,Sd
u 1
N ks ,Rd
N Rd
N Sd
M st,Rd 1
N E
M
N Sd z *
N Sd
2,Sd
u 1
N kp , Rd
N Sd
M p, Rd 1
N E
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where:
u Sd
Rd
(5)
M 1, Sd
qSd l 2
12
(6)
M 2,Sd
qSd l 2
24
(7)
N Sd
N Rd
NE
M Sd
M Rd
qSd
The equations are valid for the case of transverse loading acting on the flat side of
the panel (without stiffeners). Analogous equations are given for the loading applied to
the other side.
244
245
Rd
fy
(8)
fy = 235 MPa,
M 1.15.
For allowable design stress Rd and yield stress fy the material coefficient is 1.15.
The rule formulae include safety factor, therefore they refer to the critical value equal to
(8). Utilisation Ratio is defined as below in the equation below (9).
246
(9)
According to equation (9) ratio between design stress in the structures and resistance
of material cannot be higher than factor 1.0 or 0.87 (nonlinear method). Resistance
material is determined by characteristic yield strength and buckling curve which is
connected with dimensions of structures [2].
Curve description:
Stiffened panel with girders calculated by using PULS
Stiffened panel with six stiffeners calculated by using PULS
Stiffened plat with one stiffenre calculated by using PULS
Stiffened plate with one stiffener calculate according to offshore rules
Limit curve equile 0,87, for PULS results.
Fig. 6. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 25 MPa
247
Fig. 7. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 50 MPa
Fig. 8 Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 75 MPa
The results of the present calculations prove the buckling stresses for limited
models. The results prove that the values of the buckling stresses for the small models
using the nonlinear theory are much greater than for the models of the whole panels
according to the same method and the stiffener models according to the closed-form
formulas. For the value of 125 MPa and larger (Figures 10 and 11) utilisation ratio
exceeds the buckling stress for the small models only for the transverse loading greater
than 0.11 MPa, while for the other discussed cases for all the values of the pressure.
248
Fig. 10. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 125
MPa
4. CONCLUSIONS
Solution of the problem of stability of stiffened plates according to the von Karman
large deflection theory allows to design a lighter structure comparing to the rule
equations, yet it depends on the range of the model. The results for stiffened plates abject
to combined axial and lateral loading are more conservative. The results obtained
employing nonlinear theory for models including one and six stiffeners are similar.
249
Fig. 11. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression
150 MPa
Comparing the results (Figures 5-11) it can be seen that application of the nonlinear
methods is favourable for large models covering the entire panel together with girders.
For the models comprising only using plates and stiffeners the calculated critical stresses
are significantly smaller than using the first method and that therefore assume it is less
safe. For the small models the first method provides more safe results while for the large
models - the second approach.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Byklum E., Steen E., Amdahl J. (2004), A semi-analytical model for global buckling and
postbuckling analysis of stiffened panels, Thin-Walled Structures 42, pp. 701-717.
Det Norske Veritas DNV-RP-C201 Recommended Practice, October 2010, Hovik.
Det Norske Veritas, Platework Theory Manual, September 2004.
Det Norske Veritas, PULS User Manual 2.0.9, January 2009.
Kmiecik M., Wizmur M., Bielewicz E., Nonlinear analysis of membranes and plates (in
Polish), Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdaskiej, Gdask, 1995.
250
1. INTRODUCTION
The following paper was devised to be a numerical study, in which a case of column
with a series of stamped dimples in the profiles corners would be analysed. Introduction
of these disturbances had in target making the column more compliant, such that it could
play a role of energy absorber. This article is a preliminary study on some conception and
precedes a planned experiment. In addition, an influence of global initial deflections on
post-critical form of loading path was considered. The significance of these analyses
conceals in an assessment of the structure sensitivity to any deviation of its axis of
symmetry. Behaviour of the column during failure phase was also shown, even though it
was not the main goal of the paper. By connecting a non-linear post-critical state analysis
of the structure with observation of its failure behaviour an approximate assessment of the
columns load-carrying capacity was enabled. The subject area of stability and loadcarrying capacity of isotropic columns having the form of square tube had been well
recognized by scientists. There were a number of articles devoted to this matter. Among
others Abramowicz [1, 2] studied steel columns in order to use them as energy absorbers.
The works of Langseth and Hopperstad [11, 12] concentrated on columns made of
aluminium. Meng and Wierzbicki [14, 17, 18] analysed failure mechanisms of closed
cross-section columns. However, no articles concerning columns with corners shaped as
described above (with dimples) were found in the open literature. Even though in [13, 15]
the authors studied behaviour of pipe columns with dimples, these flaws were treated as
damage and each column had only one dimple at a time. This allowed presuming, that the
presented study of a thin-walled structure could be considered unique.
251
Fig. 1. The model of the column made in the Generative Shape Design module of the
Catia v5 system
The dimples shape was defined by the main radius R=30 mm: its bottom transited
into the surface of the columns side wall with a radius r=6 mm. The stamped dimple
penetrated the corner for 6.7 mm in depth, what was 10 % of its width. As it was shown in
Fig. 1, there were four corner dimples made at five height levels at 67 mm - intervals.
The shell model made in the Catia v5 system was fully parameterized. Thus, it was
very easy to modify the location and the geometry of the dimples.
The model of the column was subsequently imported into the ABAQUS system in
order to perform the FEM analyses. These analyses were made in three stages:
1. Analysis of buckling mode of the columns model with dimples; computation of the
critical force.
2. Elaboration of the columns models with some global initial deflection (with
primordial curvature of its symmetry axis; the models differed in a magnitude of
deflection (from 0 to 5 mm every 0.25 mm).
3. Performing static non-linear analysis of many variants of compressed column with
dimples.
In all stages the same boundary conditions, as well as loading conditions were
applied. Due to the fact, that in the planned experiments the real columns would be loaded
through existing grips with articulated support and that the current paper is a pre252
Fig. 2.
At the first stage of the analysis special attention was paid to obtain an optimal FEM
mesh, i.e. dense enough in significant areas and generally regular. It was very important to
evade any influence of the mesh quality on simulation results, as at subsequent stages still
the same mesh was used. In Fig. 3 the model of the column with the FEM mesh was
presented. It is well visible those areas, where the mesh was regular, made of the S4R 4node shell elements with reduced integration prevailed in the model. However, in the
vicinity of the dimples the S3 3-node elements appeared, even though the 4-node
elements still dominated there.
Fig. 3. The ABAQUS model of the column after the FEM mesh generation
253
m=2
PCR= 14 163 N
PCR= 15 292 N
Fig. 4. The first and the second buckling mode of the profile and the respective values of
critical forces
The second stage of building the model had in target getting the columns shape
allowing for two kinds of disturbances: small initial deflection of the whole profile and
geometrical imperfections imitating the first buckling mode. The global initial deflection
(corresponding to the primordial curvature of the symmetry axis) of the column was
obtained by the displacement method. Namely, the displacement along the x axis of the
central cross-section of the column was declared. Fig. 5 shows the columns model with
the assumed displacement. A set of models with the initial deflection being a multiple of
0.25 mm within the range of 0 to 5 mm was elaborated.
Fig. 5. The columns model with the declared displacement of the central cross-section
254
Fig. 6. The ABAQUS model of the column with distorted FEM mesh, applied load and
boundary conditions
In result of the first and the second stage of modelling a set of 20 models of the
columns differing in the initial deflection was obtained. The columns model was loaded
with an axial force P= 20000 N and subjected to analysis taking into account geometrical,
as well as material nonlinearities. The nature of non-linear analysis required the load to be
applied incrementally. In the first increment the load was equal to 0.05P. In order to get a
non-linear equilibrium path in the widest possible range, in the iterative method a
stabilization option was used by specifying the dissipated energy fraction set to 0.02%
and by using the adaptive stabilization, with max. ratio of stabilization to strain energy
equal to 0.05.
3. RESULTS OF RESEARCH
The results of the performed numerical simulations will be presented during the
conference.
255
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
256
1. INTRODUCTION
The optimization of shells against stability is rather complex problem. The papers
devoted to this problem have received considerable attention for several decades. The
relatively narrow problem of shell with a double non-negative curvature is taken into
account in this work. Moreover, the concept of a shell of uniform stability was applied.
The shell of uniform stability is one in which the condition of local stability is satisfied
in the form of equality not only at the dangerous point but at any point of the shell quoted from yczkowski et al. in 2001. Due to the proposed linear theory of stability,
neither nonlinear behaviors, nor geometrical imperfections of the structure, were taken
into account. In the optimization problem of such a shell the value of loading multiplier is
the objective function, whereas equality constraints are the volume of material and the
capacity of a shell. So formulated optimization task of shells however not stiffened
were solved by e.g. Kruelecki and Trzeciak [7], Barski and Kruelecki [1] or Fory and
Trzeciak [4].
The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is one of the most popular stochastic search
method. This evolutionary computation technique was introduced by Kennedy and
Eberhart [5]. Since that time the increasing interest in this method can be observed. The
modified PSO algorithm (MPSO) was successively applied by Bochenek and Fory [2]
for solving engineering tasks e.g. optimal design of columns against stability constraints
and simple structures against postcritical behavior. A MPSO is adapted to cope with
constrained nonlinear optimization tasks for discrete and continuous design variables. The
examples of design of structural elements can be found in Fory [3].
As a tool to solve analysis task the ANSYS software was used. The model created in
script language gives a possibility to easy extend the task for stiffened or composite
shells. Such problems were very difficult to solve by analytical methods. Applied MPSO
algorithm was coded in C++ language and built to separate executable file. This
application calls an analysis file coded in Ansys Parametric Design Language (APDL) on
the subsequent steps of iteration.
257
L0 means the half of its length and H 0 thickness of its wall. These values are constant.
The geometry of a shell which is looked for in optimization task is described by the
following symbols: the R and H are the radius and wall thickness, R and R are the
radii of the circumferential and meridional curvatures, respectively. The shell is loaded by
external hydrostatic pressure p .
1 R
2 32
R R 1 R2
(1)
12
(2)
R
R
R
R
x
H
R
, r , r , k , , h
, 0 (3)
L0
R0
R0
L0
H0
R0
R
258
r r0 1 m 2
r0
(4)
(5)
2
m2
1 m
3
5
where r0 stands for unknown radius in the middle of the shell, and directional coefficient
m m 0 is a design variable in the optimization procedure.
For a shell with a double non-negative curvature Shirshov [8] transformed a problem
of global stability to a problem of local stability of such a structure. First, the sinusoidal
deflection mode was assumed. Next, on the base of linear theory of shell stability and
applying the equations given by Wlassow in 1958, Shirshov obtained formula for the
critical loading parameter q , namely
q1,2 2 DEH
K K z12,2
N 2S z1,2 N z12,2
, qkr minq1 , q2
(6)
z2
K N K N
K S
z tg
K
K
(7)
(8)
z1,2
N
N K
.
2
S
K
S
(9)
In the above equations the following symbols were introduced: K and K denoting
circumferential and meridional curvatures respectively, N , N , S denoting the
intensity of membrane and shearing forces (due to possible twisting) related to the loading
multiplier q , namely N q N , N q N , S q S , D denotes the shell stiffness, E
- Young modulus, H - thickness of the wall and is a certain free parameter with
respect to which the loading parameter q is minimized.
The minimization of q with respect to leads to two solutions: 1 0 and 2
and finally to very simple formulae for the critical loading multipliers. First one is for a
case when the buckling is determined by the circumferential membrane force. The second
one when the buckling is determined by the meridional membrane force
259
q1kr 2 DEH
q2 kr
(10)
N
K
2 DEH
N
(11)
The critical value of loading multiplier is determined by smaller one value from
(10), (11). In a case of considered shell S 0 , the membrane forces are as follows
N
pR
2
pR
2
2 R
(12)
(13)
Using equations given above (1), (2), (10), (11) and (12), (13) one can obtain the
two equations describing the wall thickness of a shell of uniform stability.
For N critical:
h1
For N critical:
h2
pkr 3 1 2 R0 r
2E
H0 r
pkr 3 1 2 R0
r
2E
H0
r 2 2k 1
(14)
(15)
For a shell of medium length considered in this paper, the critical component of
membrane force is circumferential one, so equation (14) is hold true and qkr q1kr .
3. FORMULATION OF THE OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
The optimization task is formulated as a nonlinear programming problem. At the
first stage of optimization with given parabolic shape of the meridian, we look for such a
value of parabola directional coefficient and distribution of a wall thickness of the shell,
which lead to the maximal value of the critical loading multiplier
qkr max
(16)
Such an optimization problem is stated under two equality and one inequality
constraints. It is assumed that an optimal shell is made of the same amount of material as
a cylindrical reference shell,
L0
2L0 R0 H 0 2 HR dx
0
(17)
2L0 R02 2 R 2 dx
(18)
Moreover, the minimal value of the coordinate R which occurs at the interface of
the coat and bottom of a shell is constrained by a lower bound,
(19)
where Radm is an arbitrary chosen value. The measure of the optimal shell profit is
ratio of critical pressure of the optimal shell to the critical pressure of the reference
cylinder, that is the critical value of a loading multiplier,
pkr
pkrcyl
qkr
(20)
6E
18 1 2
34
R0
L0
H0
L0
52
(21)
The next stage of the optimization is performed on the optimal shell from first stage
but with additional ribs. The assumed number of ribs equals three and is kept constant.
The ribs are modeled as thin-walled plates. It is assumed that an every rib has a hole of
arbitrary chosen radius value, equals 92 % of the shell radius in the place where the rib is
welded to the coat of shell. The design variables are the position of ribs in the shell, which
are measured from the origin of coordinate system
xi
i 1,2,3
(22)
These design variables are treated as integer ones due to the density of finite element
mesh along the meridian of the shell and have to be in a range xi 0,100 . It is obvious
that the ribs stiffen the shell and the critical value of loading multiplier should be greater.
The objective function is the same as in the first stage of optimization (16). The shape of
meridian is kept constant so the constraints (18) and (19) are automatically fulfilled (it is
assumed that the capacity of shell does not depend on volume of ribs). By contrast, the
amount of material to be kept constant has to be distributed on the coat of the shell and its
ribs
261
i 1
2L0 R0 H 0 2 HR dx Vi
i 1..3
(23)
where Vi is a volume of i-th rib, which constant thickness equals shell thickness where a
rib is welded to a coat of shell and 0.9,1 . The factor can be named as a thinning
coefficient of shell of uniform stability.
4. METHODS OF SOLUTION
The Finite Element Method (FEM) was used to solve the analysis task. The
parametric model of the shell was built in APDL (ANSYS Parametric Design Language)
in ANSYS software. The formula (14) defining the wall thickness of uniform stability was
coded in script language what made it possible to carry out calculations in the first stage
of optimization. The results of analysis are passed to the Modified Particle Swarm
Optimization (MPSO) algorithm.
The PSO algorithm is inspired by social living forms: bee swarms, bird flocks and
fish schools from the world of the nature. Individuals forming a swarm influence each
other and are affected by the environment, simultaneously. A population of particles
which are understood as points in multidimensional space is initialized with random
positions and velocities. They are updated then at each time step while flowing over the
search space. The velocity vector is updated based on its own memory and information
gained by the swarm, for each particle. The position is updated based on the previous
position and velocity vectors of each particle. The update equations of the moving swarm
MPSO algorithm are expressed below
vik 1 w1vik w2i k c1r1ik piki xik c2 r2ik pgk xik c3r3ik pnk i xik
xik 1 xik v ik 1
(24)
(25)
where the following symbols are applied: k - iteration step index, i - particle index, c1 ,
262
K iSi 0
(26)
pkr 1
(27)
From formulas (20) and (27) it is easy to obtain relation between critical loading
multiplier and first eigenvalue form buckling analysis
qkr
(29)
pkrcyl
5. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The geometrical and material data of the shell are as following: longitudinal
parameter 0.25 , the wall thickness of the reference shell H 0 0.005R0 , the Young
modulus E 2.1e5 [MPa], Poisson ratio 0.3 , the radius of the reference shell
R0 1 [m] and Radm 0.5 [m]. The swarm was constituted by three particles. Every one
particle had one neighbour. The stop criteria of optimization was number of iteration
steps equals 25.
The results of optimization are given in Tab. 1. In both stages of optimization the
active constraint was amount of material, given by formula (17) in first stage or (22) in
second stage. The results confirm these known in literature, e.g. Kruelecki and Trzeciak
[7], in which optimization task was solved by variational method. The value of critical
loading multiplier was verified by buckling analysis in ANSYS. The results are similar
each other, so one can concludes that the value is positively verified.
Figure 2 shows the shape of meridian and distribution of the wall thickness of the
optimal shell obtained in a first stage of optimization. The reference structure is shown in
the background, also (the bottoms are not shown). The wall thickness was multiplied by
30, whereas radius kept original values, for better presentation in a figure. It can be
observed that the wall thickness distribution is a decreasing function. In Fig. 3 the shape
263
qkr
Design
variables
Active
constraint
Limit value
of act. const.
0.125663
Fig.2. The wall thickness distribution and shape of meridian of the optimal shell
without ribs (the coat of shell is shown only)
264
Fig.3. The shape of first buckling mode of the optimal shell without ribs
265
Fig.4. The shape of first buckling mode of the optimal shell stiffened by ribs (the
shell fragment was removed to improve readability)
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Barski M., Kruelecki J., Optimal design of shells against buckling by means of the
simulated annealing method, Struct Multidisc Optim, 2005, 29, pp. 6172.
Bochenek B., Fory P., Structural optimization for post-buckling behaviour using particle
swarms, Struct Multidisc Optim, 2006, 32, 6, pp. 521-531.
Fory P., A particie swarm optimization applied to optimal design of structural elements,
Czasopismo Techniczne, Mechanika, z. 4-M/2008, 5 (105), 2008, pp. 31-42, ISSN 00114561, ISSN 1897-6328, (in Polish with English summary).
Fory P., Trzeciak P., Optimal design of shells of uniform stability by variational and
hybrid PSO - spline methods, CMM-2011 Computer Methods in Mechanics, Warsaw,
Poland, 912 May 2011, pp.187-188.
Kennedy J., Eberhart R.C., Particle Swarm Optimization, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. On Neural
Networks, Piscataway, NJ, 1995, pp. 1942-1948.
Kruelecki J, Trzeciak P., Optimal design of axially symmetrical shells under compression
using the concept of a shell of uniform stability, Proc. Zbiorniki Cienkocienne, Karw,
1998, pp. 39-42, (in Polish with English summary).
Kruelecki J., Trzeciak P., Optimal design of axially symmetrical shells under hydrostatic
pressure with respect to their stability, Struct. Multidisc. Optim, 2000, 19, 2, pp. 148-154.
Shirshov V.P., Local buckling of shells, Proc. II Vses. Konf. Teorii Plastin i Obol., 1962,
pp. 314-317, (in Russian).
Wolmir A. S., Stability of deformable systems, Publishing House Nauka, Moskwa, 1967
(in Russian).
266
Large cylindrical storage tanks are the most frequent method of storage of
cruel oil and petroleum products. Storage tanks are built from different
materials such as concrete, steel, plastics fibres, and their combination. The
most common material is still steel. Steel storage tanks are very thin shell
structures of shape and design layout which ideally meet requirements.
Each structure, storage tanks including, has imperfections or limitations that
must be taken into account. There are especially two aspects that must be
considered in case of steel storage tanks; the first one is corrosion and the
second one is predisposition to stability problems. The presented paper
deals with failure analysis of half-buried storage tanks due to loss of
stability. In the paper there are described consequences of the collapse of
the storage tank and causes of the failure are discussed and described.
1. INTRODUCTION
Failures of storage tanks are caused mainly by mechanical failure such as loss of
stability; corrosion of the bottom plates, of the courses of shell or the plates on roof;
mistakes during construction; etc. Each accident is of a great cost for the owners who
must bear it. Shutdown of the storage tanks, their cleaning and repairs require significant
financial resources. Therefore it is of principal interest of the storage tanks owners to take
preventive measures to avoid the unplanned downtime due to equipment crash. Nowadays
the systems of inspection and maintenance such as asset integrity management systems
belong to the standard preventive measures [1].
In the area of the thin shell structures to which storage tanks belong the lost of
stability, that leads to the excessive deformation of the shell, is one of the possibilities of
their failure. The area of stability computations, analysis, and experiments is of a great
interest [2-7]. On the basis of scientific knowledge the European technical standard
Eurocode 3 part 1-6 was created [8]; this part is focused on strength and stability of the
shell structures. Additional comments and extensions of this standard were also published
[9].
Not only stability problems cause the failure of the storage tanks. In the everyday
practice the accidents caused by defects of the bottom of the tanks [10] or contrary of the
Figure 3 shows the steel part of the storage tank. The shell is built of seven courses
of variable thickness. The bottom course is 7 mm thick and has height of 2000 mm in its
greatest dimension. The second course is 6 mm thick and the others are 5 mm thick. Each
268
Fig. 2. Cross-section view of storage tank model with marks of the structural elements
In the location of the inspection throat where the throat acts as a stiffening element
against buckling the deformations did not occurred, see Figure 5. Deformations occurred
again behind the border of influence of the stiffening effect of the inspection throat.
270
Fig. 5.
During the investigation of accident causes the broken valve for the inlet of air into
the tank which main task is to prevent the negative pressure during the emptying of the
tank was found. The extraction of medium caused great vacuum in the storage tank what
resulted into its destruction. Subsequently the computational model of the storage tank in
the program system ANSYS was created and the stability calculations concerning the
internal pressure loads were made. The capabilities of the solutions of stability problems
by the program ANSYS were described in [14]. Numerical simulations were performed
on the 3D numerical model of storage tank using shell linear elements SHELL 181 and
linear beam elements BEAM 188. Whole storage tank including throats and manholes
was modelled by shall elements while beam elements were used for models of linear
stiffeners at the roof of storage tank. Close attention was paid to expression of the relevant
boundary conditions. On the basis of drawing documentation analysis and visual
inspection of real condition of the storage tank numerical models of all degrees of
freedom in place of the primary external stiffening ring were done. This stiffening ring is
a part of the concrete wall. In the numerical model the bottom of the storage tank was
supported but deformation due to consequences of internal pressure was permit. The
results of the analysis are shown in Fig. 7, there the deformations of internal pressure are
plotted. Due to this load the marginal deformations occurred at the top of the shell, where
the wall is of the smallest shell thickness.
Fig. 7. Sample of loss of stability by the internal pressure in the storage tank - results from
program ANSYS
The investigation to find the reasons of buckling of the shell at the bottom courses
was initiated. As the first step the ultrasonic thickness measurement was made. The
courses were randomly checked to find more corroded places. The measurements showed
no abnormalities in the thickness of the courses.
272
Fig. 8.
Lost of stability due to combination of internal vacuum and water column outside the
storage tank - results from program ANSYS
4. CONCLUSIONS
Presented failure of the storage tank was caused by the combination of internal
overpressure and of pressure of the water column between concrete wall and steel shell
plates of the storage tank. The internal overpressure was caused by broken valve for the
inlet of air into the tank. This defect resulted into the large plastic deformations of the
steel shells of storage tank during the extraction of medium. During investigation of the
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Rahim Y., Refsdal I., Kenett R.S., The 5C model: A new approach to asset integrity
management, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping Vol.87, 2010, pp.88
93.
Jasion P., Stability analysis of shells of revolution under pressure conditions, Thin-Walled
Structures Vol.47, 2009, pp.311317.
Ye L., Lu G., Ong L.S., Buckling of a thin-walled cylindrical shell with foam core under
axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.106111.
Loughlan J., Yidris N., Cunningham P.R., The effects of local buckling and material
yielding on the axial stiffness and failure of uniformly compressed I-section and boxsection struts, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.264279.
Macdonald M., Heiyantuduwa Don M.A., Koteko M., Rhodes J., Web crippling
behaviour of thin-walled lipped channel beams, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011,
pp.682690.
Takano A., Buckling of thin and moderately thick anisotropic cylinders under combined
torsion and axial compression, Thin Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.304316.
Wang J.H., Koizumi A., Buckling of cylindrical shells with longitudinal joints under
external pressure, Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 48, 2010, pp.897904.
EN 1993-1-6:2007: Design of steel structures Strength and stability of shell structures.
Rotter J.M., Schmidt H., (editors) Buckling of steel shells European design
recommendations N125, 5th edition, 2008.
Kim J. S., An D. H., Lee S. Y., Lee B. Y., A failure analysis of fillet joint cracking in an
oil storage tank, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Vol. 22, 2009,
pp.845849.
Trebua F., imk F., Bocko J., Failure analysis of storage tank, Engineering Failure
Analysis, Vol. 16, 2009, pp.2638.
Cao Q., Zhao Y., Buckling strength of cylindrical steel tanks under harmonic settlement,
Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 48, 2010, pp.391400.
Chang J. I., Lin C. C., A study of storage tank accidents, Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries Vol. 19, 2006, pp.5159.
Rust W., Schweizerhof K., Finite element limit load analysis of thin-walled structures by
ANSYS (implicit), LS-DYNA (explicit) and in combination, Thin-Walled Structures Vol.
41, 2003, pp.227244.
274
The present research is devoted to the study of out-of-plane buckling of a truss with
horizontal braces. The truss is a model of real roof truss scaled by factor . A linear
buckling and a non-linear analysis with geometric and material non-linearity were
carried out. The truss buckling and limit load for different stiffnesses and number of
braces are found. Numerical analysis is verified by experiment. Threshold bracing
stiffness condition for full bracing of the truss is proposed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel trusses have a much greater strength and stiffness in their plane than out of
their plane, and therefore should be braced against lateral deflection and twisting. The
problem of bracing requirements necessary to provide lateral stability of compressed
structural members is present in codes [1], [2]. The simplified design code requirements
allow one to reduce the problem of the truss stability to the analysis of compressed chord
or diagonals that are separated from the other truss elements. The effect of the lower
chord, verticals and diagonals on the truss stability is neglected. Verticals and diagonals
are considered only as vertical supports to the upper truss chord, side bracing of the truss
chords is considered as rigid side-support and normal forces in the truss chords are
assumed to be constant along their length. As a result of above described simplifications
the requirements concerning the number and the stiffness of braces are not precise,
because analysis of the whole structure is not taken into account. The stability of trusses
with elastic bracing was investigated in experimental research [3] or in numerical
analysis [4], where the relation between the truss buckling load and the bracing stiffness
was investigated. The basic problem was devoted to investigating the required bracing
stiffness that ensures that the out-of the truss plane buckling occurs between braces, or is
prevented, so the buckling occurs in the plane of the truss. The full bracing condition was
defined as the bracing stiffness that causes the maximal buckling load of the truss, or
when an increase in bracing stiffness doesnt result in a further increase in the buckling
load. The study was limited to linear buckling analysis. A numerical analysis of 1D truss
model and experimental test of truss stability was presented in paper [5].
In the present research the study [5] is extended to non-linear analysis of 3D model
with geometric and material non-linearity of an imperfect truss. The analyzed truss is a
model of real roof truss scaled by factor . The numerical analysis is verified and
extended by experimental tests of the truss with side braces. The truss top chord full
bracing condition is found for the truss buckling and a non-linear analysis with geometric
and material non-linearity taken into account.
275
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 3. a), b) Truss details at the supports, c) truss brace and force application set-up detail
Linear buckling analysis and non-linear static analysis with geometric and material
non-linearity of the imperfect truss model with imperfection in the shape of the buckling
modes, were carried out by means of the program [6]. Two different types of initial
geometric imperfections - shown in Fig. 7a and Fig. 7d - were considered. The magnitude
of the imperfection was according to the code [7] equal to L/500. In the experimental
research a stability of truss braced three braces was investigated.
3. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
3.1. LINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The relationship between first buckling loads at one top chord joint, due to the
bracing stiffness for trusses with different brace locations is presented in Fig. 5. It is
worth noting that the truss buckling load for the model with 7 braces depends on the
number of battens between the truss top chord profiles. There is a large dispersion in the
truss buckling resistance 4 kN - 7 kN depending on the number of battens between the
profile elements. For the truss with 3 braces and for the truss with 7 braces without
battens at the threshold condition for full bracing the truss buckles between braces
277
1
0
100
200
300
400
500
Fig. 5. Comparison between the first buckling load at one top chord joint, with respect to the
stiffness of braces for a different number of braces
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 6. Buckled shape of the truss for: a) 7 braces with stiffness 40kN/m, b) 7 braces with
stiffness 250kN/m, c) 7 braces with stiffness 250kN/m - truss without battens,
d) 3 braces with stiffness 10kN/m e) 3 braces with stiffness 100kN/m
k=10 kN/m
k=40 kN/m
k=80 kN/m
k=200 kN/m
k=500 kN/m
k=1000 kN/m
Load [kN]
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 7. The truss load at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0.75m from
midspan) of truss with 7 braces for different stiffnesses of braces
a)
b)
Fig. 8. Deformation of the truss (a view from the top) a) before limit load, b) after limit load
for truss with 7 braces of stiffness 200 kN/m
279
k=10 kN/m
k=40 kN/m
k=80 kN/m
k=1000 kN/m
Load [kN]
0
0
20
40
60
80
Fig. 9. The truss load at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0,75m from
midspan) of truss with 3 braces for different stiffnesses of braces
a)
b)
Fig. 10. Deformation of the truss (a view from the top) a) before limit load b) after limit
load for truss with 3 braces of stiffness 80 kN/m
35
30
25
20
15
7 braces
3 braces
10
5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Fig. 11. Relation between the limit load of the truss and the braces stiffness
280
Load [kN]
0
0
50
100
150
200
Fig. 12. The truss loading at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0.75m from
the mid-span) of truss with 3 braces k = 10kN/m
Fig. 13. Deformation at the limit state of the truss obtained in experiment
281
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
282
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a significant growth in application of cold-formed steel relative to
the traditional heavier hot-rolled steel structural members has been observed. Significant
developments continue to take place in the design of cold-formed steel structural
members and connections [1], [2], [3]. The research on cold-formed compression
members has concentrated on the behaviour of cold formed plain and lipped channel
columns, the different effects of local buckling and on the behaviour of fixed-ended and
pin-ended channels [1]. The compression members are often restrained by other structural
elements as wall sheets. Such situation takes place for example in metal silos that are
built of thin-walled corrugated curved sheets strengthened by vertical columns distributed
around the silo circumference. In such silos, horizontally corrugated wall sheets carry
horizontal tensile forces caused by horizontal wall pressure of a bulk solid and vertical
columns carry compressive forces caused by wall friction stress from a bulk solid.
Sufficient buckling strength of vertical columns is of a major importance for
dimensioning because it is the most frequent failure mode in these structures [4], [5]. In
the design practice it is necessary to use a simple model instead of analysis of the whole
3D silos. The Eurocode 3 [6] gives a simplified formula to calculate the buckling strength
of vertical columns around the silo circumference.
The aim of the present research is to perform a 3D buckling analysis of a column
supported by an elastic foundation simulating corrugated sheets. The columns are often
divided into parts that are screwed during erection. The buckling strength of column
depends on many different factors such as: type of joints in the connection, boundary
conditions, stiffness of the foundation and distance between column and corrugated
sheets joints. Influence of the foundation stiffness and type of connection between parts
of the column on the column buckling resistance is investigated. First, a simplified
buckling analysis was performed with a single vertical column supported by an elastic
spring simulating corrugated sheets. The column was modelled by 1D element. Later, a
geometric non-linear FE analysis was carried out with the commercial finite element code
Abaqus [7]. The column was modelled by shell elements. A threshold condition for full
283
Fig. 1.
(1)
where N the normal force in the column cross-section, EJ the column bending
stiffness, K the foundation stiffness (representing wall sheets) and y the column
horizontal displacement. Assuming that the buckled column has a sinusoidal form, after
minimizing the critical force about number of half-waves one obtain the formula:
N 2 EJ K
(2)
Dy
48EJ
48EJ
EJ
6 3 6 3
3
3
l
ds
ds
2d s
(3)
58
14
[mm]
85
P
2 [m]
2 [m]
Fig. 3. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling vs.
stiffness of the spring for the column with one brace in the middle for different
thickness of the plate at the column joints
Table 1.
a)
total
number of
elements
1624
60.4
61.1
b)
10x10
9104
59.46
59.4
1.56%
2.78%
c)
5x5
38832
59.7
59.45
-0.40%
-0.08%
mesh
type:
element size
[mm x mm]
mesh a)
mesh convergence
LBA
NANG
LBA
mesh b)
NANG
mesh c)
The influence of the connecting plate thickness is not significant for the column
with brace of stiffness higher than 200 kN/m. For the column with brace of lower
stiffness the influence of the connecting plate thickness is responsible for the changes of
the limit load about 20% (for brace stiffness 100 kN/m). The limit and the buckling load
are similar for the brace stiffness higher than 400 kN/m. For lower stiffness of the brace
the column buckling and limit load depends on the plate stiffness at the connection
(Fig. 4).
286
Fig. 4. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling and
limit load vs. stiffness of foundation for the column with continuous bracing for
different thickness of the plate at the column joints.
Fig. 5. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling and
limit load vs. stiffness of foundation for the column with continuous bracing and plate
thickness in the joint equal to 5 mm
4. CONCLUSIONS
The effect of bracing stiffness on the critical and limit load of the cold-formed
column was investigated. The results of numerical analysis allow to draw some
conclusions regarding the effect of bracing stiffness on the critical and limit load.
287
Fig. 6. Relationship of the column normal forces from limit load analysis (with geometric
non-linearity NGA, and with geometric and material non-linearity NMGA) vs.
vertical column displacement for the column with different stiffness of continuous
elastic foundation
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Hancock G.J., Cold-formed steel structures, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59,
2003, 473487.
Schafer B.W., Review: The Direct Strength Method of cold-formed steel member design,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59, 2003, 473487.
Magnucka-Blandzi E. , .Magnucki K., Buckling and optimal design of cold-formed thinwalled beams: Review of selected problems, Thin-Walled Structures 49 (2011) 554561.
Wjcik M., Iwicki P., Tejchman J.: 3D buckling analysis of a cylindrical metal bin
composed of corrugated sheets strengthened by vertical stiffeners, Thin-Walled Structures,
49, 2011, 947-963.
Iwicki P., Wjcik M., Tejchman J., Failure of cylindrical steel silos composed of
corrugated sheets and columns and repair methods using a sensitivity analysis,
Engineering Failure Analysis. 18, 2011, 2064-2083.
EN1993-4-1. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 41: Silos. Brussels: CEN, 2007.
Abaqus, Theory Manual, Version 6.8, Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc, 2008.
Yura J.A., Winters bracing approach revised. Engineering Structures, 1996, 18, 10, pp.
821- 825.
288
This paper attends to analyse the modes for static buckling and vibrations of
column-beams with rectangular and trapezoidal cross-sections with the help of the
finite elements method. In the case of forced vibrations as well as in static buckling,
the bending or eccentric compression loadings are investigated.
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper deals with static buckling, natural free and forced vibrations for beams
with rectangular trapezoidal cross-sections, subjected to eccentric compression or pure
bending, using ANSYS 12.1 FEM program [1]. In order to determine dynamic critical
load, the Budiansky-Hutchinson [2] criterion was used. Many works describe behaviour
of steel and composite columns and column-beams with closed and open cross-sections
with respect to buckling modes and their interactions in aspect of dynamic buckling
under axial compression, but the world subject literature does not presents generally the
dynamic buckling of bent or eccentrically compressed thin-walled structures. In work [3]
Kubiak investigated rectangular girder subjected to pure bending, using the finite
elements method (FEM) and analytical-numerical method.
2. NUMERICAL MODELS
In both numerical models, the multi-layered shell finite element (SHELL99) was
used (see Fig. 1) to include composite material properties only with one layer of lamina.
This element has 4 nodes and 6 degrees of freedom at each node. The numerical
models (Fig. 2.1, 2.2) of two beams were prepared as one half of the analyzed column
taking in mind symmetry condition assumed at the half length of column. Thickness of
all walls is identical and equals 1 mm (Table 1). Load distribution at the ends of beams
289
b)
Fig. 2.1. Numerical model and boundary conditions (half model): a) pure bending, b)
eccentric compression
a)
b)
Fig. 2.2. Numerical model and boundary conditions (half model) for two cases of load: a)
pure bending, b) eccentric compression
Table 1. Dimensions of beam-columns
Type of section
trapezoidal
rectangular
a [mm]
300
300
b1 [mm]
150
100
290
b2 [mm]
112
100
b3 [mm]
27
100
[deg]
15
0
E2 [GPa]
5.5
G12 [GPa]
2.1
12 [-]
0.34
[kg/m3]
7800
3. 3. RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
Calculations, obtained with the finite element method, were conducted for static
buckling (the critical static loads) and frequencies of natural vibrations, for two cases of
the load.
3.1. STATIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The modes of buckling are shown for pure bending in figures 3 and 5 and for the
eccentric compression in figures 4 and 6. The figures show first three modes of buckling.
Static critical moments were calculated for two types of load (Tables 3a, 3b).
Fig. 3. Buckling modes (half model) - for pure bending case: modes 1-3 (numbering from
left to right)
Fig.4. Buckling modes (half model) - for eccentric compression case: 1-3 modes
(numbering from left to right)
291
Fig.6. Buckling modes (half model) - for eccentric compression case: modes 1-3 (numbering
from left to right)
Table 3a. Critical static moments for rectangular beam
Critical buckling
moment
[Nm]
107.7
54.2
Number of
half-waves
3
3
Case of load
pure bending
ecc. compr.
Mcr
[Nm]
221.8
19.2
Case of load
pure bending
eccentric compression
292
f [Hz]
45.4
64.7
64.8
f [Hz]
33.8
52.5
57.2
Next, frequencies of forced vibrations were calculated for the beams (Fig. 9).
Moreover, in the case of trapezoidal one, the second mode of buckling was included.
293
f [Hz]
90
80
kw -pure bending-m=1
70
kw -excentric
compression-imp=0.1
tr-pure bending, m=1
60
50
tr-excentric compr
40
tr-pure bending-m=3
30
tr-excentric comprm=3
20
10
0
M/Mcr [-]
0,5
4. CONCLUSIONS
For the second mode of buckling, in case of eccentric compression, the frequency
decreases, but it does not reach value equal to zero. In the case of pure bending, the
frequency increases. Comparing the modes of vibrations and buckling, one can conclude
that all the modes for appropriate numbers of modes are different except first modes for
trapezoidal beam.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
294
The present work shows the results of the stability analysis of sandwich cylindrical
shells with a variable thickness. The outer face of the shell has a cylindrical shape
whereas the inner one is a shell of revolution with positive or negative Gaussian
curvature. The shell is subjected to the uniform external pressure or to the axial
compression. The buckling shapes are presented and the plots showing the relation
between the critical load and the curvature of the inner face are given. The results
are compared to these obtained for the classical sandwich cylindrical shell of
constant thickness.
1. INTRODUCTION
The work is devoted to the elastic stability of sandwich cylindrical shells. Such
shells are used as a main part of tanks for transport of liquid nitrogen. Sandwich
cylindrical shells of constant thickness are described e.g. in monograph by Grigolk and
ulkov [4]. Stability problems were investigated by Karam and Gibson [7], Kardomateas
and Simitses [8] and Ohga et al. [9] among others. Elastic-plastic stability of
unsymmetrical sandwich cylinders is investigated by Jaskua and Zielnica [5]. Multiobjective optimization of a cylindrical shell under combined load was described by
Ostwald [10]. Belica et al. [2] analyse dynamic stability of sandwich cylinders
When designing thin walled structures the problem of increasing the buckling load
appears. For single layered shell it can be done by introducing meridional curvature, see
papers by Bachut [3], Magnucki and Jasion [5]. Increasing of buckling resistance of shell
of revolution by optimizing its meridional shape and thickness is discussed by Barski and
Kruelecki [1]. As to the three layered shells the value of critical load may be increased
by changing thicknesses of particular layers or material properties. Here the possibility of
increasing the buckling load by introducing the meridional curvature to the inner face is
investigated. The influence of geometry of the shell on the buckling shape is also
discussed.
2. SHELL'S GEOMETRY DESCRIPTION
The shell considered in the paper is a three layer shell with a variable thickness.
Upper and lower faces are of constant thickness. The outer face is a cylindrical shell
whereas the inner face is the shell with positive or negative Gaussian curvature. As a
result the thickness of the core filling the space between faces is variable. As a reference
structure the cylindrical sandwich shell of constant thickness has been chosen with the
295
Rs =
L
.
2 sin( 0 / 2)
(1)
1
1
Vs = 2R s Rs2 5 + cos0 sin 0 Rs e0 0 + sin0 + e02sin 0
2 2
2
6
(2)
where e0 is the distance between the axis of revolution and the centre of the meridional
radius of curvature Rs:
e0 = t f + tc0 + Rs Rc , for K > 0
and
(3)
Vcore = Vc Vs ,
where Vc is the volume of the outer face (cylindrical shell) given by Vc = Rc2 L .
296
(4)
tc0 [mm]
0 [rad]
Rs [mm]
tc1 [mm]
67562,0
33814,4
22566,3
30,1
26,0
22,0
18
14,0
10,0
6,0
3. DESCRIPTION OF FE MODEL
All analyses have been carried out in the ANSYS code. Shell elements have been
used to model the outer and inner faces. The core of the shell has been modelled with the
use of solid elements. The faces have been offset from the core about half of the
thickness. Between all layers the bonding conditions have been imposed. Two load cases
have been considered. The first one was a uniform external pressure which includes an
axial force coming from the closures of the shell. The second case was the axial
compression. The shell was supported around the edges. The displacements in the radial
and circumferential direction were blocked. The FE model (quarter of a shell) as well as
the loads used in the analyses are shown in Fig. 2.
A half of the shell has been modelled with symmetry conditions in the mid-length of
the shell. Since the preliminary analyses showed the buckling shape to be axisymmetrical
for axial compression the main analyses for this load case have been performed on quarter
models only with two symmetry planes.
The properties of materials used in the analyses were the following: for the outer and
inner layer the structural steel has been chosen with Young's modulus Ef = 2105 MPa
and Poisson's ratio f = 0.3; for the core two different materials were used. The properties
297
Fig. 3. Results of the analyses external pressure; critical loads a), b);
buckling shapes c), d)
298
The buckling shape of the compressed cylinder with the variable thickness is
axisymmetrical like for the cylinder of constant thickness. The waves however
concentrate in the region where the thickness had the smallest value; the bigger the
difference between tc0 and tc1 the shorter the region of deformation. The examples of
buckling shapes are shown in Fig. 4b-d.
299
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Barski M., Kruelecki J., Optimal design of shells against buckling by means of the simulated annealing method. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization 2005, 29(1), pp.6172.
Belica T., Malinowski M., Magnucki K., Dynamic stability of an isotropic metal foam cylindrical shell subjected to external pressure and axial compression, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Transactions ASME, 2011, 78(4), art. no. 041003.
Bachut J., Buckling of externally pressurised barrelled shells: a comparison of experiment
and theory. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, 2002, 79, pp.507-517.
Grigolk .I., ulkov P.P., Critical loads of cylindrical and conical sandwich shells. Zapadno-Cibirskoje Kninoe Izdatelstvo, Novosibirsk, 1966 (in Russian).
Jasion P., Magnucki K., Elastic buckling of barrelled shell under external pressure, ThinWalled Structures 2007, 45(4), pp.393-399.
Jaskula L., Zielnica J., Large displacement stability analysis of elasticplastic unsymmetrical sandwich cylindrical shells Thin-Walled Structures 2011, 49(5), pp.611-617.
Karam G.N., Gibson L.J., Elastic buckling of cylindrical shells with elastic cores-I. Analysis International Journal of Solids and Structures 1995, 32(8-9), pp.1259-1283.
Kardomateas G.A., Simitses G.J., Buckling of long sandwich cylindrical shells under external pressure Journal of Applied Mechanics, Transactions ASME 2005, 72(4), pp.493499.
Ohga M., Wijenayaka A.S., Croll J.G.A., Lower bound buckling strength of axially loaded
sandwich cylindrical shell under lateral pressure Thin-Walled Structures 2006, 44(7),
pp.800-807.
Ostwald, M. Multicriteria optimization of cylindrical sandwich shells under combined
loads, Structural Optimization 1996, 12(2-3), pp.159-166.
300
Subject of the paper is a sandwich beam-column with a metal foam core under axial
compression. Two analytical models of the beam-column are presented. The first
model - a classical model includes linear mechanical properties of the core, and the
second one includes nonlinear mechanical properties of the core. Solutions of these
two models are presented and critical loads are determined. Two numerical FEM
models of the beam-column and numerical calculations are presented. Experimental
tests for the sandwich beam-columns with metal foam core are described.
Analytical, numerical FEM, and experimental critical loads are compared. The
influence of the mechanical properties of the core on the critical load is discussed.
Results of the investigations are presented in figures.
1. INTRODUCTION
The bases of the theory of sandwich structures were formulated by C. Libove and
S.B. Butdorf, and E. Reissner in the mid of 20th century. Reviews of selected problems
concerning sandwich structures were presented by Hohe and Becker [5], Noor et al [12],
and Vinson [14].
Typical three-layered panels usually contain honeycomb cores. Extensive
investigations during the last decade were devoted to sandwich structures with metal foam
cores. Manufacturing, mechanical properties and applications of metal foams were
described by Ashby et al [1], and Banhart [2]. Size effects in metallic foam core sandwich
beams were presented by Kesler and Gibson [6], and also by Rakow and Waas [13].
Modeling of sandwich structures was described by Carrera [4], Lotoing et al [7], and
Magnucka-Blandzi [9]. Strength and buckling problems of sandwich beams or plates with
metal foam cores were presented for example by Jasion et al [8], Magnucka-Blandzi and
Magnucki [10].
