A Practical Guide To Medieval Adhesives

A Practical Guide to
Medieval Adhesives
by
Maya heath
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES
- TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.......1
Ingredients
3
A Note on Equipment
4
Safety
4
Sources
4
MILK & CHEESE GLUE CASEIN......6
Equipment You Will Need
7
Cheese Glue Traditional Medieval Recipe
7
Cheese Glue A Variation with Lime Paste
9
Milk Glue
10
Stored Dry Curds
12
ANIMAL / HIDE GLUE COLLAGEN..14
15
Cenninis Hide Glue Recipe
15
Hide Glue from Parchment Clippings
19
Reconstituting Stored Leaves
19
Hide Glue Wood Filler
20
Gelatin Glue
20
FISH GLUE & ISINGLASS....21
21
Fish Glue
21
Fish Glue Tracing Paper
22
Isinglass
23
Theophilus Isinglass Recipe
24
Applying Metal Leaf
24
Shell Gold & Metallic Paint
25
COMBINATION ADHESIVES....26
27
Waterproof Glass Glue
27
HIDE GLUES AS A SIZING & PAINT MEDIUM28
Sizing & Priming
28
Tempera Painting Vehicles
29
VEGETABLE GUMS GUM ARABIC, GUM TRAGACANTH &
CHEERY TREE GUMS31
32
Base Recipe for Watercolor Paint Cakes
33
A Note on Oil of Clove & Oil of Cinnamon
34
WHEAT FLOUR PASTE GLUTEN..35
36
Cenninis Wheat Paste
36
Adding Alum
37
APPENDIX A WEIGHTS & MEASURES39
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..40
INTRODUCTION
In the Middle Ages as in any age, a complex construction is only as good as what holds it together.
Sometimes objects are assembled using pegs, nails or complex joinery such as dovetailing or splining
to hold their parts in place. But such mechanical methods are not always practical or entirely secure.
In these cases, adhesives are used to bond the elements together and / or supplement the mechanical
join to secure a lasting attachment.
Until the 20th century, adhesives have been derivatives of natural substances, generally the byproducts of food preparation. One can easily imagine that the moment of discovering not only their
adhesive properties but also their relative permanence came soon after realizing that the dishes had
been left too long before washing or the stew pot had been too long on the fire. Some of these
adhesives have proven so reliable that, even in our current era, many of their time-tested ingredients
have simply been synthesized for purity and uniformity to be made into the same products that have
been in use for hundreds of years. Although we are most familiar with references to these adhesives
from the works of Cennino Cennini and Theophilus, theirs were not the only shops that used them.
The recipes and procedures were set down carefully along with notes regarding their uses by a variety
of sources. They are described with instructions for proper preparation and storage, indicating that
they were kept on hand for daily use.
These homely concoctions have been with us since the dawn of history joining a wide variety
of elements from paper to wood and stone. The Egyptians used a form of hide glue made from fish1
and had furniture with cheese glue securing the joints2. In the 1st Century AD, Pliny the Elder writes
about the process of making hide glue in his Natural History3. In more modern times, artisans and
craftsmen started writing the recipes down so that the most useful recipes would be recalled
1
Petukhova, Tatyana, A History of Fish Glue as an Artists Material: Application in Paper and
Parchment Artifacts, The Book and Paper Group Annual, Vol. 19, 2000, The American Institute for
Conservation, http://aic.stanford.edu/sg/bpg/annual/v19/bp19-29.html Accessed: 7-19-06
2
Baker, Tim, Glue, The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 1, Bois dArc Press, Lyons & Burford,
Publishers, New York, 1992, p. 203
3
Petukhova, op. cit.
specifically and be available at need. The Mappae Clavicula4, a compilation of recipes originating
from the 9th century, describes both Cheese Glue and Oxhide Glue as well as a combination of the two
useful in patching stone. This document was considered so useful that, over the centuries, it was
copied, added to and recopied. The most complete version of the Mappae Clavicula is the Phillips
Manuscript that dates to the 12th century. Also from the 12th century is On Divers Arts5 by the German
master Theophilus who expands the recipes of cheese, hide and fish glues and elaborates on their uses.
Theophilus work clearly comes from the same tradition as the Mappae although it is far more
complete, but the adhesive recipes remain basically the same as do their uses. The 14th Century
brought us Cennino dAndrea Cennini, describing those same processes in his Craftsmans Handbook6
but makes the recipes and instructions far more complete and their applications much more specific.
The Strasburg Manuscript7 dates from the 15th century and meticulously details the use of vegetable
gum adhesives in the preparation of paints. These various manuscripts give a fascinating glimpse
across the centuries of the progress of technology and the arts, but the recipes remain familiar.
It is important to have the right adhesive for the job. Just as you dont hang a tiny picture
with a 16-penny nail or anchor a boat with kite string, a glue too strong or too weak can ruin a project.
Another concern is the adhesives relative resistance to moisture. Although there are no truly
waterproof glues from this period, there are some that come very close. Sometimes it is just as
important to have a weaker glue that is permeable with moisture as it is in other applications where a
maximum of water resistance to essential. The old masters were well acquainted with the properties of
these products and were adept choosing the right mixture to serve a wide variety of uses. There are
recipes for mending and joining everything from grindstones to delicate parchment.
There are four basic kinds of adhesives found in the old manuals.
Smith, Cyril Stanley and John G. Hawthorne. Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of
Medieval Techniques. (Transactions, New Series, Volume 64, Part 4.) American Philosophical
Society, 1974
5
Theophilus, On Divers Arts, Trans. John G. Hawthorne and Cyril Stanley Smith, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, 1979
6
Cennino D' Andrea Cennini. The Craftsman's Handbook. The Italian "Il Libro dell' Arte." Translated
by Daniel V. Thompson, Jr. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1960
7
Borradaile, V. and R. The Strasburg Manuscript: A Medieval Painters Handbook, Tiranti, London:
1966.

