Average beak depth (mm)

Chapter 23
The Evolution of Populations
Microevolution

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10

0
1976
1978
(similar to the (after
prior 3 years) drought)

(a)

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Non inheritable variation

(b)

Species

MAP
AREA

CANADA

ALASKA

Populations and gene pools

Porcupine
herd range

Fortymile
herd range
Porcupine herd
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Fortymile herd

Figure 23.7

Frequencies of alleles
p = frequency of CR allele

= 0.8

q = frequency of CW allele

= 0.2

Alleles in the population

Gametes produced
Each sperm:
Each egg:

80%
20%
chance chance
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80%
20%
chance chance

Figure 23.8

80% CR (p = 0.8)

20% CW (q = 0.2)

Sperm
CR p = 0.8
CW q = 0.2

CR
p = 0.8
0.64 (p2)
CRCR

Eggs
CW

0.16 (pq)
CRCW

0.16 (qp)
CRCW

q = 0.2

0.04 (q2)
CWCW

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW

Gametes of this generation:

64% CR
+
(from CRCR plants)

16% CR
= 80% CR = 0.8 = p
(from CRCW plants)

4% CW
+
(from CWCW plants)

16% CW
= 20% CW = 0.2 = q
(from CRCW plants)

With random mating, these gametes will result in the same

mix of genotypes in the next generation:

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW plants

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Figure 23.8a

20% CW (q = 0.2)

80% CR (p = 0.8)

CR

Sperm
p = 0.8
CW q = 0.2

CR
p = 0.8
Eggs

CW
q = 0.2
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0.64 (p2)
CRCR
0.16 (qp)
CRCW

0.16 (pq)
CRCW
0.04 (q2)
CWCW

Figure 23.8b

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW

Gametes of this generation:

64% CR
+
R
R
(from C C plants)

16% CR
R = 0.8 = p
=
80%
C
(from CRCW plants)

4% CW
+
W
W
(from C C plants)

16% CW
W = 0.2 = q
=
20%
C
(from CRCW plants)

With random mating, these gametes will result in the same

mix of genotypes in the next generation:

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW plants

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Genetic Drift
CRCR
CRCW

CRCR
CRCR

CRCR
CWCW

CRCW
CRCW

CRCR
CRCW

Generation 1
p (frequency of CR) = 0.7
q (frequency of CW) = 0.3

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Figure 23.92

5 plants
leave
offspring

CRCR

CWCW

CRCW

CRCR

CRCW
CRCR

CRCR
CRCR
CWCW

CRCW

CRCR

CWCW
CWCW

CRCW
CRCW

CRCW

CRCR

CRCR
CRCW

Generation 1
p (frequency of CR) = 0.7
q (frequency of CW) = 0.3

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CRCW

Generation 2
p = 0.5
q = 0.5

Figure 23.93

5 plants
leave
offspring

CRCR

CRCW
CWCW

CRCW

CRCR

CRCR

CRCR
CRCR
CWCW

Generation 1
p (frequency of CR) = 0.7
q (frequency of CW) = 0.3

CRCR

CWCW
CRCR

CRCR

CRCR
CRCR

CRCW

CRCR

CRCR
CRCW

CRCR
CRCR

CWCW
CRCW

CRCR

CRCW

CRCR

CRCW

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2 plants
leave
offspring

CRCR
CRCW

Generation 2
p = 0.5
q = 0.5

CRCR

Generation 3
p = 1.0
q = 0.0

Bottlenecks

Original
population
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Original
population
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Bottlenecking
event

Original
population
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Bottlenecking
event

Surviving
population

Pre-bottleneck
(Illinois, 1820)

Greater prairie
chicken
(a)

Post-bottleneck
(Illinois, 1993)

Range
of greater
prairie
chicken
Population
size

Number
of alleles
per locus

1,00025,000
<50

5.2
3.7

93
<50

Kansas, 1998
(no bottleneck)

750,000

5.8

99

Nebraska, 1998
(no bottleneck)

75,000
200,000

5.8

96

Location

Illinois
19301960s
1993

(b)
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Percentage
of eggs
hatched

Figure 23.11a

Pre-bottleneck Post-bottleneck
(Illinois, 1820) (Illinois, 1993)

Greater prairie
chicken
(a)

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Range
of greater
prairie
chicken