301
Fig. 2. Scheme of the deformation of the flat cross section of the beam [11]
Determining the bending moment M b x and the shearing force Qx for threelayered beam with elastic core one obtains the following governing equations [11]:
11
d 2w
dx
12
M x
d
b3 ,
dx
btc
2bt c Gc x Qx
where:
1
1
1
Ec , 12 E f C1 f E c , C 2 f
3 6 x1 4 x12 x1 ,
12
12
6
uf
tf
1 x1 x1 , x1
, x
, t f , t c thicknesses of the faces and core,
tc
tc
11 2 E f C2 f
C1 f
(1)
wx wa sin
x
L
(2)
Thus, the bending moment and transverse force are in the following forms
M b x F0 wa sin
x
L
Q x
302
dM b
w
x
.
F0 a cos
dx
L
L
(3)
where
t
f 0 c 1 c 12 .
Ec
L
(4)
Fig. 3.
The assumption - the buckling of the beam-column occurs for linear elastic faces,
therefore, for the faces the stress-strain relationship is the Hookes law
x f E f x f .
(5)
However, the metal foam core is a nonlinear material; therefore, the stress-strain
relationship is formulated in the following form
xc
xc
Ec
c
1 kc x ,
E c
or
xc
Ec
c
1 1 4k c x ,
2k c
(6)
303
Deformations of a flat cross section of the three layers beam before and during buckling
are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Scheme of the deformation of the flat cross section of the three-layered beam
Determining the bending moment M b x and the shearing force Qx for the threelayered beam with nonlinear core one obtains the following governing equations:
~11
d 2w
dx
~12
M x
d
b3 ,
dx
bt c
bt c Gc Gt x Qx ,
where:
Et
E c Et ~
E Et ~
~
, 12 E f C1 f c
, C1 f 1 x1 4 x 02 x1 ,
24
12
Et
E c Et
1
3 6 x1 4 x12 12 x 02 x1 , x 0
, Gt
,
12
21 c
4 4 E f x1 E c Et
~
~11 2E f C 2 f
~
C2 f
(7)
d c
x
c
- tangent modulus of the metal foam (Fig. 4).
d xc 1 2k c xc E c
304
cs
. (8)
f 0 2 1 c
F0
~ , where
E c Et
L 1 f0
L
Strains of the layers of the beam-column under axial compression for the prebuckling state are identical ( x f xc ), thus
x f
Ef
xc
Ec
c
1 kc x .
E c
(9)
F0 p b 2 x1 x f xc bt c .
(10)
F0 p b
x1
2k c
Ec
Ec
Ec
E 11 E x E
t
1 f
t
bt c .
(11)
Equating expressions (8) and (11), one obtains the critical axial force, thus
F0c s F0 p b F0,CR .
(12)
305
Fig. 6. Graphs of two functions two axial forces (8) and (11)
The obtained values are very similar to these given by the analytical solution. The
equilibrium path for the nonlinear analysis is shown in Fig. 7c.
4. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The beams were tested on the universal testing machine Zwick Z100/TL3S. The test stand
is shown in Fig. 7a. Steel elements have been glued to both end of the beam to provide a
proper support conditions (see Fig. 7b).
The obtained results are given in Fig. 7c in the form of curves showing relation
between the axial load and the shortening of the beam. For both beams tested the critical
Nc
6.58 kN . No local deformations have been observed
load had the value about F0,Exp
CR
on the faces of the beams.
306
Fig. 7. Test stand for buckling investigation buckled beam a); support b); results c)
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the problem of global stability of the axially compressed three-layered
beam-column has been investigated. The analytical model describing this phenomenon
has been presented in which the non-liner physical properties of the core were assumed.
The calculations have been carried out for the beam made of aluminium (see Table 1).
Table 1.
307
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Ashby M.F., Evans A.G., Fleck N.A., Gibson L.J., Hutchinson J.W., Wadley H.N.G.,
Metal foams: A design guide, Butterworth Heinrmann, Boston, Oxford, Johannesburg,
Melbourne, New Delhi 2000.
Banhart J., Manufacture, characterisation and application of cellular metals and metal
foams, Progress in Materials Science, 46, 2001, pp. 559632.
Baant Z., Cedolin L., Stability of structures. Elastic, inelastic, fracture and damage
theories, Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, 1991.
Carrera E., Historical review of Zig-Zag theories for multilayered plates and shells.
Applied Mechanics Reviews, 56(3), 2003, pp. 287308.
Hohe J., Becker W., Effective stress-strain relation for two-dimensional cellular sandwich
cores: Homogenization, material models, and properties. Applied Mechanics Reviews,
55(1), 2002, pp. 6187.
Kesler O, Gibson LJ., Size effects in metallic foam core sandwich beams, Materials
Science and Engineering A 326, 2002, pp. 228234.
Lotoing L, Drapier S, Vautrin A., First applications of a novel unified model for global
and local buckling of sandwich columns, European Journal of Mech. A/Solids, 21, 2002,
pp. 683701.
Jasion P., Magnucka-Blandzi E., Szyc W., Wasilewicz P., Magnucki K., Global and local
buckling of a sandwich beam-rectangular plate with metal foam core, Thin-Walled
Structures. The 6th Intl Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Editors: D. Dubina, V.
Ungureanu, Timisoara, Romania, 2011, pp. 707714.
Magnucka-Blandzi E., Mathematical modelling of a rectangular sandwich plate with a
metal foam core, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 49(2), 2011, pp. 439
455.
Magnucka-Blandzi E, Magnucki K., Effective design of a sandwich beam with a metal
foam core, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp. 432438.
Magnucki K., Strength and buckling of sandwich beams-columns. Modelowanie
Inynierskie, 42, 2011, pp. 249-258 (in Polish).
Noor A.K., Burton W.S., Bert C.W., Computational models for sandwich panels and
shells, Applied Mechanics Reviews, 49(3), 1996, pp. 155199.
Rakow JF, Waas AM, Size effects and the shear response of aluminium foam, Mechanics
of Materials, 37, 2005, pp. 6982.
Vinson J.R., Sandwich structures, Applied Mechanics Reviews, 54(3), 2001, pp. 201214.
308
Fig. 2.
Let us consider the stiffness K and system length h to be the parameters of the
analysis. Let us select the stiffness K, and calculate the system length h so that = 0.9.
The result is shown by the function presented in Fig. 2. Stiffness K must lie within the
interval K 0; 350 kNm-1. When selecting K>350 kNm-1, so h cannot be calculated so
that = 0.9. For K>350 kNm-1, <0.9.
310
When K=350 kNm and h=10m, then the first critical load and the second critical
load coincide Fcr1= Fcr2=968.14 kN. It means that the sway (anti-symmetric) buckling
mode and non-sway (symmetric) buckling modes coincide. The design buckling
resistance calculated according EUROCODE 3 is constant, because buckling length of
columns Lcr =7.703 m is constant.
Let us consider all the pairs K and h so that were constant. If is constant, then
Fcr1 is constant, too; nevertheless, Fcr2 decreases with increasing value of h, see Fig. 3.
Eight constant values of Fcr1 for eight values of are presented in Fig. 3. The length of
horizontal line determines the interval I of h. For =0.9, it is, e.g., h 3.45; 10 m ,
and the length of interval I 0.9 of h is I0.9 =10-3.45=6.55, see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Out of the
interval h 3.45; 10 m , the pairs K and h cannot be found so that it would hold that
=0.9.
Fig. 3. The example of deformation of the sway frame with columns under compression
It is evident from Fig. 3 that the size of interval I is growing with increasing
slenderness. It holds for the upper limit of each of these intervals that Fcr1= Fcr2. For the
lower limit of each of these intervals, it holds that K=0. When applying the
nondimensional slenderness , we get more general results. Approximately, it holds that
I const . The dependence between h vs. K is valid for each value of the form of
which is nearly like that in Fig. 2, see [4].
There exist pairs K and h for each value . The values of the inevitable initial
crookedness of bar members (bow imperfections) and out-of-plumb inclinations of the
columns (sway imperfections) depend on the column system length h [2] above all. The
consideration of geometrical nonlinearity is inevitable for load carrying capacity analysis
[4].
311
Cross beam
Right Column
h1
b1
tw1
tf1
fy1
E1
e1
h0
b0
tw0
tf0
fy0
E0
h2
b2
tw2
tf2
fy2
E2
e2
Meaning
Left Column
Symbol
Cross-sectional height
Cross-sectional width
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Bow imperfections
Cross-sectional height
Cross-sectional width
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Cross-sectional height
Cross-sectional width
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Bow imperfections
System imperfection
System imperfection
Probability
distribution
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Gauss
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Gauss
Gauss
Gauss
Mean
Value
220.2 mm
111.5 mm
6.22 mm
9.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
0
270.2 mm
136.9 mm
6.96 mm
10.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
220.2 mm
111.5 mm
6.22 mm
9.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
0
0
0
Standard
deviation
0.973 mm
1.086 mm
0.23 mm
0.422 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.76533 h
1.194 mm
1.332 mm
0.258 mm
0.468 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.973 mm
1.086 mm
0.23 mm
0.422 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.76533 h
See [1]
See [1]
312
One of the most perfect methods of sensitivity analysis is the Sobol sensitivity
analysis (Sobol [7], Saltelli et al. [6]). In our study, the sensitivity analysis of load
carrying capacity (random output Y) to input imperfections (random inputs Xi from
Table 1) was evaluated, see Fig. 5. The first-order and second-order sensitivity indices
were calculated. The one sensitivity index was evaluated for 500 2 simulation runs
analogously as, e.g., in [4].
313
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Kala Z., Sensitivity analysis of stability problems of steel plane frames, Thin Walled
Structures, 49(5), 2011, pp. 645-651.
Kala Z., Sensitivity analysis of steel plane frames with initial imperfections, Engineering
Structures, 33(8), 2011, pp. 23422349.
Kala Z., Melcher, J., Puklick L., Material and geometrical characteristics of structural
steels based on statistical analysis of metallurgical products, Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management, 15(3), 2009, pp. 299307.
Kala Z., Geometrically non-linear finite element reliability analysis of steel plane frames
with initial imperfections, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 18(1), 2012, pp.
8190.
Melcher J., Kala Z., Holick M., Fajkus M., Rozlvka L., Design characteristics of
structural steels based on statistical analysis of metallurgical products, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 60 (2004), pp. 795808.
Saltelli A., Chan K., Scott E.M., Sensitivity analysis, New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics, 2004.
Sobol I., Sensitivity estimates for nonlinear mathematical models, Matematicheskoe
Modelirovanie 2, pp. 112118, 1990. (in Russian, translated in English in Sobol 1993)
Guedes Soares C., Uncertainty modelling in plate buckling, Journal Structural Safety,
1988, (5), pp. 1734.
314
In present work one can find the analysis of numerical linear (bifurcation) and
nonlinear solution of the buckling problem of elastic shallow conical shells
undergoing transversal external compression. This problem is studied for different
boundary conditions. There is find out that for cases of fixed encastre support
(clamped) and fixed hinge support the dangerous load for large geometry
parameters range is buckling load of linear problem. In opposite, for the case of
moveable support the nonlinear solution is determinant in large geometry
parameters range.
Fig. 1. Solution scheme of she closed shallow conical shell with external pressure
In paper [1] there was defined the angle * for fixed encastre support and fixed
hinge support of the discussed shells. There was established that for the large range of
thickness parameter R/h (from R/h = 240 for encastre support and from R/h = 300 for the
hinge to R/h = 2000) as well as in large range of angles (= 220) the dangerous load
(lowest between critical
and limit
values) is critical one
.
It is obvious that moveable shell edges will enlarge the nonlinear solution domain.
315
,
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
10
15
, P
1.649
3.257
5.050
6.916
8.881
11.20
13.80
15.99
18.63
21.45
55.07
96.61
Table 2.
,
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Critical and limit load pressure values for shells with R/h = 250
, P
0.677
1.701
3.027
4.353
5.937
7.915
9.798
11.69
13.95
16.55
46.07
84.76
,
P
0.616
1.839
2.777
3.779
5.170
6.292
7.594
8.959
10.61
12.30
31.68
56.96
, P
0.572
1.947
4.294
7.440
11.16
16.13
21.94
27.97
35.24
42.34
168.9
365.8
,
P
0.129
0.682
1.767
3.286
4.769
6.837
9.107
11.42
14.02
17.41
61.57
138.2
, P
0.229
0.882
2.067
3.639
5.747
8.319
10.70
14.60
17.69
22.20
96.56
218.9
,
P
0.112
0.391
0.774
1.273
1.907
2.700
3.443
4.253
5.687
7.028
26.24
57.16
Critical and limit load pressure values for shells with R/h = 1000
, P
0.027
0.063
0.109
0.162
0.223
0.291
0.365
0.444
0.534
0.622
,
P
2.048
4.667
5.622
7.196
9.428
11.07
12.97
14.97
17.38
19.97
45.10
79.82
,
P
0.028
0.059
0.097
0.142
0.188
0.244
0.301
0.363
0.432
0.501
, P
0.017
0.046
0.085
0.133
0.186
0.249
0.316
0.393
0.472
0.558
,
P
0.009
0.035
0.061
0.093
0.127
0.168
0.210
0.259
0.310
0.364
, P
0.029
0.110
0.245
0.397
0.591
0.841
1.125
1.404
1.721
2.097
,
P
0.014
0.046
0.098
0.167
0.244
0.352
0.481
0.619
0.780
0.951
, P
0.014
0.059
0.134
0.242
0.386
0.514
0.665
0.864
1.086
1.329
,
P
0.005
0.018
0.039
0.067
0.104
0.148
0.200
0.257
0.321
0.402
From the analysis of table data and Fig. 2 we can separate two effects that influence
and
values: 1) effect connected with replacement of hinge support by encastre
support; 2) effect of replacement of fixed support by moveable support.
In the Fig. 3a, 3b for shells with R/h = 250 () and 1000 (b), we represented
dependences of angle from relation of limit and bifurcation value for moveable and
fixed encastre support to the corresponding load values of hinge support. Here relations
;
;
;
are represented by curves 1, 2, 3, 4,
respectively. As far as in one coordinate domain we unified different ratios for different
317
Fig.2. Typical dependences for shells with R/h = 250 for every
Fig.3. Dependences of bifurcation load and limit load ration from which correspond to the
effect of replacement of hinge support by encastre support (, b) and fixed support by
moveable one (c, d) for shells with R/h=250 (, c) and R/h=1000 (b, d)
318
correspond to ratios:
;
;
.
Fig.4. Dependences
319
., .
, Theoretical Foundations of Civil Engineering, Polish-UkrainianLithuanian Transactions, Warsaw 2011, 19, pp. 99 104.
320
This note presents the problem of stability of thin plates with functionally graded
structure. To describe this problem the tolerance modelling is applied, cf. Woniak,
Michalak and Jdrysiak (eds.) [12] and Woniak et al. (eds.) [13]. The tolerance
averaging technique leads from the equation with non-continuous, toleranceperiodic, highly oscillating coefficients to the system of differential equations with
slowly-varying coefficients.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main objects under consideration are thin plates with a functionally graded
macrostructure in planes parallel to the plate midplane interacting with a heterogeneous
Winklers foundation. However, it is assumed that the microstructure is tolerance-periodic
in these planes, cf. Fig. 1. Plates of this kind are consisted of many small elements, where
adjacent elements are almost identical but distant one can be very different.
x2
l2
d
x1
L2
l1
z=x3
L1
Fig. 1.
Every element is treated as a thin plate. In various problems of these plates the effect of
the microstructure cannot be neglected.
321
322
(1)
Coefficients of the above equation are highly oscillating, non-continuous, toleranceperiodic functions in x.
3. MODELLING CONCEPTS AND ASSUMTIONS
Averaged equations of functionally graded plates can be obtained by applying the
tolerance averaging technique, cf. Woniak et al. (eds.) [13], Woniak, Michalak and
Jdrysiak (eds.) [12]. In this books basic concepts of the tolerance modelling procedure
are defined and explained, e.g. an averaging operator, a tolerance-periodic function, a
slowly-varying function, a highly oscillating function. Below some of them are reminded.
Let (x) x , {x : (x) } , be a cell at x . The known
averaging operator for an arbitrary integrable function f is defined by
f (x) l11l2 f ( y1, y2 )dy1dy2, x .
(2)
(x)
A 1,, N , x ,
(3)
where:
U(,t) a kinematic unknown called the macrodeflection;
QA(,t) kinematic unknowns called the fluctuation amplitudes;
hA() the known fluctuation shape functions.
The second assumption is the tolerance averaging approximation, i.e. it is assumed
that terms of an order of O() are negligibly small, e.g. for f TP2 (, ) ,
(4)
The third modelling assumption is the in-plane forces restriction, in which in-plane
forces n (, =1, 2) in the midplane are assumed to be tolerance-periodic functions in x,
which can be decomposed as n N n~ , with N SV2 (,) as the averaged part
( N n); and n~ TP2 (,) as the fluctuating part ( n~ 0 ). Moreover, terms
with the fluctuating part of in-plane forces n~ are neglected as small comparing to the
terms involving the averaged part N (cf. Jdrysiak and Michalak [6]).
5. MODEL EQUATIONS
Using micro-macro decomposition (3) in equation (1), making some manipulations
and introducing denotations:
D d ,
A d
A
D
h ,
D AB d h A h B ,
K k ,
K A l 2 kh A ,
K AB l 4 kh Ah B ,
AB l 2 h Ah B ,
H
P p ,
P A l 2 phA ,
(5)
ABQ B l 2 K AU l 4 K ABQ B l 2 P A.
DA U D ABQ B l 2 NH
(6)
Equations (6) with micro-macro decomposition (3) and specified fluctuation shape
function hA, A=1,,N, stand the tolerance model of stability for thin functionally graded
plates resting on a Winklers foundation. This is a system of N+1 partial and ordinary
differential equations, with slowly-varying functions in x. These model equations involve
terms, being underlined, with the microstructure parameter l. Hence, the tolerance model
makes it possible to analyse the effect of the microstructure size on stability problems of
these plates under consideration. It can be observed that boundary conditions have to
formulate only for macrodeflection U.
In order to evaluate and compare results obtained in the framework of the above
model a simplified model, called the asymptotic model is introduced. Governing
equations of this model can be derived by using the formal asymptotic procedure, cf.
Woniak et al. [13], Jdrysiak [5], Kamierczak and Jdrysiak [7]. However, these
equations can be also obtained from equations (6) by neglecting the underlined terms and
they take the following form:
324
DA U D ABQ B 0.
(7)
It can be observed that equations (7)2 stand a system of algebraic equations from
which the fluctuation amplitudes QA, A=1,,N, can be calculated:
Q B (D AB)1 DAU.
(8)
After substituting the amplitudes obtained by (8) into equation (7)1 and introducing
so called effective stiffness
eff
A ( D AB )1 D B
D
D D
(9)
Equation (9) together with equations (8) and micro-macro decomposition (3)
describe the asymptotic model of stability for thin functionally graded plates resting on a
Winklers foundation. The above equation neglects the effect of the microstructure size on
stability problems of these plates.
6. REMARKS
Using the tolerance modelling to the known differential equation of Kirchhoff-type
plates with a tolerance-periodic microstructure resting on a heterogeneous Winklers
foundation the averaged model equations are derived. Hence, instead of the governing
equation with non-continuous, tolerance-periodic coefficients the system of differential
equations with slowly-varying coefficients is obtained. These equations make it possible
to analyse the effect of the microstructure size on stability problems of the plates under
consideration.
Some other aspects of these problems and also some applications of the proposed
tolerance model will be shown separately.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This contribution is supported by the National Science Centre of Poland under grant No.
2011/01/N/ST8/07758.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Bensoussan A., Lions J.L., Papanicolau G., Asymptotic analysis for periodic structures,
North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1978.
Domagalski , Jdrysiak J., On the elastostatics of thin periodic plates with large
deflections, Mechanica, DOI:10.1007/s11012-012-9546-1, 2012.
325
Jdrysiak J., Dispersion models of thin periodic plates. Theory and applications, Wyd. P,
d, (in Polish), 2001.
Jdrysiak J., The tolerance averaging model of dynamic stability of thin plates with
one-directional periodic structure, Thin Walled Structures, 45, 2007, 855-860.
Jdrysiak J., Thermomechanics of laminates, plates and shells with functionally graded
properties, Wyd. P, d, (in Polish), 2010.
Jdrysiak J, Michalak B., On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin Walled Structures, 49, 2011, 627-635.
Kamierczak M, Jdrysiak J., Tolerance modelling of vibrations of thin functionally
graded plates, Thin Walled Structures, 49, 2011, 1295-1303.
Michalak B., Dynamics and stability of wavy-type plates, Wyd. P, d, (in Polish),
2001.
Michalak B., Thermomechanics of solids with a certain inhomogeneous microstructure,
Wyd. P, d, (in Polish), 2011.
Suresh S., Mortensen A., Fundamentals of functionally graded materials, The University
Press, Cambridge, 1998.
Tomczyk B., A non-asymptotic model for the stability analysis of thin biperiodic
cylindrical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, 941-944.
Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J. (eds), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures. Tolerance Averaging Approach, Wyd. P, d, 2008.
Woniak Cz. et al. (eds), Mathematical modelling and analysis in continuum mechanics of
microstructured media, Publishing House of Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice,
2010.
326
1. INTRODUCTION
Conical shells are used in many engineering applications such as pressure vessels
(tanks), closures of cylindrical pressure vessel (bottoms), elements of rockets (missiles) or
spacecrafts. Composite materials are increasingly used in the construction of these
structures.
The construction of the conical shell wall can be different. It can be made: (i)
sandwich with facings made of composite or isotropic materials, (ii) heterogeneous
material (usually a ceramic matrix composite - so called functionally graded material FGM), whose properties vary along the wall thickness, (iii) multilayered polymer of
composite with piezoelectric (PZT) layers or locally placed on the outer surface of the
PZT sensors and/or actuators. Free vibration and buckling of conical shells have an
important role in the safety assessment (estimation) of structures.
As the well known and fundamental works in the area of the analysis of free
vibration and buckling of truncated conical shells, should be reported the papers:
Niordson [1], Seide [2], Singer [3, 4], Tani, Yamaki [5] and chapters in books of Leissa
[6] and Volmir [7]. Studies on stability analysis and free vibrations of conical shells made
of laminated composites with polymer matrix have been conducted by Sofiyev [8], Reddy
[9] and Liang [10].
Stability analysis and free vibrations of truncated conical shells made of ceramic
materials (FGM) are presented by Sofiyev [11, 12], Ootao and Tanigawa [13]. It is worth
to mention also the broad analysis of the sandwich conical shell behaviour in the elasticplastic range carried out by Zielnica [14].
The aim of this paper is to present: 1) a general formulation of the issues of static of
conical shell having various building (construction) of the shell wall, 2) to determine the
critical loads in terms of loss of stability, 3) to discuss the results of numerical examples.
The analysis is conducted for conical shells subjected to axial compression.
327
pz pt pb F z pb
(1)
z 1
F z f z t / 2,t / 2 for FGM
t 2
(2)
f is a variation coefficient varying 0f1 and q is the positive power index law. They are
called as functionally gradient materials and distribute.
328
C e
C
E
D
e
(3)
11 C11
C
22 12
33 C13
23 0
31 0
0
12
D1 0
D2 0
D3 e31
C12
C22
C13
C23 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C23
C33
C44
e24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C55
0
e15
0
C66
0
e15
0
11
0
0
0
e24
22
e32
e33
e31 11
e32 22
e33 33
0 23
0 31
0 12
0 E1
0 E2
33 E3
(4)
The symbols not having the bar over them have the standard mechanical interpretation,
i.e. stresses [], a stiffness matrix [C] and strains []. For non-homogeneous (FGM)
materials all components of the [C] matrix are represented in the form given by Eq (2).
[D] is the vector of electric displacements, [e] is the matrix of piezoelectric coefficients,
[] is the permittivity matrix and [E] is the applied electric field in three coordinate
directions. The electric field is defined as the gradient of the electric potential el, i.e:
E grad
el
(5)
There are several different models representing the input electric potential for such a
piezoelectric layer. However, the assumed 2D simplification results in the further
requirements with respect to the electric potential distribution along the z coordinate.
Usually, it is assumed that the function can be written in the following form: (see Wang et
al. [16]):
329
el
2
2
t PZT 2z t PZT h
s x, y
1
t PZT
2
t
t
z t PZT
2
2
(6)
t
t
t PZT z
2
2
where the symbol s(a)(x,y) denotes in-plane electric field induced by the deformation of
the sensor (actuator) layers, respectively, on the mid-surface of piezoelectric layer - see
Fig. 1. They are unknown variables and are derived from the fundamental system of
differential equations.
The above constitutive relations are then transformed to the global coordinate
system using the transformation matrix, which is given by:
T 0
T
0 T
11
(7)
22
where
c 2 s 2
2
c2
s
T11 0 0
0
0
0
0
sc sc
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 c s
0 s c
0 0 0
2sc
2sc
0
,
0
0
2
c s 2
c 2
T22 s 2
0
s2
c
0 ,
1
(8)
Here, is the fibre orientation of the individual lamina and c=cos(), s=sin(), whereas
the explicit form of the transformation matrix [T 11] has the classical form used in the
analysis of multilayered laminates.
4. STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS
For most practical problems piezoelectric materials are located on plated or shell
laminated multilayered structures, so that the analysis is reduced to 2D one. For 2-D
analysis, we normally employ a kinematical hypothesis to model plate/shell deformations.
Assuming the validity the first order transverse shear hypotheses the 3-D components of
displacements may be expressed in the following way:
(9)
11
1 U1 1 H1
1 H1
H U 2 H1 U1
U2
U 3 , 12 2
H1 S H 2
H 3 z
H1 S H 2 H 2 H1
z
H A 1
R
, H 3 1, 1,2
(10)
i,j 1,2
(11)
Components are called as the membrane strains and represent the parameters of the
change of curvature.
5. FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS
Let us consider governing equations describing deformations of composite
multilayered structures with various shell wall constructions. Both for 3-D or 2-D
(shells/plates) structures the derivation of fundamental relations starts from the variational
Hamiltons principle that can be written in the following form:
t2
(12)
t1
1
U
2
U d
(13)
Wel
1
T d
2
(14)
WPZT
1
DT E d
2
331
(15)
N so 0.5SP1tg ,
N o SP2tg , N so 0, M so M o M so 0
(16)
When P1=P2=P, external pressure turns into uniform hydrostatic pressure. When P1=0,
P2=P, external pressure turns into uniform lateral pressure. When P1=-2Pctg/S, P2=0,
external loading turns into in-plane compressive axial force. In the case of external
compression the work Wnc takes the following form:
Wnc
1
dw
N s0
d
2
dS
(17)
The terms written in the square brackets represent tensors of displacements U, strains
and stresses , respectively. The dot over the symbol U means the differentiation with
respect to physical time t. denotes the space occupied by the analyzed structure. The
relation takes into account the kinetic energy, although the analysis is conducted in the
static range only. However, using the above formula the fundamental relations describing
free vibrations can be also derived.
6. METHOD OF THE SOLUTION
Usually, three different approaches can be used in the buckling analysis of the shell
structures: (i) numerical analysis with the use of the finite element method, (ii) the
Rayleigh-Ritz method using the expansion of displacement components in infinite series,
(iii) the Galerkin method applying Donnels shallow shell equations and expending the
normal deflections with the aid of the series proposed by Agamirov [17]. Each of the
above-mentioned methods has advantages and disadvantages, however, we do not intend
to dwell on them now. In the present analysis the second methods is used in the analysis
of simply-supported shells. In addition, the approximate solutions for displacement
components are assumed in the series forms:
u
v
w
u ,v ,w Cmn
sinS m cos n,Cmn
cos S m sinn,Cmn
sinS m sinn,
m ,n1
m ,n1
S m m
S sA
sB s A
(18)
where: sB, sA - the top, bottom coordinate of the cone shows in Fig. 1.
Inserting the expansion (18) into the functional (10) (K=0) and performing the
s
u
v
w
variation with respect to the unknowns coefficient Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn the buckling
332
Pcr
PL2
t 3 E2
(19)
The validity of the derived relations was verified with the existing analytical solutions for
cylindrical shell (Khdeir et al. [18]) where the cone angle is set to zero. The agreement
seems to be very good; however, due to the lack of place we do not present those results.
Fig. 2. Variations of buckling loads with fibre orientations for conical shells made of FRP
Fig. 3. Variations of buckling loads with material properties for conical shells made of FRP
Fig. 4. Variations of buckling loads with voltages for bimorph conical shells
7. CONCLUSIONS
Buckling analysis of laminated conical shells has been performed through a shear
deformation shell theory for different construction of the shell-wall. The principle of
minimum potential energy along with the Rayleigh-Ritz method has been used to obtain
the governing equation and to find the solution for buckling problem. Both nonaxisymmetric and axisymmetric formulation have been derived and solved for conical
shell and the lowest buckling load has been selected as critical buckling load. The
following conclusion can be drawn from parametric studies presented in the numerical
results: (i) the critical buckling load decreases with increasing fibre orientation of angleply thin and short conical shells made of FRP, (ii) for conical shells made of FGM when
the materials properties of the layers vary linear and parabolic in the thickness direction,
the lowest effect of the non-homogeneity on the critical parameters is in linear
distribution, (iii) for bimorph conical voltages the growth of the actuation can enhance
(positive voltages) or reduce (negative) buckling loads. The same strategy can be
extended to the case of various plated and shell constructions as well as to the free
vibration analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Niordson F.I.N., Buckling of conical shells subjected to uniform external lateral pressure,
Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, 10, 1947, pp. 1-21.
Seide P., On the buckling of truncated conical shells under uniform hydrostatic pressure,
Proc. IUTAM, Symp.Theory of Thin Elastic Shells, 1959, 363-388.
Singer J., Buckling of circular conical shells under axisymmetrical external pressure, J.
Mech. Eng. Sci., 3, 1961, pp. 330-339.
Singer, J., Fershst-Scher, R., Buckling of orthotropic conical shells under external
pressure, J. Aero. Quart., 1964, pp. 151-168.
335
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Tani J., Yamaki N., Buckling of truncated conical shells under hydrostatic pressure,
Reports of the Institute of High Speed Mechanics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, 2,
1969, pp. 235-261.
Leissa A.W., Vibration of shells, NASA, SP-288, 1973.
Volmir A.S., Stability of elastic systems, Nauka, Moscow, 1967 English Translation:
Foreign Tech. Division, Air Force Systems Command. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, AD628508.
Sofiyev A.H., Torsional buckling of cross-ply laminated orthotropic composite cylindrical
shells subject to dynamic loading, Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids., 22, 2003, pp. 943-951.
Reddy J.N., Mechanics of laminated composite plates and shells: theory and analysis,
second ed. CRC Press, 2004.
Liang S., Chen H.L., Chen T., Michael Yu., Wang M.Y., The natural vibration of a
symmetric cross-ply laminated composite conical-plate shell, Compos. Struct., 80, 2007,
pp. 265-278.
Sofiyev A.H., The buckling of functionally graded truncated conical shells under dynamic
axial loading, J. Sound Vib., 305, 2007, pp. 808-826.
Sofiyev A.H., Karaca Z., The vibration and buckling of laminated non-homogeneous
orthotropic conical shells subjected to external pressure, European Journal of Mechanics
A/Solids, 28 (2009), pp. 317-328.
Ootao Y., Tanigawa Y., Three-dimensional solution for transient thermal stresses of an
orthotropic functionally graded rectangular plate, Compos. Struct., 80, 2007, pp. 10-20.
Jaskula L., Zielnica J., Large displacement stability analysis of elasticplastic
unsymmetrical sandwich cylindrical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, 49, 2011, pp. 611617.
Muc A., Nogowczyk R., Influence of 2-D approximations on buckling loads for sandwich
structures having FRP faces, ICEE/16, 2008.
Wang Q., Quek S.T., Liu X., Analysis of piezoelectric coupled circular plate, Smart Mater.
Struct., 10, 2001, pp. 229-239.
Agamirov V.L., Dynamic problems of nonlinear shells theory, Nauka, Moscow (in
Russian), 1990.
Khdeir A.A., Reddy J.N., Frederick D., A study of bending, vibration and buckling of
cross-ply circular cylindrical shells with various shell theories, Int. J. Eng. Sci., 27, 1989,
pp. 1337-1351.
Muc A., Kdziora P., Optimal shapes of PZT actuators for laminated structures subjected
to displacement or eigenfrequency constraints, Compos. Struct., 94, 2012, pp. 1224-1235.
Muc A., Kdziora P., Optimal Design of smart laminated composite structures, Materials
and Manufacturing Processes, 25, 2010, pp. 272-280.
336
1. INTRODUCTION
Damping of the fiber-reinforced lamina is a very important parameter in the design
of composite structures. Energy dissipation mechanisms in this structure can be divided
into two classes: those associated with the material damping, and those associated with
additional sources of dissipation such as friction at joints [1]. In metal structures usually
dominates the latter, but with the fibre-reinforced laminate structures the situations is
different. The inherent material damping contributes significantly to the overall damping.
Composites have a material damping capacity ratio 10-100 times higher than metals. But
it is often too low for many applications, for example in dynamic buckling. In recent
years, viscoelastic damping materials in composites have been used to increase the
damping of composite structures with little reduction in stiffness and strength [2-4].
There are several mechanisms of dissipative behaviour in this type of composite
material: viscoelastic behaviour of matrix and/or fibres, thermoelastic damping due to
cyclic heat flow, Coulomb friction due to slip in the fibre-matrix interface, dissipation
caused by damage in the composite and so on [2]. Several analytical approaches are
available in the form of micromechanical [5-6], macromechanical [7] and structural
models/theories as a result of investigations carried out for both static and dynamic
performance of composites [8-10]. There are conducted experimental [8,11-14] research
and FEM calculations additionally [4,15-16]. A review of the available publications on
composite material damping one can find in paper [2] with regard to different aspects
such as mechanisms of damping, methods of predicting the damping and damping
models/theories.
337
d 2z
dt
dz
k z 0
dt
(1)
dz
2z 0
dt
(2)
or
d 2z
dt
2 h
d 2z
2 (1 j ) z 0
(4)
dt
where: is the hysteretic loss factor, which is defined through the complex Young's
2
E' '
(5)
E'
where: j 1 . The viscous damping ratio h is related to the hysteretic loss factor :
(6)
2h
Solving Eq. (4) can lead to many problems, while the differential equation (2) is
easily to calculate. Thus, hysteretic damping should be applied only for steady state
harmonic excitation. What is important, while using Eq. (2) the hysteretic damping model
can be substituted by an equivalent viscous damping mechanism.
Loss factor can be determined experimentaly using the half-power bandwidth
method [13,17]. One has to measure frequency bandwidth, between points on the
response curve, where the amplitude of response of these points is 1 / 2 times the
maximum amplitude. The bandwidth for small damping corresponds to the frequencies:
1 n (1 ) and 2 n (1 ) .
Loss factor of this method is defined as:
338
2 1
.
n
(7)
D
U
(8)
of the dissipated energy D per cycle of vibration and the maximum stored energy U per
cycle [8-10,17]. It is possible to derive the relation between parameters describing models
of damping above:
4 h 2 .
(9)
ln
an
at
ln
a n1
at 0.5T
or
T ln
an
a
ln t
a n2
at T
(10)
where: an= at and an+1= at+0.5T are absolute values of two successive extreme deflections,
an+2=at+T - deflections after the vibration period T. The relationship is as follows:
T 2 .
(11)
Finally, the relation between all parameters describing damping can be defined as:
T 2 0.5 2 h .
(12)
For the multiple degree of freedom system the Rayleigh damping model is used
[4,11,15-16]. In this case equations of the motions have the form:
d 2z
dt
dz
Kz 0
dt
(13)
where: M, D, K are the mass, viscous damping and stiffness matrices respectively, z is the
displacement vector. In order to avoid an explicit expression of the damping matrix D a
linear composition of M and K is introduced instead:
D M K
(14)
where: two constant parameters and control the damping. This approach has no real
physical meaning and is chosen for mathematical convenience. Despite this disadvantage,
it is a frequently applied method of introducing the dissipative properties into an analysis on
the structural level. For example, in ANSYS [18] its general form is
339
D M K
n mat
k K k c K D
k 1
n ele
Dl
(15)
l 1
K i i2 M i .
(16)
The coupled set of differential equations (13) yields a single equation for every degree of
freedom i:
d 2i
dt
2 i hi
di
i2 i 0 .
dt
(17)
2 i hi i2
(18)
for the i-th eigenmode. Using this approach, damping of two eigenmodes can be specified
exactly by the free parameters and . Subsequently, the damping ratios hi of all other
modes are given by this relation (18).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The prismatic thin-walled columns with open cross-sections (Fig. 1), subjected to
axial compression, are considered. The detailed analysis of the calculations was
conducted for the composite columns with the following dimensions: b1=100 mm, b2=50
mm, b3=15 mm, bs=15 mm, h=12hlay=1.5 mm and four various lengths: l = 2500, 2000,
1500 and 1000 mm. Each column is made of a twelve-layer composite with the symmetric
plies alignment [45/-45/04]S [19-21]. Each layer of the thickness hlay=0.125 mm is
characterized by the following mechanical properties: E1 = 140 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa,
G12 = 5.15 GPa, 12 = 0.29, 1600 kg/m3 [22].
For the thin-walled structures with initial deflections and the viscous damping, the
non-linear Lagranges equations of motion for this case of an interaction of N eigenmodes
can be defined as [19-21, 23-28]:
d 2 r
dt 2
2 r hr
d r
r2 1
dt
*
r r2 a rpq p q
r 0 for r=1,.N (19)
r
340
d 2 r
dt
d r
r2 1
dt
r
2r hr
r 0
(20)
The third part of the equation (20) compared with Eq. (2) was modified by taking into
account the influence of the compressing load on the frequency of free vibration of the
real construction.
(a)
(b)
[mm]
2500
2000
1500
1000
[MPa]
52.25
79.54
129.08
143.95
[MPa]
29.36
42.11
66.90
109.24
[MPa]
131.97
127.08
138.74
208.16
[MPa]
119.04
112.83
136.74
210.21
[MPa]
50.93
74.58
104.99
107.73
[MPa]
42.24
62.50
103.51
180.40
[MPa]
106.37
112.25
135.71
219.32
[MPa]
189.15
175.77
174.22
242.19
The expressions for the postbuckling coefficients a rpq are to be found in papers [2728]. In the equations of motion (19), inertia forces of the pre-buckling state and second
order approximation have been neglected [23]. The initial conditions have been assumed
in the following form:
r (t 0) 0 ;
r ,t (t 0) 0
341
(21)
r , tt 0 in Eqs. (19)) has been solved with the method presented in paper [28]. The
frequencies of free vibrations have been determined analogously as in paper [29]. The
problem of interactive dynamic buckling (Eqs. (19)) has been solved by means of the
Runge-Kutta numerical method modified by Hairer and Wanner [30].
Table 2. Circular frequency of free vibration of the columns shown in Fig. 1 [19-21]
Example 1 (Fig. 1a)
[mm]
2500
[rad/s]
227
[rad/s]
170
[rad/s]
1082
[rad/s]
1027
[rad/s]
224
[rad/s]
204
[rad/s]
971
[rad/s]
1295
2000
350
254
1327
1305
339
310
1247
1561
1500
594
428
1849
1835
536
532
1828
2072
1000
942
820
3396
3412
814
1054
3485
3662
Values of the critical stresses and the circular frequencies of free vibrations
corresponding to the buckling modes under analysis for different column lengths l are
presented in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. In these tables, the following index symbols
were introduced: 1 - flexural-distortional mode for m = 1; 2 - flexural-torsional-distortional
mode for m = 1; 3 - flexural-distortional mode for m = 3; 4 - flexural-torsional-distortional
mode for m = 3, where m is the m-th harmonic mode.
Further on, the analysis of dynamic interactive buckling of the columns under
consideration was conducted. Analysis was limited to the interaction of four buckling modes
(i.e. N = 4). Solving the set of equations (19) one receives the amplitudes of the buckling mode
(i.e. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) as a function of time and amplitude of the load pulse. A detailed
analysis was conducted for a rectangular pulse load:
for 0 t t 0
(22)
0 for t t 0
where: t0 is a duration of the pulse load, and D is an amplitude of the dynamic load. The
duration t0 equal to the period of fundamental flexural free vibrations T1 2 / 1 . The
computation time is equal to 1.5t0 . The level of imperfections was assumed as:
1* 2* l /(3000h)
3* 4* l /(6000h)
(23)
The dynamic buckling is possible only when the geometric imperfections are not
equal to zero. When the displacement growth is assessed with time for different amplitude
of load, buckling occurs when the dynamic load reaches a critical value associated with a
maximum acceptable deformation or strain, stress, the magnitudes of which are defined
arbitrarily. So it appears to be no perfect criterion as yet for dynamic buckling. Therefore,
this study follows the most widely used the Budiansky-Hutchinsons criterion [20-21, 2526]. In order to find a critical value of the dynamic load factors: D / min cr , one has
to find out which of the displacements growth is the highest for certain force amplitude
342
ao
(24)
where: ao and are constant. In this model, the loss factor for glass-epoxy composite
beam is lower than 20% (h=10%) for global mode and lower than 5% (h=2.5%) for the
local ones [34], what was described in Case IV.
The last case (Case V) regards the composite structures with viscoelastic layer
[3-4]. For the 3M ISD-112 damping material the viscous parameter of damping hr is
greater from 25% for the frequency less than 2000 Hz [4].
The small damping (Case II and Case III) doesnt affect the value of critical
dynamic load factor for all columns. In this case, the value of D / min cr grew less
than 5%, compared to the column without damping (Case I). It is possible to reduce
343
2500
1.9
1.69
1.62
1.62
2.34
2000
1.97
1.72
1.66
l [mm]
V
IV
1.6
1.55
1.49
1.49
1500
III
1.8
II
1.42
I
1.66
1.59
1.59
1000
1.92
1.52
(a)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
[ ]
min cr
1.67
1.28
1.28
2500
1.37
1.28
1.59
1.34
1.24
1.24
2000
V
IV
1.19
1.26
l [mm]
1.05
1.05
1500
III
1.12
II
1.05
1.95
1000
1.55
1.55
1.55
(b)
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.68
[ ]
2.0
min cr
Fig. 2. The critical values of the dynamic load factors (D/min)cr determined from the
Budiansky-Hutchinsons criterion for columns shown in Fig. 1:
(a) Example 1 (Fig. 1a), (b) Example 2 (Fig. 1b)
If damping is greater (Case IV), the value of D / min cr grew more than 10%
but less than 25%, compared to the column without damping. The growth is so low that
damping has secondary meaning for the phenomenon of the dynamic buckling. Only if
damping is very strong (Case V), the value of D / min cr grew more than the 25%
but less than 45% and it should be taken into account in calculating the critical value of
the dynamic load factors: D / min cr .
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper the analysis of the damping behaviour of thin-walled composite
columns with open stiffened cross-sections subjected to in-plane pulse loading was
described. The detailed calculations confirmed that small damping didnt affect the
344
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Walker S.J.I., Aglietti G.S. and Cunningham P., A study of joint damping in metal plates,
Acta Astronautica 65, 2009, pp. 184191.
Chandra R., Singh S.P. and Gupta K., Damping studies in fiber-reinforced composites - a
review, Composite Structures 46, 1999, pp. 41-51.
Mead D.J., The measurement of the loss factors of beams and plates with constrained and
unconstrained damping layers: A critical assessment, J. Sound Vibration 300, 2007, pp.
744762.
Rao M.D., Echempati R., and Nadella S., Dynamic analysis and damping of composite
structures embedded with viscoelastic layers, Composites Part B 28B, 1997, pp. 547-554.
Kaliske M. and Rothert H., Damping characterization of unidirectional fibre reinforced
polymer composites, Composites Engrg., 5(5), 1995, pp. 551-567.
Koutsawa Y., Azoti W.L., Belouettar S., Martin R. and Barkanov E., Loss behavior of
viscoelastic sandwich structures: A statistical-continuum multi-scale approach, Composite
Structures 94, 2012, pp. 13911397.
Berthelot J.M. and Sefrani Y., Damping analysis of unidirectional glass and Kevlar fibre
composites, Composite Science & Technology, 64(9), 2004, pp. 1261-1278.
Berthelot J.M., Assarar M., Sefrani Y., Mahi A.E., Damping analysis of composite
materials and structures, Composite Structures, 85(3), 2008, pp. 189-204.
Berthelot J.M., Damping analysis of laminated beams and plates using the Ritz method,
Composite Structures, 74(2), 2006, pp. 186-201.
Mahi A.E., Assarar M., Sefrani Y. and Berthelot J.M., Damping analysis of orthotropic
composite materials and laminates, Composites Part B: Engineering, 39(78), 2008, pp.
1069-1076.
Chortis D.I., Chrysochoidis N.A., Varelis D.S. and Saravanos D.A., A damping mechanics
model and a beam finite element for the free-vibration of laminated composite strips under
in-plane
loading,
J.
Sound
Vibration
330,
2011,
pp. 56605677.
Hadi A.S. and Ashton J.N., Measurement and theoretical modelling of the damping
properties of a uni-directional glass/epoxy composite. Composite Structures, 34(4), 1996,
pp. 381-385.
Mandal N.K., Rahman R.A. and Leong M.S., Experimental study on loss factor for
corrugated plates by bandwidth method, Ocean Engrg. 31, 2004, pp. 13131323.
345
346
1. INTRODUCTION
In the air technology half-monocoque model of aircraft bearing structure is
extensively applied. This kind of construction solution consist framework and the skin,
distinguishes by it, that the skin function is limited to take over shear stress only. It is
result of the trend for minimizing the mass of structure, with respect to remain required
life and reliability what in fact leads to state that skin elements locally lose the stability in
range of operational loadings. This kind of deformation state isnt remaining without
influence for reducing stiffness of structure, in particular torsional stiffness.
Aspiring to attain the best relation between mass and durability of discussed
structures is forcing designers to search newer and newer solutions. One of the
possibilities to reach that purpose is applying composite materials towards which we
observe continuous increase in interest.