1.
Casein Made from milk and cheese by separation protein solids from cheese curds.
This results in a white glue used in period to bind heavier porous elements such as wood
together for furniture, sculpture and panels for painting.
2.
Collagen - Animal / Hide Made from rawhide, ligaments, tendons and hooves rendered
into gelatinous collagen. It was used in making musical instruments and in binding
lighter elements like paper, parchment and gilding. Collagen glue also includes Fish
Glue and Isinglass.
3.
Gluten Wheat / Starch Paste Made by cooking wheat flour with water and used to join
light porous materials such as paper, parchment and cloth to each other and to other more
solid elements. We know it as Library Paste and Wallpaper Paste.
4. Vegetable Gums Gum solutions such as Gum Arabic and Gum Tragacanth were used to
bind the lightest of substances, fine leafing and powdered pigments into solution that
would then bind with a prepared surface. The heavier resins were sometimes used to
secure mosaics.
INGREDIENTS
Unlike some Medieval art supplies that have passed out of daily use in our modern era, the ingredients
for most of these adhesives are readily available. Many of the adhesives are food derivatives, so it is
not surprising that most of their ingredients can be found already on the shelves of most kitchens.
Hide glue comes prepackaged from woodworking supply stores, or is marketed as unflavored gelatin at
the grocery. While parchment may not be a regular desktop item, rawhide, its heavier counterpart, is
easily obtained from leather working stores. If you have access to natural drum heads those are also
rawhide and many times are thin, fine goat or sheepskin that is very appropriate to making glue from
scratch. The vegetable gums, while not a household staple, are at least easily found in art supply
stores. All of the ingredients mentioned here are relatively reasonably priced and come in manageable
small quantities.
EQUIPMENT It is not a bad idea to have a set of cookware and utensils reserved exclusively for studio/shop use.
This will eliminate the risk of contaminating your food with chemicals and substances that might
linger in the equipment. Odd glass mixing bowls and pans can usually be found at yard sales and thrift
stores for very little cash outlay and, if they become accidentally spoiled by a burned batch of glue, can
be easily discarded and replaced. Wooden utensils are not generally recommended because wood is
porous and will retain something of whatever has come in contact with it. When working with precise
formulae, it is better not to risk cross contamination.
SAFETY -
I cannot stress enough how

important it is to have and use
the appropriate safety
equipment in the studio. Safety
glasses, cloth lined rubber
gloves, paper dust filter masks
and a sturdy apron can save
you from a painful burn or
injury and the potential of
devastating damage. When hot
glue spills, it sticks to the skin and keeps on burning. The smallest droplet of lime in your eye is
severely painful and can cause permanent damage. You are never too busy to be safe.
SOURCES
Included in the practical sections of this article are photographs of equipment,
procedures and the products used. Although these include pictures of specific
products, this is in no way intended as an endorsement of those specific products.