Central
population
NORTH SEA
N

Eastern
population

Vlieland,
the Netherlands

Parus major

Gene Flow

Population in which
the surviving females
eventually bred
40
Central
Eastern
30

Survival rate (%)

50

20
10

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Females born in
Females born in
central population eastern population

2 km

Natural Selection
Fitness and Relative Fitness

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Frequency of
individuals

Selection Types
Original
population

Original
Evolved
population population

Phenotypes (fur color)

(a) Directional selection

(b) Disruptive selection

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(c) Stabilizing selection

Sexual Selection

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Figure 23.16

Experiment
Recording of SC
males call

Good
Genes
Hypothesis

Recording of LC
males call

Female gray
tree frog
SC male
LC male gray
gray tree
tree frog
SC sperm Eggs LC sperm
frog

Offspring of
SC father

Offspring of
LC father

Survival and growth of these half-sibling

offspring compared
Results

Offspring
Performance

1995

1996

Larval survival

LC better

NSD

Larval growth

NSD

LC better

Time to
metamorphosis

LC better (shorter)

LC better (shorter)

NSD = no significant difference; LC better = offspring of LC males

superior to offspring of SC males.
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Figure 23.16a

Experiment
Recording of SC
males call

Recording of LC
males call

Female gray
tree frog

SC male
LC male gray
gray tree
tree frog
SC sperm Eggs LC sperm
frog

Offspring of
SC father

Offspring of
LC father

Survival and growth of these half-sibling

offspring compared
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Results
Offspring
Performance

1995

1996

Larval survival

LC better

NSD

Larval growth

NSD

LC better

Time to
metamorphosis

LC better (shorter)

LC better (shorter)

NSD = no significant difference; LC better = offspring of LC males

superior to offspring of SC males.

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Frequency
Dependent Selection

Left-mouthed
P. microlepis

Frequency of
left-mouthed individuals

1.0
Right-mouthed
P. microlepis

0.5

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1981 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Sample year

Prezygotic barriers
Habitat
isolation

Temporal Behavioral
isolation
isolation

Individuals of
different
species

(a)

Mechanical
isolation

Postzygotic barriers
Gametic
isolation

MATING
ATTEMP
T

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Reduced
hybrid
viability

Reduced
hybrid
fertility

VIABLE,
FERTILE
OFFSPRING

FERTILIZATION

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(b)

(k)

Start Ch 24

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Hybrid
breakdown

(l)

Allopatric vs Sympatric Selection

(a) Allopatric speciation

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(b) Sympatric speciation

Figure 24.6

(a) Under high predation

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(b) Under low predation

Experiment

Initial population
of fruit flies
(Drosophila
pseudoobscura)
Some flies raised on
starch medium
Mating experiments
after 40 generations

Some flies raised

on
maltose medium

Results

Starch

22

20

Number of matings
in experimental group
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Female
Starch
Starch
population 1 population 2
Male
Starch
Starch
population 2 population 1

Maltose

Male

Starch

Maltose

Female

18

15

12

15

Number of matings
in control group

Results
Female
Starch
Starch
population 1 population 2

Starch

22

20

Male
Number of matings
in experimental group

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Starch
Starch
population 2 population 1

Maltose

Male

Starch

Maltose

Female

18

15

12

15

Number of matings
in control group

A. formosus

A. nuttingi

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Isthmus of Panama
PACIFIC OCEAN

A. panamensis
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A. millsae

Cell
division
error

Sympatric
Speciation

2n = 6

Tetraploid cell
4n
Meiosis

2n

2n

New species
(4n)
Gametes produced
by tetraploids

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Autopolyploid speciation

Species A
2n = 6

Normal gamete
n=3

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Species B
2n = 4

Normal gamete
n=2

Species A
2n = 6

Normal gamete
n=3

Species B
2n = 4

Normal gamete
n=2

Sterile hybrid with

5 chromosomes

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Species A
2n = 6

Normal gamete
n=3

Species B
2n = 4

Normal gamete
n=2

Sterile hybrid with

5 chromosomes
Mitotic or meiotic error
doubles the chromosome
number.
New species:
viable, fertile hybrid
(allopolyploid)
2n = 10
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T. dubius
(12)

Hybrid species:
T. miscellus
(24)

T. pratensis
(12)

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Hybrid species:
T. mirus
(24)

T. porrifolius
(12)