On the other hand, intensive development of mechanical processing of metals
creates an opportunity for conventional materials, like duralumin, to still remains one of
the basic constructional materials and an increase of mentioned rate can still be seen in
shaping of structure elements. Special attention is concentrate on the possibility of
producing modular integral sub-structures for which assembly operations are limited to
the minimum. Example of these kinds of solutions is justifying the possibility to increase
the critical loading, as well as chance to shape the form of deformation in post-buckling
state [5, 6].
347
3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The plates were connected to the in stiff steel frame by means of screw joints, with
control of clamp force during assembly Accepted method of the fastening was interpreted
348
Fig.3. The plate on the research stand and example deflection from ARAMIS
349
Fig.4.
350
a)
Fig.5.
b)
a)
b)
Fig.6.
Fig.7.
352
Fig.8.
Fig.9.
6. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of experimental examinations and numerical analyses it is possible to
conclude, that DIC method as the tool of experimental verification of numerical analyses
results allows for effective specifying of numerical model, in particular during
formulating of geometry non-linear problems. More far-away examinations of presented
issue will be droved to determining of failure load of considered structures, both on the
experimental way and numerical analysis. Intentional is appearing examination of the
other form of stiffening variations and of the local changes rigidities in the form of cutout. Also intentional is appearing taking of fatigue examinations, justifying proposing of
geometry changes of skin aircraft structures.
353
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
354
EXPERIMENTAL-NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
OF DEFORMATION OF POST-CRITICAL STATES
OF THIN-WALLED ELEMENTS OF BEARING AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES
T. KOPECKI, P. MAZUREK
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aviation, Rzeszw University of
Technology, Al. Powstacw Warszawy 12, 35-959 Rzeszw, Poland
The study presents the results of studies of thin-walled systems subjected to shear,
constituting the forming models of parts of air cover bearing structures. It presents
the results of experimental and non-linear numerical analysis in terms of the finite
elements method of a number of variants of superstructures. The methods of
verifying the results of numerical calculations have been developed, as well as a set
of efficient numerical procedures, allowing to obtain reliable results of calculations,
has been set.
1. INTRODUCTION
Loss of stability of thin shells, subjected to various types of loads, is a phenomenon
commonly found in construction of semi-monocoque airplane structures. Fragments of
the coverings of the aircraft often lose stability during exploitation. This phenomenon in
case of metal structures is permitted, as long as it has a resilient nature and occurs locally
in the area of the shell, restricted by elements of the skeleton.
Constant phases of the design process of aircraft structures, therefore, should be the
analysis, allowing for the determination of the distribution of stress in advanced postbuckling states of deformation which, in case of the semi-monocoque structure, due to
impact forces, are of cyclical character. This causes the appearance in the material of the
coating of fatigue effects, and therefore knowledge of the stress field is necessary not
only because of the identification of areas of concentration, but also provides the basis for
determining the fatigue life of the structures analyzed.
Additional problems can be brought by all kinds of patterns, i.e. service cut-outs and
inspection openings, which cause local reduction of construction stiffness. They cause
changes in the nature of loss of stability, in comparison to areas without this kind of
singularity, as well as the emergence of strong local stress concentration.
In case of composite structures used in aviation, in accordance with the applicable
standards, the loss of stability of shells is generally not acceptable. This follows from the
fear, that during the number of load cycles and related advanced states of deformation,
the damage may occur to the structure of the material, manifested by the delamination of
the composite components.
The presented studies are part of a comprehensive program, under which the
analysis of the impact of cyclical post-buckling states of deformation on the fatigue life
of coatings, which are made of isotropic materials, and the condition of the internal
structure of composite materials, are expected.
355
The tested system was mounted in a special frame, made of rigid steel beams, which
were pivotally connected at the corners. The load in the form of forces carried out using
the gravity method, using the links passed through the roller system (Fig. 3). In the
various phases of the experiment strain, using an optical scanner, was measured.
The experiment was carried out by using three variants of the model: the system
devoid of holes, the system with a central circular hole with a diameter of 35 mm and the
system equipped with a hole reinforcing ring with a width of 5 mm and thickness of 4
mm. In all cases investigated bodies have been forcibly charged to a peak of 900 N.
Models are made of polycarbonate, of a trade name Macrolon which is an isotropic
material: E = 2150 MPa, = 0.4. The loss of stability occurred in relatively low load
357
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 4. Distributions of displacement normal to the surface of the element, obtained from the
experiment: a: a basic model, b: a model with a hole without amplification, c: a model
with the ring reinforcing hole
In all cases advanced post-critical deformations had a similar nature, with the main
fold extending along the diagonal model. In case of the model with the strengthening of
the opening folds a shift toward to the corner has been seen, which resulted from the local
rigidity. For all cases, the representative equilibrium paths have been made, which were
adopted by the relationship between the maximum displacement in the perpendicular
direction to the plane of non-deformed model and the value of loading force (Fig. 9).
In further phases of research, taking into account the determination of the fatigue
life of thin shells experiencing post-critical cyclic deformation, the device shall be
equipped with numerically controlled actuator of the Zwick Company (Fig. 5).
Fig. 7. Distribution of displacements in the direction normal to the plane of the nondeformed model
359
360
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Using the principle of uniqueness of solutions requires a sufficiently accurate
numerical representation of advanced states of deformation of the investigated
structures. The basic criterion for assessing the accuracy is the overall similarity obtained
through numerical and experimental displacement distributions at the assumed maximum
load. Furthermore, it is necessary to obtain a satisfactory convergence of the equilibrium
paths. In case of systems with many degrees of freedom, the equilibrium path, which is a
relationship between a set of state parameters and the control parameter associated with
the load, is a subset of the multi-dimensional state space. For practical reasons, dictated
by the limited possibilities of measurement, as well as the desire for the effective
visualization of results, the criterion of similarity of the processes of deformation was
considered the compatibility of representative equilibrium paths, representing the
relationship between the geometric representative value, and the control parameter,
constituting the measure of the load.
According to accepted criteria, the basis for assessing the reliability of the results of
nonlinear numerical analysis was the similarity of displacements distributions presented
in Figures 4 and 7. Given the virtually identical nature of the deformation and the
displacement of very similar values in the corresponding areas of both types of models, it
is considered that the adopted predictive method and corrective strategy constitute an
effective combination for this type of problem. Additional confirmation of the reliability
of the results is the satisfactory convergence of representative equilibrium paths obtained
experimentally and numerically, for each of the analyzed structures.
Therefore, also effective stress distributions shown in Fig. 8 were considered
reliable. As expected, in all cases, the stress concentration zones were located at the
corners of systems and it was there that the fatigue damage should occur. It should be
emphasized that the strengthening of corners regions to eliminate stress concentration,
seems possible and even relatively easy, from the design point of view. Assuming
sufficient strengthening of the structures corners important is the distribution of stresses
in the central regions of models. In all cases, elevated stress values occur along the
361
362
The study presents the results of research on the problem of obtaining credible
results of nonlinear FEM analyses of thin-walled load-bearing structures subjected
to post-critical loads. The similarity of numerical simulations results and actual
stress distributions state depends on the correct numerical reproduction of
bifurcations that occur during advanced deformations process.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern aviation structures are characterised by widespread application of thin-shell
load-bearing systems. The strict requirements with regard to the levels of transferred
loads and the need to minimise a structure mass often become causes for accepting
physical phenomena that in case of other structures are considered as inadmissible. An
example of such phenomenon is the loss of stability of shells that are parts of loadbearing structures, within the range of admissible loads.
Thus, an important stage in design work on an aircraft load-bearing structure is to
determine stress distribution in the post-critical deformation state. One of the tools used
to achieve this aim is nonlinear finite elements method analysis. The assessment of the
reliability of the results thus obtained is based on the solution uniqueness rule, according
to which a specific deformation form can correspond to one and only one stress state. In
order to apply this rule it is required to obtain numerical models displacements
distribution fully corresponding to actual deformations of the analysed structure.
An element deciding about a structures deformation state is the effect of a rapid
change of the structures shape occurring when the critical load levels are crossed. From
the numerical point of view, this phenomenon is interpreted as a change of the relation
between state parameters corresponding to particular degrees of freedom of the system
and the control parameter related to the load. This relation, defined as the equilibrium
path, in case of an occurrence of mentioned phenomenon, has an alternative character,
defined as bifurcation. Therefore, the fact of taking a new deformation form by the
structure corresponds to a sudden change to the alternative branch of the equilibrium
path.
363
(1)
r(u, ) 0 ,
(2)
and
n n1 n
(3)
(4)
Fig. 1. A stand for testing thin-shell structures subject to torsion: left - a version with a
loading system controlling the displacement (turnbuckle), right - a version with a
system controlling by force (gravitational)
Fig. 3. Incorrect forms of shell stability loss, showing a members buckling not revealed in
the experiment
It should be emphasised that it seems very risky to rely in the design process on the
results of nonlinear numerical analysis of similar structures without appropriate
verification in an experiment, if only a relatively cheap model experiment. In practice,
multiple repetition of the analysis and systematic comparison of its results with the
results of the experiment are required to obtain correct results of the numerical
representation of a structures state in the conditions of post-critical loads (Fig. 6).
The research results of various load-bearing structures confirm that the difficulty
related to carrying out an appropriate nonlinear numerical analysis results from the nature
of bifurcation. If the change in a structures form is gentle in nature and it occurs in a
small area, then the bifurcations related to it occur gradually, in relatively small subsets
of state parameters. The numerical simulation of the process is then easy to perform and
it may take place when using prediction-correction methods with simple correction based
on state control. But if the deformation occurs in a larger area, and the change of the form
is violent in nature, then the bifurcation corresponds to the simultaneous change of a
great number of state parameters, and the determination through a numerical procedure of
367
Fig. 5. A schematic view of a complete cylindrical shell reinforced by four members (a) and
a schematic view of a structure including dimensions (b)
Fig. 6. The advanced post-critical deformation of the examined structure (left) and the
distribution of contour lines representing the size of the deformation, made using the
projection moir method (right)
With regard to the symmetry, the deformed structure possessed four characteristic
grooves in all the shell segments (Fig. 6). During the experiment the surface geometry
was registered using the projection moir method. ATOS scanner manufactured by a
German company, GOM Optical Measuring Techniques was used as a registering device.
The problem discussed belongs to one of the most troublesome from the point of
view of a FEM nonlinear numerical simulation. A number of tests performed using the
MSC MARC software revealed the lack of effectiveness of its procedures in case of this
problem, with regard to determining the appropriate post-buckling state of a structure.
The algorithms used in those procedures are characterised by inability to represent the
symmetry of the phenomenon. With the idealised geometric form of the model, the
obtaining of the new form of the structure after crossing the critical load value occurs
only in one of the segments, in spite of the apparently correct, symmetrical initiation of
stability loss. This proves the faults in the algorithms for choosing the appropriate
variants of the equilibrium path in case of the appearance of changes in the state
parameters combination in several of their independent subsets.
The situation was improved when shell imperfections were implemented, by
applying normal forces to the skin, in the central points of particular skin (Fig. 7).
369
Fig. 8. The incorrect form of deformation, obtained in case of too many elements
However, even in the case of applying this type of forcing a form change, it was
very difficult to obtain results that would fully correspond to the experimental results.
Assuming the use of skin elements with linear shape functions, the appropriate density of
the mesh turned out to be the key factor, but its excessive density caused incorrect forms
of post-critical deformations (Fig. 8).
The better result, in case of application of beam elements as a representation of
stringers, was obtained with the use of a relatively low density of mesh. This proves the
rightness of the thesis, proved a number of times in many studies, pursuant to which the
decrease in the general number of degrees of freedom, corresponding to the number of
state parameters, in case of nonlinear procedures used in the available commercial
programs, often brings benefits that considerably exceed the deficiencies of a
mathematical description resulting from the decrease in the number of elements.
Fig. 9. The deformation distribution (left) and reduced stress distribution acc. to HuberMises hypothesis (right) for 100% of the maximum load (stringers modelled with
thick shell bilinear element)
The best result was obtained only after the fundamental change of the concept of
FEM model, when the different kind of finite elements was applied as a representation of
stringers (thick shell element was used instead of a recommended beam element).
However this solution, from the point of view of mathematical description is much less
correct, it turned out much more effective in case of relatively low values of the total
torsion angle of the structure.
370
3. CONCLUSIONS
The presented examples of load-bearing structures represent only some of those
many used in the modern aviation technology. But the criterion applied while selecting
them as objects of experimental and numerical analyses was its representativeness for the
most commonly met elements of constructions, in case of which the occurrence of a local
stability loss is acceptable in the conditions of service load.
The fundamental conclusion that can be drawn from the presented results of the
research is the absolute need for using experimental verifications with regard to FEM
nonlinear numerical analyses of this type of structures. The more so that even in the cases
in which the correctness of the results obtained seems unquestionable, they may be in fact
burdened with errors resulting from the very limited reliability of the numerical
procedures used in commercial programs.
Based on the nonlinear numerical analyses, related to the presented structures,
frequently repeated many times, a general recommendation may also be formulated for
the maximum possible limitation of the size of a task. Striving for increasing the accuracy
of the calculations by increasing the density of finite elements mesh, applied successfully
in linear analyses, may turn out ineffective in case of a nonlinear analysis and may lead to
incorrect results or the lack of convergence of calculations.
The numerical representation of bifurcation, by virtue of the mere idea of the
discrete representation of continuous systems, must be simplified in case of the finite
elements method. In such a situation, based on the quoted examples, the need must be
emphasised for obtaining the indispensable convergence of the experimental and obtained
numerically relations between a selected geometric parameter characterising the essence
371
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
372
1. INTRODUCTION
Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) were first introduced in 1984 by a group of
Japanese scientists and very soon have become very popular in research and engineering
applications. A typical FG gradient material is inhomogeneous composite made up of two
constituents - typically of metallic and ceramic phases which relative content changes
gradually across the thickness of a plate or a shell. This eliminates the adverse effects
between the layers (e.g., shear stress concentrations and/or thermal stress concentrations),
typical for layered composites. The high resistance heat capacity of ceramic and good
mechanical properties of metal phase make that the leading application area of FGM
structures are high temperature environments (spacecraft, nuclear reactors or structures
for the chemical industry and defence) [12],[13].
Nonlinear analysis of plates and shells devoted to basic types of loads is covered in
Shen monograph [13]. He considered static bending and thermal bending as an
introduction to buckling and postbuckling behaviour of FGM plates and shells. The shear
deformation effect is employed in the framework of Reddys higher order shear
deformation theory (HSDT).
In [12], alongside HSDT for FGM plates Reddy presents the comparison of FSDT
and CLP theories application for functionally graded plates. According to presented
results it is obvious that for thin-walled plates as well as for greater exponent value in the
power law through the thickness distribution function [7], the application of FSDT gives
results in practice the same as HSDT. The discrepancy between both theories is of 2% in
calculated deflections of analyzed plates.
The static buckling problem of functionally graded plates is discussed in the frame
of different approaches e.g.: in [15], [16] - biaxial in-plane compression and thermal loads
(constant temperature) with axial compression, in [2] and [10] - biaxial in-plane
compression, in work [3] - for thermal stresses only and in [11] - for through the thickness
temperature gradient.
373
2z h
;
2h
2z h
;
2h
( z ) m ( c m )
( z ) m ( c m )
2z h
E ( z ) Em ( Ec Em )
;
2h
2z h
.
2h
( z ) m ( c m )
(1)
( z )dz
(2)
3. SUBJECT OF CONSIDERATION
A square simply supported FG plate (Fig. 1) subjected simultaneously to uniform
compression in x direction and uniform temperature rise is considered. The unloaded
edges of plate are immovable. The coordinate system x,y,z coincides with the midplane of
a plate.
It was proved in the paper [3] that for thin plates (a/h>40) the differences in the
results obtained on the basis of classical laminate plate theory (CLPT) and FDST are less
374
y y
Nx=xh
In the classical nonlinear laminate plate theory the strains across thickness are
expressed referring to the displacements u, v, w of plate middle surface [4], [5]:
(m) z (b)
(3)
T
2
2
u 1 w v 1 w u v w w
'
x
2
y
2
xw , yw , 2 xwy
2
(b )
(4)
(5)
Taking into account the generalized Hookes law for plane stress state, the in-plane
stress and moment resultants (N, M) are defined as:
N A B
m
M B D (b)
(6)
A11 A22
E( z)
h/2
dz;
A12 A21
zE ( z )
dz;
2
h / 2 1
B12 B21
h / 2 1
h/2
B11 B22
E( z)
h / 2 1
h/2
dz;
zE ( z )
dz;
2
h / 2 1
375
h/2
E( z)
dz
h / 2 2(1 )
A66
h/2
zE( z )
dz; (7)
2
h / 2 (1 )
B66
z 2 E( z)
h / 2
D11 D22
dz;
h/2
z 2 E( z)
h / 2
D12 D21
dz;
z 2 E( z)
dz.
h / 2 2(1 )
h/2
D66
Due to the presence of nontrivial matrix B, the coupling between extensional and
bending deformations exists as it is in case of unsymmetrical laminated plates [4].
The stretching-bending coupling affects strongly the constitutive equations and
boundary conditions that have complex form and the solution procedures become
difficult.
In some papers (e.g., [19]) the concept of physical neutral surface is introduced
that allows to uncouple the in-plane and out-of-plane deformations.
The position of this physical neutral surface in the adopted coordinate system
B11
A11
(8)
can be found, assuming that under pure bending a surface exists for which strains and
stresses are zero.
The displacements u, v, w corresponding to x,y,z axes take the following forms:
u u0
w
w
( z e), v v0
( z e), w w( x, y)
x
y
(9)
(0) ( z e) (1)
(10)
The relations defining the in-plane stress and moment resultants in function of strains,
have now the following form:
N A 0
0
M 0 D (1)
(11)
The components of extensional stiffness matrix A are given by the relation (71) and for
bending stiffness matrix D* are as follows:
*
*
D11
D22
D11
2
B11
;
A11
*
*
*
D12
D21
D11
;
*
D66
1 *
D11
2
(12)
Comparing relations (11) with laminate plate theory based on geometric middle
plane, it can be seen that there is no extensional-bending coupling in constitutive
equations of equilibrium of FG plate subjected to in-plane compression and these
equations are the same as for homogenous isotropic plate.
376
Nx xh
u0 0
w Mx 0 ;
N xy 0 ;
(13)
w M y 0;
v0 0
Ny 0
N xy 0 .
(14)
w f sin
x
a
sin
y
a
(15)
and after rather long elaborations, the relation among compressive stress x, increment of
uniform temperature rise T and nondimensional deflection amplitude f*=f/h has been
obtained:
x x0
x0
where:
4 B11
2 A11h
f
*
f *2 ,
a 2 (1 )
4a 2 (1 )
4 2 D *
a h(1 )
2
(16)
KT
,
1
(17)
and
1
m (2 Em q 2 Ec q) c ( Em q Ec (q 1)
(2q 1)( q 1)
(18)
The relation (16) has been compared with the relation derived in the paper [15] for a
rectangular plate and the perfect agreement has been found.
Table 1. Constituents properties of considered metal-ceramic material [17]
Aluminium - TiC
3
[kg/m ]
E [GPa]
[-]
[1/K]
2700
69
0.33
2.310-5
377
4920
480
0.20
0.710-5
[MPa]
T[K]
a/h = 60
a/h = 80
20
40
295.0
253.0
93.40
-
0.5
20
40
158.61
96.50
62.04
-
1.0
20
40
117.50
61.22
41.47
-
10
20
40
54.20
24.63
17.55
-
20
40
23.15
-
2.73
-
1800
1600
q=0.5
q=1
q=10
1400
max [MPa]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
f
Fig. 2.
378
3.0
max [MPa]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig. 3.
ceramic
metal
380
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Birman V., Byrd L.W., Modeling and analysis of functionally materials and structures,
Applied Mechanics Review, 60, 2007, 195-216.
Bodaghi M., Saidi A.R., Levy-type solution for buckling analysis of thick functionally
graded rectangular plates based on the higher-order shear deformation plate theory,
Applied Mathematical Modeling, 34, 2010, 3659-3673.
Javaheri R., Eslami M.R., Thermal buckling of functionally graded plates basing on higher
order theory, Journal of Thermal Stresses, 25, 2002, 603-625
Jones R. M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, London 1999.
Kolakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K. (eds), Selected problems of instabillities in
composite structures, A Series of Monographs, Lodz, 1995.
Kowal-Michalska K. (ed.), Dynamic stability of composite plate structures, (in Polish Stateczno dynamiczna pytowych konstrukcji kompozytowych), WNT, Warsaw, 2007.
K. Kowal-Michalska, R. J. Mania Static and dynamic buckling of FGM plates, chapter
6, 131-151 in M. Krlak, R. J. Mania (eds.), Statics, dynamics and stability of structures,
Vol. 1, ,,Stability of Thin-Walled Plate Structure, A Series of Monographs, Technical
University of Lodz, Lodz 2011.
Krlak M. (ed.), Postbuckling states and ultimate load of thin-walled girders (in Polish Stany zakrytyczne i nono graniczna cienkociennych dwigarw o cianach paskich),
PWN, Warszawa-odz, 1990.
381
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
382
1. INTRODUCTION
An important number of works is dedicated to the research of the initial geometrical
imperfections influence on the buckling load of axially compressed cylindrical shells
[1-4]. Nowadays, one of the most developed methods [5, 6], elaborated within the finite
element method procedure (FEM) is Stochastic Finite Element Method (SFEM). This
method is based on the Monte Carlo approach implemented in FEM in order to take in
account random initial imperfections. But the realization of SFEM needs to include
several statistics factors, which are not always available. That is why in the further
research there was developed a conception of worth cases [7, 8].
Taking this approach into account the effect of static resonance, discovered in the
experimental research of the circular cylindrical shells undergoing periodical in
circumferential strain-stress state [9, 10], is of our interest.
This effect consists in the increase of bending deformations and decrease of the
buckling load when the number of imperfections in circumferential direction corresponds
to the first transversal eigenvibration mode of the shell. Theoretical confirmation of this
effect existence is obtained for the case of the non-uniform axial compression of the
cylindrical shell in numerical research realized in ANSYS [9, 10]. This effect was found
out only by nonlinear solution. The same effect was discovered in linear bifurcation
solution for imperfect conical shells undergoing external pressure loading [9, 10].
The aim of the present work consists in the numerical linear and nonlinear research
of the influence of periodicity number of initial imperfections on the deformation and
buckling of axially loaded elastic circular cylindrical shells.
383
W W0 sin
x
L
W W0 sin
pimp y
R
In function of the relative length L/R shells are grouped in two series: first series
(short shells, L/R = 0.7) and second series (long shells, L/R = 2). For all shells the initial
imperfections amplitude is equal to W0=1.0h.
Fig. 1 presents described form in circumferential (a) and longitudinal (b) amplitude
sections of the shell.
For the FE shell model generation there is used standard ANSYS FE library element
SHELL 281. This element is intended to be used for the shells with small and moderate
thickness.
The FE shell model is created in two steps. At first, a FE mesh is mapped on the
surface of the ideal cylindrical shell. Every element is square in plan. The average
element edge size is 4 mm. So the number of elements for the long (L/R = 2.0) shell is
about 6500 and for the short one (L/R = 0.7) is 1600. Initial element size is defined by the
size of one half-wave of the axisymmetrical solution buckling mode of the considered
shell:
ncl 1.728 Rh 7.16 mm.
So in the numerical experiment there are at least 4 element nodes on one half-wave.
384
Fig. 1. Initial imperfections form in circumferential (a) and longitudinal (b) amplitude
sections. Different shell buckling modes that correspond to the different shell
thickness pimp = 3 (c),7 (d),12 (e)
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
The main research results are relations between the relative amplitude of radial
displacements ( W ) and relative axial compression value ( N ) as well as relations
between the relative critical ( N cr ) and limit ( N lim ) compressive loads and number of
initial imperfections in circumferential direction (pimp).
Here: W W / h ; N N / N ; N
compressive force:
i
cl
N cl
cl
2Eh 2
3(1 2 )
In Fig. 2 one can find curves N W for shells of first () and second (b) series.
Numbers on graphs correspond to the initial imperfection number pimp. In Fig. 3 one can
385
Fig.3.
Dependence on N
cr
pimp and N
lim
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The considered type of initial imperfections is not the most dangerous one. But this
imperfection is proper for the production technology (in particular for the shell with
cl
welded longitudinal joints). Thus, maximal buckling load decrease is of 0.43 N . At the
same time buckling load is very sensitive to the imperfection number pimp, particularly
the limit load N lim , which is the dangerous load in all ranges of pimp values. Moreover,
one can distinguish for shells series 1 and 2 minimal axial limit load values realized for
pimp = 11 and 7 (Fig. 3). Linear dynamical solution results have proved that exactly this
386
Fig. 4. Pre-critical buckling forms for shells series 1 () and 2 (c) and resonance
eigenvibration forms of perfect shells for 1(b) and 2 (d) shell series
5. CONCLUSION
The research of the influence on axially compressed cylindrical shells buckling
loads of the periodicity number of initial imperfections revealed once again the existence
of the static resonance effect. From the other side there has been proved that FE
procedure is a highly effective method for different non-linear buckling problems which
have periodically non-uniform strain-stress nature.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
The research was sponsored by the Fund of Humboldt grant 3.4 - Fokoop UKR/1070297.
387
Koiter W.T., Purpose and achievements of research in elastic stability. WTHD nr 8. 1968,
Delft, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Technological University, III, 1968, 20 p.
[2] Long-Yuan L., Influence of loading imperfections on the stability of an axially compressed
cylindrical shell, Thin-Walled Structures, 1990, 10(3), pp. 215-220.
[3] Teng J.G. and Rotter J.M., Elastic-plastic large deflection analysis of axisymmetric shells,
Computers & Structures, 1989, 31(2), pp. 211-233.
[4] .. .., , , Moscow, 1978.
[5] Isaac E., Uncertain buckling: its past, present and future, Int. J. of Solids and Structures,
2000, 37(4647), pp. 6869-6889.
[6] Papadopoulos V., Papadrakakis M., The effect of material and thickness variability on the
buckling load of shells with random initial imperfections, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, 2005, 194(1216), pp. 1405-1426.
[7] Deml M., Wunderlich W., Direct evaluation of the "worst" imperfection shape in shell
buckling, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 1997, 149(1-4), pp.
201-222.
[8] Lindgaard E., Lund E., Rasmussen K., Nonlinear buckling optimization of composite
structures considering "worst" shape imperfections, Int. J. of Solids and Structures, 2010,
47(22-23), pp. 3186-3202.
[9] .., .., ., " "
(
), Theoretical Foundations of Civil Engineering, Warsaw, 2008,
No 16, pp. 696-715.
[10] Krasovsky V., Effect of a Static resonance in elastic thin-walled cylinders. Abstracts
Book and CD-ROM Proceedings, in 21st Int. Congress of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, Warsaw, IPPT PAN, 2004.
388
390
b)
c)
d)
e)
Shell models with (a) or without (b) rigid disks are represented in Fig. 2.
Loading process is performed within solution process of the geometrically nonlinear
shell deformation by two load substeps. On the first substep the main load N0 is applied to
the shell model in incremental mode (the increment of the load is preliminary defined)
until the value N0. The kinematical action W is applied on the second substep in
incremental mode as well. The reaction of the shell on the action load (shear force value
Q) is observed throughout the entire loading process. This allows us to build for the fixed
N0 value the dependence of shear force via radial shell displacement.
391
2 E h2
N cl
3 (1 2 )
The dependence W is the main result of the present work. These dependences
are obtained for all load schemes with different values of the axial load N0. Here is a
parameter of the shear force Q (shell reaction on the transversal action),
Q
Eh
R
;
h
Fig. 2.
FE shell models (a, b), linear bifurcational buckling (c, ) and geometrically
nonlinear deformation forms (d, f) that correspond to the numerical solution of
axially compressed shells without any actions for loading schemes 1-4 (, d),
and scheme 5 (, f)
b)
Fig. 3. Dependences W for shells, loaded by schemes 1 (), 4 (b) and 5 (c)
For the first case of the main load value N0 is closed to N+ and if the shell is not
attached to the action object a dent by snap will transform in one post-critical dent. This
behaviour was observed in the experiment [4, 7]. The same snap is observed in numerical
solution. Thus, for the forth loading scheme (Fig. 3b) an equilibrium path 5 ( N 0 =0.6)
intersects on the descending interval the axis of abscissas for W =2. The ascending part
393
d)
e)
b)
Fig. 4. Upper edge shapes for the main load application scheme 1-2 (a), 3-4 (b) 5 (c), as
well as force (d) and kinematic (e) barriers
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. The numerical analysis of geometrically nonlinear deformation and buckling of
longitudinally compressed circular cylindrical shells under local kinematical loading is
performed in ANSYS mechanical software. This analysis is done for five different
variants (schemes) of axial load application. We considered two types of axial load: force
(schemes 1, 3, 5) and kinematic (schemes 2, 4) with three different types of shell edges
fixation. In two of three cases the shell edges are hinged to a rigid disk. The main load
there is applied to the disk. The out-of-plane rotation is allowed to scheme 1 and 2. For
schemes 3 and 4 the out-of-plane rotation of rigid disks is fixed and remains fixed during
the non-uniform in circumferential direction shell deformation. In third case the radial ant
tangential displacements are restricted on the upper and lower edge of the shell
(scheme 5).
2. The deformation and buckling solution results corresponding to the load schemes
1-4 are in good qualitative correspondence with experimental data for shell behaviour.
The lower N and upper N local critical load are equal, respectively, for schemes 1-4
N =0.487; 0.499; 0.510; 0.520 and N =0.624; 0.560; 0.616; 0.623. These results are
about 0.1 N cl higher than same experimental values. But, at the same time, they are close
enough to the area of the existence of the post-buckling mode with one dent. This area
was revealed in [9] by numerical variation iterative solution methods of two dimension
nonlinear boundary problems and it is limited by (0.49-0.7) of N cl .
3. Kinematical and force barriers obtained by numerical solution are almost common
for schemes 1-4 and provide the approximation from above to the physical experiment.
395
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
.., .., ..
//.
. . -1978. - 6. -.96-100.
.., .., ..
//. . -1975. -11,
11. -.24-30.
.. . .: , 1967. -280 .
/.., .., .. .
//. . . -1969. - 4. -.158-161.
Krasovsky V.L., Marchenko V.A, Kolesnikov M.V. Deforming and buckling of axially
compressed cylindrical shells under local impacts in numerical simulation and experiments
//Stability of Structures, XII-th Symposium. -Zakopane, 2009. -P.231-238.
Krasovsky V., Marchenko V., Schmidt R. Deforming and buckling of axially compressed
cylindrical shells with local loaded in numerical simulation and experiments //Thin-Walled
Structures. -2011. -49. -P.576-580.
.., ..
//. IX . . . -.: ,
1975. -.377-380.
..
(Theoretical foundations of civil engineering) Warsaw. -2002. - 10. V.2. -.696-715.
..
/. . .-. . -., 2006. 149 .
396
1. INTRODUCTION
The problem of dynamic buckling of thin walled structures such as shells and plates
subjected to in-plane pulse loading has been widely investigated starting from sixties of
previous century (see e.g. works [2], [11], [13]). These pulse loads may be of various
durations and shapes (rectangular, sinusoidal, triangular, trapezoidal, etc.) being
approximations of real load courses. Depending on the so-called pulse intensity
different phenomena may occur impact for pulses of high amplitudes and durations in
range of microseconds or quasi-static behaviour if amplitude is low and duration is twice
of period of fundamental natural vibrations. For pulses of intermediate intensity
(amplitudes in range of static buckling load and durations close to one half or one of
period of fundamental natural vibrations) the phenomenon of dynamic buckling occurs. It
is known that at pulse loads of short duration (in range of milliseconds) the dynamic
structure carrying capacity is larger than static one. However it should be remembered
that for plate structure, in contrary to the static behaviour, the bifurcation dynamic load
does not exist. The phenomenon of dynamic buckling takes place only for initially
imperfect structures. Initial imperfections magnitude in connection with pulse shape and
its duration are crucial parameters in dynamic buckling load estimation [6], [7].
Dynamic buckling load is usually determined on the basis of dynamic buckling
criterion that oneself seems to be problematic. Commonly used Budiansky-RothHutchinson criterion [1] was formulated for structures having limit point or unstable
postbifurcation path. Its application to plate structure behaviour, with stable postbuckling
path, is based rather on accepted practice. Therefore in subject literature one can find a lot
of stability criteria - most of them are based on state of displacements or state of stresses.
The most popular are Volmir criterion [13] and Budiansky-Hutchinson [3] criterion.
Some degree of uncertainty of all mentioned criteria brought the researches of new
dynamic stability criteria basing on Jacobian matrix eigenvalues analysis (see Kubiak [8])
or applying phase portraits criterion (see Teter [12]).
397
U U ( 0 ) iU ( i ) i jU ( ij ) ...
N N ( 0 ) i N ( i ) i j N ( ij ) ...
(1)
aijs
,
(3)
bijks
(i )
* L11( U
( jk )
,U
(s)
(0)
( ij )
* L2 ( U
* L11( U
(s)
(k )
,U
(s)
where: s - is the critical load corresponding to the s-th mode, L11 is the bilinear operator,
L2 is the quadratic operator and (i), (ij) are the stress field tensors in the first and second
order.
The postbuckling static equilibrium paths for coupled buckling can be described by
the equation:
2
3
*
1
(5)
a111 b1111
cr
cr
3
*
1
(6)
b1111
cr
cr
In a special case, i.e. for the so-called ideal structure without initial imperfections
(*=0) the postbuckling equilibrium path is defined by the equation:
1 b1111 2
cr
(7)
In the dynamic analysis (while finding the frequency of natural vibrations [9]), the
independent non-dimensional displacement and the load factor become a function
dependent on time, and dynamic terms were added to equations describing postbuckling
equilibrium path. Neglecting the forces associated with the inertia terms of prebuckling
state and the second-order approximations, and taking into account the orthogonality
conditions for the displacement field in the first U ( i ) and second-order
approximation U ( ij ) , the Lagrange equations can be written as:
..
1
2 s
s
s
399
(8)
(9)
1 1 a11112 b111113 1* ;
2 1
1
1
1
(t=0) = 0 and ( t 0 ) 0 .
(10)
E
[GPa]
3.5
71
0.33
0.22
[kg/m3]
1249
2450
For numerical calculation the orthotropic model was assumed. The necessary values
of Youngs modules and Poisons ratios were calculated using equations based on mixture
theory [4], which are as follows:
400
E x Em 1 f E f f ,
E y Em
G Gm
Em 1
yx m 1
Gm
Em 1
f 1
f f
f 1
Gm
f E
f Ef
f,
f
f
f 1
,
(11)
f 1 f .
1 f
f Gf 1
f Gf
where: Em and Ef are the Youngs modules of elasticity for matrix and fibre, respectively,
Gm and Gf are the shear modules for matrix (subscript m) and fibre (subscript f), m and f
are the Poissons ratios for matrix and fibre and f = Vf /(Vm + Vf) is the fibre volume
fraction.
5. RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
5.1. STATIC BUCKLING LOAD AND POSTBUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
a)
b)
Fig.1. Dimensionless load P/Pcr vs. dimensionless deflection (a) or square of dimensionless
deflection (b)
401
determination method:
initial imperfection
amplitude w*
0.001
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
P-w
P-w2
Pcr*/Pcr
0.999
0.998
0.995
0.990
0.968
0.925
0.834
0.589
Pcr*/Pcr
0.999
0.994
0.986
0.968
0.925
0.863
0.751
0.494
It follows from the Table 2 that lower values of Pcr* were obtained using P-w2
method and the differences between the results of both the methods are growing with the
increase of imperfection amplitude value.
In further investigations the values of Pcr* found on the basis of the inflection point
method (P-w method) were taken into account.
5.2. ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A PLATE
In most publications dealing with dynamic buckling problem the amplitude of initial
imperfection has been assumed as w* = 0.01 for which the buckling load decrease is very
small ca 1%.
The dynamic load factor DLF is defined as the ratio of an amplitude of pulse load to
the critical static buckling load for ideal structures. Presented below calculations were
made in aim to check how the way of DLF estimation influences the critical amplitude of
pulse load leading to dynamic buckling. The authors propose to introduce a dynamic load
factor DLF*=P/Pcr* - a pulse load amplitude divided by the static buckling load for
imperfect structures.
The calculations were performed for two values of pulse duration T0=T and T0=0.5T
(where T - period of natural fundament flexural vibration of a plate, for assumed material
properties and geometry T=0.59 ms).
402
Assumed
criterion:
initial
imperfection
amplitude w*
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Table 4.
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
DLFcr
DLFcr
DLF*cr
DLF*cr
1.49
1.31
1.17
1.07
1.13
0.63
1.4 1.6
1.2 1.3
0.8 0.9
0.8 0.9
0.7 0.8
0.4 0.5
1.49
1.32
1.21
1.15
1.10
1.08
1.4 1.6
1.2 1.3
0.9 1.1
0.9 1.0
0.84 0.96
0.7 0.85
Assumed
criterion:
initial
imperfection
amplitude w*
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
DLFcr
DLFcr
DLF*cr
DLF*cr
3.07
2.47
1.89
1.40
1.01
0.62
4.4 4.6
3.4 3.6
2.0 2.8
1.6 1.8
1.0 1.2
0.4 0.6
3.08
2.49
1.86
1.51
1.21
1.01
4.4 4.6
3.4 3.6
2.5 2.9
1.7 1.9
1.2 1.4
0.7 1.0
For relatively large value of w* (the imperfection amplitude equals one half of plate
thickness) - Fig. 4, the results show that the dynamic responses of a plate do not depend
on pulse load duration (the relations DLF(w/h) for T0=T and for T0=0.5T cover up and
also DLF*(w/h) for both assumed pulses overlap) and moreover the courses of
DLF*(w/h) are almost identical as the static postbuckling curve P/Pcr*. It should be
underlined that the differences between the courses of DLF (estimated as the ratio of
404
6. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the results analysis of the conducted calculations following
conclusions can be drawn:
For small values of imperfection amplitude (in range of hundredth parts of
plate thickness) the differences between the dynamic response known as DLF
(w/h) (ratio of pulse load amplitude to static bifurcational load versus
dimensionless deflection) and proposed relation DLF* (w/h) (ratio of pulse
load amplitude to static buckling load for imperfect plate versus
dimensionless deflection) are less than 1% and the curves are practically
identical. In this case the pulse load duration time strongly affects the
dynamic buckling load value and the character of dynamic response of
considered plate.
For rather large values of imperfection amplitude (in range of one half and
greater) the influence of pulse duration on courses of DLF(w/h) and
DLF*(w/h) has shown to be negligible but the dynamic responses DLF(w/h)
and DLF*(w/h) differ significantly. It should be strongly underlined that the
proposed relations DLF*(w/h) calculated for two values of pulse load are
almost identical as static postbuckling curve P/Pcr* what allows us to
conclude that for large imperfection amplitude values the static and dynamic
behaviour of a plate is practically the same (for considered pulse durations).
This fact can be only observed if proposed relation DLF*(w/h) is applied in
calculations.
405
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling of elastic structures: Criteria and Estimates, Report SM7, NASA CR-66072, 1965.
Grybo R., Stability of structures under impact load, /in Polish/, PWN, Warsaw-Poznan,
1980.
Hutchinson J.W., Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling estimates, AIAA Journal, 4(3), 1966,
pp. 525530.
Kelly A. (ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials, Pergamon Press, 1989.
Koiter W.T., General theory of mode interaction in stiffened plate and shell structures,
WTHD Report 590, Delft, 1976.
Kowal-Michalska, K. (ed.), Dynamic stability of composite plated structures, (in Polish),
Warszawa d, WNT, 2007.
Kowal-Michalska, K., About some important parameters in dynamic buckling analysis of
plated structures subjected to pulse loading, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Vol.14, 2010, pp.269-279.
Kubiak T., Interactive dynamic buckling of thin-walled columns, /in Polish/, Scientific
Bulletin of d Technical University, d, 2007.
Kubiak T., Estimation of dynamic buckling for composite columns with open crosssection, Computers and Structures, 89, 2011, pp. 2001-2009.
Rhodes J., Zara J., Determination of critical loads by experimental methods, in Statics,
Dynamics and Stability of Structures, Vol.2., Statics, Dynamics and Stability of Structural
Elements and Systems, edited by Z. Koakowski, K. Kowal-Michalska, Publishing House
of d University of Technology, 2012.
Simitses G.J., Dynamic stability of suddenly loaded structures, Springer Verlag, New
York,1990.
Teter A., Multi-modal buckling of thin-walled stiffened columns loaded by compressive
pulse, /in Polish/, Scientific Bulletin of d Technical University, d, 2010.
Volmir S.A., Nonlinear dynamics of plates and shells, /in Russian/ Science, Moscow,
1972.
406
1. INTRODUCTION
Both in the classical Euler theory and the theory of restrained torsion of thin-walled
bars it is assumed that the bar cross-section is non-deformable. In the context of
engineering experience, this implies the need to use diaphragms in small intervals. If there
are no diaphragms or the distance between them is large one should take into
consideration the cross-section deformation of the bar. Up to date the local stability of
walls in the frame of plate buckling analysis and the global stability of the bar has been
well developed [1 - 5].
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the bar and expected deformation of cross-section a) without
and b) with internal walls
However, there are hardly a few papers dealing with the stability of bars including
the deformability of the bar cross-section. Particularly noteworthy is the article written by
407
Vp
1
4
2
l a
0 0
M2
2
dsdz
EJ
EJ
l a
M 2 dsdz
0 0
24 EJ
1
2 dz K 2 dz ,
a
2
(1)
where bending moments of one wall M and the factor K (1) are defined as:
M 2
6 EJ
1 3 E 3
,
u
6
EJ
6
E
a
12 a
6a
a2
def
48EJ 4 E 3
.
a
a
(2)
Vg
1
M z2
1
1
4
dz EJ g a 2 2dz K g 2dz ,
2
EJ g
2
2
where the bending moment M z and the factor K g (3) are defined as:
M z EJ g u EJ g
408
a
,
2
(3)
K g EJ g a 2
Ea5
.
12
(4)
In addition, the potential energy of torsion of the cross-section walls Vs is taken into
account:
l
1
1
Vs GJ d 4 2dz K s 2dz ,
2
2
(5)
where GJ d is the free torsional rigidity of walls. The factor K s (5) is defined as:
def
4
K s 4GJ d G 3a
3
(6)
Moreover, the potential energy U p I of the compressive loads P due to all cross-section
walls bending:
l
1 P
1 a
U pI 4
u2dz P
2 4
2 2
2l
1
8
2dz Pa 2 2dz ,
(7)
1 P
1
U p II 4 r0 2 2dz P r0 2 2dz ,
2 4
2
(8)
r02
J 0 1 12 a3 3a
1 2
a 2 ,
A
a
12
Vp Vg Vs U p I U p II .
After substitution of the individual components (1), (3), (5), (7), (8), we get:
409
(9)
1
1
1
1
(10)
The necessary condition of the stationary total potential energy can be written as:
Pa
K g v
12
min 0 ,
(11)
4 K s K 0 .
a
(12)
v 2 2 0 ,
where
1
Kg
(13)
2
2
2
2
3
Pa
P 4 a 16a G
,
4 K s
12 a
a5E
and
K
Kg
4 E 3 12
2
.
48
a Ea5
a6
(14)
t1 2 2 ,
t2 2 2 .
z 0 ; 0 ; 0
z l ; 0 ; 0
to the equation (14), solving the resulting system of equations and equating the resolving
to zero, we receive:
410
2
l
l2
(15)
From the equation (15) we obtain the formula for the distortional critical load in case of
any number of deformed state n:
Pkr n
(16)
Proceeding similarly but in case of the bar with internal walls (now we have 12 walls
instead 4 as in the previous case (Fig.1)) we get the formula for critical load for any n:
Pkr n
(17)
In both cases, the critical load Pkr may be expressed in terms of critical load of flexural
buckling PE by using the coefficient :
Pkr PE
2 EJ c
l2
(18)
a 6 2 48l 2 2 8a 2 2
6l 2 2
1
l
2
,
a 2 2 (4a 2 2 ) 2
(19)
3072l 4 2 256a 2l 2 2
3 a 6
2
4
1
.
2 2
2
16a (a )(3a 2 2 )
(20)
If > 1 the Euler critical load PE is smaller than the load corresponding the distortional
buckling. The derived formulas for critical loads are valid only if < 1. Example values of
the coefficient obtained from equations (19) and (20) are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
These values depend on the relationships a/ and l/a in case of constant value of the
Poisson ratio . In Figs. 2, 3 are shown the relation of change of values of critical force P
in the dependence on dimensions l, a and in case of bars with/without internal walls.
411
Values of the coefficient in case of bars without internal walls (for n=1 and
=0.33)
l/a
20
50
100
150
200
Table 2
a/
10
12
16
20
0.5017
0.3953
0.3801
0.3772
0.3763
2.3009
0.6835
0.4521
0.4093
0.3943
5.0455
1.1231
0.5620
0.4581
0.4218
10.0241
1.9205
0.7614
0.5468
0.4716
30.7584
5.2414
1.5918
0.9158
0.6792
74.4256
12.2355
3.3406
1.6931
1.1164
Values of the coefficient in case of bars with internal walls (for n=1 and =0.33)
l/a
20
50
100
150
200
4
1.3682
0.2719
0.1149
0.0858
0.0756
10
12
16
20.3733
3.3213
0.8775
0.4248
0.2663
49.4789
7.9913
2.0455
0.9438
0.5583
102.340
16.4728
4.1667
1.8867
1.0887
322.706
51.8301
13.0096
5.8172
3.2996
a)
20
787.0840
126.3390
31.6441
14.0998
7.9587
b)
Fig. 2. The critical load P vs. height of cross-section a and bar length l, for the cross-section
- a) without, b) with internal walls
a)
b)
Fig. 3. The critical load P vs. thickness of walls and length of bar l, for the cross-section a) without, b) with internal walls
412
Results of theoretical and numerical analysis were also compared with the solution using
the Timoshenko energy method [1], [6] (for n=1 and m=1) in the case of cross-section
without internal walls:
Pkr n
6 4 (l 2m2 a 2n 2 ) 2 2
2a n
2 1
6a n 2
2
EJ c .
l2
(21)
In Tables 3 and 4 are presented results of calculation of critical loads for different values
of the coefficient , in cases:
- proposed solutions (16), (17),
- analytical solution by Chudzikiewicz [6] (21),
- FEM,
for cross-sections with/without internal walls (Fig. 1).