Any similar product will work just as well. The pictures are intended to show widely
available brands obtainable online or nationwide at any large supermarket or
hardware store and to give the reader a visual guide when shopping.
MILK & CHEESE GLUE

- CASEIN Most of us are familiar with cheese glue in its modern form in the white squeeze bottle with the
twisty orange cap. It is currently known as White glue, school glue, and marketed most
prominently as Elmers Glue. It is a sturdy, rigid adhesive with good water resistance that can
be used to affix a variety of substances from wood to paper. It works by permeating the surface
layer of any porous surface and then drying to form a kind of organic plastic called casein.
Casein based glues were known in period as early as the 9th century8. Theophilus, writing in 12th
century Germany, details a recipe virtually identical to one used by Cennini in 14th century Italy,
and both recommend it as a glue for wood. Cennini refers to it as a wood workers glue and
specifies it for joining wood panels for painting and for joining wood sections to make a block for
sculpting9 (to be gessoed and painted)10. Theophilus recommends it for altar and door panels11.
He also specifies it for joining the wind chest for a pipe organ12. Its value lies in its initial ability
to penetrate the wood fiber and its resistance to damp when it has dried.
All three sources refer to it as cheese glue because it was made from commonly available
lean (low fat) cheese, washed and mixed with a small amount of lime. Cheese mainly consists of
casein and fat derived from milk that is approximately 87% water and 13% solids. About 3.5% of
these solids are casein13. Cheese is made from these solids by adding an enzyme called rennet that
causes it them to separate from the liquid, in other words, to curdle. The result is curds (solids)
and whey (liquid). The curds contain most of the fats and proteins (casein) found in the original
milk. Once these solids are separated out, they are processed into cheese. By processing this
Society, 1974, sections 122-B & 122-C, p. 45
9
Cennini, p. 68
10
However, Giorgio Vasari, an Italian sculptor writing in the 16th century, prefers the reverse and
specifically recommends parchment glue applied to pre-warmed sections for to make composite
sculpting blocks. Vasari, Giorgio, Vasari on Technique, Trans. Louisa S. Maclehose, Dover
Publications, New York, 1960., p. 173
11
Theophilus, p. 26
12
Ibid., p. 163
13
Strauss Family Creamery, Make Milk Glue, http://www.strausmilk.com/index.php?mod=glue
Accessed: 7-12-06
cheese even further, these protein solids can be further broken down to remove more of the fats by
washing and clarifying the casein by adding lime. The purer the casein, the stronger the glue.
By beginning the process with fat free milk instead of cheese, the result can be better
controlled with the idea of glue in mind. Since the result is not intended to be a tasty, edible
cheese, but a strong plastic glue, it can be compounded with a different curdling agent that will
render even more of the solids out of the liquid.
- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED Small Saucepan

Colander or Strainer
Plastic or Stainless Steel Spoon
Bowl Stainless Steel, Glass or Ceramic
Cheese Cloth
Cookie Sheet (non-porous flat surface for drying the curds)
Mortar and Pestle (optional)
An airtight container such as a canning jar for storage
CHEESE GLUE
TRADITIONAL MEDIEVAL RECIPE
-
INGREDIENTS 1 cup cottage cheese

2.5 tsp. Lime*
Theophilus and Cenninis recipes begin with
cheese because the rennet in the cheese making
process has already begun releasing the casein in
the form of curds. To begin this, you start with fat free or low-fat cottage cheese, because cottage
cheese is actually curds and whey the solids and liquids of milk separated yes, just like in the
nursery rhyme.
Put the curds in the colander and rinse under

running water until the water runs clear.
Drain the clean curds thoroughly, then put

them into cheese cloth and squeeze out as
much of the remaining moisture as possible.
The more moisture you remove, the stronger
your glue will be.
Put the curds in a bowl and add lime about

5% per volume14. This works out to be about
2.5 teaspoons of lime to every cup of squeezed
curds you make.
14
Baker, Tim, Glue, The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 1, Bois dArc Press, Lyons &
Burford, Publishers, New York, 1992, p. 203
The lime will give your glue a smooth strong

consistency.
Apply to one or both surfaces of the material you

wish to glue and press the pieces firmly in place,
then wipe off the excess with a damp cloth. Clamp
and let dry for 24 hours.
* The old recipes call for Lime also called Quicklime. Chemically this is Calcium Oxide. It was
produced from baking limestone in kilns and was used as an ingredient in mortar as early as Ancient
Egypt. For this recipe you can use Pickling Lime, which is food grade Calcium Hydroxide. A
traditional name for calcium hydroxide is slaked lime, or hydrated lime. It is less reactive and safer to
use. It was made by soaking quicklime in water until all reaction had stopped, then dried and ground
up. It is also readily available from stores that sell canning supplies with the added advantage that it
comes in small quantities (16 oz.) rather than in 50 pound bags.
CHEESE GLUE 2
A VARIATION WITH LIME PASTE
10
!!! CAUTION !!!

When mixed with water, lime (also called quicklime) is highly reactive and
caustic. The mixture will become boiling hot until the reaction subsides.
ALWAYS use a pyrex, ceramic, stainless steel or enameled bowl for mixing. Be
sure to protect your hands with cloth lined rubber gloves and use hot mitts to
avoid burns. ALWAYS wear safety glasses to protect your eyes from accidental
splashes. Also, you do not want to breath lime dust. It is a good idea to cover
your face while you are measuring it out.
A variant on the recipe is to mix the lime and water first. If you are using the prepared dried curd from
Recipe 1 this will result in a smoother, more consistent result than if added separately15.
INGREDIENTS 1 part Quicklime

3 parts Water
5 parts dried or fresh Curd
Sprinkle the lime into the water stirring
constantly to avoid lumps. Mix into a
smooth paste. Store in a closed container to
avoid drying out. NOTE: this does not work
with Pickling Lime only with Quickline
that is because Pickling Lime is Slaked Lime
and has already been mixed with water and
dried.
When you are ready to make your glue, mix 1

part of the lime putty to 5 parts dried or fresh
curd. Remember, the drier your curd, the
stronger your glue will be.
15
Massey, Robert, Formulas for Painters, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York, 1967, pp. 31 & 88
11
Press the pieces firmly in place then wipe off the excess with a damp cloth. Clamp and let dry for 24
hours.
MILK GLUE16 This recipe does not use lime to break down the curds and is generally safer to use, although the glue it
yields is not as strong.
- INGREDIENTS 1 pint fat free milk (By beginning with fat

free milk, you reduce the amount of fats and
other non-casein solids in your final product,
making it a stronger glue)
6 tbsp. Vinegar or Lemon Juice
1 tbsp. Baking Soda
cup Water
Heat milk on low heat adding vinegar and

stirring constantly until the milk begins to
curdle. Remove from heat and continue
stirring until the curdling stops.
16

Accessed: 7-12-06
12
Drain off the liquid by pouring the mixture through the colander lined with the cheese cloth. Take the
curds in the cheese cloth and squeeze out as much of the remaining moisture as possible,
then dry them on the cookie sheet.
Put the curds into the bowl and add the

water and baking soda (to neutralize the
remaining acid from the vinegar). The
reaction between the baking soda will cause
it to bubble slightly. Stir until the bubbling
stops and your mixture becomes smooth and
creamy.
A NOTE ABOUT STORAGE & WORKING TIMES: Some modern casein glue recipes state that
the glue can be stored in a sealed container. While that may have worked well for those authors, this
author has never found that to be feasible. Once the reaction has started with the curds and lime, it
continues until the glue is a hardened mass, sealed jar or not. If you want to use cheese glue it is better
to make it in small quantities as you need it. Its active working time is about 10-15 minutes, but it
would be advisable for you to experiment with it to make sure of its working time with respect to your
individual project. Adding more water will lengthen its working time but will weaken the join slightly.
There are many applications where this would not be an issue. It is up to the individual to make test
pieces to see what works for them.
STORED DRY CURDS Curds can be dried and stored for use later. If you want to do this, lay them out flat on the
cheese cloth you squeezed them in. As they dry, crumble them into a fine sand, then pulverize them
with a mortar and pestle while they are still moist. When they dry they are very hard. The finer you
make the powder, the more easily they will go back into solution when you want to use them for glue.
Then make sure they are completely dried. Carefully dried and stored curds can be kept reliably 3-4
13
months in a tightly sealed jar17. After 6 months you should discard it and make fresh curds because it
will have begun to break down and discolor. To reconstitute them, put a small portion of dried curds
and, adding small amounts of water, work them into a paste with a mortar and pestle. Once they have
reached a creamy consistency, add lime in proportion as described above. Dried curds are also
available at some specialty delicatessens as a dried powder.
17
Mayer, Ralph, The Artists Handbook of Materials and Techniques, Third Edition, The Viking Press,
New York, 1979., p. 397
14
ANIMAL / HIDE GLUE