Table 3 The critical load [MN] (for n=1, E=70GPa, =0.33, =0.01 m, a=0.4 m)
FEM
l=3 m 0.75
Difference
l=2.3 m 0.5
Difference
23.092
25.125
Proposed
solution (16)
Analytical solution by
Chudzikiewicz (21)
24.510
5.8 %
28.190
10.9 %
23.466
1.6 %
26.132
4%
413
73.642
72.718
Proposed
solution
(17)
70.549
4.2 %
56.231
22.7 %
The results of comparative analysis are consistent and show the correctness of the
proposed theoretical analysis. The accuracy of approximate formulas (16), (17) depends
mainly on the value of the coefficient . The calculations show that the
calculation error increases when the value of the coefficient is decreased (see Tables 3,
4). Errors are also increases when the value of the coefficient is greater than 1 - but then
the solution is dominated by the Euler buckling.
4. SUMMARY
The distortional mode of elastic stability loss of the thin-walled box-type bars is
discussed in the paper. We should remember that exceeding the Euler force is more
significant because is generally closer to the failure load than the considered critical load
(16), (17). However, in all studied cases the solution it is dominated by plate buckling.
The results summarized in Tables 1 and 2 show that the distortional buckling in elastic
range is not possible for bars made of standard metals used in construction (steel,
aluminum). On the other hands, how Chudzikiewicz notices in his article [6]: for bars
made of materials with low modulus of elasticity and high elastic limit the buckling under
consideration may be of some importance also in practical cases. Some aluminum alloys
can meet these conditions.
It is worthwhile noticing that using the derived formulas (16), (17) we can calculate
the critical loads with the sufficient accuracy. In the case of bars for which the value of
coefficient is close to 1 the error should not exceed 5%.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
414
The paper deals with the load-carrying capacity stochastic variance based sensitivity
analysis of thin-walled box-section girder subjected to pure bending. The lower- and
upper-bound load-capacity estimation is performed. The methodology is based on the
Monte-Carlo method. The exemplary results are presented in diagrams and pie charts
showing the sensitivity of load-capacity to different random input variables. The
analysis is focused on the variance of the yield stress of the girder material and girders
wall thickness. Some final conclusions, concerning an efficiency of the applied models
and the sensitivity analysis are derived.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years the deterministic approach to the design of TWS has been often
replaced by the probabilistic one [1, 2, 3, 9, 13]. It concerns especially thin-walled girders
[1, 14]. Also some new codes, particularly concerning TWS in civil engineering, treat the
structural reliability and load-carrying capacity of TWS as a probabilistic problem [4].
However, since using any probabilistic method one has to perform a great number of
calculations, the main limitation becomes the time of computation, which depends on the
method applied.
The strength of thin-walled structures is usually calculated on the basis of effective
width model and their ultimate capacity is evaluated using a reduced or effective crosssection and, additionally, the elastic limit for maximum stress. This approach is currently
used in almost all design codes and leads to the lower-bound estimation of the loadcarrying capacity. The elastic post-buckling behaviour of the thin-walled beam was
analysed by Kolakowski et al [5] who solved the problem using the asymptotic method in
the range of the second order approximation. The algorithm based on the asymptotic
method is relatively simple and delivers the lower-bound estimation of the load-carrying
capacity (LBELC) in the short time of computation.
However, TWS members display a significant post-elastic capacity. It means that the
actual load-carrying capacity of any thin-walled member is higher than the ultimate load
calculated using the method mentioned above.
Thus, the alternative approach is the upper-bound estimation of the load-carrying
capacity, consisting in the determination of the intersection point of a post-buckling path
(evaluated using either analytical method or numerical one, e.g. Finite Element Method)
and a rigid-plastic failure curve obtained from the plastic mechanism analysis Koteko
et al. [6, 7].
Compilation of post-buckling analysis with the yield-line analysis (plastic
mechanism approach) leads to a relatively simple and quick solution of the upper-bound
estimation of load-carrying capacity (UBELC). Thus, both the asymptotic method
415
c)
C
c
C
b)
Fig. 1. Box-section girder under pure bending: a) dimensions, b) load and support lay-out,
c) theoretical model of the plastic mechanism of failure
The sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the sensitivity of LBELC and
UBELC with respect to the variance of several random input quantities i.e. dimensions of
the girder and material parameters. The initial geometrical imperfections were not taken
416
Unit
Mean value
Standard deviation
Type of
distribution
Width A
0.1
0.0005
Normal (Gauss)
Hight B
Length L
Wall thickness H
(HA= HB)
Youngs modulus
E
Poissions ratio
m
m
0.1
0.1
0.0005
0.0005
Normal (Gauss)
Normal (Gauss)
0.001
1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 [%] *
Normal (Gauss)
GPa
210
12.6
Normal (Gauss)
0.27
Normal (Gauss)
MPa
284.5
0.03
21.5, (real), 22.5, 23.5**
Yield stress Re
Normal (Gauss)
(*) wall thickness sensitivity analysis (variance of wall thickness), (**) yield stress sensitivity analysis
(variance of yield stress)
Category
A
B
L
H 1 +/-1%
E
v
Re
Category
A
B
L
H 1 +/-1%
E
v
Re
a)
b)
Fig. 2. Exemplary pie charts (UBELC sensitivity analysis wall thickness variance):
a) 1 % standard deviation, b) 2 % standard deviation
One-Way ANOVA for Roznica OG_1; Roznica OG_2; Roznica OG_3;...
Summary Report
Do the means differ?
0
0,05
0,1
> 0,5
Yes
No
P = 0,612
Differences among the means are not significant (p > 0,05).
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Roznica OG_5
Roznica OG_4
Roznica OG_3
Roznica OG_1
Roznica OG_7
Roznica OG_2
Roznica OG_6
None Identified
Roznica OG_5
Roznica OG_4
Comments
Roznica OG_3
Roznica OG_1
Roznica OG_7
Roznica OG_2
Roznica OG_6
0,60
0,65
0,70
0,75
0,80
Fig. 3. ANOVA test results for of UBELC (OG) and LBELC (OD) difference analysis for
wall thickness variance
418
a)
b)
Fig. 4. Exemplary pie charts (UBELC sensitivity analysis yield stress variance):
a) 21.5 MPa standard deviation, b) 23.5 MPa standard deviation
Fig. 5. ANOVA test results of UBELC (OG) and LBELC (OD) difference analysis for Re
variance: Re = 284.5 MPa, standard deviations 21.5, 22.5 i 23.5 MPa
Fig. 6. Exemplary histograms of UBELC (og) and LBELC (od) differences for the yield
stress variance
419
Fig. 7. Exemplary histograms UBELC (og) and LBELC (od) differences for wall thickness
variance
Sensitivity Analyse
90
Variable
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
80
70
Data
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
3
4
5
Tolerance H=1mm +/-%
10
420
A
B
L
H
E
v
Re
4. FINAL REMARKS
The regression analysis confirms that a statistically significant empirical multidimensional model exists for the lower-bound estimation (LBELC) in terms of considered
input random quantities. However, its efficiency is weak. Accuracy of the model based on
the least squares method was connected with 25% error.
On the contrary, the efficiency of analogous empirical model for the upper-bound
estimation - (UBELC) is high (above 98%). It concerns both the yield stress and wall
thickness variance.
The increase of the yield stress standard deviation induces an increase of the
differences of UBELC and LBELC (see the shift of the histogram in Fig. 6). Also a
shift of means of those differences is noticed. It is not observed for the wall thickness
variance (Fig. 7). The distribution of UBELC-LBELC differences is not normal for the 95
% confidence level (Fig.6) in the case of the yield stress variance, while for the wall
thickness variance at the same confidence level this distribution is normal (Fig.7).
Results of the performed analysis show, how a quality of structural steel affects the
load-carrying capacity of the girder. The upper-bound estimation (UBELC) induction is
generated mainly by the yield stress. Activity of the yield stress is reduced with the
tolerance change of wall thickness, but is elevated by the increase of the yield stress
standard deviation itself.
The results presented in the paper are based on linear models of analysis, without
interactions. The relations between indicators of UBELC and LBELC were checked with
use of non-linear models. However, the improvement of the estimation efficiency of those
models was about 4%.
Results based on the algorithm, which applies the yield-line approach (plastic
mechanism approach) for the approximate determination of the upper-bound loadcarrying capacity of TWS, indicate that this approach is useful for the sensitivity analysis.
The empirical multi-dimensional model used in the presented sensitivity analysis based on
this approach is more efficient than the model based on the lower-bound estimation.
421
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Szymczak C. (et al.), Sensitivity analysis of beams and frames made of thin-walled
members, Gdask, ed. by Politechnika Gdaska, 2003.
Mikulski T., Thin-walled frames, modelling and sensitivity analysis (in Polish - Ramy
cienkocienne, modelowanie i analiza wraliwoci), Politechnika Gdaska, ser.
Monografie, 2010.
Melcher J. (et al.), Sensitivity and statistical analysis within elaboration of steel plated
girder resistance, Int. J. of Advanced Steel Construction, vol. 5, No 2, June, 2009, 120126.
Kamiski M, Krauze I., Stochastic corrosion effects on reliability of the steel beams with I
profiles. Lightweight Structures in Civil Engineering. Contemporary problems. XVII
International Seminar of IASS Polish Chapter (LCCE 2011) ed. by M. Kamiski, J.B.
Obrbski, d , December 2011, pp. 114-119.
Manevich A., Koakowski Z., Influence of local postbuckling behaviour on bending of
thin-walled beams, Thin-Walleed Struct., vol. 25, No 3, 1996, 219-230.
Koteko M., Load-capacity estimation and collapse analysis of thin-walled beams and
columns recent advances, Special Issue Cold formed steel structures: recent research
advances in Central and Eastern Europe, ed. By D. Dubina, Thin-Walled Structures,
v.42/2, Elsevier 2004, 153-175.
Koteko M., Load-capacity and mechanisms of failure of thin-walled structures (in Polish Nono i mechanizmy zniszczenia konstrukcji cienkociennych), WNT, Warszawa, 2011.
Website of the Department of Strength of Materials. TUL:www.kwm.p.lodz.pl
Kala Z., Kala J., Variance-based sensitivity analysis of stability problems of steel
structures using shell Finite Element and non-linear computation method, Proc. of the 2nd
WSEAS Int. Conference on Engineering Mechanics, Structures and Engineering Geology,
89-94.
Minitab Inc., Users GUIDE 2: Data Analysis and Quality Tools, Part I: Statistics, 2000.
Koteko M., Lis P., Yield-line analysis Perspectives and new areas of application.
Chapter in Statics, dynamics and stability of structures, v.1.: Stability of thin-walled
plate structures ed. by M.Krlak, R.J.Mania, Technical University of d, Series of
Monographs, pp. 53-72, d 2011.
Lis P., Koteko M., Koakowski Z., Load-capacity stochastic sensitivity analysis of thinwalled box-section beam, Lightweight Structures in Civil Engineering. Contemporary
problems. XVII International Seminar of IASS Polish Chapter (LCCE 2011) ed. by M.
Kamiski, J.B. Obrbski, d , December 2011, pp. 120-125.
Szymczak C., Sensitivity analysis of thin-walled members, problems and applications.
Thin-Walled Structures, v.41, pp 53-68.
Kala J., Skaloud M., Sensitivity analysis of thin-walled girder using non-linear transient
approach. Proc. of 10th International Conference:Modern Building Materials, Structures
and Techniques, Vilnius, Lithuania, 2010.
422
J. LOUGHLAN, N. HUSSAIN
Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
This paper examines the response of thin plate shear webs when subjected to inplane shear loading in the form of applied in-plane shear displacements. The
buckling and post-buckling failure capabilities of thin plates subjected to in-plane
shear can be substantially eroded through the introduction of openings or cut-outs
which can contribute, significantly, towards a less stable structural system. The
paper details appropriate suitable finite element modelling strategies and procedures
to enable the determination of the post-buckled failure response of thin plate shear
webs with cut-outs. The results presented in the paper give a detailed account of the
complete loading history of the shear webs, illustrating the significant degrading
influence on structural performance of the cut-outs, as well as highlighting the
considerable redeeming influence of providing reinforcement at the cut-out
boundaries. The paper provides a detailed account of the growth of deformations
with load as well as the initiation and propagation of yielding throughout the
loading process up to ultimate conditions and then through the elasto-plastic
unloading phase of behaviour.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin plate shear webs are structural elements, which are utilised in several
engineering fields including civil, mechanical, and aeronautical engineering. The thin ribs
in the wing structure of a civil airliner, for example, maintain the wing profile and
essentially, equilibrate the shear loading from the wing lift in flight, as well as the
torsional shears associated with wing twist. Shear webs often have cut-outs for light
weighting or for more practical reasons such as the passage of systems within the
structural framework such as electric cabling and hydraulics.
The presence of openings in shear webs changes the stress distribution within the
web by developing high stress levels around the holes. This results in a significant
reduction of the elastic buckling capability and ultimate shear capacity of the webs.
Reinforcements are then frequently utilised around the holes in order to reduce the stress
concentrations and to enhance the buckling and post-buckling strength of the webs.
Many researchers have investigated the influence of perforations on the stress
distribution and the ultimate strength of thin plate structural systems. The analysis
procedures of Gurney [1] are able to describe the stress distributions around the circular
hole of perforated infinite plates with and without reinforcement. Beskins [2] examined
the behaviour of plates with reinforced circular cut-outs subjected to edge loads. In this
work, the influence of the reinforcement design on the stress distributions around the
strengthened circular holes was found to be significant. Wang [3] presented a theoretical
model which was able to predict the stress distribution in square, rectangular and in
423
Fig. 1. Simulation of thin plate shear web with stiffened cut-out showing master nodes
MN1 MN4 at the centre of each plate edge
Fig. 2. Applied average shear stress ave against in-plane shear displacement u/ucrit
The simply supported normal stress free condition at the plate edges ensures the
outcome of a lower bound solution to the thin plate shear web problem whilst enforcing
straight edges which are constrained against out-of-plane rotations lends itself to the
upper bound solution. If the edges of the web plate are attached to other structural
elements which afford elastic in-plane and rotational restraint to the web plate at its
428
Fig. 3. Applied average shear stress ave against out-of-plane buckling displacements
evident in the elasto-plastic solutions where it is of note that from the onset of yielding,
the in-plane shear stiffness of the web plate is seen to be eroded fairly significantly with
increased shear displacement. The ultimate applied average shear stress occurs when the
in-plane shear stiffness of the web plate is zero and at this point a yield mechanism has
developed along the web leading diagonal and around the circular cut-out perimeter.
Unloading then takes place through the mechanism and this is readily predicted using the
displacement loading strategy detailed in the paper. With reference to Figure 2, the
ultimate shear stress levels of the web plate are found to be 47.79, 58.08 and 67.12
N/mm2 with regard to the material yield stress values of 345, 450 and 550 N/mm 2
respectively.
The out-of-plane equilibrium characteristics of the web plate are as shown in Figure
3 where the applied average shear stress ave is seen to be plotted against the out-of-plane
429
Fig. 4. Post-buckled to pre-buckled in-plane shear stiffness ratio S*/S against in-plane shear
displacement ratio u/ucrit for different levels of yield stress
Fig. 5. Applied average shear stress ave against in-plane shear displacement u for different
ds/b (symmetrically disposed stiffeners)
The influence of the ring stiffeners is clearly evident in Figure 5 where it can be seen
that considerable improvements can be made on the ultimate shear carrying capability of
the unstiffened web plate, ds/b = 0, which is 47.79 N/mm2. This is noted to be increased
by 26.1% to 60.25 N/mm2 for the stiffener depth of ds/b = 0.025, by 44.3% to 68.96
N/mm2 for ds/b = 0.05 and by 51.9% to 72.58 N/mm2 for ds/b = 0.1. Location 5 on the
equilibrium curve for ds/b = 0.05 is the point at which first yield is experienced on the
web plate mid-surface. The membrane stress variations at the various locations indicated
are illustrated and discussed in some detail later in the paper.
The out-of-plane equilibrium characteristics of the stiffened web plates are as shown
in Figure 6. Again, it is quite clear that the level of imperfection o chosen for the nonlinear finite element analysis is extremely small and as such the stiffened web plates can
be considered, essentially, to be geometrically perfect. The out-of-plane buckling
displacements are measured at the edge of the cut-out on the leading diagonal of the
web plate for the unstiffened plate, ds/b = 0, and at other locations along the leading
diagonal of the web plate away from the cut-out perimeter for the different stiffener
431
Fig. 6. Applied average shear stress ave against out-of-plane buckling displacements for
different ds/b (symmetrically disposed stiffeners)
The equilibrium curves of Figures 5 and 6 for the case of d s/b = 0.05 are shown to
illustrate 12 load locations. The membrane stresses in the web plate at the different load
levels have been determined and the stress-loading history is as detailed in Figure 7
which gives an insight into the development and propagation of yielding during the
loading process. For load levels 1 to 4 the membrane stresses are found to be everywhere
elastic with the maximum values being 263, 283, 305 and 326 N/mm 2 for levels 1 to 4
respectively. It is to be noted that the membrane stress patterns are symmetric about both
diagonals of the square web plate and that these maximum values occur at the cut-out
perimeter on the leading diagonal. Load location 5 signifies first yield on the web middle
surface where the maximum stress is now the yield stress y = 345 N/mm2. Further
loading is then seen to propagate yielding around the perimeter of the cut-out and then
along the leading diagonal of the web plate. At load level 10 when the in-plane shear
stiffness of the web plate is zero a yield mechanism is seen to occur all along the leading
diagonal. This results in shear unloading of the web plate with any further increase in the
applied in-plane shear displacement. During the unloading process through levels 11 and
12 it is to be noted that the complete symmetry of the stress distributions is lost and that
symmetry is maintained only about the leading diagonal.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper gives a detailed outline of the finite element modelling strategies and
solution procedures employed in the analysis of thin plate shear webs with stiffened cutouts. The results presented in the paper highlight the usefulness of the applied in-plane
shear displacement approach in being able to deal with all aspects of behaviour including
432
10
11
12
Fig. 7. Yield initiation and yield propagation on web plate middle surface throughout
the loading process for ds/b = 0.05 (symmetrically disposed stiffener)
REFERENCES
[1]
Gurney, C. (1938). An analysis of the stresses in a flat plate with a reinforced circular
hole under edge forces. RAE Report, R. M. 1834, pp. 663-687.
433
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Beskins, L. (1944). Strengthening of circular holes in plates under edge loads. Journal of
Applied Mechanics, 66, A140-A148.
Wang, C. K. (1946). Theoretical analysis of perforated shear webs. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Trans. ASME, 13 (2) A77-A84.
Mansfield, E. H. (1953). "Neutral holes in plane sheet-reinforced holes which are
elastically equivalent to the uncut sheet." Q. J. Mech. Appl. Math., 6, pp. 370378.
Houghton, D. S., and Rothwell, A. (1961). "The analysis of reinforced circular and
elliptical cutouts under various loading conditions." Report No. 151, The College of
Aeronautics, Cranfield, pp. 110.
Rockey, K. C., Anderson, R. G. and Cheung, Y. K. (1967). The behaviour of square shear
webs having circular hole. In Proceedings of the Swansea Conference on Thin- Walled
Structures. Crosby Lockwood and Sons, London, pp. 148-169.
Hoglund, T. (1971). Strength of thin plate girders with circular or rectangular web holes
without web stiffeners. Proceedings of the Colloquium of the International Association of
Bridge and Structural Engineering, London.
Uenoya, M., and Redwood, R. G. (1978). Elasto-plastic shear buckling of square plates
with circular holes, Computers & Structures, Volume 8, Issue 2, Pages 291-300.
Rockey, K. C. (1980). The buckling and post-buckling behaviour of shear panels which
have a central circular cut-out. Thin-walled structures (Proceedings of the Glasgow
Conference held in 1979 edited by J. Rhodes and A. C. Walker), (Granada, St. Albans),
pp. 658672.
Narayanan, R., and Rockey, K. C. (1981). Ultimate load capacity of plate girders with
webs containing circular cut-outs. Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs., Part 2, 71 845862.
Shanmugam, N. E., and Narayanan, R. (1982). Elastic buckling of perforated square
plates for various loading and edge conditions. International Conference on Finite
Element Methods, Shanghai, pp. 658672.
Roberts, T. M., and Azizian, Z. G. (1984). Strength of perforated plates subjected to inplane loading. Thin-Walled Structures, 2(2) 153-164.
Narayanan, R. and Der Avenessian, N. G. V. (1984). Elastic buckling of perforated plates
under shear. Thin-Walled Structures, (2) 51-73.
Narayanan, R., and Chow, F. Y. (1985). Experiments on perforated plates subjected to
shear. Journal of Strain Analysis, 20(1) 23-34.
Sabir, A. B., and Chow, F. Y. (1986). Elastic buckling of plates containing eccentrically
located circular holes. Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp. 135-149.
Shanmugam, N. E. (1997). Openings in Thin-Walled steel structures. Thin-Walled
Structures, Volume 28, Issues 34, pp. 355-372.
Shanmugam, N. E., Lian, V. T., Thevendran V., (2002). Finite element modelling of plate
girders with web openings. Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 40, Issue 5, pp. 443-464.
Paik, J. K. (2007), Ultimate strength of perforated steel plates under edge shear loading.
Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 45, Issue 3, pp. 301-306.
Paik, J. K. (2008), Ultimate strength of perforated steel plates under combined biaxial
compression and edge shear loads. Thin-Walled Structures, Vol 46, Issue 2, pp. 207-213.
Pellegrino, C., Maiorana, E., and Modena, C. (2009). Linear and non-linear behaviour of
steel plates with circular and rectangular holes under shear loading. Thin-Walled
Structures, Volume 47, Issues 67, pp. 607-616.
Cheng, B., and Zhao, J. (2010). Strengthening of perforated plates under uniaxial
compression: Buckling analysis. Thin-Walled Structures, Vol 48, Issue 12, pp. 905-914.
434
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays there are widespread and prevailing universal software of high level
based on FEM. They are successfully used for the linear and nonlinear analyses of the
shell stress-strain state and buckling. The efficiency of this approach is proved by
different authors [1, 3, 4-5], over and over again.
Particularly, in the works [4-5] for shells with several large (about 83 % of the shell
length) cuts it has been figured out a good qualitative and quantitative correspondence
between the results of the geometrically nonlinear solution at ANSYS software for
kinematic axial compression (there are uniform longitudinal displacements applied on the
shell edge) and the experimental data [2]. At the same time it has been revealed a
considerable difference between the numerical results for the kinematical and force
loading at the geometrically nonlinear problems.
The aim of this work is to study the deformation and buckling features of the axially
compressed elastic circular cylindrical shells with the only longitudinal cut for two types
of the static shell loading (see Fig.1a).
2. NUMERICAL SIMULATION PROCEDURE
The numerical simulation of the linear and geometrically nonlinear buckling
problem has been carried out by means of FE procedures implemented in ANSYS
software. The material model is linear and isotropic. The mechanical characteristics are:
the modulus of elasticity = 191 GPa, conventional yield strength 02 =800 MPa and
Poissons ratio = 0.3. The geometrical characteristics are: the internal diameter
435
b)
a)
Fig. 1. Loading scheme of a shell with one longitudinal cut (), FE model (b) and distinctive
points of the shell ()
The boundary conditions correspond to the hinge support: there are tangent and
radial displacements restrained on the top of the shell. At the plane of symmetry there are
symmetric boundary conditions applied.
For the generated models it has been performed buckling analyses and geometrically
nonlinear stress-strain state analyses, taking into account linear prestress deformations.
All mentioned analyses are performed for two types of static loading: force (uniform
forces distributed on the top edges) and kinematic (uniform longitudinal displacements
distributed on the top). For the buckling problems it is defined eigenvalues ( N cr ) and
eigenmodes. The definition of the limit forces ( N lim ) in the geometrically nonlinear
analyses is based on nonlinear equations of the technical shells theory (by means of the
arc-length method for the force loading and by means of Newton-Raphson for the
kinematic one). At the case of kinematic compression N cr and N lim are defined as total
edge reactions on top nodes of the FE model.
436
lim
3(1 2 ) .
White and black rounds correspond to the linear and geometrically nonlinear solutions for
the force loading. The linear and nonlinear solutions for the kinematic loading are figured
with white and black squares.
Fig. 2. Dependences of relative limit and critical loads on relative cut length l
These dependences show that the numerical simulation results of the stability of the
shells with one cut at linear problems coincide for two types of loading. While the limit
forces for the kinematic loading are considerably higher than the limit charges for the
force one. The growth of the cut length leads to the distinction of 46 %. Meanwhile a
qualitative and quantitative difference is observed. But it should be noted here the inverse
near the small cuts region, where the linear solution results appear higher than the results
of the geometrically nonlinear solutions.
According to the research plan, for the concerned shells while solving linear
bifurcation problem, it has been determined bifurcation modes attended by symmetric
separation of the shell edges along the cuts. Thus, it is ascertained eigenmodes are
identical for two types of loading. In Fig. 3-d there are adduced typical modes depending
on values l.
By geometrically nonlinear solution of the shells deformation it has been obtained
prebuckling modes. As well in the case of linear solutions, most of the buckling modes
are equal for two considered types of loading (see Fig. 3e-f). The certain differences
should be noted only for the shells with small values l (see Fig. 3g-h, and therein after).
In Fig. 4 there are dependences revealing the postcritical deformation behaviour of
the shell with the cut length l=0.3 for the kinematic loading. Here are: 1) the dependence
437
a)
l=0.3
l=0.5
b)
c)
l=0.7
e)
l=0.7
d)
l=0.1
f)
g)
h)
Fig. 3. Typical bifurcation modes ( for the kinematical loading, b for the force loading)
and precritical deformations (c for the force loading, d for the kinematical
loading) of the shells with one cut
In the case of the uniform force compression the shell deformation behaviour differs.
During loading the top edge comes out of the plane and the maximal vertical
displacements are realized on the top edge above the cut (the point ) and are equal
(0.24-0.43) h - depending on the cut length. In Fig. 6a there is presented the dependence
of a relative longitudinal displacement of the point C on a relative compressive force N
for the shell with l=0.4. It should be mentioned here that after reaching a certain point (a
bifurcation point) the load goes down and then again goes up passing on the ascending
branch. The axial load, at this moment, coincides with the critical load of linear solution.
438
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 4. Deformation of the shell with the cut l=0.3 for the kinematical loading
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 5. Precritical and postcritical deformations of the shell with the cut l=0.3 for the
kinematical loading: initial (a), local (lower) (b) and overall (c) buckling mode
As for the case of the kinematic loading points B1, 2 realized the biggest radial
displacements (0.12-14.07) h depending on values l (in the Fig. 6b a thick line represents
the displacement of the point 1, and a thin dotted line shows the displacement of the
point 2). At that, these displacements start with the bifurcation point (see Fig. 6-b). The
buckling of a shell occurs to curvature centre nearby the cut, sometimes accomplished
with slight asymmetric displacements of the cut boards (see Fig. 6c).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the results of linear and geometrically nonlinear problems of the
deformation and stability of the elastic circular cylindrical shells with one longitudinal cut
for two different types and conditions of loading shows that the shells failure occurs at
reaching the limit force. It is confirmed with the analysis of the buckling modes given in
the Fig. 3, 5, 7. Despite the critical loads lie below the limit forces in the region of large
cuts l, the bifurcations dont cause the failure but are the initial stage of the deformation
which precedes the general buckling of the shell.
439
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 6. Deformation of the shell with the cut l=0.4 for the force loading
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 7. Deformations of the shell with the cut l=0.05 for the force loading: linear solution
(a); local (b) and overall (c) modes of the geometrically nonlinear solution
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported by Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Institutional
academic cooperation program, grant no. 3.4-Fokoop-UKR/1070297).
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Krasovsky V., Marchenko V., Schmidt R., Deformation and buckling of axially
compressed cylindrical shells with local loads in numerical simulation and experiments,
Proceed. of Intern. Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, 2011, 49, 5, pp.576-580.
Zavarykin L.G., Nonlinear deformation and stability of cylindrical shells undergoing the
non-uniform compression (in Russian), PhD thesis, DICE, Dnepropetrovsk, 1984.
Krasovsky V., Kolesnikov M., Schmidt R., Numerical analysis of load-carrying capacity of
thin-walled cylinders with geometrical imperfections periodical in circumference direction
(in Russian), Theoretical foundation of civil engineering, WP, Warsaw, 2009, 17,
pp.157-164.
Lykhachova ., Stability of cylindrical shells with longitudinal cuts (in Russian),
Theoretical foundation of civil engineering, WP, Warsaw, 2011, 19, pp.155-160.
Lykhachova .V., Stability of axially compressed cylindrical shells with longitudinal cuts:
numerical investigation (in Russian), Abstracts of Conf. Informational technologies at
education, science and management, PSACEA, Dnepropetrovsk, 2012, pp.164-16.
440
1. INTRODUCTION
In steel construction cold-formed structural members are becoming more popular
and have a growing importance. Cold-formed steel exhibits a versatile nature which
allows for the forming of almost any section geometry [1]. Cold-formed steel sections are
usually thinner than hot-rolled sections and can be subject to different modes of failure
and deformation and therefore extensive testing is required to provide a guideline for the
design of cold-formed thin-walled structural members [2].
The main mechanical properties (yield point, tensile strength and ductility) of coldformed steel sections, particularly at the corners, are considerably different from those of
the flat steel sheet, plate, strip or bar before forming. This is because the cold-forming
operation increases the yield point and tensile strength, and at the same time decreases
the ductility. Design codes have been generated in different countries [3], [4], [5], and [6]
amongst many others for cold-formed steel structures subjected to various loading
scenarios which can cause buckling, bending and web crippling or a combination. Many
structural cold-formed steel members are provided with perforations of different shapes
to accommodate electrical, plumbing, and heating services and so on as illustrated in
Fig.1. The position of such perforations can affect the elastic stiffness and ultimate
strength of a structural member [7].
1.1 EFFECTS OF PERFORATIONS
In general the effect of perforations made specifically for fasteners such as bolts,
screws, etc. on the overall strength of a structure may be neglected as holes are filled with
material. However, any other openings/perforations generated and not filled with
441
Fig. 3. Element types (a, b), mesh type(c) and symmetry boundary condition (d) [14]
B
H
h
t
r
30 mm
60 mm
8 mm
0.75 mm
2 mm
Fig. 4. (a) p2-wnf perforated on the web near the flanges at and of the width of the web,
(b) p2-fnoe perforated on the flanges near the outer edges at 2/3 of the width of the
flanges.
Fig. 5 shows schematic views highlighting perforations and position, with one end
of the structure fixed and load is applied from the other end with the aid of a load bearing
plate. This position represents the pinned-pinned condition and gives the option to apply
load uniformly along the edge of loading face.
Two different types of sections have been used for the FEA analysis and the crosssection is constant. A circular shape perforation is used throughout the analysis as it is
more commonly in steel structures, and the load is applied using a load bearing plate at
the same speed rate.
4.1 DEVELOPING FE MODELS FOR BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
The cross section was modelled using key points, lines and arcs. Further, crosssection shape was dragged along a line to generate the section. Perforations were created
by subtracting required areas from the section using subtract area command and special
attention was paid when selecting the relevant area. The sections, loading and support
reactions were symmetrical about the vertical plane therefore only one-half of the section
was modelled. Load was applied through a load bearing plate and the plate was modelled
as a solid beam.
445
Pinned-pinned boundary condition was applied for all loading cases. One end was
restricted for three degree of freedoms to represent the fixed end. Nodes in other end
were coupled together to represent the fixed condition of the flange to the load bearing
plate. Load was applied as nodal displacements under the load bearing plate. The
symmetric boundary conditions shown in Fig. 6(e) were applied at mid section of the
member, Y-direction displacement was fixed and the rotations about the X-axis and Zaxis were also fixed. Load bearing plate was modeled as a solid block member the same
as attached to the section. As a result, nodes adjacent to bearing plate move with the load
bearing plate as it was given displacement to represent compression load. At this point X
and Z displacements were restricted, with Y displacement allowed.
Load is applied through a load bearing plate which represents the actual loading
conditions applied in the experiments. Load bearing plate and the top flange of the
section were connected by a pair of contact surfaces where nodes on flange edge
represent same loading conditions as in load bearing plate.
5. COMPARISON
Results of the analysis were obtained by using ANSYS general postprocessor
/POST1 and time history postprocessor /POST26. These processors are built in the
ANSYS software and used for different functions. General postprocessor /POST1 was
used to view the results of the analysis and to obtain the various nodal stress and strain
values and the deformed shape. History postprocessor /POST26 was used to provide
results over the time history and very useful in obtaining the load vs. deformation graphs
446
Fig. 8. FEA results (load and displacement) for section p2-wnf & p2-fnoe
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Rhodes, J., 1991. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Members. Elsevier Applied Science:
England. ISBN 1 85166 595 1.
Yu, W.W., 2000. Cold-Formed Steel Design. 3rd Edition. Canada: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0-471-34809-0.
ENV 1993-1-3:2006, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures; Part 1.3: General Rules Supplementary Rules for Cold Formed Thin Gauge Members and Sheeting. November
2009. (Edited Draft).
British Standards Institution, 1998. British standards for structural use of steel work in
buildings Part 5: Code of practice for design of cold formed thin gauge sections.
BS5950.
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2007.Specification for the Design of Cold Formed
Steel Structural Members, AISI-S100-07.
AS/NZS4600, 2005. Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Standards Australia, Sydney.
Don Allen, P E., 2007. Innovations in Cold-Formed Steel Framing. Insights, pp. 54-56.
Cristopher, D.M., 2009. Direct strength design of Cold-formed steel members with
perforations. The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Civil Engineering. Baltimore.
Teng, J.G., Michael, R., 2004. Buckling of thin metal shells. Spon Press. London.
Schafer, B.W., Pekz, T., Local and distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel
Members with Edge Stiffened Flanges. [online] available at:
<http://ceeserver.cee.cornell.edu/tp26/TWResearchGroup/tpadd/edgepap-corr.doc>
Young, B., Local buckling and shift of effective centroid of slender sections. Available
through: University of Hong Kong [online] website
<www.hkisc.org/proceedings/2006421/9_Ben-Young.pdf>.
Eurocode resources. [online] available at: <http://www.eurocode-resources.com/bucklinga16.html>.
AISI. Distortional buckling of cold-formed steel columns, Research Report rp. 00 1.
Revision 2006.
ANSYS, Inc, November 2010. ANSYS Mechanical APDL Structural Analysis Guide:
ANSYS Release 13.0. USA.
Rhodes, J. and Schneider, F.D., Compressional Behaviour of Perforated Elements, 12th
International Specialty Conference on Col-Formed Steel Structures, St. Louis, Missouri,
USA, October 1994.
448
1. INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed thin-walled beams are widely applied in many engineering structures
- vehicles, machines, buildings and others. Thin-walled beams are at risk of losing their
stability. The global buckling especially lateral buckling phenomenon as well as local
buckling of beam cross section parts play crucial role and they must not be omitted while
designing process. Strength and buckling problems of these beams are described in many
monographs and papers of the 20th century, for example in chronological order by Vlasov
[1], Bleich [2], Timoshenko and Gere [3], Murray [4], Baant and Cedolin [5], Weiss and
Giejowski [6], and Trahair [7].
Besides monographs, these problems have been presented in many papers for years.
Rasmussen [8] presented a general bifurcation analysis of thin-walled beams. Hancock [9]
used FSM (finite strip method) to study local, distortional and flexural-torsional buckling
problems of I-beams, and together with Papangelis [10] studied analytically and
numerically buckling problems of thin-walled beams with open and closed cross sections.
Put et al. [11, 12] concentrated with cold-formed lipped channel-section beams.
Shapes of flanges or webs of cold-formed thin-walled channel beams are rather
complicated. Davis [13], Magnucki and Paczos [14] overview problems of channel
beams. Selected problems of buckling and optimal design of cold-formed thin-walled
beams were reviewed by Magnucka-Blandzi and Magnucki [15].
The subject of the paper is thin-walled channel beams with orthotropic flanges. The
beam is under compression (Fig. 1) or pure bending. Flanges consist of two plates. The
449
(1)
(2)
S0 1 k 2 sin 2 21 d 1 ,
1 z1 b0 ,
ca
,
b0
and m denotes the number of cosine waves, t a thickness of the beam, ca and b0 their
amplitude and period respectively, a and b dimensions of the cross section, and
H 2a t a depth of the beam.
The geometric stiffness for Saint-Venant torsion of the cross section is given in the
formula
Jt
2 3
at f 0 x0 , x1 , x4 .
3
(3)
The location of the centroid (point O ) follows from a first moment of the cross section
with respect to the principal axis y which equals zero, i.e.
1
1
1
1
z0 A 2t b 2 b12 b1 b b1 b0 S0 m b1 mb0 0
2
2
2
2
(4)
therefore
z 0 b x4
1 2 x1 m2 x1 mx0 x0 S 0
.
2 f 0 x0 , x1 , x4
(5)
Moments of inertia of the plane area with respect to the y and z axes are as follows
1
2
J y 2a 3t x1 1 x1 x12 mx 03 S 3
3
3
1
(6)
J z 2a 3t f 3 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,
(7)
1
2
1
1
x4 1 2 x1 1 x3 x4 2 m x0 x22 x42 S 2 1 x3 x4 x2 x4 S0 ,
3
2
f 3 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
zC z B
2
Jz
451
y dA
(8)
B1 0 , B 2 ab , B3 B 2 tb , B 4 B3 b1 a t , B5 z B 4 B z ,
2z0
1
2z
dz0 a t ca 1 cos
b b1 z ,
B z a t 2 z b b1 ca 1 cos
b0
2
b0
1
z
y1 a , y2 a , y3 a t , y4 a t , y5 z a t ca 1 cos 2 ,
2
b0
for z mb0 the coordinate y5 y5 mb0 a t , and y6 a t .
Therefore
zC z B
a 4t
1 2 x1 1 x3 x 4 21 x3 x 4 2 x1 mx 0 1 x3 x 4 x 2 x 4 mx 0
Jz
8 2 mx 0 2 x1 2 2 x 3 x 4 x 2 x 4 2 2 x 3 x 4 x 2 x 4 S 0
x 22 x 4 2 2 x1 mx 0 S 2
(9)
m
x 0 x 42
4
The sectorial coordinates (the warping functions) with respect to the shear centre point
C for characteristic points of the cross section are:
1 z B zC a , 2 1 ab , 3 2 t b zB zC , 4 3 b1 a t ,
5 z 4 C z ,
where
dz 0
1
z
a t ca 1 cos 2 b b1 z z B z C a t b b1 z B zC
2
b0
z
C z 2a t z ca 1 cos 2
z0
b0
for z mb0
5 5 mb0 4 mb0 a t ca ,
and
452
6 5 b1 a t .
Then the warping moment of inertia of the area of the cross section is as follows
J 2 s dA ,
(10)
which is equal to
J 2t J1 J 2 J 3 J 4 J 5 J 6 ,
(11)
where
1
2
J 1 a 3 z B zC ,
3
1
J 2 a 2b z B zC b2 z B zC 2 z B 2 zC b ,
3
1
J 3 t z B zC b2 a 2 z B zC a t ba t z B zC 2a t b 2a t ,
3
1
2
b1 b1 z B z C a t ba t
3
z B z C a t ba t b1 2 z B 2 z C a t 2ba t ,
J 4
1
1
1
1
A62 m2m 3 1 A72 A5 A7 b0 A6 m 1 A7 A5b0 S 0 ,
2
1
1
1
1
A1 ca , A2 ca b b1 z B zC , A3 ca b0 , A4
ca b0 ,
2
2
2
2
1
1
A5 a t ca , A6 b0 2a 2t ca ,
2
2
A7
1
2ab b1 z B zC b1 2t ca ca 2t b z B zC ,
2
453
S1 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S3 2 12 1 k 2 sin 2 21 d 1 ,
S6 sin2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S7 sin4 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S8 sin 2 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
0
and
1
J 6 b1 2b1 z B z C a t ba t mb0 a t ca
3
3b1 2 z B 2 z C a t 2ba t 2mb0 a t ca
b1 z B z C a t ba t mb0 a t ca .
2
3. GLOBAL BUCKLING
Two cases of loads are considered. The first one is a beam under pure bending (a
beam carries two equal moments at its ends). In this case, the lateral buckling moment of
a thin-walled beam under pure bending is as follows [15]
M CR
E
2 J
J y J t 1 21 2 ,
L Jt
21 L
(12)
M CR
a .
Jz
(13)
The second case is a beam subjected to a compressive force. Two global buckling modes
are taking into account. The first one is the flexural buckling. Then the critical force (the
Euler critical force) is as follows
Euler
FCR
2 EJ y
L2
(14)
Euler
FCR
.
A
454
(15)
Jt
AE
2
2 J ,
2
J y J z ( z0 zc ) A 21 L
(16)
Wagner
FCR
.
A
(17)
4. NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
Buckling problems of thin-walled channel beams with orthotropic flange are
numerically solved with the use of the finite strip method (CUFSM B. Schafer).
Obtained results are compared to analytical ones.
Detailed numerical analysis and results of analytical calculations have been conducted for
the beam with following sizes: H 200 mm , t 1mm , a H t 2 99.5 mm ,
constants are: the Youngs modulus E 2 105 MPa , the Poissons ratio 0.3 .
Lateral
The values of critical stresses have been analytically obtained ( CR
) based on
FSMl
the equation (13), and numerically ( CR
) with the use of FS method for lateral
buckling, and have been presented in Fig. 3 and Table 1.
455
L [mm]
5000
6000
8000
Lateral
94.85
66.45
38.20
25.11
21.06
17.98
15.57
13.66
FSM
85.61
62.06
36.50
24.14
20.28
17.32
15.01
13.17
relative
error %
10.79
7.07
4.66
4.02
3.85
3.81
3.73
3.72
CR
CR
While the beam has been compressed two types of buckling have occurred: flexural and
torsional buckling. The values of critical stresses have been analytically calculated based
on Eqs. (15) and (17) respectively. Comparison of numerical and analytical results has
been presented in Table 2 and Fig. 4 for flexural buckling mode, and in Table 3 for
torsional buckling mode.
Euler
CR
3.05
2.83
2.61
2.58
2.54
2.45
2.29
2.14
FSM
2.84
2.73
2.61
2.60
2.55
2.47
2.31
2.16
relative
error %
7.39
3.66
0.78
0.39
0.82
0.87
0.93
CR
456
L [mm]
Wagner
CR
4000
5000
9000
61.95
40.23
13.54
11.27
6.54
4.60
3.61
3.05
FSM
57.33
38.12
12.98
10.80
6.25
4.36
3.40
2.84
relative
error %
8.06
5.54
4.31
4.35
4.64
5.50
6.18
7.39
CR
The flexural buckling has revealed for the beam longer then 26000 mm , while the
torsional buckling for shorter beams.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the mathematical model of a cold-formed thin-walled channel beam
with orthotropic flanges is presented. Analytical and numerical studies are devoted to
global buckling. The formulas for global buckling loads when the beam is axially
compressed and under pure bending are obtained. Numerical calculations have been
performed not only using analytical formulae presented in the paper but also with the use
of finite strip method. The values of critical loads obtained from each method correspond
to each other very well. Differences decrease in lateral buckling mode for sufficiently
long beams if the beam length increases. When the beam is axially compressed the
influence of torsion on the buckling load may be observed for the shorter beam while the
flexural buckling mode has revealed for the longer one.
REFERENCES
[1]
Vlasov V.Z., Thin-walled elastic bars, Fizmatgiz, Moscow, 1st ed. 1940, 2nd ed. 1959 (in
Russian).
[2] Bleich F., Buckling strength of metal structures, McGraw-Hill, New York 1952.
[3] Timoshenko S.P., Gere J.M., Theory of elastic stability, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York 1961.
[4] Murray N.W., Introduction to the theory of thin-walled structures, Clarendon Press,
Oxford 1986.
[5] Baant Z.P., Cedolin L., Stability of structures, Oxford University Press, New York,
Oxford 1991.
[6] Weiss S., Giejowski M., Stability of metal constructions, Arkady, Warsaw 1991 (in
Polish).
[7] Trahair N.S., Flexural-torsional buckling of structures, F&FN Spon, an imprint of
Chapman & Hall, London 1993.
[8] Rasmussen K.J.R., Bifurcation of locally buckled members, Thin-Walled Structures 28(2),
Elsevier, 1997, pp. 117154.
[9] Hancock G.J., Local, distortional, and lateral buckling of I-beams, Journal of the Structural
Division 104(ST11), ASCE 1978, pp. 17871798.
[10] Papangelis J.P., Hancock G.J., Computer Analysis of Thin-Walled Structural Members,
Computers and Structures 56(1), 1995, pp. 157176.
[11] Put B.M., Pi Youg-Lin, Trahair N.S., Lateral buckling tests on cold-formed channel
beams, Journal of Structural Engineering 125(5), 1999, pp. 532539.
457
458
2. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Evaluation of blast influence on load capacity of investigated structure was done by
comparison of results derived for three models: perfect I-beam structure, pillar subjected
to blast acting directly and for pillar covered by protective panel. All three models were
prepared using the same FE base model, by subtracting part of the model or by changing
analysis sequence.