- COLLAGEN One of the most versatile period adhesives is animal glue also known as hide glue. It was
used in various forms and strengths for furniture and musical instrument making, preparing panels
and other surfaces for painting and even for making the paints themselves. The glue is derived
from the hides and connecting tissue (tendons and ligaments) of animals along with the hooves
and bones. Its active ingredient is collagen, a form of protein colloid. The word collagen itself
comes from the Greek word kolla meaning glue. Hide glue is used in the current era as the
adhesive of choice for making and repairing fine musical instruments, such as guitars and player
pianos, and for making fine furniture and restoring antiques. It has a number of properties that
make it highly desirable. It sets quickly and joins without clamping. It sticks to itself, which
allows joins to be made with out sanding or refitting. It shrinks when it sets which tightens the
join further. These qualities make it ideal for constructing and repairing delicate musical
instruments where clamps would damage the wood and configuration of the elements, and where
having to sand and scrape the elements would compromise the structure18.
Hide glue comes in various strengths determined by what type of hide it is made of and how
much water is used in its preparation. Cennini gives the basic recipe19 in greatest detail. He calls
it Goat Glue and also refers to it as Leaf Glue, for the leaves into which it is cut for storage when it
is done. He praises it highly for its versatility from wood glue to patching parchments. Giorgio
Vasari, a 16th century Italian sculptor, recommends parchment glue specifically for joining blocks
of wood to make large sculpture blocks20.
The practice of boiling animal hides to extract the collagen adhesive has been known from
ancient times. By the Middle Ages, its properties were well known and understood. Theophilus
18
Wikipedia contributors, "Animal glue," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_glue&oldid=66837012 (accessed August 23, 2006).
19
Cennini., p. 67
20
Vasari, Giorgio, Vasari on Technique, Trans. Louisa S. Maclehose, Dover Publications, New York,
1960., p. 173
15
gives his recipe in Book 1, Chapter 1821 where he discusses woodworking and specifies rawhide
and ground stag horns. The Mappae Clavicula calls it ox glue22. Cennini lists two variations, one
of clippings of goats muzzles, feet, sinews and many clippings of skins.23 The other specifies
parchment clippings24 for use as a sizing, then further refines this to sheepskin or goatskin
parchment.
- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A large saucepan

Plastic or Stainless Steel Spoon
A candy or cooking thermometer
Strainer or Colander
Cookie Sheet or 2 sheet cake pans
Airtight containers such as canning jars for storage
CENNINIS HIDE GLUE RECIPE

Take clippings of goats muzzles, feet, sinews and many clippings of
skins boiled in clear water until the water is reduced to less than half. Do
not let your mixture exceed 152F or the glue properties will start to
break down. Also remember to heat it slowly and stir constantly so that it
does not scorch or burn on the bottom of the pan. Theophilus says that, to
test the glue, dip your fingers in the water, when they stick together, the
glue is done25.
21
Theophilus, p. 26
Smith, Cyril Stanley and John G. Hawthorne, p. 44
23
Cennini, p. 67
24
Parchment is a form of scraped and sanded rawhide.
25
Theophilus, p. 26-27, Authors Note: This sounds a little odd but absolutely works as a test. Just a
touch on the surface of the cooking glue will not burn your finger but the temperature difference
between its working and setting temperatures, cooled by finger temperature will cause it to set as you
touch finger to thumb if its done.
22
16
At this point you can use it immediately or dry it into leaves for storage and later use. This is
done just as if you were making a molded gelatine dessert. Use small loaf pans or square
storage dishes for this but do not grease them (You do not want grease in your glue.) Strain
thoroughly and pour into the liquid into
the pan. Then set it aside to set up. If you
want to hurry it along you can put it in the
refrigerator or let it stand overnight.
Whichever you do, keep an eye on the
mixture and, when it has jellied it should
be rubbery not sticky - turn it out of the
pan onto a flat surface. Using a serrated knife, cut the loaf into fine slices and lay them out a
cookie sheet to dry or put them on the drying frame.
In the current era, hide glue comes in much more convenient forms than goat parts or rawhide
clippings. It can be purchased in either granular or leaf form from better art supply stores and specialty
shops that sell supplies for furniture making, musical instrument making or repair, and antique
restoration. It is marketed as Hide Glue or Rabbit Skin Glue, the rabbit skin glue being used as a
sizing for artists canvas.
It is finely granulated and very agreeable to
work with someone else has gone to the
trouble of dealing with the goat parts for
you. If you want to use it, prepare it
according to the label on the container. Cut
the resulting jelly into thin slices and set out
of the sun in a cool, dry place. It is
interesting to note that Cennini specifies
doing this during the strong frosts or winds of January or March. Setting the leaves to dry in
such weather would possibly effectively freeze dry them.
17
If you live in a humid climate, it may be

difficult to get your hide glue leaves to
dry completely. As the recipe suggests,
the winds of March may be an important
drying factor. Air circulation is
important if the leaves are not to mildew or go off before they dry. You can make a wooden frame
and cover the top with screen mesh. Place the gelled leaves on the screen. This will allow much better
air circulation and help them dry quicker. If you do not want to go to the trouble of making a drying
screen, one can be improvised by taking a spatter screen such as used for placing over a hot skillet and
setting it up on blocks. It is, after all, just another kind of screen stretch over a frame. The resulting
dried slices or leaves can be stored for use later. The nice thing about leaves is that they are crisp
and rigid and can be broken apart to make just the amount of glue you want.
18
There is another really convenient way to make leaves. When the glue has cooled and is
beginning to gel, it can be poured down the back of a glass baking pan or a metal plate such as a
cookie sheet and allowed to dry to a rubbery consistency . The resulting thin sheets can be peeled
off and dried on a frame. When they are completely dry, they can be stored in an airtight
container for future use. The thinness of the leaves produced by this method make them easy to
reconstitute and also easy to measure out a small amount if you only need a little. If kept tightly
away from moisture, it will have an almost unlimited shelf life.
HIDE GLUE FROM PARCHMENT CLIPPINGS26
26
Mayer, p. 407
19
- INGREDIENTS 1 ounce parchment or rawhide clippings

1 gallon water
Boil parchment scraps and clippings in

water for 4 hours. (Cennini suggests
putting the clippings in water to soak for a
day before you boil them.27) The water
should be kept just at a boil but not over.
If hide glue is heated to more than 152F
(60 C), it begins to break down and lose
its strength.
If you want to make just a little bit of parchment glue, a potpourri infuser is very convenient.
After soaking the leaves or parchment bits overnight, put them in a little water in the infuser dish.
Heat the water with a tea light or votive candle and it will make a small amount of glue in about a half
hour. Use the sticky finger test to see when it is done. The convenient thing about an infuser is that
the glue can be kept warm continually as you work with in on small projects. Just be sure not to let it
boil dry.
RECONSTITUTING STORED LEAVES When you want to work with your stored leaves of glue, you can add 2 parts water to one part dried
glue leaves. This is as opposed to adding 3 parts water to one part gelatin.28
HIDE GLUE WOOD FILLER
27
Cennino, p. 67
Ford, Frank, Hide Glue in Your Ktichen,
http://www.frets.com/FRETSPAGES/Luthier/TipsTricks/KitchenGlue/kitchenglue.html
28
20
Cennini also has a recipe for Hide Glue Hole Filler29. Mix up some
strong leaf glue with enough wood dust to make a paste that you can use to
patch and fill holes in wood. It is used just like we use wood paste today.
When it is dried it can be sanded and scraped to match the surrounding
wood.
GELATIN GLUE
An even more convenient and readily available
form of hide glue comes from the grocery store
unflavored gelatin often marketed as Knox
Gelatin. It is highly refined and clear glue and
may be the equivalent of what Cennini calls
druggists glue.
GELATIN GLUE
Mix gelatin with three times its weight in water, that is, oz. cold water for each
ounce package of gelatin. Mix thoroughly and heat to 150 F (65.5 C).
Gelatin glue is much stronger than regular hide

glue. The strength of glue is measured in gram
strength. While most commercial hide glue is
150-192 gram strength, gelatin glue has a gram
strength of 350 grams. This means that it sets up
very quickly and you will need to work with it
while it is still warm. You should also warm the
parts you want to glue before applying it or it will start to gel before you can get them properly aligned
and clamped.
29
Cennini, p. 69
21
While you are working with hide glue you

should keep it warm to lengthen the setup time and
allow yourself to make more accurate joins. Be
careful not to overheat it. Remember - if hide glue is
heated to more than 140F (60 C), it begins to break
down and lose its strength. A small plate coffee cup
warmer or potpourri heater will keep it at just the right temperature. When you are done using it for
the day, it should be refrigerated. Remember that hide glue is essentially a food product and can go
off on you if not stored properly. If it starts to smell bad toss it out and make a fresh batch.
Hide glue is hygroscopic (susceptible to
water) and thermoplastic (malleable with heat). To
release a joint you want to change, you can warm it
gently with a hair drier. This will loosen the bond
and you can adjust the join or release it altogether. If
the glue beads out of your join, it is easy clean up by
warming it slightly and taking a toothbrush with warm water to clean it. Hide glue also sticks to itself.
This means that you do not need to sand and scrape a piece before regluing it. It also means that if the
glue line in your join sinks you can add more warm glue on top of it to bring it to the right level.
22
FISH GLUE & ISINGLASS