2.1. FE MODEL
FEM models of the column and each part of protective panel were made. Part of the
panel made from metallic foam was modeled using 8-node hex elements. Other parts of
panel assembly, as well as column were discretized using 4-node Belytschko-Lin-Tsay
shell elements (Fig. 2).
Both column and panel mount to a concrete foundation has been modeled by fixing
translational degrees of freedom in appropriate nodes. Additional rigid walls were also
introduced in order to describe contact conditions between concrete base and structure. In
460
(1)
Ki xi 1 Qi
(2)
Small restart
Blast loading
(Explicit with ALE)
Full restart
Dynamic behaviour
(Explicit)
Static loading
(Statics)
In the second stage results from the previous stage were taken into account as prestress field present in the column. It was obtained using dynamic relaxation procedure.
Dynamic relaxation allows to quickly reaching preloaded state by linear ramping nodal
displacement field to prescribed values over 100 time steps. It should be noted that the
comparison of stress field taken from static analysis and stress field generated by
dynamic relaxation procedure showed small differences introduced by the latter. On the
other hand, the procedure allows for application of predefined stress filed on selected part
of FE model in a very effective manner.
The blast loading in this stage require to apply transient dynamics procedure with
explicit central difference time integration. Equation solved had the following form:
(3)
where: M - the diagonal mass matrix, Fnext - external and body force loads, Fnint -the
stress divergence vector, C - dumping matrix.
Gas domain, consisted of air and detonation products, was modeled using finite
volume technique (so called Euler formulation). The coupling between Lagrangian
formulation (solid material) and Eulerian formulation (gas medium) was taken into
account during calculations. Generaly ALE procedure consists of the following sequence
of steps: the classical Lagrangian step and the advection step. The advection step is
carried out with the assumption that changes in the positioning of nodes are only slight
(very small) in comparison to characteristics (lengths of elements that surround these
nodes).
In the performed numerical tests the detonation process of TNT high explosive
material was implemented through the automatically programmed burn model, supported
by LS-DYNA using so called explosive burn material model. The energy contained in
the HE was assumed to be immediately released inside the front of detonation wave. The
detonation requires modelling of the movement of the PD (product of detonation) after
reaching successive locations by the DW (detonation wave) front. Hence
462
e
p A 1
exp R1 B 1
exp R2
R1
R2
(4)
The final stage was similar to the first one in terms of analysis type. Again static
analysis with Newton-Raphson procedure was used. This time, however, data exchange
required to generate prestress state in the I-beam, was conducted using more accurate
"stress initialization" option. Structure was loaded by a multiple of operating force, so
that the iteration procedure could reach the point of divergence due to ill-conditioned
463
In Fig. 6 final deflection of beam axis for all three geometries is shown. The area
affected by blast wave dominates in case of unprotected structure. On the deflection
curve of protected column effects of outbreak are also noticeable, but it has rather local
character. Therefore global structure behavior is similar to elastic beam.
The protective panel influence can be much more clearer noticed in Fig. 7, where
plastic strain distributions are shown for protected and unprotected I-beam structure. For
the investigated mass and location of charge, blast wave impact generates well developed
plastic hinge in unprotected structure, while protected structure remains virtually elastic.
464
a)
Fig. 7.
b)
465
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
466
This paper describes the numerical results on the flange vertical buckling of a
hybrid steel girder. The flange vertical buckling is one of the buckling patterns in
an I-shaped steel girder under bending. This type of buckling is expected to occur
in the girder with the very slender or weak web plate, and is considered as a very
rare type of buckling. In a hybrid steel girder, the top and the bottom parts of the
web plate yield although the flange plates are still in the elastic range at the ultimate
state, therefore, a hybrid girder is to be considered to have very weak web plate at
its ultimate state. In practically, the experimental test on behaviour of the hybrid
girders by authors indicates that vertical buckling occurred in one of the test models.
The authors have indicated that the vertical buckling behavior of a hybrid girder is
affected mainly by loading imperfections. In this paper, the authors try to reproduce
the test results on vertical buckling completely and show the conditions, which may
affect vertical buckling behavior.
1. INTRODUCTION
A hybrid steel girder is compound of the
high-strength steel flange plate and the normalsteel web plate. On the other hand, a steel girder,
which consists of the same grade steel for the
flange plate and the web plate is called as a
homogeneous steel girder. Bending is carried
mainly by the flange plates in a steel plate girder.
Therefore, a hybrid steel girder that has high
performance to carry bending is considered. In
addition, it is expected to reduce the construction
cost by using a hybrid steel girder.
Photo 1. Observed vertical buckling [2]
JSSC (Japan Society of Steel Construction)
organized a subcommittee on hybrid steel girders and proposed the design method of
hybrid steel girders [1]. To establish the proposal, the subcommittee carried out a series
of experimental tests on behaviour of hybrid steel girders. During the test, unexpected
flange vertical buckling occurred in one of the test models as shown in Photo 1 [2].
467
2. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
2.1 GENERAL
The aim of this paper is to reproduce the JSSC test result on vertical buckling and to
shows the conditions which may affect vertical buckling behaviour. In this paper, three
types of analyses are carried out. In the first analysis type, it is tried to reproduce the test
results by the numerical analysis. Second analysis is made to clarify the influence of the
parameters such as web and flange thickness. In the third analysis, comparison is made
with the hybrid steel girders and homogeneous girders.
In all numerical models, out-of-plane initial deflection is considered with the cosines
shape of 0.7 mm in the centre-bottom web panel and 0.3mm in the centre-top web panel.
468
In the first analysis, three difference patterns of analysis conditions are dealt with.
Fig. 3 shows the three types of the condition patterns. In the condition pattern 1 (Fig. 1a),
the model has the completely symmetric shape and the completely symmetric loadings.
That is, with this condition pattern, the numerical model has the shapes and the
dimensions completely equal to the nominal shapes and the nominal dimensions of the test
model.
As opposed to this pattern, the condition pattern 2 and the condition pattern 3 have
the asymmetry conditions in the shape or the loading.
During the fabrication process of a steel girder, when welding transverse stiffeners, it
may be attached on the wrong position due to the low fabrication accuracy. Considering
this low accuracy of the fabrication, in the condition pattern 2, the transverse stiffener
indicated with the thick black line in Fig. 3b is shifted by 2mm to the right direction.
469
In the JSSC test [2], two loadings shown in Fig. 1 are considered to be nominally
equal to each other. However, the review of the test results indicates that the left load is
larger by around 1 than the right load during the test. Therefore, to realize this
imperfection of the asymmetricity, in the condition pattern 3, the left side loading is kept
to be larger by 1 than the right side loading.
2.3 SECOND ANALYSIS
This analysis is the parameter analysis for hybrid steel girders; here the parameters
are the flange thickness (Tf) and the web thickness (Tw).
The numerical model of this analysis is generally equal with the model use in the
first analysis except the flange and web thickness. This model is fixed vertically and
horizontally at the left ends, and fixed vertically at the right end.
The asymmetry loading is introduced in this analysis, i.e. left side loading is kept to
be 1 larger than right side. The numerical model of this analysis, as same to the first
analysis, the SM570 high strength steel is used for the flange plates and the LY235 low
yield steel for the central part of the web pale. The remaining parts of the web plate are
made by the SM400 normal steel.
The model layout of the second analysis is illustrated in Fig. 4.
470
471
In Fig. 7, the deformation of the condition pattern 2 at the final stage is illustrated. In
this model, the combination of torsional buckling and vertical buckling occurs. Fig. 8
shows the load-deflection relation under this case. The vertical and horizontal axes of this
figure are same as those of Fig. 6. With this pattern, the numerical model behaves almost
equally to the previous case up to the displacement reached to about 70mm. In this model,
472
The deformation at the final stage under the condition pattern 3 is shown in Fig. 9.
In this model, vertical buckling occurs in the top flange, shifted from the centre by
200mm. Fig. 10 shows the load-deflection relation under this condition. This figure
indicates that the displacement and the load increase linearly and reach the peak load
(925KN) as same as figures 6 and 8. After that stage, only the displacement increases up
to 60mm although the load is almost constant. However, beyond this stage, the load starts
decreasing very rapidly. At this point, vertical buckling is observed.
473
TwTf
4.0mm
4.5mm
5.0mm
5.6mm
6.0mm
6.3mm
7.0mm
8.0mm
13mm
3.25
2.89
2.60
2.32
2.17
2.06
1.86
1.63
14m
3.50
3.11
2.80
2.50
2.33
2.22
2.00
1.75
15mm
3.75
3.33
3.00
2.68
2.50
2.38
2.14
1.88
474
16mm
4.00
3.56
3.20
2.86
2.67
2.56
2.29
2.00
18mm
4.50
4.00
3.60
3.21
3.00
2.86
2.57
2.25
13mm
14m
15mm
16mm
18mm
4.06
4.38
4.69
5.00
5.63
3.6mm
3.61
3.25
3.89
4.17
4.44
5.00
4.0mm
4.50
2.89
3.75
3.33
4.00
4.5mm
3.50
3.11
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.56
3.20
4.00
5.0mm
5.6mm
2.32
2.50
2.68
2.86
3.60
3.21
6.0mm
2.17
2.33
2.50
2.67
3.00
6.3mm
2.06
2.22
2.38
2.54
2.86
4. REMARKS
The limit depth-thickness ratio for which no flange vertical buckling occurs for an
unstiffened web plate can be estimated with the formula [3]
b
2 E Aw 1
(1)
t
241 2 A f f f
where b denotes the web depth, t the web thickness, E the Youngs modulus of the web
plate, Aw the area of the web plate, Af the area of the flange plate, f the yield stress of
the flange plate and f denotes the yield strain of the flange plate. Substituting the
measured material properties into (1) and Aw and Af of the test model (or of the typical
numerical model), the limit of the depth-thickness ratio is obtained to b t 254 for both
the hybrid girder and the homogeneous girder. However, the test model (or the typical
numerical model) has a web depth-thickness ratio of 200. This fact suggests that vertical
buckling never arises in the test model or the numerical model. However, in addition to
the test result, the numerical results in this paper show that vertical buckling may arise,
and thus the new formula is required.
The results in this paper indicate that, when the numerical model has completely
symmetric shapes and dimensions, flange torsional buckling occurred, and with
475
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Subcommittee for Design Method of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders, A Prorosal for
Design Method of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders using Ultimate State Design, JSSC
(Japanese Society of Steel Construction), Tokyo, 2002. (in Japanese)
Shimizu S., Zhang J., Tanaka N., Akehashi K., Nakai H., An Experimental Study
on Ultimate Strength Behaviour of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders, Steel Construction
Eng., JSSC (Japanese Society of Steel Constr.), 10, 51-60, 2003. (in Japanese)
Basler K., Thurlimann, B., Strength of plate girders in bending, Proc. ASCE, ST6,
153-181, 1961.
Shimizu S., Yamasaki, Y. Tanaka,N., The Numerical Analysis on Flange
Vertical Buckling in Hybrid Steel Girders, Int. Conference on Numerical Analysis
and Applied Mathematics (ICNAAM 2011), Halkidiki, Greece, 1168-1671, 2011.
Shimizu S., Flange vertical buckling of a hybrid steel girder, Thin-Walled
Structures - statics and stability, to be appear.
476
The object of analysis is a composite annular plate with the apparent properties
smoothly varying along a radial direction. The plate interacting with an elastic
heterogeneous subsoil with two moduli. The aim of contribution is to formulate
macroscopic mathematical model describing stability of this plate. The
considerations are based on those summarized in monographs (Woniak et al. 2008,
2010). Some applications of the tolerance averaging technique for the modelling of
various stability problems for elastic microheterogeneous structures are presented in
papers; Baron (2003), Jdrysiak (2007), Jdrysiak and Michalak (2011), Michalak
(1998), Tomczyk (2010).
1. INRODUCTION
The contribution is devoted to the determine of stability of microheterogeneous
annular plates interacting with an elastic foundation with two foundation moduli. The
assumed model of foundation is a generalization of the well known Winkler model. The
introduction of an additional modulus of horizontal deformability of the foundation makes
it possible to describe the stability of the plate resting on a sufficiently fine net of elastic
point supports such as piles or columns. The object of the analysis is a composite thin
plate with the apparent properties smoothly varying along a radial direction of the plate
(Fig.1).
477
sequel, a vertical line before the subscripts stands for the covariant derivative and
/ . The plate rests on the generalized Winkler foundation whose properties are
characterized by vertical k z and horizontal k t foundation moduli. The foundation
reaction according to (Gomuliski (1967)) has three components acting in the direction of
the coordinates ( z, , ) :
Rz k z w
R kt
h
w
2
R kt
h1
w ,
2
(1)
The model equations for the stability of the considered plate will be obtained in the
framework of the well-known second order non-linear theory for thin plates resting on
elastic foundation (Woniak et al. 2001). Denoting the displacement field of the plate
midsurface by w(x, t ) , the external forces by p(x, t ) and by the mass density related to
this midsurface, we obtain strain-displacement and constitutive equations
m D ,
(2)
(w()) (y, w|(y, t), w|(y, t), w (y, t), w(y, t))dtdy,
t0
(3)
h2
kt w w ) pw.
(4)
4
where n are in-plane forces and Kronecker-deltas will be treated as a tensor;
11 1 / 2 , 22 1 .
For Lagrangian (4) we can write the Euler-Lagrange equation
12 (w w n w| w| D w| w| k z w w
0.
t w w w| | w| |
(5)
( D w ) (n )
h2
p .
(kt w ) k z w w
4
(6)
This direct description leads to plate equations with discontinuous and highly oscillating
coefficients. These equations are to complicated to be used in the engineering analysis
and will be used as starting point in the tolerance modelling procedure.
3. TOLERANCE MODELLING
Introduce the polar coordinates system O1 2 , 0 1 , R1 2 R2 so that the
undeformed midplane of annular plate occupies the region [0, ] [ R1 , R2 ] . Let ,
f ( , )
1
f (, ) d .
2
(7)
1 / 2
for every 1 [ / 2, / 2] , 2 [ R1 , R2 ] .
The first assumption in the tolerance modelling is micro-macro decomposition of the
displacement field
w( , t ) w0 ( , t ) h A (1 )VA ( , t )
(8)
1 . Functions
w0 (, 2 , t ) SV2 (, ) ,
wh ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( , t ) h A ( y ) V A ( , t ),
wh ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( , t ) 1h A ( y ) V A ( , t ) h A ( y ) 2V A ( , t ),
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( , t ) h A ( y ) V ( , t ),
h
(9)
480
1
2
w w h A w 0 VA 12 h A B VAVB p w 0 ph A V A
0
12 D w 0 w 0 D11 h A 11 w 0 V A D 22 h A V A 22 w 0
2 D12 h A 1 w 0 V A 2 D1122 h A 11h B V A VB 22 12 D1111h A 11h B 11 V A VB
2 D1212 h A 1h B 1 V A 2 VB 2 12 D 2222 h A h B V A 22 VB 22
1
k z w0 w0
2
1
h2
k z h A h B VB V A
k t g A g B 22 V A 2 VB 2
2
8
h2
h2
1 w 0 V A
k t h A 2 w 0 V A 2
k t h A 1h B 1 11 V A VB
4
4
k z h A w0 V A
h2
kt h A 1
4
h2
k t w 0 w 0 12 n w 0 w 0 n1 h A 1 w 0 V A n 2 h A V A 2 w 0
8
12 n11h A 1h B 1 V A VB n12 h A 1h B V A VB 2 12 n 22 h A h B V A 2 VB 2
(10)
Applying the principle of stationary action to averaged functional h the EulerLagrange equations take the form
L L
L
L
(
) (
),
0
0
0
0
t w
w
w ,
w0
L L
L
L
(
) (
), 2
0
t VA
V A 22 22
VA ,2
VA
(11)
Using the averaged Lagrangian (10) we obtain the following system of equations
describing stability of the plate resting on microheterogeneous foundation
( D w0 ) ( D 11h A 11 V A ) ( D 22 h A V A 22 )
k z w0 k z h A V A
h2
h2
( k t w0 ) ( k t h A 1 1V A )
4
4
h2
0 p ,
( k t h A 2V A 2 ) ( N w 0 ) w
4
481
(12)
k z h A w0
n ( ) N ( ) n~ ( ) ,
(13)
for
almost
every
If
() ,
k z () ,
kt () ,
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) , y ( )
(14)
~
where h A ( y, 2 ) are periodic approximation of highly oscillating functions h A () . From
formula (14) we obtain
~ y
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 1h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) 2V A ( y, 2 , t )
~
y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t )
~A y 2
~ y
2
21h ( , ) 2V A ( y, , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) 22V A ( y, 2 , t )
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) VA ( y, 2 , t )
(15)
Bearing in mind that by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), function
~
h A ( y / , 2 ) , y ( ) , is weakly bounded and has under 0 weak limit. Under
limit passage 0 for y ( ) we obtain
w 0 y, 2 , t w 0 ( , t ) O(),
w y, , t w ( , t ) O()
0
V A y, , t V A ( , t ) O(),
2
w y, , t w 0 ( , t ) O(),
2
2V A y, 2 , t 2V A ( , t ) O()
w 0 y , 2 , t w 0 ( , t ) O ( )
(16)
VA y, 2 , t VA ( , t ) O()
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) O()
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) O()
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( y, 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) O()
2
0
2
w ( y, , t ) w ( y, , t ) O()
For a periodic approximation of Lagrangian we have
483
(17)
~ y
y
y
y
( , 2 , w0 ( , 2 , t ) O(), w0 ( , 2 , t ) O(), w 0 ( , 2 , t ) O(),
~
y
y
y
w0 ( , 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 )V A ( , 2 , t ) O())
(18)
~
If 0 then by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), tends
weakly in to
, w , t , w , t , w , t , w , t
0 , w0 , t , w0 , t , w 0 , t , w0 , t ,V A , t
1 ~
y,
x
11
~
h A y, 2 V A , t dy.
(19)
w ,V (
t1
(20)
t0
0
0
kz w w
k t w w 2 n w0 w0 w 0 w 0 p w0 .
2
8
2
(21)
From principle stationary action we can derive the Euler-Lagrange equations
0 0
0 0
0
0
t w
w
w ,
0
0 0
w
(22)
0
0, A 1,...,N
V A
Substituting formulae (21) into equations (22), governing equations of the plate under
consideration take the form
484
h2
( k t w0 )
4
0 p
( N w0 ) w
D11 h A 11 w0 D1111 h A 11 h B 11 VB 0
(23)
Eliminating V A from second equation (23)
VA
D11 h B 11
w0
1111 A
B
D h 11 h 11
(24)
Deff
D
D11 h B 11
D11 h A 11 ,
D1111h A 11 h B 11
(25)
we arrive the following equation of motion for the averaged displacement of the plate
midplane w0 ( , t )
( Deff
w0 ) k z w0
h2
( kt w0 ) ( N w0 )
.
4
(26)
0 p
w
Equations (24)-(24) represent the asymptotic model of the stability behaviour of the plate
interacting with microheterogeneous subsoil.
The general results of contribution will be illustrated by analysis of the stability of
an annular plate resting on elastic heterogeneous foundation. Coefficients of model
equations (12), (26) are a smooth functions of radial coordinate ( R0 , R1 ) , and in most
cases numerical methods have to be used in order to obtain solutions. In this contribution
in order to obtain the approximate solution of equations (26) will be used the Galerkin
method. Example of the obtained results will be given during presentation.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Baron E., On dynamic stability of an uniperiodic medium thickness plate band, J. Theor.
Appl. Mech., 41, 2003, pp. 305-321.
Gomuliski A., Determination of eigenvalues for circular plates resting on elastic
foundation with two moduli, Arch. In. Ld. 13, 2, 1967, pp. 183-203.
Jdrysiak J., The tolerance averaging model of dynamic stability of thin plates with onedirectional periodic structure, Thin Walled Struct., 45, 2007, pp. 855-860.
Jdrysiak J., Michalak B., On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin-Walled Struct., 49, 2011, pp. 627-635
485
Michalak B., Stability of elastic slightly wrinkled plates, Acta Mechanica, 130, 1998, pp.
111-119.
Tomczyk B., Dynamic stability of microperiodic cylindrical shells, Mech. Mechanical
Eng., 14, 2010, pp. 137150.
[7]
Wgrowska M., Woniak Cz., On the modelling of dynamic problems for visco-elastic
composites, Int. J. Engng Sci., 35, 1996, pp. 923-932.
[8]
Woniak Cz., (eds.), Mechanics of elastic plates and shells (In polish), Warszawa, PWN
2001.
[9]
Woniak Cz., et al., (eds.), Mathematical modeling and analysis in continuum mechanics
of microstructured media, Wydawnictwo Politechniki lskiej, Gliwice, 2010.
[10] Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J., (eds.), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures, Wydawnictwo Politechniki dzkiej, d, 2008.
486
487
1, 2 and t stand for the time coordinate. Subsequently we shall use denotations x x1 ,
SP
488
hE
(e11 e22 )
1 2
hE
n 22
(e22 e11 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
n11
(1)
(2)
hE
e12
1
hE
(e22 e33 )
1 2
hE
(3)
n 33
(e33 e22 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
S
SP
From condition of continuity on interfaces i i
n 22
489
hE
1 2
(e33 e22 ) ,
(4)
we derive
e33 [
E
1 2
e22
h
h
E
(e11 e22 )] /[ ( 2 )
]
H
H
1 2
(5)
SP
N 11 h( 2)e11 he22
N 22 [ HE h( 2)]e22 he11 ,
N 12
(6)
hE
e12
1
hE
(e11 e22 )
1 2
hE
n 22
(e22 e11 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
n11
(7)
to the midplane.
In the framework of the linear theory for plane-stress state we obtain:
- equations of motion
~
0 ,
N p ~ w
where
490
(8)
h
(h H )
in P
,
in S
~
n
N
in P
in S
(9)
(10)
~
N D e ,
(11)
~
N 11 D1111e11 D1122 e22 ,
~
N 22 D 2211e11 D 2222 e22 ,
~
N 12 D1212 e12 .
(12)
where
It can be seen that the coefficients in above equations are discontinuous and highly
oscillating. These equations are to complicated to be used in the engineering analysis and
will be used as starting point in the tolerance modelling procedure.
3. TOLERANCE MODELLING
In order to derive averaged model equations we applied tolerance averaging
approach. This technique based on the concept of tolerance and indiscrenibility relations
and on the definition of slowly-varying functions. The general modelling procedures of
this technique are given in books (Woniak et al. 2008, 2010).
The fundamental concept of the modelling technique is the averaging an arbitrary
integrable function f () over the cell i
1
i
f ( y) dy
y i .
(13)
w ( x , t ) u ( x , t ) g ( x1 )V ( x , t )
(14)
to
the
argument
x1 (0, L1 ) .
491
Functions
u (, x 2 , t ) SV1 (, ) ,
(15)
r N p ~
w
(16)
r T ( x1 ) 0,
g r T ( x1 ) 0
(17)
( D u D 1 1 g V D 2 g 2V ) p
~
u ~
g V 0
2 ( D 2 g u g D 21 1 g V g D 2 2 g 2V ) D1 1 g u
g D11 g V g D1 2 g V p g ~
g u g ~
g V 0
1
(18)
The above results represent the system equations for averaged displacements u ( x , t ) ,
and displacements fluctuation amplitudes V ( x , t ) . These equations together with micromacro decomposition of displacement fields (14) and physical condition that solutions
have to be slowly-varying functions with respect to the argument x1 (0, L1 ) , constitute
the tolerance model of structural plate under consideration.
492
every x . If ~
() , D () HO0 (, ) then for every x there exist functions
~
() , D () ,
( y, x 2 ) , D ( y, x 2 ) which are periodic approximation of functions ~
respectively.
The fundamental assumption of the asymptotic modelling is that we introduce
decomposition of displacement as family of fields
y
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( y, t ) g~( ) V ( y, t ),
where
g~(, x 2 ) are
periodic
approximation
y ( x), t (t 0 , t1 )
of
highly
oscillating
(19)
functions
y
2
2
2
w ( y, x , t ) u ( y, x , t ) g~( )V ( y, x , t ),
(20)
Bearing in mind that by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), function
g~( y / , x 2 ) , y (x) , is weakly bounded and has under 0 weak limit. Under limit
passage 0 for y (x) we obtain
u ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
u ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O().
u ( y, x , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
2
493
(21)
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
y
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) 1 g~( )V ( x , t ) O().
(22)
( D u D 1 1 g V ) p ~
u 0
D1 1 g u 1 g D11 1 g V 0
(23)
D1 1 g
u ,
1 g D11 1 g
(24)
we arrive the following equation of motion for the averaged displacements of the plate
midplane u ( x , t )
( D
D 1 1 g D1 1 g
) u p ~
u 0 .
1 g D11 1 g
(25)
Equations (24), (25) represent the asymptotic model of the structural plate under
consideration.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Baron E., On dynamic stability of an uniperiodic medium thickness plate band, J. Theor.
Appl. Mech., 41, 2003, pp. 305-321.
Jdrysiak J., Michalak B.,On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin-Walled Struct., 49, 2011, pp. 627-635
Michalak B., Wirowski A., Dynamic modeling of thin plate made of certain functionally
graded materials,Meccanica DOI 10.1007/s11012-011-9532-z.
Nagrko W., Woniak Cz., Nonasymptotic modelling of thin plates reinforced by a system
of stiffeners, Electronic J. Polish Agric. Univ., Civil Engineering, 5, 2002,
www.ejpau.media.pl.
Wgrowska M., Woniak Cz., On the modelling of dynamic problems for visco-elastic
composites, Int. J. Engng Sci., 35, 1996, pp. 923-932.
[6]
Wierzbicki E., Woniak Cz., On the dynamic behaviour of honeycomb based composite
solids, Acta Mechanica, 141, 2000, pp. 161-172.
[7]
Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J., (eds.), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures, 2008,Wydawnictwo Politechniki dzkiej, d.
494
The paper is related to the results of dynamic numerical analyses of stability of thinwalled steel cylinders exposed to an impact load from an infinitely rigid plate with
variable kinetic energy. The influence of the boundary conditions, load speed and
cylinder geometry on the deformation process and the critical forces values (forces
causing the instability) was shown.
1. INTRODUCTION
The thin-walled cylinders are widely used in aerospace and automotive structures as
energy absorbers and protections against crash for example under seats or in bumpers.
The idea of using such crash elements is presented in Fig. 1 [1, 2].
495
The allowable loads for modern construction are usually determined by their
stability. The most popular thin-walled structures have developable surface (e.g.
cylinders). They work under various load conditions, with can cause the structure
instability [3].
The experimental compression test results for thin-walled cylinder were presented in
Fig. 3.
The results of dynamic numerical analyses of stability of thin-walled steel cylinders
exposed to an impact load from an infinitely rigid plate with variable kinetic energy were
presented in the paper. The influence of the boundary conditions, load speed and cylinder
geometry on the deformation process and the critical forces values (forces causing the
instability) was shown.
496
f ext V e BT dV
Mu
(1)
Here is the tensor representing Cauchy stress in the structure, M is a mass matrix,
is the vector of nodal accelerations, fext is the vector of external forces, B is the matrix
of shape functions derivatives and Ve describes the element e volume. An underlying is
related to vector, matrix or tensor quantities.
t=Le/(Q+(Q2+c2)1/2)
(2)
where Q is the function of the bulk viscosity coefficients, c is the adiabatic sound speed,
Le characteristic length of element.
The elastic-plastic material model with isotropic hardening was applied to describe
the material properties for steel. The yield condition is defined in this model as:
=1/2sijsij-(y2/3) = 0
(3)
497
The penalty function can be applied to normal displacements in the displacementbased approach; to normal velocities defined in the velocity-based approach; and to
normal displacements in the velocity-based approach, the latter being the most often form
of application. In the penalty function method the normal contact force is expressed with
the following equation:
Fnij=unijH(-unij)
(4)
where: H() is Heaviside step function and = 1/, - coefficient of the penalty function
[5].
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The thin-walled cylinders numerical models were developed with the use of shell 4node elements The finite element analyses results were presented as values of critical
force (the force that initiates the cylinder damage) in each case described above (Table 1)
and as examples of deformations for v =10 m/s and t =2 ms (Fig. 5).
498
Boundary conditions #1
Boundary conditions #2
Boundary conditions #3
40.9
40
31.7
43.28
37.66
22.11
22.9
41.34
40.98
31.31
45.87
46.08
35.81
15
20
43.2
45.6
46.7
46.2
25.4
28.2
46.44
41.5
42.6
41.6
30.66
35.3
46.76
45.79
46.85
42.68
45.18
45.08
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Cylinder with
circumferential
imperfection
19.3
46.7
Ideal cylinder
43.2
45.1
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Cylinder with
circumferential
imperfection
37.5
Ideal cylinder
5
10
Ideal cylinder
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Load
speed
[m/s]
4. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the influence of the numerical investigation on the influence of the thinwalled cylinder geometry, boundary conditions and load speed on the structure stability
was presented.
It was concluded that the significant influence of cylinder geometry, load speed and
boundary conditions on critical force value was strictly visible. The force rose with the
499
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Brust S., Nagelstrassel M., Watzka W., Crash type destruction Rusing structure - borne
sound sensing, www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv21/09-0230.pdf.
Flesher N., Finite Element Simulation of Braided Composite Tubes for Crash Energy
Absorption,
www.structure.stanford.edu/Project/ResearchProject/flesher/Nathan_Flesher.pdf.
Grybo R., Stateczno konstrukcji pod obcieniem uderzeniowym, Polska Akademia
Nauk, Warszawa 1980.
Nowak J., Cylindryczne elementy energochonne obcione fal uderzeniow, PhD thesis,
Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna, Warszawa. 2008.
Hallquist J.O., LS-Dyna. Theoretical manual, California Livermore Software Technology
Corporation, 1998.
Zienkiewicz O.C., Taylor R.L., The finite element method, 5 th edition, McGraw-Hill,
London 2000.
500
In the article dynamic analysis of the pendulum whose mounting point performs the
vibration was presented. Equation of motion was written and then the stability of
this motion was examined. Finally Mathieu equation without suppression was
obtained, which solution allowed to designate the frequency bands at which the
force of the pendulum motion was unstable.
Keywords: mathematic pendulum, dynamic stability
1. INTRODUCTION
The movement of many mechanical systems is described by the Mathieu differential
equation. An example here might be the lateral vibrations of electric machines rotors,
bipolar [3, 4] or transverse vibrations of spacer bars [5, 6]. Variability of some
parameters like e.g., the magnetic tension force in the case of rotors or compressive force
in the case of rods, such a issue can be checked by the Mathieu differential equation. As a
result of its solution is obtained a range of enforce frequencies at which there is a
phenomenon of instability (parametric resonance). Similar situation occurs in the case of
a mathematical pendulum with oscillating point of suspension. Differential equation
describing such a motion is Mathieu differential equation with coefficients depending on
the amplitude forcing and frequency of change. Stability of motion such a pendulum
depends on whether the parameters of this work are contained in sedate or unsedate
interval. So it was necessary to determine the boundary lines describing a motion stability
of an increased pendulum, based on our own method of solution of Mathieu equation.
2. EQUATION OF PENDULUM MOTION
Considered pendulum is shown in Figure 1. It was assumed that the point of
suspension performs vibrations described by dependence
(t) o cospt
where
501
(1)
The motion equation of the pendulum at the direction perpendicular to its length has the
form
m(sin l) mgsin
(2)
m( g)sin ml 0
(3)
sin
(4)
so
Assuming
m( g) ml 0
After substituting
o cospt
(5)
is obtained
g
) 0
l
(6)
o
2
g
l
(7)
g
l
(1 ) 0
(8)
o 2 [1 f(t)] 0
(9)
where
f(t)
(10)
so
o 2 (1
p 2 o cospt
) 0
g
(11)
o 2 (1 2cospt) 0
(12)
where
p 2 0
2g
(13)
2
Tp
T p - period of change a
,
(14)
l
g
T 2
(15)
1
2
Tp T
T 2Tp
so
(16)
Thus, the period of free oscillation is equal to two periods of change parameter .
In order to determine an instability region the solution of equation (12) was presented in
the form
n (t) A(t)cos
pt
pt
B(t)sin
2
2
(17)
A
A
A
B
B
B
(18)
After differentiating (17) and substituting to (12) differential equation describing the
functions A (t) was given.
(t) 1 A(t)( 1 p 2 2 2 )( 1 p 2 2 2 ) 0
A
o
o
o
o
4
4
p2
(19)
A(t) C1e
1t
C 2 e 2t
(20)
1 1 2
1
2
2
2
2
( p o o )( p 2 o o ) 0
2
4
p 4
(21)
504
2 1
p
2 1
o
(22)
Obtained dependence is identical with dependencies given in other works such as [1, 2].
The boundary lines for area described by equation (22) are shown in Fig. 2.
3. CALCULATION EXAMPLE
Following section analyze of pendulum motion stability with the length
50cm and with the length l2 100cm and the amplitude of extortion
l1
o 10cm . In case of pendulum with length l1 50cm basic on dependence (22)
forcing frequency was obtained at which instability occurs.
After accepting
p 2 o 1
(upper line)
(23)
p 2 o 1
(down line)
(24)
l1 50cm obtained
o
g
4,43s 1 (T0 1,42s)
l1
Then the stability of pendulum motion near the frequency was examined
p 2o 8,86s 1 (T p 0,71s)
Based on dependences (23) and (24) obtained
505
(25)
p 10,48s 1 , p 6,86s 1 .
(26)
ppp
(27)
where
(28)
In above condition pendulum move will be unstable. Then adopted pendulum with length
l2 100cm .
Proceeding as above were obtained sequentially
(29)
ppp
(30)
(31)
because
Dygado Z., Kaliski S., Solarz L., Wodarczyk E., Vibrations and waves. WAT, Warsaw
1965.
McLachlan N.W., Theory and applications of Mathieu functions. Oxford 1947.
Morzuch W., Stateczno dynamiczna wirnikw dwubiegunowych silnikw
asynchronicznych, Archiwum Elektrotechniki, Vol XXXII, No.3-4,1983.
Morzuch W., Obszary niestatcznoci wirnikw klatkowych dwubiegunowych silnikw
asynchronicznych. Archiwum Budowy Maszyn. Vol XXXIII, No.2, 1986.
Morzuch W., Stateczno dynamiczna prta przekadowego ciskanego si okresowozmienn. Rozprawy Inynierskie. 1989 t.37, z 2.
Morzuch W., Dynamic buckling of sandwich bar compressed with periodic variable force.
Engineering Transactions. Vol. 55, 2007.
506
1. INTRODUCTION
Vibrations of many mechanical systems are described by Mathieu or Hill
differential equation. An example here might be the lateral vibrations of electrical
machines rotors [3,5] or the transverse vibrations of spacer rods [4,6]. Variability in time
during the magnetic tension (in the case of the rotors) or variability of compressive force
(in the case of spacer rods) is reduced to examination of issue to solving a differential
equation with time variable coefficients. Depending on adopted model differential
equations may contain same function (the model without damping) or it first derivative
(the model with damping). In this article own methods of solution above differential
equations were presented.
2. THE SOLUTION OF MATHIEU AND HILL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The issues described in the preceding paragraph reduced to solution of differential
equations whose form depends on adopted model of the problem. In the case of adopting
the model without damping considered issue reduced to solving the Mathieu differential
equation in a form:
2 (1 2 cospt)T 0
T
n
n
n
n
(1)
2hT
2 n [1 f(t)]T 0
T
n
n
n
507
(2)
2 (1 2 cospt)T 0
T
n
on
n
n
(3)
T(t) A(t)cos
pt
pt
B(t)sin
2
2
(4)
A
A
A
and
B
B
B
(5)
Analyzing further the solution of the differential equation (3) dependence describing
boundaries of the first area of instability was obtained.
1
1
( z n z)( z n z) 0
4
4
where
z(
on
p
)2
(6)
(7)
z1 z z 2
(8)
2 1 n
p
2 1 n
on
(10)
Tn e ht n
(11)
n n 2 [1 f1 (t)]n 0
where
509
(12)
n 2 n 2 h 2
(13)
f1 (t) n2 f1 (t)
n
(14)
2 h 2
(15)
n 2
1 1 2
1
2
2
[
p
h
)(1
n )][ p 2
n
2
2
2
p 4
n h
4
(n
n 2
h )( 2
n 1)]h 2
2
n h
2
(16)
n 2 n 2 n
(17)
h 2
n (
)
n
where
(18)
at which parametric
resonance occurs.
0 n
1
3
(19)
Elements corresponding quadratic equation resulting from the inequality (16) are
expressed in a form
1 3 n n 4 n 8 n
2
z1
4[(1 3 n )2 n ]
2
510
(20)
1 3 n n 4 n 8 n
2
z2
4[(1 3 n ) 2 n ]
2
(21)
n ,
p
n
Equality of elements will occurs when the discriminant inequality (16) will be equal to
zero. After performing the appropriate transformations obtained
z z1 z 2
1
4(1 n )
(22)
After substitution
z(
n 2
)
p
(23)
obtained
p
2 1 3 n
n
(24)
Boundary lines describing the first area of instability was shown as visual aid in Fig.3
The top of the first instability area has the coordinates.
W(2 1 2 1
2 1 3 1 )
(25)
(1 1 ) 2 1
p
2
2
2
1
1 3 1 1 4 1 8 1
(26)
(1 1 ) 2 1
p
2
2
2
1
1 3 1 1 4 1 8 1
(27)
Dependence (26) describes the upper lines, whereas the dependence (27) describes the
bottom line.
The solutions outlined above have been used in earlier work of the author [4, 5, 6].
3. CONCLUSION
As a result of solving the problem described by Mathieu equation without damping
a series of so-called areas of instability is obtained Inclusion of damping insert
considered question down to the Hill equation. Here also, areas of instability are obtained
which are much narrower. There is a limit value of damping at which parametric
resonance occurs.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
512
513
a)
b)
c)
d)
515
Shear modulus
[MPa]
26 100
The profiles/rails are subjected to axial uniform compression z imp on one end with
the another constrained. The time duration of the impulse varies from 0.5 to 1.0 of natural
period Tnp (Fig. 3).
a)
b)
z imp.
For 0 t Tnp
z = z imp.
For t Tnp
z = 0
t
Timp.
2 Timp.
516
1400
1200
1000
C channel
800
rectangular
600
internal tandem
external tandem
400
200
0
1
Fig. 4. First 5 lowest natural frequencies for the beams of different cross sections
300
250
200
C channel
150
rectangular
internal tandem
100
external tandem
50
0
1
Fig. 5. First 5 lowest values of critical stress for the axially compressed beams of different
cross-sections
517
b)
c)
d)
UY
Fig. 6. Dynamic response to impulse compression pressure of the profile with cross section:
a) C channel, b) Rectangular, c) Internal tandem, d) External tandem
40,00
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
1T (|max|)
0,8
1,2
1,4
1,6
DLF
Fig. 7. Dynamic deflection obtained with the FEM for Internal tandem - time duration of
compression impulse equals 1 x natural period (of 1 st mode)
518
5,00
4,00
0,5T (|max|)
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
0,8
1,2
1,4
1,6
DLF
Fig. 8. Dynamic deflection obtained with the FEM for Internal tandem - time duration of
compression impulse equals 0.5 x natural period (of 1 st mode)
4. CONCLUSIONS
The article is the introduction of the authors involvement in dynamic stability of
the roof rails in automotive application. The proposed numerical model was consciously
519
Eichler R. C., The causes of injury in rollover accidents, Accident Reconstruction Journal,
Jan/Feb 2003.
Koning C., Taub J., Impact buckling of thin bars in the elastic range hinged at both ends,
NACA TM, June 1934, 748.
Teter A., Wielomodalne wyboczenie cienkociennych uebrowanych supw obcionych
impulsem ciskajcym, Politechnika dzka, d 2010 (in polish).
Kolakowski Z., Kubiak T., Interactive dynamic buckling of orthotropic thin-walled
channels subjected to in-plane pulse loading, Composite Structures 81, 2007, 222-232.
Kowal-Michalska K. (ed.), Dynamic Stability of Composite Plate Structures, WNT,
Warszawa, 2007.
Krlak M., Mania R.J. (eds.), Stability of Thin-Walled Plate Structures, vol.1 of Static,
Dynamic and Stability of Structures, A Series of Monographs, TUL, 2011.
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/accidents-hazardous conditions/28002rollover-accidents-explained.htm.
520
In the paper the eigenfrequencies of pristine and defective single walled carbon
nanotubes are investigated. The defects are in the form of point vacancies. The axial
vibrations of structures are studied only. A special attention is focused on the
effects of material and geometrical properties of nanostructures on the results.
Three different models are considered: the Euler beam model, a continuous
specially orthotropic model and a 3D nonlinear finite element model consistent
with molecular mechanics formulations. The results demonstrate that the Euler
beam model overestimates the values of natural frequencies.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent studies have indicated that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) exhibit superior
mechanical and electronic properties over any known materials. Due to their novel
electronic, mechanical and other physical and chemical properties, CNTs have potential
applications in atomic-force microscopes, field emitters, nano-actuators, nano-motors,
nano-bearings, nanosprings, nano-fillers for composite materials, and nano-scale
electronic devices. Hence, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have become the focal points of
studies in computational nano-mechanics and computational condensed-matter physics
over the recent years, including vibrational behavior. Since controlled experiments at the
nanometer scale are very difficult, two approaches are widely used for the researches on
CNTs. One is the molecular dynamics simulations which is very time-consuming and
remains formidable for large-scale systems. The other is the continuum mechanics
methods such as shell and beam modeling of CNTs. Via nanotechnology, the nonlocal
theory has been applied to analyze vibration and wave propagation of CNTs based on the
beam models [15], including also the non-linear interaction with the surrounding
medium [6]. Ru [7, 8] used the elastic shell model to conduct buckling analyses of CNTs.
Yakobson et al. [9] noticed the unique features of fullerenes and developed a continuum
shell model to study different instability patterns of CNTs under different compressive
loads. He et al. [10-13] investigated the buckling behavior of CNTs using elastic shell
model having the van der Waals effect. Muc [14] discussed the applicability of thin shell
theory in predicting behavior of CNTs.
In contrast to theoretical considerations the experimental verifications of the CNTs
strength or Youngs modulus demonstrate evidently discrepancies that may reach even up
to 30% - see e.g. Mielke et al. [15]. Possible single or multiple defects in CNTs provide
an explanation for the extant theoreticalexperimental differences.
However, this deterioration in the mechanical characteristics is partly alleviated by
the ability of nanotubes to heal vacancies in the atomic network by saturating dangling
bonds. The defects can appear at the stage of CNTs growth and purification, or later on
521
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 1. Atomic networks of SWNTs with non-reconstructed (a, c) and reconstructed (b, d)
single (a,b), double (c,d). Only the front wall of each tube is shown. The
configurations correspond to a (10, 10) armchair SWNT
In this study the axial vibrations of SWCNTs are analyzed only. The free vibrations
are investigated with the use of three different models:
the Euler beam model,
the continuous specially orthotropic cylindrical shell model,
the 3-D FE beam model based on the molecular dynamic and the interatomic
potential formulations.
522
(1)
where a = 0.142 [nm] is the CC bond length. One type of nanotubes, armchair (n1 = n2,
i.e. R=0.0678*n1 [nm]) is studied in this paper.
In the literature it is demonstrated that for small radius of the nanotubes the buckling
mode falls into the regime of Euler beam buckling (R<0.8 [nm]) and then with the
increase of the radius the circumferential modes of buckling (i.e. for n>1) becomes to be
dominant. Therefore the analytical studies are limited to the axisymmetric
buckling/vibration analysis only, i.e. n=0 and m>0. For simply supported cylindrical
shells (Fig. 2) made of a specially orthotropic material the eigenfrequencies can be easily
derived in the analytical way using the Rayleigh-Ritz method as the roots of the following
equation:
3 b02 c0 d0 0
where:
523
(1)
a22
A66 2
A
A
h2 4
mR
m , a33 22
m , a13 12 m , m
, R 2 h2 /A11
2
A11
A11 12 R
A11
L
(2)
, R, h and L denote the nanotube density, radius, equivalent thickness and length,
respectively, and m, n are wave numbers in the longitudinal and circumferential
directions. Aij are the membrane stiffness matrix coefficients for specially orthotropic
bodies. The roots of Eq. (1) can be represented as follows:
1
1 a22 , 2 ,3 a11 a33
2
2
2
2
a11
4 a13
-2 a11 a33 a33
(3)
If the carbon nanotube arrays are assumed to be transversely isotropic the material
properties in the circumferential and thickness directions are identical. However, the
twisted array SWCN is a helical array then, in fact, the nanotube does not possesses
completely transversely isotropic properties. Therefore five material constants are
necessary to characterize the CNT array behavior. Using micromechanical approach
Popov et al [16] computed four of them, and Salvatat et al [17] gave the fifth material
constants (G23). The values of constants take the following form: E1=580 [GPa],
E2=E3=9.4 [GPa], 12= 13=0.18, 23=0.90, G12=G13=17.2 [GPa], G23= 2.47 [GPa]. The
direction denoted by 1 corresponds to the longitudinal one. In addition let us assume
=600 [kg/m3] and L=29.5 [nm]. Thus, for =1 the square root of the ratio A11/(hR2) is
equal to 6.55 [THz] (n1=n2=5) and is the multiplier of natural frequencies - Eq. (2). As it
may be seen the magnitude of natural frequencies (THz) is in the range mentioned in the
literature. For (5=n1,5=n2) carbon nanotubes the radius R=0.339 [nm] the parameter
m=0.0314*m and it is treated as negligibly small. Since all membrane stiffnesses Aii are
proportional to the thickness parameter h so that that constant can be omitted in the
further considerations.