Fish glue is a specialized form of animal glue made from heating the skin, bones and heads of fish in
water in the same way as goat parts are used in the goat glue recipe. It is often specified as an adhesive
for parchment or for attaching gold leafing because it is not only extremely strong but also light and
somewhat flexible when it has set. Fish glue is worked cold instead of hot like other animal glues.
FISH GLUE
Colander or Strainer
Cheese Cloth
Wooden or Stainless Steel Spoon
Cookie sheet or 2 sheet cake pan
An airtight container such as a canning jar for
storage
Bone and skin the fish setting aside the meaty parts
to eat for your dinner. Put the bones and skins in
the saucepan and cover with about twice as much
water as there are fish parts. (2 parts water to one
part fish parts). Bring the water to a boil then
reduce the heat to a rolling simmer. Cook the
mixture down to a thickened broth consistency by
keeping at a rolling simmer, stirring constantly and adding enough water to keep it from burning and
cover the fish parts. This may take several hours or longer depending on the quantity you are making.
23
Finally, you will have a thick, gooey glue. Theophilus says that, to test the glue, dip your
fingers in the water, when they stick together, the glue is done30. Store refrigerated in an air tight
container. Discard after about 2 weeks.
If you want to keep your glue for later, when it
has cooled and is beginning to gel, it can be poured
down a metal plate such as a cookie sheet and allowed
to dry fully. The resulting thin sheets can be peeled off
and stored in an airtight container for future use. Or
you can pour into it flat dishes and let stand overnight.
Cut the resulting jelly into thin slices and set out of the sun in a cool, dry place. The resulting dried
slices or leaves can be stored for use later.
FISH GLUE TRACING PAPER -
30
Theophilus, p. 26-27
24
The same properties that make fish glue so tough and strong made it one of the materials of choice for
Cennini to recommend its use as tracing paper31.

Strainer or Colander
Marble pastry slab or chilled cookie sheet or 2glass sheet cake pan
Olive oil or cooking spray
CENNINIS TRACING PAPER RECIPE

Take equal parts of strong fish glue and hide glue or gelatin glue. If you are using
prepared leaves, use twice as many to a measure of water as you would for a
regular glue solution. Lightly grease or oil the pastry slab or chilled cookie sheet.
As the glue cools and begins to gel, pour it slowly down the face of the plate
taking care to keep it even. When the plate is covered, set it level and allow to
fully dry. When it is completely dried you can gently peal the resulting sheet off
the surface and use the nearly clear sheet for tracing paper. If you want to make it
a little more sturdy, wait until it has dried then brush it down with boiled linseed
oil. Allow this to dry for a few days, then peal off the sheet.
ISINGLASS Isinglass is the strongest and most desirable form of fish glue and is the least likely of the collagen
glues to absorb moisture. It is processed from the swim bladder of the sturgeon although sources do
indicate that the swim bladders of other fish will do also. Theophilus says that the bladder of an eel or
31
Cennini, p. 14
25
the bones of the head of a pike if this is not

available32. The swim bladder (also called
the gas bladder or air bladder) is a flexiblewalled, gas-filled sac located in the dorsal
portion of body cavity. This organ controls
the fish's buoyancy and in some species is
important for hearing. Most of the swim
bladder is not permeable to gases, because it is has few blood vessels and is lined with sheets of
guanine crystals. Not all fishes have a swim bladder. As a matter of interest, fish glue / isinglass is an
essential ingredient in making the Mongolian Bow because of its toughness, moisture resistance, and
resistance to molecular fatigue33. Theophilus34 talks about it exclusively as being the adhesive of
choice for gilding with both light and heavy leaf. Some furniture makers say it is too strong for
repairs, because of its shrinkage.
THEOPHILUS ISINGLASS RECIPE

Use the same equipment as for the regular Fish Glue Recipe. Take
the swim bladder from a surgeon and wash it thoroughly under
running warm water. Cut it into pieces and put in a clean pot with
water to soften overnight. When they are soaked and soft, simmer
them slowly without letting the mixture come to a boil. Dip your
fingers in the water, when they stick together, the glue is done35.
32
Cennini., p. 37-38
The Mongolian Bow, http://www.coldsiberia.org/monbow.htm Accessed: 7-27-06
34
Theophilus, p. 36
35
Theophilus, p. 36
33
26
APPLYING METALLIC LEAF