Dimensionless vibrational
frequences
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mode parameter
524
Euler m 2m
L
(4)
In Fig. 3 the x axis corresponds to the value 2m and the y axis represents the value
/ 2m . As it may be easily noticed from the relations (3) the first shell mode is constant
and equal to a22 / 2m , the second - a33 / 2m and the third (not plotted in Figure) is equal
to a11 / 2m so that is equal to 1. It is necessary to emphasize that the above formulas are
the approximations only for the second and the third modes but they are satisfactory for
the present numerical data. In the second shell mode and in the Euler beam model the
shell thickness h is equal to 0.34 [nm]. In the plot the first shell mode corresponds to the
lowest frequency. It is worth to mention also that in the literature the frequencies are
usually compared with values obtained with the use of the Euler beam model. However,
the use of the shell model allows us to predict lower value but the relation between those
values is strongly dependent on the assumed CNT length L. For higher values the Euler
value can be lower than that corresponding to the application of the shell model.
3. RECONSTRUCTION OF VACANCIES - EVALUATION OF FREE VIBRATIONS
Now, the eigenfrequency analysis will be adopted to the estimations of free
vibrations for defective nanotubes. The reconstruction of the defective structure can be
modelled in two ways:
i) the new positions of the carbon atoms are derived in order to keep the form
plotted in Figs 1b and 1d; in such a case the distances between C-C bonds are
constant and equal to 1.42 [nm] should be shifted below the pristine shell structure;
ii) the new position are derived from the condition of the minimal energy for
neighbourhood atoms; in such a situation it is necessary to introduce the interaction
potential - see Muc [14, 18].
In the present analysis the first simplest method is used. The key difference in the
comparison with other works is that the former bear on the intrinsic material property
(bond strength), whereas the proposed method relates to tube geometry. It should be
noted that the present analysis relies a continuum representation of nanotubes. Since
atomic scale kinematics is not considered, the analysis may tend to over predict the
eigenfrequencies of structures.
Let us consider the defective carbon nanostructure as the space-frame structure
where each of the C-C bonds is represented as a beam. The stiffness of the C-C bond is or
variable but at the beginning of the deformation process it is equal to 1 [TPa]. Then, it is
evaluated incrementally at each step of deformations with the aid of the Tersoff-Brenner
potential. It is assumed that in the carbon nanostructure each carbon atom may react with
the neighbourhood atoms only. As the atom moves from the equilibrium state the nonzero reaction force is computed as the first derivative of the potential. We restrict the
525
Frequency [THz]
m=2
The FE model
The FE model
The Euler beam model
4
m=1
m=1
3
0
Number of vacancies
Figure 5 represents the differences in the first two eigenfreuquencies for defective
and pristine carbon nanotubes derived with the use of the beam model. The analysis was
526
Elong
long
long
, long
Nbeams
k 1
klong , long
Nbeams
k 1
k
long
(5)
527
Stress [GPa]
60
1 vacancy
2 vacancies
40
Pristine CNT
Defective CNT
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
Strain
Fig. 6. Tensile stress-strain curves for pristine and defective (5,5) nanotube
m 2
4 if E identical
m 1
pristine
defective
E pristine
E defective
(6)
As it may be seen in Fig. 5 the Euler beam estimations of eigenfrequencies is not correct
since it gives higher values that the FE beam model. In addition, the differences between
values for the neighbourhood wave numbers (m=1 and m=2) are also too high Eq (6)1.
On the other hand, the comparison of the frequencies for pristine and defective nanotubes
is much better - Eq (6).
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
We have used three different models (the Euler beam model, the continuous shell
model and the FE model) to study axial free vibrations of the configuration of a singlewalled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) with and without vacancy defects. It is found that the
best description of eigenfrequencies can be obtained with the use of the numerical FE
528
PB
1174/B/T02/2009/36
is
gratefully
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Y.Q. Zhang, G.R. Liu, X.Y. Xie, Free transverse vibration of double-walled carbon
nanotubes using a theory of nonlocal elasticity, Phys. Rev. B 71 (2005) 195404195407.
Q. Wang, V.K. Varadan, Vibration of carbon nanotubes studied using nonlocal
continuum mechanics, Smart Mater. Struct. 15 (2006) 659666.
Q. Wang, G.Y. Zhou, K.C. Lin, Scale effect on wave propagation of double-walled
carbon nanotubes, Int. J. Solids Struct. 43 (2006) 60716084.
Yan-Gao. Hu, K.M. Liew, Q. Wang, Nonlocal elastic beam models for flexural wave
propagation of double-walled carbon nanotubes, J. Appl. Phys. 106 (2009) 044301
044306.
L.L. Ke, Y. Xiang, J. Yang, S. Kitipornchai, Nonlinear free vibration of embedded
double-walled carbon nanotubes based on nonlocal Timoshenko beam theory, Comput.
Mater. Sci. 47 (2009) 409417.
K.B. Mustapha, Z.W. Zhong, Free transverse vibration of an axially loaded non-prismatic
single-walled carbon nanotube embedded in a two-parameter elastic medium, Comput.
Mater. Sci. 50 (2010) 742751.
C.Q. Ru, Effective bending stiffness of carbon nanotubes, Phys. Rev. B 62 (2000) 9973
9976.
C.Q. Ru, Elastic bucking of singled-walled carbon nanotubes ropes under high pressure,
Phys. Rev. B 62 (2000) 1040510408.
B.I. Yakobson, C.J. Brabec, J. Bernholc, Nanomechanics of carbon tubes: instabilities
beyond linear range, Phys. Rev. Lett. 76 (1996) 25112514.
X.Q. He, S. Kitiporchai, K.M. Liew, Buckling analysis of multi-walled carbon nanotubes:
a continuum model accounting for van der Waals interaction, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 53
(2005) 303326.
X.Q. He, S. Kitipornchai, C.M. Wang, K.M. Liew, Modeling of van der Waals force for
infinitesimal deformation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes treated as cylindrical shells,
Int. J. Solids Struct. 42 (2005) 60326047.
S. Kitipornchai, X.Q. He, K.M. Liew, Buckling analysis of triple-walled carbon
nanotubes embedded in an elastic matrix, J. Appl. Phys. 97 (2005). Art. No. 114318.
K.M. Liew, X.Q. He, S. Kitipornchai, Buckling characteristics of embedded multi-walled
carbon nanotubes, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 461 (2064) (2005)
37853805.
529
[15] S. L. Mielke, D. Troya, S. Zhang, J.L. Li, S. Xiao, R. Car, R. S. Ruoff, G. C. Schatz, T.
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
Belytschko , The role of vacancy defects and holes in the fracture of carbon nanotubes,
Chemical Physics Letters 390 (2004) 413420.
Popov VN, Van Doren VE, Balkanski M. Elastic properties of crystals of carbon
nanotubes. Solid State Commun 2000;114: 3959.
Salvetat J, Briggs AGD, Bonard J, Bacsa R, Kulik AJ, Stockli T, et al. Elastic and shear
moduli of single-walled carbon nanotube ropes. Phys Rev Lett 1999;82(5):9447.
Muc A., Design and identification methods of effective mechanical properties for carbon
nanotubes. Mat Des (2010), 31:1671-1675
Muc A., Modeling of CNTs/nanocomposites deformations and tensile fracture. Proc. 17th
International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-17), 2009, Edinburgh UK
530
The authors of the paper designed the project of the structure of billboard with size
8x18 m. The design includes reinforced concrete foundations, steel vertical column
and two advertising boards. The grand shape of boards arranged in V with 30
angle. For the possibility of emplacement advertising films ladders and walkways as
well as supporting structure for mounting lights must be built. Nowadays in place of
sticking promotional material a special film is used attached around the perimeter of
grid system covered by the thin steel plate. The geometric non-linear theory of large
deflections must be used for a description of the behavior of such a plate. Thin steel
sheet changes its own circular frequency depending on the load level. In case of
wind load is necessary to analyze the possibility of resonant phenomena as well as
skips which go beyond the areas.
1. INTRODUCTION
The billboard structure is shown in Figures 1 and 2. The conditions of foundations
were quite difficult. The level of the water was at 0.7 m below the ground. Under the
ground level 3 m thick sandy clay layer was located, which was replaced by a layer of
gravel under the designed foundations. The base plate was carried out gradually. At first
the 0.2 m thick cemented base layer was above the level of groundwater. Then "concrete
cages" with anchoring bolts were placed and cemented. At the end the base above ground
was carried out.
In place the supporting column was assembled from two pieces of steel pipe.
Billboard tables were assembled separately too. The installation of billboard was realized
by mobile crane (Fig. 3).
During the design of the billboard many engineering tasks must be managed. In the
design of foundations is necessary to qualify the condition for "flipping". An open
question is the possibility of counting passive pressures on the walls of the foundations as
well as counting the soil layer above the foundation. Each responsible designer must to
take on risk. Vertical steel pipe is rigid enough to be able to resist twisting and torque.
There was no problem to consider the resultant wind pressure in the quarter of a
rectangular area.
2. STATICS OF THIN STEEL SHEETS
Special attention was paid to the "cladding" of billboards - thin sheets. For the
mentioned area of the billboard was performed an analysis of thin steel sheet, which
thickness was 0.5 mm and the range was 400 mm. The results are processed in Figs. 4 and
5. These results allow us to make the following comment. If we think the board is only
531
18 m
8m
30 000 kg steel
24 m
100 m3
renf.concrete
1.8 m
If we consider the load level q = 0.001 N/mm2 (this value corresponds to 100
kg/m ), than the evaluated deflection is 152.3 mm. The intended load-level is real, but the
result of deflection is "completely out". But if we realize a nonlinear analysis taking into
account that the horizontal movements in aid are prevented, the evaluated deflection at the
considered load level is 2.15 mm. It is already quite acceptable value since the margin to
the ratio is 400/2.15 = 186. How interesting can be the following fact. If we consider the
edges build-in the linear deflection is 5 times lower than the deflection in case of simply
supported sheets (30.6 mm). On the level of load q = 0001 N/mm2 in case of non-linear
analyzes the deflection reach 2.01 mm which is only slightly less than in the case of
simply supporting.
The linear deflection of rectangular plates is 3.5 times lower than the deflection of
the beam obtained from unit plate strip of this board that is 43.5 mm. If we implement a
nonlinear analysis, the deflection of a square (rectangular) plate is 1.41 mm, which is only
2.15/1.41 = 1.52 times less than the deflection of the beam. This result indicates that the
effect of lateral reinforcement is relatively small.
2
532
533
p [kN/m]
1.0
A
t
0.5
A
B
b=1 m
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
0
2.0
4.0*106
1.0
2.0*106
[mm]
2 [s-2]
p [kN/m]
0.00
5
0.1
0.2
5000
10000
0.3
1500
0
[mm]
2 [s-2]
Fig. 4. Dependence of deflection and natural circular frequency for "unit" plate strip
For the elongation the members of the second order must be accept. For simplicity
and illustration the derivation in "x" axis is stated for in the case of rod system. For twodimensional task, it is necessary to add links to the direction "y".
534
1
2
x u,x u,x 2
1 2
w, x z .wxx
2
1
1
2
2
u,x u,x .u,x u,x .u,x w,x .w,x w,x .w,x z.wxx ,
p [kN/m2]
2.0
p [kN/m2]
linear
0.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
1.2
2
1.22
1.5
b / p 3.52
1.0
b=l
p
t
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=l
0.5
b - beam
p - plate
0
1.0
2.0
[mm]
det
0 ,
where the incremental stiffness matrix takes into account the level of loading and initial
imperfections.
Unloaded beam respectively square plate strip get its own circular frequency of the
4 EI
well-known relationship 2
2120.4 s 2 . On the loading level q=0.001 N/mm2
Al 4
the natural circular frequency is 12
4 EI
4022000.0 s 2 .
Al 4
p [kN/m]
p
0.1
w0
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=1 mm
0.0
5
b
mode of buckling
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
2.5*104
1.0
1.5
5*104
7.5*104
b [mm]
2 [s-2]
mode of buckling
Fig. 6. The "snap- through" effect of the plate strip with initial deflection
Interestingly, the frequency of simply supported beam (plate strip) on the higher
levels of is almost the same as the frequency of build-in beam.
A serious problem in the behavior of thin steel sheets is the "snap- through" effect of
sag area. Part of the results is presented in Figures 6 and 7. If the initial deformation will
"shape in mode 2" (the shape identical to the shape of the unstable branch in case of
"snap- through"), there is no "snap- through" effect. Note: In that case of the initial
536
p [kN/m]
1.0
w0
b
l
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=1 mm
bifurcatin point
stable path thick line
unstable path thin line
b [mm]
-2.0
-1.0
1.0
2.0
Fig. 7. The "snap- through" effect of the plate strip for different shapes of initial deflection
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been supported by Slovak Scientific Grant Agency No. 1/0629/12.
REFERENCES
[1]
Bolotin, V. V., The Dynamic Stability of Elastic System. CITL. Moscow, 1956
(In Russian. English translation by Holden Day. San Francisco, 1994.)
537
538
1. INTRODUCTION
The subject of this paper is a continuation of researches conducted in The Unit of
Strength of Materials and Structures at Poznan University of Technology. The results of
experimental investigations are used for validation of theoretical and numerical models of
thin-walled beams. In order to determine the limit load of thin webs of I-beams and
rectangular tubes bounding theorem of plastic-limit load analysis is used [3].
Cold-formed profiles are usually thin-walled members, i.e. their wall-thickness is
small compared to other dimensions of their cross-sections. Therefore their load capacity
is mainly determined by buckling and post-buckling behaviour [1]. In the case of bent
beams this may be flexural-torsional or lateral buckling. The web of beam may buckle
because of shear forces that cause the web to corrugate. Many useful hints about
modelling buckling of thin-walled members were presented by Wojewodzki [11][12].
Thin-walled beams collapse because of plastic failure mechanism and this is the
most common scenario [2]. The behaviour of thin-walled beams that are monotonically
539
Fig. 2.
Scheme of local buckling of double box beam (the web and flange)
The flange width b is small compared to its length L. Therefore, the variation of its
curvature across its width can be neglected. This leads to a simplified scheme of
displacements shown in Fig. 2. A cross-section of flange and web rotates around their
common edge by angle 0 .
Local buckling
vx, z 0
sin
z
b
sin
mx
L
(1)
vx, z 0 z sin
540
mx
L
(2)
wx, y 0
y
y mx
,
sin sin
2 cos
2
a
a
L
a
2
(3)
0 flange 0web 0
(4)
U U flange Uweb
(5)
1
1 2v
U flange GJ t f
dx EJ z f 2 dx
L
web
(6)
2
2
2
L a
2 w 2 w
2 w
1
2 w 2 w
D 2 2 2 2
2 1
dxdy (7)
2 0 a x y
x y 2
xy
W W flange W web
L
1
v
W flange x0 A f
web
(8)
dx
(9)
b
z
2
2
1
y w
x0 t
dxdy
2
a x
0 a
L a
(10)
The critical load is determined using the theorem of minimum total potential energy
U W 0
(11)
xDist
,CR k
2E t
,
12 1 2 b
541
(12)
f
a
128
5
b
b
k min 1 , f1 5 X m2 4
... , f 2 2 cc , X m m
2
m
L
a
a
f
9
4
X
2
m
3
The critical (general buckling) stresses of drop flange [7] are following
2
flange
CR
b
GJ t f 2 EJ z1f
L
, for m=1.
3
3
r 9 r
3
b t 1 1
b 2 b
(13)
Taking into account local stability, the critical stresses of the upper plate of flange can be
determined by modelling this as a simply-supported, axially compressed rectangular plate
(Fig. 3).
2
t
E .
2
3 1 b
2
(14)
The critical stresses of the lower plate of compressed flanges (Fig. 3) are determined by
modelling this as a rectangular plate which is simply supported at two shorter edges and
has two other longer edges clamped and free [6]:
low plate
CR
kdr
t
E
,
2
12 1 b r
542
(15)
where kdr
6 2
4 8
1 1
1.437 for 0.3 .
2 3
3
Mg
Iz
Mg
Wz
RH
(16)
where
RH the yield strength, Ix the moment of inertia about the axis x,
x, y the distance from the neutral axis.
The stress distribution presented in Fig. 4 refers to beams that do not buckle locally.
They are loaded with a bending moment 0 < M < Mel and secured from general buckling.
There are also no shear forces so they are not twisted. Load capacity in the elastic range
is described be the following equation
M R Wz f d ,
(17)
Iz
), fd strength of steel.
ymax
The above equation is based on the fact that the maximum stresses of cross-section are
equal to fd. This formula can be used only for cross-sections of class 3, i.e. if cmax fd.
Plastic limit load of a bent cross-section of monotonically loaded channel beam is
presented in Fig. 4. The beam is secured from general and local buckling. Plastic limit
load can be determined using the same equation as in the case of elastic range, the only
difference is that = fd, so
where: W section modulus ( Wz
M R Wpl f d ,
where: Wpl plastic section modulus.
543
(18)
M R pl Wz f d
(19)
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The cross-sections of beams and their dimensions are presented in Fig. 1.
Experimental investigations were conducted in the Laboratory of Strength of Materials
that is the part of Institute of Applied Mechanics at Poznan University of Technology
(Poland). The investigated beams were cold-formed and made of steel sheets by Polish
company "Pruszyski Sp. z o.o.", Sokolow, Poland.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Cross CSections
Experimental
FCR
Analytical
FCR
Experimental
Fmax
DBF
SBF
DrBF
15.5
12.6
11.8
15.1
13.2
12.6
24.1
21.7
19.4
Analytical
Fmax
Analytical
Fmax
elastic range
34.5
30.7
29.4
plastic range
38.6
34.5
32.2
Buckling modes of the investigated beams confirm that their load capacity is
generally restricted by local buckling of different parts of beams. Firstly, the web buckled
and afterwards the compressed flange. Therefore some interactions between different
buckling modes were observed as well.
5. CONCLUSION
Results of analytical and experimental investigations of beams with open and close
profiles of flanges are shown in Table 1.
The main conclusions are:
1) the difference between critical forces obtained from the experiment and theoretical
models is approximately 5%, this is satisfactory,
2) in the presented thin-walled beams there are interactions between different types of
buckling,
545
546
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi-dimensional structures are used today in the field of the car industry or the
home appliance. Structured metal sheets improve the essential properties of the initial
material, e.g. its stiffness. Structured metal sheets with regular bumps offer a higher
bending stiffness compared to flat sheets. The application of those structured sheets
requires new investigations regarding their strength and deformation behaviour.
In an ongoing research project, welded girders with I-section and thin honey-comb
structured web will be investigated. A number of plate girders with different webs (flat,
profiled or structured) are modelled and analyzed under shear load. The numerical
analysis will be based on nonlinear finite element method. It is necessary to choose
different parameters for the thickness, the wrench size or the depth of the structured
sheets. The girder will be modelled by means of shell elements, and the ABAQUS
program will be applied.
Fig. 1.
547
250
flat, 0
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
%
34
Stress [MPa]
200
%
110
32
structured, 0
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
30
150
28
structured, 45
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
24
18
10
90
80
70
50
structured, 90
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
20
F1_90_E3
100
60
22
50
F1_0_E3
F1_45_E3
26
100
G_0_E3
40
30
20[%]
Strain
30
40
50
60
Fig. 2. Stress-strain curves for a selected specimen dimension for three tested structure
positions and a flat sheet metal with corresponding deformation images [5]
In figure 2 are given the stress-strain relationship for one selected specimen
dimension [5]. The other structured webs (two types), which are used, are produced from
548
There are 7 variants to create a sandwich with two structured plates. Figure 3 shows
the chosen variant with the joining comp-comp and other possibilities [6]. In the future
there will be tested the variant of the joining bridge-bridge too. For producing a sandwich
element consisting of two sheets from Borit, the company uses a bonding technology.
The design of welded I-section girders (with a planar or profiled web) contains DIN EN
1993-1-5:2010 [1]. Another design method can be found in the German DASt-Richtlinie
015 [2]. For the design of girders with structured webs the methods from [1] and [2] can
be adapted.
3. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
3.1. VERIFICATIN OF THE EXPERIMENT
For modelling the girder under a mid-span load, the software ABAQUS [7] was
used. In order to find the best model, which behaviour is near to the real shear load test, a
lot of models were tested. As material properties, the true stress and true strain curve from
the tensile test were used. The boundary conditions are defined as shown in figure 4 and
table 1. The several parts of the girder are modelled with shell element S4R5 and meshed
with a size of 20 mm. The first step for the Finite Element Method was a linear buckling
analysis. The initial imperfection (geometric imperfection and residual stress) was
measured at the real test sample [4]. Later it was imported to the next step, the general
static analysis which lets one find the ultimate load.
549
uy
1
0
0
0
uz
1
1
0
0
rotx
1
1
1
1
roty
0
0
0
0
rotz
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The numerical results of the girders with a planar (VK1.1), trapezoidal shaped
(VK1.2) or sinusoidal corrugated (VK1.3) web are shown in Fig. 5. Generally, the results
from the FEM of the girder with planar web confirm those from the tests.
The experimental results from the girder with the trapezoidal and sinusoidal
corrugated webs are different to those of the FEM for the critical (buckling) load and
ultimate load. All test-parameter are included in the ABAQUS-Model, but never the less,
550
Comparison of test and simulation results (s- small comb, b- big comb)
web
planar
trapez
VK
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
t [mm]
0,88
0,88
0,88
Fcr,exp
38,5 38,9
Fu,exp
Fcr,fem
50,4 51,2
67,4
67,2
67,3
Fu,fem
82,8
82,7
sinus
86,9
-
FQZ
Borit
5.1
6.1
7.1
7.2
8.1
36,4
35,5
54,6
44,9
58,5
39,7
89,8
91,4
91,8
87,4
95,0
The modelling of the girder with the structured web as a sandwich element in FEM
produces about 20500 shell elements of type S4R5, S3 and S4R. The single structured
plate was modelled with the software ProEngineer [8].
Fig. 6. Small part of the mesh (left) and a welded structured element FQZ
and Borit [9] (right)
Table 3.
Comparison of test and simulation results (s- small comb, b- big comb)
Sensitivity
Length
analysis
1
E
2
D
3
E
4
D
5
D
6
D
7
E
Height Thickness
E
E
D
D
D
E
D
D
E
E
D
E
D
D
E
D
D
E
E
D
D
Thickness/
Height ratio
D
E
D
E
D
D
E
Status
Done
Done
Done
Done
Not finished
Not finished
Not finished
Fig. 7. Load over shear aspect ratio and thickness - results from FE- simulation
Even in analysis 3 the girder with a sinusoidal corrugated web has an indirect
relationship until a shear aspect ratio of 3. In analysis 4 the ultimate loads of the girder
with a trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated web are higher than those of the girder with a
planar web (constant thickness assumed).
4. SHEAR LOAD TESTS
To find the material properties of steel used for the web and the flange there were
carried out tensile tests. Table 4 shows the average from all tests. Due to the difficulties of
fabrication of the structured plates with a thickness of 1 mm it was decided to create a
sandwich construction with 2 plates of 0,5 mm first.
Figure 8 shows 3 possible orientations of the structured web related to the load
direction.
552
b) 45
c) 90
Used parts
material
Rp0,2
ReH
ReL
Rm
Planar web
DC01
209141
183
327
Trapez web
180964
301
291
355
Sinus web
178687
319
298
332
170
295
Flat web
DC04
FQZ web
DC04
Flange
S355
65
305
411
391
534
215228
The static system of the girder is a beam with two bearings, one fixed and one
moveable. Additionally the girder was also fixed in the horizontal direction for
elimination tilting vertically to the moment plane. A concentrated force was put in the
middle of the girder at the transversal stiffener. The experimental set- up is shown in
figure 9, the geometry in figure 10.
VK1.1
2,3
3,2
VK1.2
1,51
1,58
VK4.1
2,4
1,4
553
Fig. 10. Geometry of the girder and test girder 6.1 during the shear load test
Two different test series are made with different length, aspect ratios and rigid or
non rigid end post. Up to this date, 17 tests have been carried out in series 1 and two tests
in series 2. Obviously, the shear area ratio has an influence on the ultimate force and the
stiffness of the rigid end post has an effect, too. But for further data interpretation we only
use all test with the same length 1,194 m and a shear ratio of 1,25 to show the influence of
the thickness and the design of the different webs. Figure 9 and 10 shows 2 girders with a
structured web with a sheet plate from FQZ and Borit. In comparison to all tests it can
554
555
The diagram in figure 11 shows that the behaviour at the beginning of buckling is
different for girders with a planar and a structured web. This phenomenon appears due to
the deformation of the sheets (plane of the structure) without of the load.
Figure 13 shows the different behaviour of the girder with the planar web and the
structured web with regard to the horizontal displacement of the centre of the two shear
fields. It can be seen that the structured plate has a higher stiffness than the planar web.
That means that the buckling behaviour of a girder with a structured web is much better
than the girder with a flat web.
556
Fig. 14. Tension field from girder VK4.1, VK5.1 and VK6.1
Fig. 15. Tension field from girder VK7.1, VK7.2 and VK8.1
5. ANALYTICAL RESULTS
The ultimate load is achieved when the load does not increase anymore and only the
deformation accelerates. Table 6 contains the measured load for all five types of girders.
Furthermore for the first girders it was possible to calculate the ultimate load according to
[1], [2] and [10]. In adaption of [3] it should be possible to find a design method of
girders with structured web.
In all girders with planar and structured web after shear buckling, a tension field
developed (=post- buckling) and later plastic hinges were formed (=frame effect). A
difference between the flat and structured web was observed: Parallel to the forming of a
tension field, the comb structure was lost. There was one difficulty in finding the
comparable values for the definition of shear and tension load from [2] for the experiment
and the FE method. The buckling load was defined as a load, which corresponds to the
horizontal displacement of the web of 1 mm. It was difficult to recognize, when the frame
effect started during the experiment. Thats why the tension effect was given by an
approximate value. In table 6 are only shown the complete ultimate loads from the tests
and the analytical analysis.
557
Specimen
Web
Fu,exp
VK1.1
Planar
92,6
VK1.2
Planar
93,8
VK2.1
Trapez
89,7
VK2.2
Trapez
86,9
VK3.1
Sinus
100,5
VK3.2
Sinus
111,6
VK3.3
Sinus
125,7
VK4.1
FQZ 0
89,2
VK5.1
FQZ 90
89,8
VK6.1
Borit 0k
91,4
VK7.1
Borit 90k
91,8
VK7.2
Borit 90k
87,4
VK8.1
Borit 0g
95,0
Fcal,ec3
Fcal,dast15
Fcal,Zem
44,5
72,9
47,7
39,8
68,5
43,9
558
Fig. 16. Load over shear aspect ratio and thickness- analytical results
6. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are:
The stiffness of the sandwich element is higher than the flat plate. (Because of
the stiffness it is simpler to weld a sandwich element to the flanges than a thin
flat web.)
The ultimate loads of girders with planar and structured webs are comparable.
The buckling behaviour of the girder with a structured web is dependent on the
orientation of the combs.
Sin girders give the highest ultimate load.
Conclusions for further test samples:
The direction of the structured web has to be changed (rotation about 45).
Conclusions for the analysis:
The calculation model is being developed according [3], [2] and [1].
The further refinement of structured web-model with geometry and material
properties is necessary.
559
560
1. INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of the critical state of three-layered plates with the thick core
requires taking note of the plate buckling behaviour significant depending on plate
material and geometrical parameters. The thickness of plate core enacts here the
important meaning. With the increase of core thickness the noteworthy change of the
mode of plate stability loss could be expected. The mode changes from the quasi-euler
form occurred for layered plates with middle core thickness to form characterizing with
the strong symmetrical or unsymmetrical transverse deformations particularly in the
region of plate loaded edge. The values of critical loads are lower than corresponding
values obtained for the global mode buckling. On this phenomenon the Authors of
example works [1,2,3] take note. The observation of the buckling behaviour of threelayered plates with the annular shape, which confirm these regularities, is the subject of
the analysis in this work.
2. PROBLEM FORMUALTION
The subject of the consideration is three-layered, annular plate with the core
multiple thicker than the thickness of its facings. The plate is loaded with the uniformly
distributed forces caused the radial compression of outer layers. The main observation is
focused on the dynamic response to the acting of linear, quickly increasing in time loads,
expressed by formula:
561
(1)
h1
p
p
3
1,3 - facings
2 - plate core
p
p
h2
h3
ri
ro
z
u
Q W1U
W2U
PU Q PLU
L
M Y Y QY
562
(2)
(3)
Q
MYY
Y
M V V QV
Q
MVV
V
MZZ QZ
Q
M Z
Z
M DM UM U
M GM G
MDL D
D
U
UL
G
GL
M GM UM U
M DM D
MGGL G
GG
GU
GUL
GD
GDL
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
where:
W1, W2 expressions: W1=K72 WK5 WK8 EL , W2=K73 WK5 WK8 FL ,
s
h'
, WK5
, WK8 ro h 2 M ,
K7, WK5, WK8 expressions: K7
p cr
h
pcr critical static stress, h - facing thickness, h2 core thickness, h (h=2h+h2) plate
total thickness, M (M=2h+h22) expression, , 2 facing and core mass density,
respectively, ro outer radius, EL, FL quantities determined by elastic and viscosity
constants of core standard material,
U, Y, V, Z vectors expressed by the additional plate deflections and components of
stress functions, respectively, D, G vectors of expressions , (, - differences of
displacements in middle surface of plate outer layers in radial and circumferential
direction, respectively), QL, QY , QV , QZ vectors of expressions composed of the initial
and additional deflections, components of stress functions, material and geometrical plate
parameters, quantity b (b the length of the interval in the finite difference method),
coefficients , , number m of buckling waves,
P, Q, PL, QL, MY, MV, MZ, MDL, MD, MU, MUL, MG, MGL, MGGL, MGG, MGU, MGUL, MGD,
MGDL matrixes of components described by plate parameters, numbers b and m and
vectors composed of derivatives of X vector elements.
expression K7, X
Eliminating from the system of equations (2)(10) the equations (4),(6),(8) and the
(KBN/SGI_ORIGIN_2000/Pdzka/030/1999)
using
the
shell elements
shell elements
solid elements
shell elements
solid elements
shell elements
Fig.2.
Basic model
Fig.3.
Simplistic model
G2
G2'
Fig.4.
'
Standard model
200
h'=0.0005 m FDM
h'=0.001 m FEM - line 1
160
pcr [MPa]
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
h2 [mm]
Fig.5.
Fig.6.
Time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection and buckling form of plate
simplistic FEM model with parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
565
t=0.127 s
Fig.7.
t=0.131 s
566
Dynamic critical loads of plates for wavy buckling modes and parameters:
G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
Critical dynamic load Buckling form Basic FEM model FDM model*
m=0
121.93
192.06
m=1
112.20
163.03
m=3
110.55
125.77
m=5
99.47
135.08
pcrdyn [MPa]
m=7
75.30
130.42
m=8
68.22
125.77
m=9
42.76
125.77
m=10
49.83
125.77
() *- the layers are connected by the condition of the equal deflection
Fig.8.
Time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection and buckling form of plate
basic FEM model with parameters:
m=9, G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
567
t=0.264 s
Fig.9.
t=0.3 s
The examination of plates with viscoelastic core confirms the detailed results and
the character of dynamic behaviour of plates with elastic core.
568
Fig.10.
Fig.11.
Time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection and buckling form of plate
with elastic core for parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.0005 m, m=8
The Fig. 10 shows the time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection of plate basic
model with viscoelastic core for wave number m equal to: m=8. The Fig. 11 shows the
results for the same plate but with elastic core. Results do not differ. The dynamic
behaviours and detailed critical values obtained for plate models quickly loaded with
accepted, presented in this work, elastic and viscoelastic parameters practically are
compatible.
569
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Rammerstorfer F. G., Dorninger K., Starlinger A., Composite and sandwich shells in
nonlinear analysis of shells by finite elements (Ed. F.G. Rammerstorfer), Springler-Verlag,
Wien 1992, pp. 131-194.
Romanw F., Stricker L., Teisseyre J., Stability of sandwich constructions, Technical
University of Wroclaw, Wrocaw 1972, (in Polish).
Romanw, F., Strength of sandwich constructions, WSI in Zielona Gra, Poland 1995, (in
Polish).
Volmir, C., Nonlinear dynamic of plates and shells, Moskwa: Science 1972, (in Russian).
Pawlus D., Dynamic stability of three-layered annular plates with viscoelastic core,
Scientific Bulletin of the Technical University of d, 1075, d 2010.
Pawlus D., Solution to the dynamic stability problem of three-layered annular plates with
wavy forms of buckling, Stability of Structures XIITH Symposium, Zakopane7-11
September 2009, pp. 349-356, (in Polish).
Volmir, C., Stability of deformed system, Moskwa: Science 1967, (in Russian).
Majewski, S., Makowski, R., Creep of foamed plastics used as the core of sandwich plate,
Engineering and Building Industry (in Polish, Inynieria i Budownictwo), 3, 1975, pp.
127-131, (in Polish).
570
The combination of the shallow thin concrete shell and the steel tie is offered as the
ceiling panel. The cylindrical shallow shell is approximated as the shallow arch.
The big differences between the results from the linear stability solution and the
nonlinear solution emphasize the necessity to use the full nonlinear analysis
including the investigation of the effects of the initial imperfections. The stable and
unstable paths and the bifurcation point have been followed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The reinforced concrete is a heterogeneous structure. We have the combination of two
materials with very different mechanical properties. (These differences are the roots of
the heterogeneity.) The steel is a ductile material having almost identical properties in the
tension and compression. The concrete is able to carry the high level of the compression
load, but its tension strength is very small. The concrete is a brittle material. The
reinforced concrete represents a suitable combination of these characteristics.
In the text books the behaviour of the reinforced concrete beams is usually explained as
the combination of the concrete vault and the steel tie. (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Mechanism of the behaviour of the reinforced concrete beam and shallow shell
The similar situation occurs in the case of the plate. In the plate with the higher aspect
ratio the concrete vault has the cylindrical shape. This situation evokes an idea to arrange
the beam or the plate as the combination of the vault and the tie as the only static active
elements. If the thickness of the vault is small the stability problem occurs.
571
K L .q f
(1)
where K L is the stiffness matrix, q - the vector of the nodal displacements, f - the
vector of the nodal forces.
Now the elastic critical load i. e. the linearised stability problem of the eigenvalue and
eigenvectors can be evaluated
K L KG
det
(2)
where K G is the geometric matrix (the matrix of increments of the bending stiffness due
to action of the normal forces), the parameter of the elastic critical load.
The elastic critical load is defined by the equation
(3)
The eigenvectors from the Eq. (2) give the modes of buckling. The results for the
investigated concrete arch are arranged in the Fig. 2.
p=1.0 kN/m
E=20.0 GPa, b=1.0 m
0.15 m
4.0 m
0.04 m
pcr1=19.5 kN/m
N
pcr2=43.5 kN/m
N=13.4 kN
V
pcr3=78.8 kN/m
M
Fig. 2. Elastic critical load and the modes of buckling of the shallow arch
The circle arch loaded by the external pressure was supposed and so the shear forces
and the bending moments are negligible.
3. NON-LINEAR SOLUTION OF THE SHALLOW ARCH
It is famous that in the case of the shallow arch the elastic critical load obtained from
the linearised stability problem (Eq.(2)) is much higher than the critical load obtained
from the nonlinear solution. The nonlinear solution leads to the system of cubic algebraic
equations and the incremental formulation can be used ([5,6]).
572
(4)
where K INC is the incremental stiffness matrix, q - the vector of the increments in
nodal displacements, f int - the vector of the internal nodal forces, f ext - the vector of the
external nodal forces, f ext - the increment of the vector of the external nodal forces.
Assuming that we start from the exact solution, where f int f ext 0 , the Eq. (4)
can be used for the increment
K INC .q f ext
(5)
Eq. (4) could be used for the Newton-Raphson iteration. The residua represent the
unbalanced nodal forces
f i int f i ext r i
(6)
The correction of the equation roots can be obtained from the equation
1
qi K INC .r i , qi 1 qi qi
(7)
Iteration process must be finished using the proper norm, for example
q .q q .q
q .q
i 1 T
i T
i 1
i 1 T
0.001
(8)
In the case of the solution of the nonlinear problems of the shallow arches stable and
unstable paths and the bifurcation points must be distinguished.
Using the theory of quadratic forms, the stable path must satisfy the condition
det K INC 0
(9)
and all the principal minors must be positive as well. The incremental stiffness matrix
must be evaluated using the load as the pivot term.
The nonlinear solution of the shallow arch is presented in the Fig. 3.
Presented results were obtained due to the ability of the interactive change of the
pivot term. The displacement parameter as the pivot term must be used for the
overcoming the top of the load. In the bifurcation point the sign of the determinant is
changed. To get the path related to the antimetric mode of the buckling the iteration
process must be started near the bifurcation point with the suitable initial approximation.
It is important to note that the level of the load in the bifurcation point
(pcr=18.75 kN/m) is lower than the elastic critical load obtained from the linear stability
(Fig. 2 - pcr=19.5 kN/m). Special attention should be paid to take in consideration the
effects of the initial imperfections.
573
40
p
0.15
wC
t=0.04 m
E=20.0 GPa
4.0 m
m
30
20
pcr=18.7
5
stable paths
unstable paths
bifurcation point
10
wC
0
100
20
0
300
[mm]
-10
Fig. 3. Nonlinear solution of shallow arch
Fig. 4 presents the results of the nonlinear solution of the shallow arch assuming the
initial imperfection on the mode related to the lowest elastic critical load. This mode can
be called as the mode 1.
In the case of the solution of the arch with initial imperfection the change into the
antimetric mode of the deformation is smooth. The bifurcation point is the top of the load
vs. displacement line. The level related to this point is the load bearing capacity of the
arch.
574
30
0.15
wC t=0.04 m m
linear solution
E=20.0 GPa
4.0 m
19.5
18.75
20
w01
1 mm
w0= w01* 01
14.5
10
0
1 mm
2 mm
5 mm
10
10 mm
stable paths
unstable paths
01
bifurcation point
wC
20
[mm]
bifurcation point
30
stable paths
0.15 m
wC t=0.04 m
E=20.0 GPa
unstable
paths
4.0
m
20
1 mm
1 mm
10
wC
0
10
20
[mm]
575
w01
-1 mm
w02
mode of buckling
20
10
mode of buckling
MC [kNm]
VA [kN]
wC [mm]
pcr [kN/m]
NC [kN]
t0=0.04
A0 E0=210 GPa
l=4.0 m
EA
k 0 0
l
wC
NC
VA
V
M
MC
A0
5
8
20
51
0
108
40
101
0
60
1012
80 *10 [kN/m]
520
Fig. 6. Static and stability analysis of the shallow arch with the elastic support
Fig. 6 shows the results from the static and stability analyses of the shallow arch with
elastic support. In the case of the zero stiffness of the support the internal forces are
1
1
1
1
M C pl 2 1.0 * 4.0 2 2.0 kNm, VA pl 1.0 * 4.0 2.0 kN , N 0
8
8
2
2
576
40
[kN/m]
p
k=
k=12000
0
k=80000
20
wC
30
EA
l
kN/m
stable paths
unstable paths
k=40000
bifurcation
point
10
wC
10
0
5
0
150
30
0
250
20
0
[mm]
350
-10
Fig. 7. Nonlinear solution of the shallow arch with the elastic support
The stiffness of the elastic support could be evaluated as the steel tie (reinforcement
bars) assuming the modulus of elasticity E=210 GPa. (A0 in the Fig. 6).
[kN/m]
15
stable paths
14.65
unstable paths
10
bifurcation
point
w
5
1 mm
w01
0
1 mm
5 mm
10 mm
01
w0= w01* 01
k=40000 kN/m
wC
0
20
40
60
577
80 [mm]
[6]
Baant Z. P., Cedolin L., Stability of Structures. Oxford University Press. New YorkOxford. 1991.
Bilk J., Fillo ., Halvonk J., Concrete Structures. BETONING, Bratislava, 2005. (in
Slovak).
Psotn M., Ravinger J., Von Misses Truss with Imperfections. Slovak Journal of Civil
Engineering, 2003, Vol. XI, No 2, pp. 1-7.
Ravinger J., COMPUTER PROGRAMS Statics, Stability and Dynamics of Civil
Engineering Structures, Alfa, Bratislava, 1990. (in Slovak).
Ravinger J., Vibration of an Imperfect Thin-walled Panel. Part 1: Theory and Illustrative
Examples. Part 2: Numerical Results and Experiment, Thin-Walled Structures, 1994 Vol.
19, No 1, pp. 1-36.
Ravinger J., Kleiman P., Natural Vibration of Imperfect Columns and Frames. Building
Research Journal, 2002, Vol. 50, No 1, pp. 49-68.
578
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite materials are made of at least two constituent materials that remain
separated in the finished structure. A popular type of composite are laminated
fibre-reinforced composites [1-2], which have a number of advantages in
comparison to metal based structures, including the facts that they offer lightweight, stiff,
aerodynamically efficient surfaces, resist well to corrosion and fatigue. As a rule, fibre
reinforced composite materials have straight and unidirectional fibres, which are
homogeneously distributed in each lamina, hence the stiffness does not vary in space (in
a macroscopic sense). However, novel composite materials, designated as Variable
Stiffness Composite Laminated (VSCL) panels, have particularly since the nineties [312] deserved greater interest, as they become technologically and economically more
viable.
There are several techniques to obtain VSCL panels, including varying the volume
fraction of fibres, and dropping or adding plies to the laminate [4-12]. But VSCL with
variable curved fibres have advantages in comparison with laminates that employ other
ways of varying the stiffness. One of them is that the stiffness varies continuously with
the membrane coordinates, in opposition to what occurs when plies are terminated at
different locations. The latter option leads to abrupt changes in panel thicknesses, which
produce stress concentration and out-of-plane, interlaminar, stresses [13]. Since this
communication concentrates on VSCL panels where the fibre orientation angle is not
constant in a ply, VSCL means just this type of panel in the remaining of this text.
Moreover, although other fibre patterns are possible, we will only consider the more
frequent case of curvilinear fibres.
579
ux, y, z u 0 x, y zw,0x x, y
vx, y, z v 0 x, y zw,0y x, y
(1)
wx, y, z w x, y
0
where u 0 , v 0 and w 0 are the values of u, v and w at the reference surface. The origin of
the Cartesian coordinate system is located in the centre of the undeformed plate; axis x
and y define the plates middle reference plane (see Fig. 1). Only static equilibrium is
here considered, hence time does not appear as a function argument.
y
1
x
a
Fig. 1. Curved fibre and plate dimensions
582
u
u0 , N ,
v0 , 0
w , 0
0
0
,
0
0 qu
0 qv
N w , qw
(2)
with [] indicating row vectors and {} column vectors. The vector of shape functions are:
, g1 g1
g1 g 2 g pi g pi
N w , f1 f1
f1 f 2 f po f p o
(3)
gi() and fi() are one dimensional shape functions; symbols and represent local
coordinates and vectors {qi(t)} contain the generalized coordinates (i=u, v, w). With one
element only being enough to represent rectangular plates, the local and global coordinates
are simply related by
x=a/2
y=b/2
(4)
with a representing the plate length and b the plate width (Fig. 1).
The strain displacement relations in the linear regime are:
x x, y , z
u ,0x x, y zw,0xx x, y
0
0
v , y x, y zw, yy x, y
y x, y , z
x, y, z u 0 x, y v 0 x, y 2 zw 0 x, y
xy
,
y
,
x
,
yy
(5)
where x, y represent the membrane strain components in the x and y directions and xy is
the membrane shear strain. Partial derivation is represented by a comma and
a subscript variable.
Although the fibre orientation varies, principal stresses and strains are still related
by the equation that applies in traditional orthotropic lamina:
1
2
12
(k )
Q11 Q12
Q21 Q22
0
0
0
0
Q66
(k )
1
2
12
(k )
(6)
with numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicating the principal material axes x1, x2 and x3 [1-2]. In
curvilinear fibre laminates the orientation of the principal material axis is not constant in
each lamina.
References [1-2] give the plane-stress reduced stiffnesses Qij as functions of the
longitudinal and transverse moduli of elasticity (E1k, E2k, respectively), Poisson ratios
(12k, 21k) and shear moduli (G12k, G13k, G23k). The same references also give transformed
583
Q12 x, y Q 22 x, y Q 26 x, y
Q16 x, y Q 26 x, y Q 66 x, y
x x, y, t
y x, y, t
xy x, y, t
x x, y , t
y x, y , t
xy x, y, t
(7)
However, the transformed reduced stiffnesses Qij x, y , which are constant in a straight
k
fibre panel, become functions of x and y in a general curvilinear fibre panel. Very often, the
fibre orientation is just a function of x, x), and the following relations hold:
Q11 k x U1 U 2 cos 2 k x U 3 cos 4 k x
k
Q12 k x U 4 U 3 cos 4 k x
k
k
1
Q16 k x U 2 sin 2 k x U 3 sin 4 k x
2
k
1
k
Q 26 x U 2 sin 2 k x U 3 sin 4 k x
2
Q66
x U
U 3 cos 4 k x
(8)
1
Q11 Q22
2
1
U 4 Q11 Q22 6Q12 4Q66
8
U1
U2
(9)
The membrane force vectors {V(x,y)} and the vector of moment resultants {M(x,y)}
(forces and moments per unit length) are given by the constitutive relations
V x, y Ax
M x, y Bx
Bx 0m x, y
Ax b x, y
(10)
where the membrane strains at the middle surface and the plate curvatures were written in
vector form (respectively, as 0m x, y and b x, y ). The extensional stiffness matrix is
584
U k ( x )
1
A x hk U 4 k ( x)
k 1
0
( x)
U 4 k ( x)
k
U 2 k ( x)
0
U 5 k ( x)
1 1 0
1
U 3 x 1 1 0 cos 4 k x U 2 k x
2
0 0 1
0 0 1
U 3 x 0 0 1 sin 4 k x
1 1 0
1 0 0
0 1 0 cos 2 k ( x)
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1 sin 2 k x
1 1 0
(11)
If only laminates that are symmetric about their middle plane are of interest, then
the bending-extensional coupling matrix [B(x)] is zero. Finally, the bending stiffness
matrix is given by
n
D x
k 1
3
k
U k x U 4 k x
0
zk31 1 k
k
0
U 4 x U1 x
3
k
0
0
U 5 x
1 0 0
U 2 k x 0 1 0 cos 2 k x
0 0 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
U 3 k x 1 1 0 cos 4 k x U 2 k x 0 0 1 sin 2 k x
0 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
U 3 k x 0 0 1 sin 4 k x
1 1 0
(12)
In the present case, the virtual work of the internal forces can be written as follows:
Win 0m x, y A x 0m x, y b0 x, y D x b0 x, y d
(13)
The expression of the virtual work of the external forces is common to traditional
laminates [42]. Applying the principle of virtual work, equilibrium equations of the
following form are obtained:
585
Kuu11
K vu21
K uv12
K vv22
0
0
qu Pu
qv P
v
Kb33 qw Pw
(14)
The constant stiffness matrix is constituted by sub-matrices of the type K kij , where
k=uu, uv, vu, vv, b; with u and v the in-plane displacements and b representing bending.
5. CLOSING COMMENTS
The use of curvilinear fibres paths to tailor fibre-reinforced laminated composites so
that the stiffness varies as a function of position is an increasingly available option. The
practical interest on Variable Stiffness Composite Laminates with curvilinear fibres
(VSCL) is large, particularly in aeronautics, because the expanded design space can lead to
weight reductions. Permitting the fibres to curve within the surface of the laminate allows,
for example, the designer to move the load away from a less supported area to the plate
boundaries, thus increasing the buckling capacity. The developments on tow placement
technology turned possible to tailor the stiffness of the composite laminates so that the
stiffness varies continuously as a function of position. The works addressed in the literature
review demonstrate that this type of variable stiffness concept introduces new possibilities
and can be used to improve the structural response in comparison to the conventional
straight-fibre, constant-stiffness laminates. But, on the other hand, it results in a more
difficult design, increases the complexity of mechanical analysis and eventually requiring
the application of optimization techniques. The literature review also reveals that advances
have been achieved in the understanding of the mechanical behaviour and possibilities
offered by this technology, but that there are still unexplored issues concerning VSCL. In
particular, advances in what concerns failure analysis and non-linear vibrations are
welcome, as well as more experimental tests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union
Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), FP7REGPOT20091, under
grant agreement No: 245479. The support by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Educationgrant no 1471-1/7.PR UE/2010/7is also acknowledged by the third and the
forth author.
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Locke J., Nonlinear Random Response of Angle-Ply Laminates with Static and Thermal
Preloads, AIAA J., 29, 1991, pp. 1480-1487.
Xue D.Y., Mei C., Finite Element Nonlinear Panel Flutter with Arbitrary Temperatures in
Supersonic Flow, AIAA J., 31, 1993, pp. 154-162.
Chemoul B. and Louaas E., Vibration and acoustic dimensioning of Ariane launchers,
Keynote lecture, Proceedings of the 25th Int. Conf. on Modal Analysis Noise and Vibration
Engrg., ed. P. Sas and D. Moens, 2000, pp. 1-22.
Zhou R.C., Xue Y., Mei C., Finite Element Time Domain-Modal Formulation for
Nonlinear Flutter of Composite Panels, AIAA J., 32, 1994, pp. 2044-2052.
Turvey G.J. and Marshall I.H., Buckling and postbuckling of composite plates.
Chapman&Hall, London 1995.
Biggers S.B. and Srinivasan S. Compression buckling response of tailored rectangular
composite plates. AIAA J. 31(3), 1993, pp.590596.
Biggers S.B. and Browder T.M. Buckling load interaction in tailored composite plates.
Compos. Eng. 4(7), 1994, pp. 745761.
Setoodeh S. et. al. Design of variable-stiffness composite panels for maximum buckling.
Composite Structures, 87(1), 2009, pp. 109-117.
Senocak E. and Tanriover H. Analysis of composite plates with variable stiffness using
Galerkin method. Aeronaut J., 111, 2007, pp. 247256.
Gurdal Z., Tatting B.F. and Wu C.K. Variable stiffness composite panels: effects of
stiffness variation on the in-plane and buckling response. Compos Part A 39, 2008, pp.
911922.
Lopes C.S., Gurdal Z. and Camanho P.P. Tailoring for strength of composite steered fibre
panels with cut outs. Compos Part A 41, 2010, pp. 17601767.
Raju G et al. Prebuckling and buckling analysis of variable angle tow plates with general
boundary
conditions.
Composite
Structures
(2012),
doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2012.04.002
Khani, A., Abdalla, M.M. and Gurdal, Z., Circumferential Stiffness Tailoring of General
Cross Section Cylinders for Maximum Buckling Load with Strength Constraints,
Composite Structures (2012), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2012.04.018
587
588
Following the authors' previous study on seismic behaviour of a lone steel box
column used in the motorway viaduct, a dynamic analysis is made on a structure
system which contains two steel box columns. The columns of the viaduct are, of
course, connected with the girders of the superstructure. Therefore, the columns are
affected by each other on their dynamic behaviour through the superstructure. Thus,
in the current paper, the two columns are connected by a beam which is
corresponding with a superstructure girder. The dynamic behaviour of the columns
is compared with the result of the lone column. A practically measured seismic
acceleration is used as a dynamic loading. The numerical results indicate that the
displacement is reduced by the connecting beam.
1. INTRODUCTION
The seismic behaviour of steel box columns used for piers of the motorway viaduct
has been studied by many researchers [1]-[4]. One of the author also has made a series of
studies on the behaviour of steel box columns by using the practically measured ground
motion due to the earthquake [5]-[9]. Almost all previous studies on the seismic
behaviour of the steel box columns are dealing with the lone column, i.e. a column which
is standing alone. However, the practical columns for the viaduct are, of course,
connected by the girders of the superstructure at their top to each other. In this case, the
column behaviour may be difference from the standing-alone column behaviour due to
interference between the connected columns.
30 000
In the current paper, as a first step of the study on the connected columns, the
numerical analysis is made on the seismic behaviour of a couple of columns connected
with a beam. As same to the authors previous studies, the practical seismic motion
589
3 000
Fig. 2. FEM Mesh Pattern
with dimensions
steel (t=32mm)
131.8
rubber (t=11mm)
10 000
350
Fig. 3. Laminated rubber bearing
column
Two types of the shoe supporting the beam are considered in this study; one is the
laminated rubber bearing illustrated in Fig. 3, and
connecting beam
another one is the steel block. The bearing in Fig. 3 300 tons
is same to the commonly used laminated rubber
bearing, and consists of 5 rubber sheets of the
thickness of 11mm, with 4 steel sheets of 4 mm
700 tons
thick, and the 32mm thick top and bottom steel
plates. The total thickness of the bearing is 131.8
mm. The steel bearing is a simple steel block with
the thickness of 131.8 mm. Both types of the
bearings have their width and depth of 350mm as
shown in the Figure.
For the dynamic analysis, mass must be
considered in the numerical model. In the current
Fig. 4. Mass Layout
study, the mass of 700tons is set at the top of the
each column, and the mass of 300 tons at the end of the bar as shown in Fig. 4. For the
590
j hi
i j i
2 2
2
i j 1 / j 1 / i h j
i and j are the dominant circular frequencies (generally the circular frequencies of the
first mode and the second mode) of the structure, and hi and hj are the dumping constants.
In this study, hi and hj are set as hi, hj=0.02 which are often used for the dynamic analysis
of the steel structures.
Therefore, to estimate the dumping matrix [C], natural frequency analysis as an
eigenvalue problem is required.
The results of the frequency analysis of the eigenvalue problem gives that the
circular frequencies of the connected columns are 12.707 rad/sec and 19.098 rad/sec for
the first and the second mode respectively, and frequencies of the standing-alone column
are 2.493 rad/sec and 2.562 rad/sec. With these values, the dumping parameters and
can be estimated as =0.306 and =0.254x10-3 for the connected columns and =0052
and =7.913x10-3 for the lone column.
591
Gal
2000
1500
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
NS
EW
UD
0.1
1
10
Frequency [Hz]
[cm]
cm/sec
100
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
NS
EW
UD
0.1
1
Period [sec]
592
10
UD
EW
NS
x (NS)
EW
NS
NS
y (EW)
LEFT
UD
EW
y (EW)
RIGHT
x (NS)
LEFT
RIGHT
4. NUMERICAL RESULTS
4.1 DISPLACEMENT BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 8 to Fig. 11 shows the displacement responses of the columns. With the seismic
load described in the prior section, displacement up to the time of 13 seconds is very
small. Therefore, in these figures, displacement responses from 13 seconds to 25 seconds
are plotted. The thick lines in these figures indicate the displacement of the LEFT column
and the thin lines the RIGHT column. In each figure, the displacement for the x (axis
along the beam) direction x is plotted in the left side, and the displacement for the y (axis
perpendicular to the beam) direction y is shown in the right box.
a) Loading Pattern 1, with rubber bearings
Fig. 8 shows the displacement of the case that the columns are subjected to the
loading pattern 1 (seismic load on only the LEFT column), and the rubber bearings are
used between the columns and the beam. In this case, the left column deforms for the x
direction x=16.1 mm at the time t=15.4 seconds, then at t=15.6 seconds, it deforms for
the alternate direction by x=18.0 mm. At t=17.5 seconds, the deformation for x
direction becomes the maximum of x=20.7 mm. The displacement for y direction, y is
reached toy=26.5 mm at t=15.5 seconds, then at t=15.8, y becomes y=35.8 mm. The
maximum displacement y is reached at t=17.2 seconds by y=58.0 mm. After the
maximum displacement is reached, displacement y=35.5mm, the maximum value for
593
EW (mm)
60
LEFT
RIGHT
20
LEFT
RIGHT
40
10
20
-10
-20
-40
-20
13
18
23
sec
13
18
23
sec
Above descriptions are for the LEFT column. In contrast with the LEFT column,
displacement of the RIGHT column is very small under the loading pattern 1. The
maximum displacement of the RIGHT column is x=0.15 mm for x direction at t=23.4
seconds and y=0.24mm for y direction at t=18.0 seconds. This means that the rubber
bearing hardly transmits the seismic load.
b) Loading Pattern 1, with steel bearings
Displacement of the model with a beam supported by the steel bearing under the
loading pattern 1 is plotted in Fig.9. In this case, at t=15.4 seconds, displacement for x
direction of the LEFT column is x=6.6 mm. This displacement at t=15.4 seconds is only
41 % of the displacement with the rubber bearings indicated in a). In a), the RIGHT
column has very small displacement, however, the RIGHT column of this case has x as
x=5.2 mm.
NS (mm)
10
5
0
-5
-10
13
18
EW (mm)
50
LEFT
40
RIGHT
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
23 sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
After this stage, at t=15.6 seconds, x of the LEFT column becomes x=6.9 mm
and the right column x=6.0 mm, and at t=17.5 seconds, the maximum displacement is
reached and the LEFT column has x=8.6 mm and the RIGHT column x=6.1 mm. This
maximum displacement of the LEFT column is also 41 % of the maximum value of the
rubber bearing model in a).
594
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
EW
40
(mm)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
18
EW (mm)
50
LEFT
40
RIGHT 30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
23 sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
On the other hand, the two columns have the very similar the displacement
behaviour for the y direction. The maximum displacement arises at t=17.2 seconds with
y=41.7 mm for the LEFT column and at t=17.3 seconds with y=41.9 mm for the right
column. For the y direction, both the LEFT and the RIGHT columns are shaking with
almost same displacement and the same phase with the time shift of 0.1 seconds. In
addition, this shaking behaviour is almost same to one under the loading pattern 1.
4.2 COMPARISONS WITH THE SINGLE COLUMN
NS (mm)
40
EW
120
(mm)
80
20
40
0
-20
-40
-40
-60
13
18
single
-80
connected
-120
23
sec
13
single
connected
18
23
sec
In Fig. 12 and Fig. 13, comparisons of the displacement of the connected columns
and the standing-alone (lone) column are made. In these figures, the connected columns
are subjected to the loading pattern 2, and the displacement of the LEFT column is
discussed. Therefore, the thick lines in these figures are same to those in Fig. 10 and
Fig. 11, and the displacement of the lone column indicated with the thin line in Fig. 12
and Fig. 13 are same to each other.
596
EW (mm)
120
80
20
40
0
-20
-40
-40
single
connected
-60
13
18
23
sec
-80
single
conneted
-120
13
18
23
sec
Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 also show the difference of the behaviour of the connected
columns and the lone column; that is the shaking does not synchronize with each other. In
the earlier stage, the connected columns and the lone column are shaking toward the same
direction with keeping synchronousness. However, after 15.8 seconds for x displacement
and after 18.3 seconds for y displacement, the columns shake severally. That is, when the
columns are connected with a beam, they interfere with each other, and the shaking
behaviour is affected by the beam.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the current paper, the dynamic analysis is made on a system of columns connected
with a beam at their top.
597
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
598
1. INTRODUCTION
During the analysis of thin-walled structures in addition to checking the condition of
stability is particularly important to investigate its stability. There is an extensive
literature on the stability of the structure. An example of a monographic approach is
Volmir issues [10]. However, a significant part of publications concerns ideal shells . A
real structures can have a many types of imperfections. Study of stability of cylindrical
shells of variable thickness subjected to uniform external pressure is devoted to work
Staat [7] and Aghajari, and others [1]. Ahn et al [2] presented a comparison of the results
of numerical and experimental investignation of strength of bending the pipe with a local
reduction in thickness. Stability studies axially compressed shell with cutout or crack
described Limam Jullien [4], Vaziri and Estekanchi [9] and Schenk and Schueller [6].
The subject of similar studies is work Meng-Kao Yeh and others [5] and Alashti and
others [3], but in those publications a shell is subjected to bending. Wilde and others [11]
presented an analytical solution of the stability of cylindrical panel with free three edges
and one free edge simply supported subjected to compression.
The aim of the paper is investigation of a buckling of a damaged thin-walled
cylindrical shell under pure bending (Fig. 1). The damaged i.e. imperfection of the
considered shell has a shape of a circular cut-out placed on the upper (compressed)
generatrix of the cylinder. The paper consists of two main elements. The first one includes
experimental investigations. The second part is devoted to the analytical solution of the
problem.
2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGNATION
The special test stand was designed and built in order to carry out experimental
investigations of a buckling process in cylindrical shells in pure bending.The cylindrical
shell is pivoted on its ends making use of rigid grip The load is applied by the testing
599
F 2R
2R 0
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
600
Fig. 3.
Table 1.
Material
Steel
Aluminium alloy
Brass
R p 0, 2 [MPa]
Rm [MPa]
A [%]
t [mm]
226.0
128.0
289.2
346.3
128.5
393.7
35.5
0.25
31.1
0.5
0.5
0.6
Symmetric and buckling modes are obtained, but antisymmetric form was dominant.
Figure 4 shows a typical form of loss of stability shells made of steel, brass and
aluminum.
Fig. 4.
601
M kr 0,5 Fkr a
(1)
kr
M kr
0,5 Fkr a
.
2
R t
R2 t
(2)
The average of three measurements (for each case) value of critical sterss is given in
Table 2.
Table 2.
R0 [mm]
5
14
steel
183.3
114.6
kr
brass
203.3
117.4
MPa
aluminium
96.9
58.3
3. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
In the analytical solution the stress distributions around a circular hole in rectangular
plates (Fig. 5) known from the literature [8] and the equation of stability of cylindrical
shells are used. The reason for doing so was that, in the case of thin shell with a small
circular hole deviation from flatness in the surrounding area is small, and besides, it
influences positively on the stiffness of a given element thus increasing the value of
critical load.
Fig. 5.
R0
The equations describing the stress distributions around a circular hole, in the form:
602
1
2
r o 1
1
2
o 1
1
2
4
3
1 2 4 cos 2 ,
3
1 4 cos 2 ,
r o 1
(3)
3
sin 2 ,
4
r
- dimensionless radius.
Ro
The equation of stability of cylindrical shell:
where:
2
2
2 w 1 w
N w N r w 0
D 2 2 w N r 2
2
2
r r
r r
r
r
(4)
where:
w deflection of the shell,
D stiffness of the plate,
2
1
1 2
- Laplace operator,
r 2 r r r 2 2
N r , N , N r - forces in the shell.
1
4
1
4
R
wr , wa sin 2 sin 4
sin 6 o wa w( ) 2
2
5
3
r
(5)
where:
4
1
4
sin 2 sin 4
sin 6 ,
3
2
5
wa constant.
w( )
Following the implementation in the stability equation (3) the function of stress (2)
and the deflection function (5) the stability equation is solved by Bubnov Galerkin
method. Orthogonalization condition of equation (4) has then the form:
5 2
R , w d d 0 ,
1
1 0
where:
603
(6)
1024
E t2
10,662 o
15 12 1 2 Ro2
(7),
or
2,038
E t2
o .
12 1 2 Ro2
(8)
E
kr 2,038
12 1 v 2
t
.
R
o
(9)
wr , wa w
wr , wa w
(10)
(11)
are solved.
They take the form:
5 2
R , w d d 0 ,
1 0
5 2
R , w
1 0
(12)
d d 0 .
(13)
The solution conditions (12) and (13) gave the following expression for the critical
stress:
kr 4,09
E
12 1 2
604
t
,
R
o
(14)
kr 1,3
E
12 1 2
t
R
o
(15)
wr , wa w
(16)
and the numerical coefficients in formulas (9), (14) and (15) denoted by k, the general
formula for the critical stress can be written as follows:
kr k
12 1 2
t
,
R
o
(17)
where:
4.09 for n 1
k 2.04 for n 2 .
1.30 for n 3
3. CONCLUSIONS
The critical stress value (17) was determined for k 1 assuming:
for steel: E = 205000 MPa, = 0,3,
for brass E = 110000 MPa, = 0,3,
for aluminium E = 69000 MPa, = 0,33.
The Table 3 summarizes the critical stress values obtained experimentally and
analytically. The results are in accordance qualitatively but not quantitatively.
Table 3.
kr [MPa]
R0
[mm]
steel
brass
aluminium
Analytical
Exper.
Analytical
Exper
Analytical
Expe.
751
183.3
602
203.3
258
96.9
14
92
114.6
77
117.4
32
58.3
605
Aghajari S., Abedi K., Showkati H., Buckling and post-buckling behavior of thin-walled
cylindrical steel shells with varying thickness subjected to uniform external pressure, ThinWalled Structures, Vol. 44, 2006, pp. 904909.
[2] Ahn S.H., Nam K.W., Takahashi K., Ando K., Comparison of experimental and finite
element analytical results for the strength and the deformation of pipes with local wall
thinning subjected to bending moment, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 236, 2006,
pp. 140155.
[3] Alashti R.A., Rahimi G.H., Poursaeidi E., Plastic limit load of cylindrical shells with
cutouts subject to pure bending moment, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping, Vol. 85, 2008, pp. 498506.
[4] Jullien J.F., Limam A., Effects of openings of the buckling of cylindrical shells subjected
to axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 31, 1998, pp. 187202.
[5] Meng-Kao Yeh, Ming-Chyuan Lin, Wen-Tsang Wu, Bending buckling of an elastoplastic
cylindrical shell with a cutout, Engineering Structures, Vol. 21, 1999, pp. 9961005.
[6] Schenk C.A., Schueller G.I., Buckling analysis of cylindrical shells with cutouts including
random boundary and geometric imperfections, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg,
Vol. 196, 2007, pp. 34243434.
[7] Staat M., Local and global collapse pressure of longitudinally flawed pipes and cylindrical
vessels, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol. 82, 2005, pp. 217225.
[8] Timoshenko S., Goodier J. N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, Toronto, London, 1951.
[9] Vaziri A., Estekanchi H.E., Buckling of cracked cylindrical thin shells under combined
internal pressure and axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 44, 2006, pp. 141
151.
[10] Volmir A.S., Stability of deformable systems, Izd. Nauka, Fiz-Mat-Lit, Moskwa 1967
(ros.).
[11] Wilde R., Zawodny P., Magnucki K., Critical state of an axially compressed cylindrical
panel with three edges simply supported and one edge free, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.
45, 2007, pp. 955959.
606
In this study, the finite element model is applied to characterize the dynamic
behaviour of composite cylindrical panel with a single square delamination between
laminate layers. Based on numerical results it is possible to determine the effect of
the delamination on the guided wave propagation in curved structures. The results
are used to quantify the difference of response signal in the case of perfect and
defected structures. The results indicate that the size and orientations of the defect
have a significant influence on overall dynamic behaviour and they should be taken
into account to design appropriate non-destructive damage test methods and
algorithms.
1. INTRODUCTION
Laminated composites are gaining importance in engineering structural applications
as a result of their very high strength-to-weight and high stiffness-to-weight ratios.
However, unlike isotropic metallic structures, composite thin-walled structures are prone
to various forms of damages, such as interfacial cracks and delaminations, which may
originate during fabrication, mainly due to air trapped in the resin and also to imperfect
bonding, matrix cracks or broken fibers; they may also be service-induced, as because of
impact with foreign objects and fatigue loading. During the past two decades, extensive
researches have been conducted in the area of damage detection based on structural
dynamic characteristics using different algorithms and useful databases [1] as well as on
theoretical damage modeling .The latest effort includes a generalised laminate model
featuring both weak interfacial bonding and local delamination by Shu [2]; a plasticity
model coupled with the damage and identification for carbon fibre composite laminates
by Boutaous et al. [3] and a general FEM model by Yan et al. [4]. As far as the damage
index is concerned, a good summary on vibration-based model-dependent damage
identification and health monitoring approaches for composite structures can be found in
Zou et al. [5]. Araujo dos Santos developed a damage identification technique based on
frequency response functions (FRF) sensitivities for laminated structures [6]. Non-linear
elastic wave spectroscopy was adopted for the identification of impact damage in a
sandwich plate by Meo and Zumpano [7]. Damage detection based on the structural
dynamic responses has also been extensively investigated [8, 9]. In terms of acquiring and
synthesizing information on structural damage status from damage index, owing to their
excellent pattern recognition capability, soft computing techniques such as the neural
networks [10] and genetic algorithm [11] became very popular in establishing the nonlinear mapping relationships between the structural damage index and various damage
607
Fig. 1.
608
Fig. 2.
609
Fig. 3.
610
Fig. 4.
Top view of delaminated cylindrical panel with 20 mm square delamination and the
assumed actuator and sensor configuration
Fig. 5.
Fronts of propagating wave for cylindrical panel with a single square delamination
(time 8e-5s)
The most significant difference between those signals is observed by sensors s1 and
s2 as the wavefronts are going through delaminated area. For the sensors s3 and s4 the
change of the signal is much less visible. Presented results indicate that optimal design of
the location and number of piezoelectric sensors and actuators is required.
611
Fig. 6.
Comparison of normal displacements for intact and defected structures for different
location of sensors compare with Fig. 4.
To analyze the influence of the delamination size and orientation let us consider the
second configuration of the actuator and sensors - Fig. 7. The characteristic localization of
an actuator and delamination presented on Figure 7 gives a possibility to determine the
influence of curvature on dynamic behaviour of the structure. The 10mm square
delamination was considered and the localization of sensors was determined by mutual
position of an actuator and delamination.
Fig. 7.
612
Fig. 8.
Fronts of propagating wave for cylindrical panel with a single square delamination
(time 8e-5s)
As it can be observed in Fig. 8 the small delamination leads also to the evident
disturbance of wave propagations. Comparison of response signals for perfect and
imperfect structure is illustrated in Fig. 9. As it may be observed the location of the
actuation with respect to the delaminated region, as well as the size of the defect have a
significant influence on the magnitude of the normal deflections. Even if the signal passes
through the whole delaminated area (the sensor s4) the difference between displacement
for the defected and intact structures is negligibly small - compare with the Fig.6 (the
sensor s1). The identical situations occur also for the sensors s3 and s5 in Fig. 9. Figure 8
shows a parabolic shape of the defect influence zone after delamination. The most
significant difference between response signals is observed by sensors placed on the edge
of this shape (the sensors s2 and s6). The signals observed by those sensors are going near
the corner of the defect. The greater distance from defected area cause a lower disturbance
of response signals.
613
Fig. 9.
The effects of the frequency of the actuation from the literature it is well-known
that the optimal frequency always exists that corresponds to the maximal
response;
The effects of the material properties and the laminate stacking sequences; the
maximal and minimal deflections are strongly dependent on the above-mentioned
properties;
The influence of multiple delaminations and/or their interactions with other
modes of failure arising in laminated structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Polish Research Foundation PB 1174/B/T02/2009/36 is gratefully acknowledged for
financial support.
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615
616
1. INTRODUCTION
Hemispherical shells due to their advantages are widely used in many constructions:
e.g. roofing of large dimensions, pressure vessels, and structures designated as explosion
protections. Modelling of structures absorbing blast energy, resulted from industrial
accident or terrorist attack, is the subject of interest of many engineers. The idea of
applying thin shells as absorbers of the explosive energy brought the research which has
been presented by authors in previous papers [4],[5]. It is well known that thin-walled
plate and shell structures are good energy absorbers.
The assessment of blast loading effects is required for design of structures to
withstand the explosion. The blast loading time relation, obtained empirically, is
exponential and consists of two phases: positive (overpressure) of duration in range of
milliseconds and negative one (subpressure) of duration in range of seconds. In the
numerical analysis of explosion protection structures this relation is often represented by a
right angle triangle and furthermore the important effects as multiple blast wave
reflections, the Mach effect, and negative phase of the blast wave are usually neglected.
Generally, it is assumed that explosions on surface or in air are free blast propagations
without any contact with the ground or adjacent structures. Neglecting reflections of the
blast wave could lead to overestimation or underestimation of structure effective stresses
and its strain energy.
It should be mentioned that the characteristics of reflected blast pressure can never
be achieved empirically but only by numerical simulations (see: [3],[6],[7]). In many
cases the interaction of explosion wave and surrounding can result in magnification of the
617
In aim to consider the effect of blast wave reflection three types of pressure
characteristics are considered (Fig.2). It has been assumed that in all cases pulse duration
is the same and kept constant and equal to 0.5 ms. For all types the peak value of blast
pressure equals p0 and the impulses are equal each other. The pulse denoted by I is a
triangle commonly used in calculations of structures subjected to blast pressure. The
pulses denoted by II and III represent the reflected blast waves in which the value of
overpressure and impulse decreases linearly until certain limit when the pressure begins to
increase due to the effects of reflections. For pulse II the maximum value of
overpressure p0 is reached at 0.05 ms and it decreases to p = 0.2p0 at t = 0.2525 ms and
next the pressure increases and equals p = 0.8p0 at t = 0.2975 ms and finally it linearly
decreases to zero at time t = Tp=0.5 ms. For pulse III the first peak value equals 0.8po
618
p0
pulse I
pulse II
pulse III
0.8p0
0.2p0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
time [ms]
The structures are loaded by blast pressure (shown in Fig. 2 pulses I, II, III)
distributed uniformly over the whole surface.
619
Fig.4. Material stress-strain relation obtained in laboratory for steel in tensile test
In the calculations the material stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 4 (for steel shell)
and in Fig.5 (for aluminium foam) has been implemented with following strength
properties:
620
for steel: Youngs modulus E = 200 GPa, Poissons ratio = 0.3, density
= 7850 kg/m3, initial yield stress 0 = 200MPa.
for aluminium foam [2]: E = 200 MPa, = 0.33, =500 kg/m3, 0= 0.92 MPa.
For both the materials the multi-linear characteristics have been assumed
approximating as close as possible the true strain-stress relations obtained in the
laboratory tests.
For the assumed pressure distribution the load was applied uniformly to all elements
with the same value in a given time step.
In the numerical analysis the dynamic responses of considered structures loaded by
pulse pressure have been searched for.
In the dynamic analysis the equilibrium equation has the following form:
..
(1)
where [M] is a structural mass matrix, [C] is a structural damping matrix and [K] is a
stiffness matrix.
In the analysed cases the damping can be neglected and then equation (1) can be
written as follows:
..
(2)
Fig. 6. Strain energy a) and effective stress b) time relations for steel shell and for
foam filled shell subjected to pulse I (see Fig. 2)
Fig. 7a. Strain energy time relations for steel shell and for foam filled shell subjected to
pulse II (see Fig. 2)
622
Fig. 7b. Effective stress time relations for steel shell and for foam filled shell subjected
to pulse II (see Fig. 2)
Fig. 8. Strain energy and effective stress time relations for steel shell and for foam filled
shell subjected to pulse III (see Fig. 2)
623
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
624
1. INTRODUCTION
Theoretical research and numerical computations into the optimization of the shape
of a cantilever column subjected to the specific load, formulated by L. Tomski (comp.
[5]), are conducted in the paper. Taking into account past results of research into the
stability of slender systems subjected to the specific load, the results of theoretical
research into the optimization of the columns subjected to the follower load by a force
directed towards the positive pole [2, 3, 4] and to generalised load by a force directed
towards the positive pole [1, 3] were presented in works [1, 2, 3, 4]. A modified algorithm
of simulated annealing was used to determine the maximum value of the critical force [2,
3]. An increase in the critical parameter of the load of 40.64% (the load by the follower
force directed towards the positive pole) and of 51.74% (the generalised load by a force
directed towards the positive pole) was obtained. In work [4], the equation of motion and
cross-section of the column for the load by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole was derived and the adequate boundary conditions applying the variational
method were formulated. In considerations one of the three classes of the columns
- versatile uniformly convergence column - was taken into account. Determination of the
shape of the system for the chosen parameters of the head subjected to the load was
possible due to solution of the boundary problem. Next, considering the obtained shape,
the value of the critical load of the optimized system was determined on the basis of
courses of changes in natural frequencies of the considered column in relation to external
load. In publication [1], the column subjected to a generalised load by a force directed
625
Fig. 1. The physical model of the column loaded by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole (comp. [2, 3, 4])
The column was loaded by the force P passing through the constant point O - the
centre of loading and receiving heads. Pole O is placed in the distance R from the
free end of the column. It was assumed that elements of receiving heads are infinitely
rigid. Rod of the column was rigidly mounted from one side (x = 0) and connected to
the receiving head at the free end (x = l).
With regard to the value of a radius of curvature R of the loading head, exemplary
denotations of the considered system are introduced:
- COi(0.1) - the optimized column with the continuously changeable bending rigidity
along the system length at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*= 0.1.
- COr(0.4) - the optimized column with the discrete changeable bending rigidity along
the system length at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*= 0.4.
- CP(0.2) - prismatic column (comparative) with the constant bending rigidity along the
system length, at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*=0.2,
where:
R*
R
.
l
626
(1)
A x W x, t
2
dx,
0
l
(2a,b)
2
2
2
E
P
PR
V J x W x, t dx W x, t dx
W x , t x l ,
20
20
2
t2
T H dt 0,
t1
H V 1 t Vobj A x dx ,
(3a,b)
the system of equations was received, taking into account the condition of constant
volume of the column (3b):
E J x y x Py x 2 A x y x 0
,
0.5
2
2
0.5
J x 2 y x E y x 3 J x
(4a,b)
J J o sin 4
x l B3 B2 sin 2
2
(5a,b)
where: Jo- moment of inertia in relation to the neutral bending axis in the reference point
xod=x(/2); B2, B3 integration constants.
The values of constants B2, B3 and the range of changes in parameter were
determined on the basis of the boundary conditions.
627
Fig. 2.
The form of the optimized column COi(R*) for the chosen values of parameter R*
of the loading head (comp. [3])
o p , Amin
Pc o
o
(6a,b)
- coefficient which value is dependent on the geometrical and physical parameters of the
optimised column and adequate prismatic column.
The assumed condition (comp. equation (6a)) leads into determination of the value
of critical load (Pc)o of the optimised column and its shape with regard to minimal crosssection of the rod Amin described by a relationship (6b).
The results of numerical computations of the column COi(R*) were applied to
determine the parameters of the system COr(R*) comp. point 3. The obtained
distribution of moment of inertia described by relationships (5a,b) is a base for further
research into the optimization of the considered system.
4.1. THE BENDING LINE AND THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF THE COLUMN
COr(R*)
In the case of COr(R*) system, a model of the column (Fig. 3) as a set of prismatic
segments with the discrete changeable bending rigidity was assumed. Every segment with
circular section was described by the moment of inertia Ji, length li and transversal
displacement yi(x). The following constants were accepted: total length l, total volume
Vobj, the value of Youngs modulus E of individual segments of the optimised column
COr(R*) and adequate comparative column CP(R*):
628
li xi xi 1 , Vobj Vobj .
n
i 1
(7a,b)
The potential energy of the presented model of the column is a sum of elastic strain
energy of the bending of individual segments forming the system and the potential energy
of external load (comp. [3]):
Fig. 3.
2
2
2
P i
PR
y
x
dx
yi x dx
yn l .
x i
2 xi1
2
i 1
xi
(8)
Considering the determined range of changes in moment of inertia J(x) of the system
COi(R*) (comp. equation (5a,b)), the moment of inertia of the i- th segment of the rod of
the column COr(R*) was defined as follows:
Ji
1
xi xi 1
xi
J x dx .
(9)
xi 1
Equations of the bending lines (11), the boundary conditions in relations to the
mounting point (12a,b) (x0 = 0), free end of the system (12c,d) (xn = l) and the continuity
conditions between neighbouring segments of the column (12eh) (xj j = 1, 2.. n-1)
were obtained on the basis of the static criterion of stability expressed by relationship:
V 0
hence:
yiIV i yi 0,
(10)
i 1,2...n
y1 0 y1 0 0, yn 1 R* yn 1 , R* yn1 yn 1 0 ,
y j y j 1 , y j y j 1 ,
EJ j y j EJ j 1 yj 1 ,
EJ j y j EJ j 1 yj 1 .
629
(11)
(12ad)
(12eh)
x
l
, yi
yi x
,
l
Pl 2
.
EJ i
(13ac)
Pc o
0 , 1
(14)
Considering minimal value of the cross-section Amin (comp. equation (6b)), the condition
(14) can be presented as:
0 ,1
A A
min
(15)
So, the function of moment of inertia of column section resulting from the condition (15)
will be composed of:
- old J() when the condition (14) is fulfilled in the given range of independent
variable ,
- Jmin in the case when the function A() does not fulfil the condition (14) in the
given range, and for the considered column versatile uniformly convergent one can
write:
J min
2
Amin
,
4
(19)
J ow sin
J
J min
jeeli 0 ,1 2 ,3 4 , 1
jeeli 1 ,2 3 ,4
(17)
where: Jow moment of inertia in relation to neutral axis in the reference point x0 of the
column, with regard to the condition of resistance stresses o.
0, 1 - the values of variable corresponding to the mounting and loading points
of the column according to the relationship (5b).
630
c ow
Pc o l 2
EJ p
(18)
Jp - moment of inertia in relation to the neutral bending axis of the prismatic column.
In the range of changes in independent variable (comp. equation (17)) contact
points k (k N) were considered. Contact points (comp. Fig. 3) are the boundary
places, where the value of function of moment of inertia of the cross-section fulfils the
condition:
J k J min .
(19)
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Percentage increase in the critical load of the column with changeable cross-section
COr(R*) in relation to the system CP(R*) is presented in Fig. 5, whereas:
ow
c ow c pr
100 %
c pr
(20)
Shapes of the optimised columns COr(R*) for given values of radius R of loading
head were determined (Fig. 6) on the basis of the solution of the boundary problem and
relationship (17) describing the range of changes in moment of inertia in relation to the
neutral bending axis J(). Contour of the prismatic column (comparable) CP(R*) was
marked by broken lines considering the assumed criterion of the constant volume of the
system. In the case of the chosen values of parameter R*, the value of critical parameter of
load of the optimised (c)ow and prismatic (c)pr columns and a percentage increase in the
critical load ow was additionally given.
632
Fig. 6.
The shape of the optimised column COr(R*) for changeable value of parameter R*
of the loading head and = 3 : a) R*= 0, b) R*= 0.2, c) R*= 0.4, d) R*= 0.5, e)
R*= 0.6, f) R*= 0.8, g) R*= 1
5. SUMMARY
The problems connected with the optimization of the shape of a column subjected to
a load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole were analysed and
examined in this paper. Functional of potential energy with the added side condition of
the constant volume of the system was described with regard to the static criterion of
stability. The system of equations for the bending line and function of the cross-section
was determined and the adequate boundary conditions were obtained. The circular section
of the considered column was taken into consideration (versatile uniformly convergence
system). The shape of the column with a zero cross-section along the length of the column
was obtained as a result of the conducted theoretical research and numerical
computations. The location of the discussed points depends on the value of the
geometrical parameter of the head realising the considered case of the load. To exclude
the discussed phenomenon, the introduction of the additional condition into the model of
the optimization problem, i.e. resistance stresses of the optimised column, was proposed.
The values of the critical load and shapes of the system with regard to the minimal crosssection of rod Amin were obtained considering the assumed criterion. An increase in the
critical load from 31.83% to 38.17% in comparison to the critical load of a comparable
column was obtained in dependence on the geometry of the loading and receiving heads.
Additionally, it was stated that there is a value of the geometrical parameter of the head
for which the maximal value of critical parameter of the load (R*= 0.5) is received.
633
2)
3)
4)
5)
Bogacz R., Imieowski Sz., Tomski L., Optymalization and Stability of Columns on
Example of Conservative and Nonconservative Systems, Machine Dynamics Problems, 20,
1998, 35 47.
Szmidla J., Optymalny ksztat kolumny obcionej si ledzc skierowan do bieguna
dodatniego, Stability of Structures XII-th Symposium Zakopane 2009, 387 394.
Szmidla J., Drgania swobodne i stateczno ukadw smukych poddanych obcieniu
swoistemu. Seria Monografie, Nr 165, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Czstochowskiej,
Czstochowa, 2009.
Szmidla J., Yatsenko D., The free vibrations and optimization of the shape of a column
subjected to a load by a follower force directed towards the positive pole applying the
variational method, Vibrations in Physical Systems, Vol. 25, 2012 (w druku).
Tomski L., Obcienia ukadw oraz ukady swoiste. Rozdzia 1: Drgania swobodne
i stateczno obiektw smukych jako ukadw liniowych lub nieliniowych. Praca
zbiorowa wykonana pod kierunkiem naukowym i redakcj L. Tomskiego, WNT, Fundacja
Ksika Naukowo-Techniczna, Warszawa (2007) 17 46.
634
1. INTRODUCTION
In relevant literature one can find many works dedicated to slender systems.
Different types of loads, both a conservative and non-conservative, were studied by
authors of these works. Eulers load [9, 11, 15, 24], generalised load) [3, 4, 6] and a
specific load [12-14, 16-19, 21, 22, 24] can be classed as conservative loads while Becks
load (load by a follower force), generalised Becks load (with follower load factor) and
loads coupled with them, that is Reuts load and generalised Reuts load, can be classes as
non-conservative loads [1, 2, 8, 10, 20]. Further part of introduction was limited to the
specific load which is a topic of considerations carried out in the frame of this
elaboration.
The conservative load was formulated and introduced by L. Tomski (comp. [12])
can be realised through loading structures made of curvilinear elements (characterised by
circular contour [14, 16, 17, 19, 21] or parabolic contour [22] or linear elements [12, 13,
14, 18, 23, 24]. Two basic types of a specific load can be distinguished: generalised load
with the force directed towards the pole (positive or negative) [12. 13, 16, 18, 21, 24],
and a load generated by the follower force directed towards the pole (positive or negative)
[14, 17, 18, 19, 23]. Letter denotations of these two basic types of a specific load are
introduced in the further part of the paper. Denotation SG corresponds to generalised load
by a force directed towards the positive pole whereas denotation SF is connected to the
load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole. The positive pole is located
635
Fig. 1.
Loading structure (built of linear elements) realising the specific load SG consists of
two rigid bolts of lD and lC in length (Fig. 1), respectively. Such a construction of loading
heads makes it possible to obtain the load SF on the basis of the load SG in two ways. The
length of element lD must be assumed as equal zero to obtain the load SF in the first
method (Fig. 1a). In the second method (Fig. 1b), which was considered in work [18], a
rotational spring between bolts of lD and lC in length was taken into account. In work [18]
it was proved that for heads built of linear elements the load SF is a special case of the
load SG (when applying infinitely high rigidity of a rotational spring).
An aim of this paper is research into column subjected to the load SG considering
also its special case that is the load SF. The construction, built of circular elements, is
taken into account in this work too (contrary to work [18]).
2. THE FORMULATION OF THE BOUNDARY PROBLEM OF THE CONSIDERED
SYSTEM
The considered slender system (column) is presented in Fig. 2. The column is built
as a flat frame consisting of two identical rods symmetrically placed towards the axis of
the system. In this case a specific load is generated by the loading heads made of circular
636
Fig. 2.
Columns with the loading systems: a) the column subjected to generalised load by a
force directed towards the positive pole, b) the column subjected to a load by the
follower force directed towards the positive pole, c), d) the column subjected to the
Eulers load
The following denotations were accepted regarding the geometrical and physical
quantities of the considered systems: Wi(x,t) transversal displacement of the column
rods corresponding to coordinate x and time t, (EJ)i bending rigidity of the i th rod of
the column, (0A)i mass per unit length of the column rod, P - external force loading the
column, - the natural frequency.
At the ends of the considered column (unbiased (x = 0) and loaded (x = l)) the
geometrical boundary conditions are as follows:
W1 0, t W2 0, t
W1 x, t
W2 x, t
0
x
x
x 0
x 0
W1 l , t W2 l , t ,
W1 x, t
x
637
x l
W2 x, t
x
(1a-d)
x l
(1e,f)
W1 x, t
x
x l
R l0 W1 l , t 0
(2)
In this work the boundary problem of the considered systems is deduced on the basis
of Hamiltons principle taking into account the load of SG type. The boundary conditions
in relation to SF load (for r = R) are determined on the basis of the boundary problem.
For the conservative systems the Hamiltons principle is in the following form:
t2
T V dt 0
(3)
t1
Energies: the kinetic T and the potential V of the system subjected to the load (Fig.
2a) are as follows:
1
T
2
1
V
2
2
x l
Wi x, t
1 Wi x, t
0 Ai
dx m
t
2 t
i 1
(4)
EJ i Wi 2x, t dx P 1 W1 x, t dx
2
x
x
i 1
0
0
2
2
2
x l
W x, t x l
1
1 W1 x, t
1
1
P r
2 PW *
Pl0
2
2 x
x
(5)
where:
x l
1
W x, t
W1 l , t l0 r 1
R r
x
W * W1 l , t
W1 x, t
x
xl
l0 r r
(6a)
(6b)
By substituting the energies written by equations (4) and (5) into Hamiltons
principle and applying the geometrical boundary conditions (4) one can obtain:
the differential equation of the motion in transversal direction:
638
(7)
W x, t
EJ i i 3
2
xl
i 1
x l
r l0
0
Rr
2
1
m W1 2x, t
Rr
t
(8a)
xl
(8b)
x l
R l0
2
EJ i Wi 2x, t
x
i 1
2
x l
2W1 x, t
m
t 2
x l
(9)
Wi x, t yi x cos t
(10)
EJ i d
yi x P d 2 yi x
Ai 2 yi x 0
2 dx 2
dx 4
(11)
(12)
P
1 P
2 EJ i
4 EJ i
1 j 1
2 Ai
EJ i
(13)
(14)
(15)
cr
l
R
r
; B ; C 0 ; D
l
R
R
Pcr l 2
EJ i
i
Pl 2
EJ i
i
(16a-d)
Ail
i
2
A l
EJ
(16e-g)
640
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
The critical load of the considered systems was determined on the basis of the
kinetic criterion of stability. To that end the characteristic curves in the plane: load natural
frequency was determined. Taking into account the characteristic curves, the critical load
corresponds to zero value of natural frequency. Exemplary characteristic curves
corresponding to the system SF are presented in Figs. 5a i 5b. Numerical computations
were carried out for different values of the parameter A (Fig. 5a A 0, 0.5, Fig. 5b
A 0.5,1.0) and C = 0, D = 0.5. In the case of a specific load (such the load is
considered in this work) two types of characteristic curves can be obtained which differ in
slope angle for the zero value of external load. If the slope is negative, the characteristic
curves are of divergence type. The characteristic curves corresponding to positive slope
641
Fig. 5.
6. SUMMARY
A geometrically linear slender system subjected to a specific load: generalised by a
force directed towards the positive pole and by a follower force directed towards the
positive pole was considered in the paper. The specific load was realised by loading
systems built of circular elements. The boundary problem of free vibrations for a
generalised load by a force directed towards the positive pole was formulated on the basis
of Hamiltons principle. The load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
was treated as a special case of the generalised load by a force directed towards the
642
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
643
644
A. G. TYAPIN
(Atomenergoproject, Moscow, Russia)
The author proposes to use special platform model with soil springs and dashpots
with certain time lags in addition to the conventional springs and dashpots. The
parameters are set up to achieve the best fit of the dynamic stiffness with the wave
solution in the frequency domain.
1. INTRODUCTION
To perform a structural dynamic stability analysis for seismic excitation one has to
know the motion of the basement. It is often assumed similar to the so-called free-field
motion - i.e. seismic motion recorded on the free ground surface without structure.
However, for certain cases (heavy structures, pile foundations, etc.) the response motion
of the basement is different from the free-field ground motion. They say that in such
cases the motion of the basement is controlled by the soil-structure interaction (SSI)
effects [1-3].
SSI problems are studied by a special branch of the earthquake engineering. SSI
effects have essentially wave nature (soil flexibility combined with soil inertia cause
wave propagation in the half-infinite soil medium). The attempts to model the infinite soil
foundation were more or less successful so far only in the frequency domain (see
transmitting boundaries [4]); hence, all dynamic stiffness matrices describing the
foundation are frequency-dependent. As a result, SSI problem is usually solved in the
frequency domain: first the excitation time history is transferred into the frequency
domain using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique; then the response of the linear
system is calculated using frequency-dependent complex transfer functions; finally this
response is transferred back into the time domain using inverse FFT [5]. Such an
approach cannot be applied for the non-linear analysis (e.g., for the dynamic buckling
analysis).
The author proposes to use special platform model with soil springs and dashpots
with certain time lags in addition to the conventional springs and dashpots. The
parameters are set up to achieve the best fit of the dynamic stiffness with the wave
solution in the frequency domain.
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The simplest example of the soil-structure model is a platform model with rigid
basement. Structural model with rigid base mat is put on the rigid platform using socalled soil springs and dashpots. Then kinematical excitation u0 taken from the free
field is applied to the platform, as shown in Fig. 1.
645
u0
u0
The simplest structure of the soil support is just six spring/dashpot pairs along
each of six degrees of freedom of rigid base mat. In the frequency domain it leads to the
diagonal impedance matrix. Real parts of all the impedances are constant (i.e. frequencyindependent) and equal to the stiffness of each spring. Imaginary parts of impedances are
proportional to the frequency (linearity coefficients are equal to the viscosity parameters
of each dashpot). Such a model is still used sometimes for the time-domain SSI analyses.
For homogeneous soil and simple base mat shape (circular or rectangular) there exist
some semi-empirical formulas for soil springs and dashpots (see, for example, [6]).
The trouble is, however, that even for homogeneous half space such an approach is
non-accurate (especially for vertical and angular impedances): wave solutions
demonstrate substantial frequency dependence of real parts and non-linear dependencies
of imaginary parts. For the non-homogeneous soil (generally a real world soil is layered)
the situation is even worse: all six diagonal impedances have sophisticated frequency
dependencies. The example will be shown later in this paper.
For the frequency domain solution procedure (performed frequency by frequency) it
is no problem: impedances can be changed along with frequency. But then we cannot
treat non-linearity in the structure. So, the goal is to couple frequencydependent
dynamic stiffness of the linear soil with potentially non-linear structural part of the
model. This may be done only in the time domain.
646
(1)
F ( ) D( ) U ( ) exp(i t ) d
(2)
(3)
Here A is a column matrix of four real terms (A0, B0, A1, B1)T; P() is a line matrix of
four complex frequency-dependent functions pj():
p1() 1;
p2 () i ;
p3 () exp( i) ;
p4 () i exp( i) (4)
Wave impedance C() is known apriori (e.g., calculated in the frequency domain
using CLASSI [7] or SASSI [5] codes). Then we can apply a best fit procedure to find
optimal parameters A providing minimum effective difference between exact and
approximate response forces. If V() describes relative displacement in the frequency
domain, then response forces in the frequency domain are described by D()V() in
approximate solution and C()V() in wave solution. The functional to be minimized is
D() V () C() V ()
(5)
647
(6)
(7)
Right-hand part of (6) can be written via line matrix P and scalars V and C as
(8)
1/(2f )
(9)
Here f is the difference between frequencies of the first local maximum and the first
local minimum of the real part of C(). The first local maximum is usually at the zero
frequency, so f is just the frequency of the first local minimum.
In (1) only one additional spring/dashpot pair was used, but the same approach can
we used with several pairs (corresponding to different time lags). For 6D case the author
suggests to use generally three additional pairs, choosing three values so as to match
local minimums of real parts in the frequency domain along three translational
coordinates.
To choose V the author suggests an empirical formula
V ( f ) [ f (2 f0 f )] ,
f 2 f0 ; V ( f ) 0,
f 2 f0
(10)
Here f0 is a frequency where we require the best fit of D() and C(). It corresponds to
the spectral peak of the relative displacements. Empirical value suggested by the author is
6 Hz.
4. SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL-STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Let us consider a sample structure with rigid base mat resting on the surface of
horizontally layered soil. Base mat is quadratic in shape with a side 30.6 m. Soil layer 26
m thick is resting on the homogeneous half space. Soil density in the layer is 2 t/m3;
secondary and primary wave velocities are Vs=400 m/s and Vp=1100 m/s. Material
damping is 5%. For the half space Vs=800 m/s, Vp=2100 m/s. Soil density and damping
for half space are the same as for the upper soil layer.
As both sides of rectangular mat are equal, two horizontal diagonal impedances are
similar and the number of non-zero time lags will be only two (first one from both
horizontal impedances, another one - from vertical impedance). Let us speak about total
three time lags, adding a zero time lag in conventional spring/dashpot pair to those two
mentioned above. Wave impedance matrix () is 6 x 6 in size. System (6) is solved for
each element (matrix H in (6) is the same; right-hand parts G are different for different
elements), providing six optimal coefficients A for each element. As a result, we get six
648
Horizontal impedances
2,0E+08
8,0E+07
ReCz Wave
7,0E+07
ImCz Wave
1,5E+08
6,0E+07
ReCz 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
5,0E+07
ImCz 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
1,0E+08
4,0E+07
3,0E+07
5,0E+07
2,0E+07
ReCx Wave
1,0E+07
ImCx Wave
0,0E+00
0,0E+00
ReCx 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
-1,0E+07
ImCx 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
-5,0E+07
-2,0E+07
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Torsion impedances
Rocking impedances
2,5E+10
2,5E+10
ReCyy Wave
2,0E+10
ReCzz Wave
ImCyy Wave
2,0E+10
ImCzz Wave
ReCyy 0.045;0.110
1,5E+10
ReCzz 0.045;0.110
ImCyy 0.045;0.110
1,5E+10
ImCzz 0.045;0.110
1,0E+10
1,0E+10
5,0E+09
5,0E+09
0,0E+00
0,0E+00
-5,0E+09
0
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Frequency, Hz
2,0E+08
ImCx,yy. Wave
1,5E+08
ReCx,yy. 0.045;0.110
1,0E+08
ImCx,yy. 0.045;0.110
5,0E+07
0,0E+00
-5,0E+07
-1,0E+08
-1,5E+08
-2,0E+08
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Fig. 2. Comparison of wave impedances with their six-term approximations (3) in the
frequency domain
For the given soil properties and base mat shape the wave impedances in the
frequency domain were obtained using SASSI code and shown in Fig. 2 below. First let
us define non-zero time lags using wave curves of real parts from Fig. 2. For vertical
649
1,5
ImZ(Z) Wave
ReZ(Z) 0.045;0.110 s
1,0
ImZ(Z) 0.045;0.110 s
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
1,5
ImX(X) Wave
ReX(X) 0.045;0.110 s
1,0
ImX(X) 0.045;0.110 s
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
-0,03
ImYY(X) Wave
-0,04
ReYY(X) 0.045;0.110 s
-0,05
ImYY(X) 0.045;0.110 s
-0,06
-0,07
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Fig.3. Comparison of the transfer functions from the free-field motion to the base mat
response
650
4
X(X). Approx 0.045;0.110
3
X(X). ABAQUS. 0.045;0.110
Accelerations, m/s 2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
Accelerations, m/s 2
-1
Z(Z). Wave
-2
-3
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
0,15
0,10
Accelerations, m/s 2
0,05
0,00
-0,05
-0,10
YY(X)*1m. Wave
-0,15
YY(X)*1m. Approx 0.045;0.110
-0,20
-0,25
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
Fig.4. Comparison of the base mat response time histories obtained in the frequency domain
and in the time domain
651
20
X(X). Wave
X(X). Approximate
15
X(X). ABAQUS
10
0
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
Frequency, Hz
12
10
Z(Z). Wave
Z(Z). Approximate
8
Z(Z). ABAQUS
0
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
21
24
27
Frequency, Hz
1
YY(X). Wave
0,8
YY(X). Approximate
YY(X). ABAQUS
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
12
15
18
Frequency, Hz
653
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Seed H., Lysmer J., (1977) Soil-Structure Interaction Analysis by Finite Element Method.
State of the Art. Transactions of the International Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Reactor Technology (SMiRT-4). San Francisco. Vol.K. K2/1.
Luco J.E., (1982) Linear Soil-Structure Interaction: A Review. Earthquake Ground
Motions and its Effects on Structures. Applied Mechanics Division, ASME 53: 41-57.
Gulkan P., Clough R /Editors (1993) Developments in dynamic soil-structure interaction.
NATO Advanced Institutes Series. Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences.
Vol.390. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 439 p.
Lysmer J., Waas G., (1972) Shear Waves in Plane Infinite Structures. J. of Engineering
Mechanics Div., ASCE. 98. EM1: 85-105.
Lysmer J., Tabatabaie R., Tajirian F., Vahdani S., Ostadan F., (1981) SASSI - A System
for Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction. Research Report GT 81-02. University of
California, Berkeley.
Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Structures and Commentary. ASCE4-98.
Reston, Virginia, USA. 1999.
Luco J., (1976) Vibrations of a Rigid Disc on a Layered Viscoelastic Medium. Nuclear
Engineering and Design. 36: 325-340.
ABAQUS. Version 6.8. Dassault Systmes Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA. 2008.
654
SENSITIVITY TO IMPERFECTIONS OF
PERFORATED PALLET RACK SECTIONS
V. UNGUREANU1,2, D. DUBINA1,2
Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Civil Engineering Faculty,
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Ioan Curea 1, 300224 Timisoara, Romania
2
Laboratory of Steel Structures, Romanian Academy Timisoara Branch,
Mihai Viteazu 24, 300223 Timisoara, Romania
1.
INTRODUCTION
All structures are in reality imperfect. The imperfections refer to cross-section and
member geometry, to residual stresses and to yield strength distribution across the section,
to supporting conditions of the members and to load introduction. Excepting the last two
types of imperfections, which are of mechanical type, a lot of work has been done to
analyse, classify and codify the material and geometrical imperfections [1-6].
It was observed the different nature of imperfections, associated with the slenderness
of component walls, leads to different instability behaviour of cold-formed sections
compared to hot-rolled ones [1]. As a consequence, specific buckling curves should be
provided for cold-formed steel sections instead of using European buckling curves
obtained for hot-rolled ones.
Due to the local and distortional instability phenomena, and their coupling with
overall buckling modes, the post-critical behaviour of thin-walled cold-formed steel
members is highly non-linear, being very difficult to be predicted using analytical
methods. Numerical non-linear analysis can be successfully used to simulate the real
behaviour of cold-formed steel sections. Initial imperfections as equivalent sine shapes,
with half-wave lengths corresponding to relevant buckling modes are used as geometric
non-linearity. Rasmussen & Hancock [7] and Schafer & Pekz [2] proposed numerical
models, to generate automatically geometrical imperfection modes into the non-linear
analysis. To define the relevant sine imperfection modes, Schafer et al. [8] used the
probabilistic analysis in order to evaluate the frequency and magnitude of imperfections.
Related to numerical models and methods applied in the simulation, two general
reports, presented in two editions of Coupled Instability in Metal Structures conferences,
655
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Fig. 1. (a) Brut and perforated specimen cross-section; (b) perforation details
657
Table 1 presents the failure modes for each type of the tested specimen/section. The
following notations were used: S Squash, DS symmetrical distortional buckling, FT
flexural-torsional buckling, F flexural buckling.
Table 1. Failure modes for tested sections
Section
Test type
Stub (s)
Distortional (d)
Upright (u)
Interactive buckling (c)
RS952.6
brut
S
DS
F or FT
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS952.6
perforated
S/DS
DS
F or FT
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS1253.2
brut
DS
DS
DS
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS1253.2
perforated
DS
DS
DS
DS+F or
DS+FT
Additional experimental tests have been done in order to determine the mechanical
properties of the material. A set of samples were tested from the base material. Due to
cold-forming process of the cross-section, the material properties are modified. New
series of tests on coupons cut over the cross-section of specimens without perforations
was done for both types of sections, in order to determine the increase of yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength and residual stresses [21, 22]. Fig. 3 shows, as an example, the
measured values of yield strength and residual stresses distributions for RS1253.2 brut
cross-section, as percent of yield strength of base material.
In what concerns the geometric imperfections, all tested specimens were measured.
Two types of imperfections were recorded, i.e. (a) sectional and (b) global [21, 22]. The
sectional geometric imperfections range for RS1253.2 cross-section, between 3.10mm
+1.64mm, while for RS952.6 cross-section between 2.93mm +2.74mm. Similar
values for this type of imperfection were mentioned by Schafer & Pekz [2] in their
658
Fig. 3. (a) Yield strength distribution (%fy); (b) Residual stress distribution (%fy)
represented on the compressed side of the strip (RS125 brut cross-section)
3.
Numerical models applied to simulate the behaviour of studied sections, have been
created using the commercial FE program ABAQUS/CAE. The numerical models were
calibrated to replicate the physical experimental tests. Rectangular 4-noded shell elements
with reduced integration (S4R) were used to model the thin-walled cold-formed members.
In order to create a reliable mesh and to account the holes present along the specimens
length a mesh size of about 55mm was chosen. In the calibration process it was found
that the influence of residual stress is small (less than 3%) and their effects will be
ignored further in the analysis [21, 23].
The base plates and pressure pads were modelled using RIGID BODY with
PINNED nodes constraints. The reference point for the constraints was considered the
centre of the ball bearings (55 mm outside the profile), in the gravity centre of the crosssection. For numerical simulations, the specimens were considered pinned at one end and
simply supported at the other one. For the pinned end, all three translations together with
the rotation along the longitudinal axis of the profile were restrained, while the rotations
about maximum and minimum inertia axes were free. For the simply supported end, the
translations along section axis and the rotation about longitudinal profiles axis were
restrained, while the rotations about major and minor inertia axis together with
longitudinal translation were allowed. For the tested specimens the rotation about
longitudinal axis was prevented by friction, while in numerical model the rotation was
restrained, to remove rigid body displacements.
The analysis was conducted into two steps. The first step consists into an eigen
buckling analysis (LBA), in order to find a buckling mode or combination of buckling
modes, affine with the relevant measured imperfections. After, imposing the initial
659
RSBs 1253.2
RSNd 1253.2
RSNu 952.6
RSBc952.6
It must be underlined that for all considered numerical models, the failure modes
were in accordance with the failure modes observed in experimental tests (see Fig. 4). The
calibrated numerical model was validated against experimental tests for all tested sets of
profiles. Table 2 presents the values of ultimate load from numerical simulations and the
660
4.1
The interactive buckling approach based on ECBL method was largely presented in
[20]. The principle of this method is summarized here only. Assuming the two theoretical
simple instability modes that couple, in a thin-walled compression member, are the Euler
2
bar instability mode, N E 1/ ( = relative member slenderness) and the distortional
instability mode described by means of the reducing factor of area N D . The resulting
eroded curve for coupled instability mode is N ( , N D , ) (see Fig. 5).
N
ND
Distortional mode: ND
M
Coupled instability
mode: N(,ND)
ND
Bar instability
mode: NEULER=1/2
N(,ND)=(1-)ND
1/ND0.5
The maximum erosion of critical load, due both to the imperfections and coupling
effect, occurs in the interaction point, M ( 1/ N D ) where, the erosion coefficient is
defined as:
ND N
(1)
2
ND
1 1 0.2 N D
(2)
Eqn. (2) represents the new formula of imperfection factor which should be
introduced in European buckling curves in order to adapt these curves to distortionaloverall interactive buckling.
The coupling point between distortional (D) and global (F) buckling modes is
determined following the ECBL approach as shown in Fig. 4. On this purpose, FE
analyses were performed to simulate the influence of different types of imperfections in
the coupling point. Because the interest is to observe the erosion of critical bifurcation
load, the ECBL approach is applied considering the distortional critical load, obtained for
the relevant section by an eigen-buckling analysis (Linear Buckling Analysis (LBA) using
ABAQUS), in interaction with Euler buckling of the corresponding bar member. Table 3
shows the reference values for critical and ultimate sectional loads obtained numerically
and experimentally for the studied sections.
Table 3. Sectional capacity and distortional buckling load
Section
RSN1253.2
RSN952.6
Length [mm]
600
500
Distortional buckling load*
370.48
340.78
(Ncr,D) [kN]
Distortional ultimate load**
388.35
--(ND,u) [kN]
Stub ultimate load***
407.79
279.27
(NS,u) [kN]
Squash load****
480.94
286.72
(Npl) [kN]
* distortional buckling load determined using LBA; ** experimental failure load
corresponding to distortional specimens mean values; *** experimental failure load
corresponding cu stub column specimens mean values; **** Npl=A.fy
Ncr,D [kN]
Npl [kN]
ND
RSN125
RSN95
370.48
340.78
480.94
286.72
0.770
1.000
2559
1667
It can be observed that for RS95N cross-sections, the critical load corresponding to
distortional buckling is greater than the cross-section squash load. In this case the N D
value has to be limited to 1.00. Based on this limitation, for RS95 section, with and
662
On the following, the study focuses on the sensitivity to imperfections of pallet rack
sections in compression, having the member length equal to the interactive buckling
length, established according to ECBL approach, presented in the previous subchapter.
CG
f+
CG
CG
CG
z Load Ecc. z
Ecc. y
d+
RSN1253.2
0.236
0.078
0.339
0.185
0.398
0.280
0.152
0.029
0.245
0.085
0.321
0.162
0.240
0.081
0.216
0.063
0.181
0.043
0.240
0.081
0.169
0.037
0.196
0.051
0.224
0.069
Imperfection
EZ -6
EZ -4
EZ -2
EZ +2
EZ +4
EZ +6
EY-EZ 0
EY-EZ +6
EY-EZ +4
EY-EZ +2
EY-EZ -2
EY-EZ -4
EY-EZ -6
RSN1253.2
0.313
0.152
0.272
0.108
0.210
0.059
0.216
0.063
0.255
0.093
0.285
0.121
0.157
0.031
0.321
0.162
0.276
0.112
0.215
0.063
0.223
0.068
0.270
0.106
0.307
0.145
Detailing, the imperfections used for this study are: distortional symmetric
imperfection (ds), distortional asymmetric imperfection (da) (only for RSN1253.2
section), flexural bow imperfection about the minor inertia axis (f), loading eccentricities
on both axes (independent and coupled, i.e. EY, EZ, EY-EZ) and flexural-torsional
663
f L/750, ds 0.5t
0.339
0.185
0.342
0.189
0.346
0.195
0.425
0.334
0.404
0.292
0.376
0.241
0.279
0.115
0.194
0.050
0.240
0.081
0.240
0.081
0.430
0.345
0.406
0.295
0.377
0.243
0.280
0.116
0.218
0.065
0.271
0.107
f L/750, ds 1.5t
0.440
0.368
0.442
0.373
0.443
0.375
0.493
0.510
0.479
0.469
0.461
0.420
0.413
0.309
0.374
0.238
0.276
0.112
0.440
0.368
0.495
0.517
0.480
0.472
0.462
0.422
0.413
0.309
0.376
0.241
0.298
0.135
f L/1500, ds 0.5t
0.302
0.139
0.305
0.142
0.310
0.148
0.411
0.305
0.384
0.255
0.350
0.201
0.174
0.039
0.228
0.072
0.264
0.101
0.301
0.138
0.414
0.311
0.386
0.258
0.351
0.202
0.182
0.043
0.247
0.086
0.289
0.125
f L/1500, ds 1.5t
0.422
0.328
0.423
0.330
0.425
0.334
0.483
0.480
0.467
0.436
0.447
0.385
0.387
0.260
0.326
0.168
0.261
0.098
0.421
0.326
0.485
0.486
0.467
0.436
0.447
0.385
0.387
0.260
0.330
0.173
0.285
0.121
CONCLUSIONS
Both experimental tests and numerical simulations have proven the negative
influence of both interaction between distortional and overall buckling and geometrical
imperfections on the ultimate capacity of perforated pallet rack sections in compression in
the interactive range, especially for the case of sections analysed in this paper.
The ECBL approach is an excellent method that allows for the evaluation of
erosion coefficients and imperfection factors, as result of interactive buckling. It applies
for the interaction of sectional (local or distortional buckling) with global (flexural or
flexural-torsional) instability modes, using a limited number of experimental tests.
In order to reduce the number of experimental tests, a rational sensitivity analysis
done using calibrated and validated numerical models can be used in order to determine
the most detrimental imperfections to be considered for the numerical modelling.
Moreover, using correctly calibrated numerical models, ECBL is a perfect method to
perform a sensitivity analysis and to obtain the maximum erosion coefficient and
corresponding imperfection factor for a given section, with or without perforations.
Performing a sensitivity analysis for RSN1253.2 cross-section, it is easy to observe
that for uncoupled imperfections, symmetric distortion imperfection and major axis
eccentricities give higher values for erosion coefficient than those corresponding to
flexural and flexural-torsional imperfections. For the case of coupled imperfections, it is
easy to observe that (f L/750, ds 1.5t) combination of imperfections is the most critical
one. However, statistically is not recommended to combine all imperfections to cumulate
their negative effects, because their random compensation.
In conclusion, related to the imperfection scenarios to be adopted in numerical
simulations, it is compulsory to be estimated by means of reliability analysis, in order to
get results for a given failure probability. On this purpose, future research should be done
in order to find values for reliability index that could be associated with the erosion
classes of mode interaction.
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EN15512:2009: Steel static storage systems Adjustable pallet racking systems
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European Recommendation for the Design of Light Gauge Steel Members, ECCS,
Brussels, 1978.
EN1090-2:2008. Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures - Part 2: Technical
requirements for steel structures, CEN, Brussels, 2009.
AS4100-1990: Australian Standard: Steel Structures, Homebush, Australia.
666
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled structures are commonly used as components for cars, boats,
aeroplanes, cranes and warehouses. The stability loss of thin-walled structures subjected
to static load is a very well-known phenomenon and its investigations have been
discussed extensively in the world literature. First studies on dynamic buckling can be
found in publications performed by Volmir [18] and Budiansky [2], [6]. Volmir [18]
Weller, Abramovich and Yaffe'a [19], Abramovich and Grunwald [2], Ari-Gur and
Simonetta [3] in their works investigated dynamic response of thin plates. The dynamic
buckling phenomenon of thin plates and thin-walled columns with plated walls can be
found in [12] and [13]. The dynamic response is described by strengthening the
amplitude of initial geometrical imperfection. Response of thin-walled structures to pulse
loading depends on the type of structure (rod, plate, shell), the value of the load
amplitude, pulse shape and its duration. For a pulse with a very short duration and high
load amplitude we are dealing with the impact phenomenon. In the case of the pulse of
low load amplitude and a very long duration time the problem becomes quasi-static.
When the pulse load amplitude is comparable with the static critical load and the pulse
duration corresponds to the period of natural vibration frequencies, it can be said the
dynamic buckling problem occurs. In the dynamic buckling analysis the effects of
dumping are often neglected [11]. It is well known that equilibrium path for plates with
initial geometrical imperfection have no bifurcation points, so the critical buckling
dynamic characteristic quantity cannot be clearly defined. Therefore, it is necessary to
define the criteria [16] allowing to designate critical amplitude of the pulse load. Author
decided to use three criteria due to the easiest way of their application.
Volmir [18] was one of the first scientists who had analysed buckling of thin plates
subjected to pulse loading. His criterion state that:
Dynamic critical load corresponds to the amplitude of pulse load (of constant
duration) at which the maximum plate deflection is equal to some constant value k (k half or one plate thickness).
667
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Loading scheme
Fig. 3.
Boundary conditions
2. SOLUTION METHOD
The problem was solved by analytical-numerical method (ANM) and the Finite
Element Method (FEM) for comparison. ANSYS software [1] based on the Finite
Element Method was used to conduct numerical calculations allowing to find dynamic
response of girder segments subjected to pulse loading. The pulse duration Tp was set
based on period of natural vibration. The critical load in this case the critical bending
moment (Mbcr) was used to determine the dynamic load factor DLF. The buckling or
modal mode was used to set the initial imperfection with the amplitude corresponding to
the thickness of the considered girder wall. The dimensionless amplitude of initial
imperfection was assumed as * = 0.01 wmax/h (where wmax is the maximal normal to the
wall displacement and h is the girder wall thickness). The results of these calculations
were used as input to the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the structure in time,
during and immediately after exposure of pulsed load. In the analysis of the dynamic
response the equilibrium equation is supplemented by the dynamic blocks, and takes the
form:
..
(1)
where {P} is the vector of nodal forces, [M] is the mass matrix, [C] is a damping matrix
and {u} is the vector of nodal displacements.
As it has been shown in many studies (for example [7]) for the short-term load the
damping effect can be neglected what leads to the simplification of equation (1) to the
form:
669
(2)
Fig. 4.
The analytical-numerical method [10], [14] which allows one to analyse the static
buckling, postbuckling behaviour and dynamic responses of thin-walled structures
composed of plates, made of isotropic or orthotropic materials was employed. The
problem was solved in the elastic range. It is assumed that the loaded edges remain
straight and parallel during loading. Additionally, it is assumed that normal and shear
forces disappear along the not loaded edges.
For each plate (i-th girder wall) geometrical relationships (3) are assumed in order to
enable the consideration of both out-of-plane and in-plane bending:
(3)
where: ui, vi, wi - displacement components of the middle surface of the i-th wall (Fig. 5)
in the xi, yi, and zi directions, respectively.
The Hamiltons Principle, taking into account Lagranges description, full Greens
strain tensor for thin plates and Kirchhoffs stress tensor, were employed to obtain the
differential equations of motion (4).
670
Fig. 5.
..
i hi u i N xi , x N xyi , y N yi ui , y
..
i hi v i N xyi , x N yi , y N xi vi , x , x N yi vi , y
..
(4)
i hi wi N xi , x N xyi , y wi , x N yi , y N xyi , x wi , y N xi wi , xx N yi wi , yy
2 N xyi wi , xy M xi , xx 2M xyi , xy M yi , yy 0
The expansion of the dynamic displacement field [9] has been assumed as follows:
U (u, v, w) Ui(0) U i(1) 2Ui(2) ,
(5)
where: is a load factor; = w/h1 is a mode amplitude (normalized, in the given case, by
the condition of equality of the maximal deflection to the thickness of the first component
plate h1); Ui(0) is a displacement field for the prebuckling state; Ui(1) are linear buckling
modes; Ui(2) are second-order displacement fields.
The static part (inertia forces have been neglected) of the system of ordinary
differential equilibrium equations (4), the first and second order approximations in the xy
plane (Fig. 5) have been solved with a modified transition matrix method. The state
vector at the final edge based on the state vector at the initial edge has been found by a
numerical integration of differential equations (4) along the transverse direction, using
the Runge-Kutta formulae by means of the Godunov orthogonalization method [10], [14],
[20]. The above-mentioned method allows for finding the nonlinear postbuckling
coefficients: a0, a1, a111, a1111 applied in the equation describing the postbuckling
equilibrium path [10].
In the dynamic analysis (while finding the frequency of natural vibration [20]), the
independent non-dimensional displacement and the load factor become a function
dependent on time. Then, Lagranges equations are as follows:
1
02
,tt 1
min
min
(6)
where: min is the critical load factor corresponding to the first buckling mode (minimal
buckling load), and:
671
02
a1
,
m
b111
a111
,
a1
b1111
a1111
,
a1
Tp
(7)
(t 0) 0 .
t
(t 0) 0 ;
(8)
The equations of motion (6) are solved with the numerical Runge-Kutta method.
3. RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
Assumed lengths of the analyzed beams were obtained from stability analysis
(eigenvalue method) as length where critical value of bending moment were minimum
(Fig. 6). Following critical lengths (Lcr) correspond to increasing number of half-waves
(m) on web of the beam. Values of length and correspond to them pulse duration and
bending moment are presented in Table 1. Critical values of bending moment obtained
from both methods are similar, differences between values are about 4%.
60
Mbcr [Nm]
58
56
54
52
50
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
L [mm]
Fig. 6.
m=1
39
m=2
78
m=3
117
m=4
156
51.28
51.45
51.50
51.53
53,66
53,66
53,66
53,66
0.86
1.89
2.55
2.94
6
C39
C78
4
C117
C156
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 7.
Dimensionless displacement vs. dynamic load factor curves for different lengths of
beam (displacement measured on middle of the web)
6
C39
5
C78
C117
C156
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 8.
Dimensionless displacement vs. dynamic load factor curves for different lengths of
beam obtained from analytical-numerical method
673
C78
C117
AN
3
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 9.
Dimensionless displacement vs. dynamic load factor curves for different lengths of
beam (displacement measured on node placed on the middle of first half-wave of
buckling mode)
In Fig. 9 the results of calculations for case when displacement is measured on node
located on the middle of first half-wave of buckling mode and results obtained from
analytical-numerical method are presented. Similarity of curves obtained from both
methods can be noted. Critical values of DLF determined from FEM method for every
length of beams are equal and value obtained from AN is similar to them (
Table 2).
Table 2.
Volmir criterion
Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion
C39
1.1
1.0-1.2
C78
1.1
1.0-1.2
C117
1.1
1.0-1.2
AN
1.1
1.2-1.4
4. CONCLUSIONS
Taking into consideration presented results of calculations, it can be said that only
local dynamic buckling for beams subjected to pure bending is possible to determine.
Dynamic response corresponding to local buckling can be observed when displacement is
measured on node placed on the middle of first half-wave of buckling mode. For long
beams dynamically loaded with bending moment response of the structure is not
corresponding to local, global or coupled buckling, there is no rapid grow of deflection
with the small variation of load amplitude (structure is bended). Therefore none of known
criteria can be used to determine critical value of load amplitude. Results obtained from
674
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
675
676
1. INTRODUCTION
Applications of piezoelectric materials have a great deal of attention these days. The
advantages of using active materials in mechanical structures are mainly due to their
structural functioning. The active material functions as an embedded actuator that
responds to electric loads and generates strains, deformations and forces. Moreover, they
also function as an integrated part of the structural skeleton and contribute to the
mechanical load carrying mechanism. This advantage is even more significant in the
design and construction of composites with the piezoelectric materials. The theory of
piezoelectricity was discussed by Yang [25]. Not to mention the fact that there have been
number of PhD thesis concerning smart materials [3, 11, 12, 13]. Although very few
problems in piezoelectric structures can be directly analysed by the three-dimensional
theory, in order to obtain results useful for device applications. Usually numerical
methods have to be used. As a consequence plenty of works published by scientists are
focused on numerical analysis. The investigation of deflection control of plates with
piezoelectric actuators has received a lot of attention [2, 7, 10, 15, 17, 20, 22,23]. Mostly
the dynamic responses of the structures with piezoelectric are considered. Many of works
have focused on the influence of the electrical actuation on the buckling and postbuckling behaviour of the active plate and investigated the ability to control and enhance
the buckling load of the active structure [5, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21].
The present work investigated the stability of composite plate with piezoelectric
actuators. The proposed method is an extension of model derived by Her Shiuh-Chuan
and Lin Chi-Sheng [6]. The model consists of two piezoelectric actuators symmetrically
surface bonded on a cross-ply simply supported composite plate subjected to
compression. The effects of voltage applied to the piezoelectric actuators, initial
imperfections and different numerical conditions on the stability of the composite plate
are presented. The feasibility of controlling the stability of the plate is illustrated by
application of appropriate voltage to the piezoelectric actuators.
677
[K]
z T
[K ]
[K z ] {u} {F}
,
[K d ] {V} {L}
(1)
where:
{ } [c]
T
{D} [e]
where:
{D} Dx
{S} x
{E} E x
{ } xx
[e] {S}
,
[ ] {E}
yy zz xy yz zx T stress vector;
Dy
Dz
Ey
Ez
y z xy yz zx T strain vector;
(2)
(1 23 32 ) E11
( ) E
12 13 32 22
( 13 12 23 ) E33
[c]
( 12 13 32 ) E22
(1 31 13 ) E22
( 23 21 13 ) E33
( 13 12 23 ) E33
( 23 21 13 ) E33
(1 12 21) E33
0
0
0
0
G23
0
0
0
0
0
0
G13
0
0 ,
0
0
G12
12 21
E11 E22 ;
23 32
13 31
0 e31
0
0
0 e31
0
0 e33
[e]
- piezoelectric stress matrix;
0 e15 0
e15 0
0
0
0
0
0
11 0
[ ] 0 22 0 - dielectric matrix
0
0 33
3. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF THE PLATE
The analysed cross-ply composite plate is presented in Fig.1. Three dimensional
solid elements SOLID 45 with eight nodes and three degree of freedom at each node are
used for the composite part and solid elements SOLID 5 with 8 nodes and four DoF at
each node for piezoelectric part of the structure. The composite material is carbon/epoxy
with stacking sequence [0/90/90/0]. Material properties of the composite layer have been
assumed as: E11= 108 GPa, E22 =E33= 10.3 GPa, G23=4.02 GPa, G13=G12= 7.13 GPa,
23= 13= 12= 0.28. Material and electric properties of the piezoelectric actuators are:
E11= E22 =E33= 63 GPa, G23= G13=G12= 24.2 GPa, 23= 13= 12= 0.3, d13 = 1.910-10
m/V; 11/0 = 22/0= 33/0= 1780. Dimensions of the plate are: A=380 mm,
B=300 mm, tp=1.5876 mm. The piezoelectric actuators are bonded on the top and bottom
surfaces of the composite plate, located in the centre of the plate with dimensions 6 x 4
mm, thickness of tpe=0.15867 mm.
679
The plate is simply supported on each edge. Equal electric field is applied across
thickness of the actuators, but with the opposite sign, resulting the deflections (upper layer
is compressed and bottom layer is tensed) corresponding to bending.
4. RESULTS OF THE CALCULATIONS
The static nonlinear response of the analysed structure versus middle point
deflection is presented in Fig. 2. The problem is solved using the Newton-Raphson
method and initial imperfection of 0.1 of plate thickness (including piezoelectric actuators
thickness) is applied. The force increment is 15 N in the first case of analysis. The results
are compared with different actuations. These curves show the plate exhibits stiffening
control behaviour with the variation of the applied voltage. For 15V the solution of the
problem unconverged and further analysis was required. With the increase of number of
subsets the solution converged and the results are depicted in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.01 of thickness (number of
subsets 100)
680
Fig. 3. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.01 of thickness (number of
subsets 500)
In order to identify the critical load load based on the results of experimental
investigation the alternative (Force-w2) [25] and inflection point (Force-w) [4] methods
have been used. This alternative method is based on drawing a tangent to the imperfect
curve at an arbitrary value of deflection beyond the small deflection range. The tangent
line intersects Force-axis and corresponds to the critical load value. Identification of the
inflection point is carried out by examination of the load-deflection curve. The results are
depicted in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The aforementioned methods were used to evaluate critical
loads and the results are listed in Table 1.
681
Voltage [V]
15
10
0
-10
-15
Inflection
method
Critical
load [N]
919
829
817
799
790
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
894
872
865
858
855
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
864
894
Unwilling phenomenon has appeared for high value of voltage. Precisely speaking
the position and geometry of the actuator at higher value of voltages changes plate initial
imperfection and starts to lose its stability towards opposite direction (Fig.5 ). In such
case actuation of the piezoelectric element firstly counteracts the effects of stress and
tension but after the change of initial imperfection it advances the loss of stability. The
results presented in Table 2 confirm this phenomenon.
682
Fig. 6. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.1 of plate thickness
Buckling has been identified with the same alternative (Force-w2) and inflection
method (Force-w) as for the case where the plate had initial imperfection of 0.01 of its
thickness and the results are shown in Table 3.
683
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
824
807
800
793
Additional results in terms of the static nonlinear response of the analysed structure
versus middle point deflection are presented in Fig. 6. The curves reveal that different
increment of the force applied in nonlinear analysis does not affect the results.
Fig. 7. Comparison of static responses of the plate for different number of subsets at constant
value of voltage
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this work stability of cross-ply composite plate with piezoelectric actuators is
studied. It is concluded that:
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
685
686
1. INTRODUCTION
Wide range of application of thin-walled elements and increasing demand for new
enhanced solution affect development of theories and experimental investigations on
stability of such structures as well as on the dynamic response of thin-walled structures.
The problem of dynamic response of thin-walled girders subjected to combined load
is a complex matter. In order to perform such analysis a well-known finite element
method is used to derive solution. Several works concerning the stability, post-buckling
in the elastic and elasto-plastic range as well as the load-carrying capacity of thin-walled
girders subjected to either simple or combined load is widely discussed in two complete
editions by Krlak [4, 5]. Particular insight into stability of structures with the debate
about theoretical foundations and solutions of such problem is presented in edition by
Koakowski, Kowal-Michalska [3]. Even though that majority of papers deal with thinwalled girders, one can find only a few concerning combined load.
This work shows that the analysis of dynamic response of thin-walled girders
subjected to combined load is of huge importance and describes different aspects of
analysis of stability with the use of Finite Element Method.
2. SOLUTION METHOD
The problem was solved using finite element method, employing commercial
software ANSYS. At first step the eigenvalue problem was solved for different bending to
torsion ratios. The pulse duration Tp was set based on first period of natural vibration.
The critical load - in this case the critical bending moment (Mbcr) and torsional moment
(Mtcr) was used to determine the dynamic load factor DLF. Shape of first buckling or
modal mode represents the initial imperfection with the amplitude relative to the
thickness of the considered girder wall was assumed. The dimensionless amplitude of
initial imperfection as * = 0.01 wmax/h (where wmax is the maximal normal to the wall
687
(1)
where {P} is the vector of generalized nodal forces, [M] is the mass matrix, [C] is a
damping matrix and {u} is the vector of generalized nodal displacements.
As it has been shown in many studies (for example [2]) for the short-term load the
damping effect can be neglected what leads to the simplification of equation (1) to the
form:
..
(2)
3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Analyzed thin-walled girder of length l=200 mm and squared cross-section (a=100,
b=100 mm) with 1mm wall thickness was subjected to combined load. The structure with
loading scheme is shown in Fig. 2. The thin-walled girders material was assumed as
isotropic with following material properties: E=2105 MPa, =0.3.
In order to obtain results comparable to the real structure, two numerical models
were taken into consideration for analysis of the stability (eigenvalue method) for
different bending to torsional moment ratios. In order to assure the linearity of loaded
688
Fig. 3.
Critical values of bending moment and torsion for both considered models
Mb/Mt
3
1
0,333
0
Model 1
Mbcr [Nm]
Mtcr [Nm]
0,725
0
0,710
0,237
0,621
0,621
0,377
1,132
0
1,512
689
Model 2
Mbcr [Nm]
Mtcr [Nm]
0,732
0
0,711
0,237
0,604
0,604
0,348
1,045
0
1,335
After preliminary studies the beam model was dismissed because of the difficulties
with convergence of the dynamic solution. This was caused by formation of stress
concentration at the corners which mainly were due to modelling method of boundary
conditions. The pulse duration Tp was obtain on the basis of modal analysis as equal to
period of natural vibration and set to Tp=0.003s. The deflection of middle node of the
upper plate of the given girder in time for different values of DLF is presented in Fig. 6.
It can be noted that for DLF higher than 2.4 change of buckling mode occurred.
Fig. 5.
Volmir criterion
Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion
Ari-Gur Simonetta criterion
Middle node
1.7
1.6-1.8
1.8
Maximum deflection
1.3
1.4-1.6
2
Fig. 6. Displacement of middle node of upper plate of the girder in time for different DLF
Fig. 7.
A change of mode shape occurs with the increase of dynamic load factor. This
phenomenon is shown in Fig. 8. The results are given for different DLF values with
respect to the position along the diagonal of the upper wall and the change of mode shape
appears between DLF=1 and DLF=1.2.
691
Fig.8. Dimensionless deflections along the diagonal of the upper wall for different DLF
3. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents dynamic response of thin walled girders subjected to combined
load. According to the analysis it is concluded that:
value of the deflection for dynamic calculations might be gathered with two
different approaches: from middle node of upper plate of the girder or maximum
value in a whole structure
for combined load it is difficult to chose the proper criterion to determining the
DLFcr
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication is a result of the research work carried out within the project
subsidized over the years 2009-2012 from the state funds designated for scientific
research (MNiSW - N N501 113636).
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
692
The object of analysis is an unbounded layer made of two isotropic, linear elastic
materials and periodically laminated along the Ox1 axis (cf. Fig.1). The layer is
resting on the rigid base. It is assumed that the laminas are homogeneous and their
number is very large. Hence we deal with a certain microstructured layer. The aim
of this contribution is to propose a certain mass discretized model for the analysis
of vibrations of the layer. It is shown that there exist two kinds of these vibrations
which are independent of x 2 and x 3 coordinates.
1. OBJECT OF ANALYSIS
Let Ox1 x 2 x 3 be the inertial coordinate system of Cartesian coordinates in the
physical space. The elastic layer under considerations in its natural state occupies the
region bounded by coordinate planes x1 0 and x1 L . The layer is made of a very
large number of thin laminas with a constant thickness l / 2 , where l / L is negligibly
small when compared to 1. Hence l stands for the period of the structure and by means of
Fig. 2.
694
l
wx,t
2 w2 n 1 w2 n x x if x x , x
2n
2 n 2 n 1 .
(1)
12 13
11 12 13
Let us denote by s R s 11
stress components s11 , s12 ,
R , s R , s R , sM sM , sM , sM
13
w2 n w2 n 1
in x 2n 1 , x 2n ,
l
w
w2 n
s M 2 H M 2 n 1
in x 2 n , x 2 n 1 ,
l
n 0,1,2,...
s R 2H R
(2)
695
l
R M w 2n ,
2
l
2n 1 ,
(3)
4 H R w2n 2 w2n 1 H M w2n 1 w2n R M w
2
n 0,1,2,...
Equations (1)-(3) represent the mass discretized model equations for the elastic laminated
space under consideration.
It has to be emphasized that the model equations (1)-(3) have a physical sense only
if the mass discretization assumption is reliable. This situation takes place only if the
wave lengths are large when compared to the period l .
3.3 DISPERSION RELATION
In order to describe the wave propagation along Ox1 axis in a laminated space we
have to introduce the concept of the wave length which will be denoted by . We also
2
2l
introduce the wave number
and the dimensionless wave number k
l .
The above terminology is based on that introduced in Brillouin [1] and many related
papers. Following the line of approach given in Brillouin [1] we look for the solution of
Equations (3) for wn , n 0,1,2,... in the form:
w2 n Aexpi t - nk ,
k
w2 n 1 Bexpi t - 2n 1 ,
2
n 0, 1, 2,...
(4)
R M l 2 -2 16H R H M sin 2
R M l 2 2 16H R H M
k
,
4
cos 2 k ,
4
(5)
16
H R H M the diagram of dispersion relation is
l R M
2
shown in Figure 3.
696
Fig.3.
From the physical reliability off the mass discretization assumption it follows that
formula (5) and the corresponding diagram have the physical meaning only for small
values of parameter k with respect to 1.
3.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Now assume that the constants A, B in (4) are imaginary. In this case:
w2 n A sin t sin kn ,
2n 1
w2 n 1 B sin t sin k
,
2
n 0,1,2,...
(6)
p
for n 0,1,..., . If the number p of laminas is odd then the formula (6)2 takes place for
2
p 1
n 0,1,...,
.
2
Since the layer rests on the rigid base, for x1 0 we obtain w0, t w0 0 . At the
same time the upper bound x1 L pl is free of tractions w p w p 1 0 . Hence the
p
p 1
B sin k
0,
2
2
p
p 1
0.
2. If a number p of lamina is odd then B sin k A sin k
2
2
The boundary condition on the plane x1 0 is satisfied identically.
1. If a number p of laminas is even then A sin k
697
16H R H M 2 k
,
sin
4
l 2 R M
16H R H M
l
R M
cos 2
k
.
4
(7)
We recall that the above formulas have a physical sense only if the dimensionless wave
number k is not large when compared to 1.
For k 1 , the formula (7) can be rewritten in the asymptotic form:
H R H M 2 o 2 ,
R M
16H R H M
O 2 .
l 2 R M
(8)
The first terms on the right hand side of the following formulas represent the asymptotic
approximation of higher and lower free vibration frequencies.
For a homogeneous layer we obtain R M , H H R H M and formula
(8) takes the form:
16 H
2 o2 ,
16 H
l 2
O 2 .
(9)
Formulas (7)-(9) represent the final results of the 1-D modelling procedure proposed in
this contribution.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The characteristic feature of the free vibration analysis are two independent simple
formulas for the lower frequency and higher frequency .
It can be seen that the obtained general results depend on the microstructure
parameter l . The asymptotic formulas for the lower free vibrations for sufficiently
large wave length (eg. for L ) are dispersion less e.a. they are independent on l ,
while the upper frequencies are constant and very large.
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Jankowski J. 289
jjankows@p.lodz.pl
Jasion P. 295, 301
pawe.jasion@put.poznan.pl
Jdrysiak J. 231, 321
jarek@p.lodz.pl
Kala Z. 267, 309
kala.z@fce.vutbr.cz
Karasev A.G. 315
Karasev G.G. 315
Kazmierczak M. 321
magda.kazmierczak@p.lodz.pl
Kdziora P. 177, 327
kedziora@mech.pk.edu.pl
Klasztorny M. 459
mklasztorny@wat.edu.pl
Koczubiej S. 195
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Koakowski Z. 337
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Kopecki H. 347
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Kopecki T. 355, 363
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Kowal-Michalska K. 373, 397, 617
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Krajewski M. 275
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Krasovsky V.L. 383, 389
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Krlak M. 17
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Kubiak T. 221, 397, 667, 677, 687
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Kujawa M. 407
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Kulatuanga M.P. 441
Lis P. 415
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Psotn M. 571
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Ravinger J. 63, 531, 571
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Rhodes J. 85
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Ribeiro P. 579
Rzeszut K. 193
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Sondej M. 283
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Szlachetka O. 693
Szmidla J. 129,
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Teter A. 221, 337, 579
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Yidris N. 25
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Zara J. 85
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Zielnica J. 153
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701