Besides the familiar gold leaf, the Medieval sources also detail working with silver and tin leaf. Gold
leaf and leaf from other metals was somewhat different in period than is the tissue thin leaf we use
today. Some years ago this author was privileged to examine some rare Russian icons. Just as in the
art books, their surfaces and frames were radiant with gold, and on close examination, this leaf was
extraordinarily thick almost like aluminum cooking foil. This made the Medieval instructions about
molding the leaf around complex carvings much more understandable. In his instructions for
preparing gold leaf, Theophilus remarks that one can make the gold completely thin or moderately
thick36. It is Theophilus that describes laying gold leaf on an ivory statue. He states specifically that
the artist should use glue from the bladder of the fish called sturgeon37 to fix the leaf onto the piece.
This would indicate that he intended the leaf to be a heavy foil that would mold to the carving rather
than the tissue thin leaf used in manuscripts. Its strength along with the ability to work with it cold
would make it a good choice for working on complex forms.
36
37
Ibid., p. 30
Ibid., p. 187
27
COMBINATION ADHESIVES
- HIDE & CHEESE GLUE TOGETHER Although each adhesive had its specific properties that made it ideal for particular uses, it is not
surprising that the Old Masters found ways to combine the known properties of both casein based and
collagen based adhesives to take advantage of the best qualities of both. The Mappae Clavicula gives
three recipes for combination glues. The first is a recipe for repairing stones that combines the two
most common forms of adhesives, combining the properties of strength and permeating power of fish
glue with the relative rigidity and resistance to moisture of cheese glue. By adding them in equal parts,
the result is intended to be a permanent bond for broken marble38. It can be used with or without
whiting added to match it more closely to the coloration of the stone it is joining. There is no need to
heat the mixture as fish glue can be worked cold.
The second recipe combines equal parts cheese glue, fish glue, fig-tree sap and spurge sap for
joining wood and is worked warm. Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is a hardy perennial native to
Europe and Asia that oozes a white sap when the stem is broken39. Both Fig Tree Sap and Spurge sap
are known to be somewhat caustic spurge so much so that it is sometimes used as a folk-remedy for
removing warts. If you wish to use this recipe, use eye protection and wear rubber gloves at all times
to protect your skin and eyes.
The third recipe is for joining bone. It specifies 1 part cheese glue and 2 parts fish glue
cooked down to 1 part.
A contemporary source40 gives a combination recipe for its strength and water resistance. By
replacing some of the moisture in the gelatin with fat free milk, some casein in brought into the
adhesive that will reduce the gelatins susceptibility to moisture. Because it becomes a gel, it can be
effective on non-porous surfaces such as glass, metal or ceramic.
38
Smith, Cyril Stanley and John G. Hawthorne., Section 122-C, p. 45

Missouri Department of Conservation, Missouri Vegetation Management Manual
edited by Tim E. Smith, Botanist, Natural History Division,
http://mdc.mo.gov/nathis/exotic/vegman/index.htm, Accessed: 9-13-06
40
Make-Stuff.com, How to Make Your Own Glue, http://www.make-stuff.com/formulas/glue.html,
Accessed 7-27-06
39
- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A small saucepan

WATERPROOF GLUE
-
INGREDIENTS
2 tbsp. cold water

2 packets (1/2 oz) unflavored gelatin (Knox)
3 tbsp. fat free milk
Dissolve gelatin in cold water in a bowl. Bring milk to a boil and then stir
into softened gelatin. Because it is a hide glue base, this must be worked
warm. It will gel like hide glue when stored refrigerated in an airtight jar
and can be rewarmed by placing the container in a double boiler.
28
29
HIDE GLUE AS A SIZING & PAINT MEDIUM

SIZING & PRIMING The secondary applications of hide glue were not lost on the Old Masters. Its permeabillity to water
when wet, its ability to stick to surfaces and to itself, and relative impermeability to water after it was
dry made it a good choice for both preparing a surface for painting and for the colors themselves. The
ability of hide glue to permeate a surface makes an excellent preparation vehicle for painting surfaces.
It not only stabilizes any joins that may be present, but seals it against excess moisture from the paints
so that they do not spread into the grain of the wood or canvas.
If it is used on a stretched canvas, it
tightens the canvas as it shrinks while drying as well as seals it against reaction with the paint grounds
and environmental dangers such as damp and mildew. If used on a wooden panel, it permeates the
grain structure, sealing it against moisture so that it does not swell and shrink with changes in its
environment.
For sizing a panel, Cennini specifies boiled necks of sheep parchment. They should be put in
water to soak overnight, then, boiled until three parts are reduced to one41. Then use it to coat the
entire panel back and front.
Once the surface is sized the next step is to apply a layer of something that will hold the
pigments (that are themselves compounded with adhesives). This second layer is called gesso. It is
made by taking the same sizing that was used in the first coating, and mixing a whiting agent into it.
Recommendations for this whiting vary. Cennini specifies slaked plaster42, that is, plaster that has
been mixed with so much water that it cannot harden. Allow it to soak in a bucket, stirring it every day
for a month. Then let it settle, pour off the excess water and allow it to dry. The resulting pieces are
then ground up and the white powder resulting form this is mixed with the hide glue sizing. (NOTE:
Gesso dust can get into your lungs and make you ill. ALWAYS wear a dust mask when grinding the
plaster and sanding the gesso layers). This gesso is worked warm because its base is hide glue.
Apply at least two coats, allowing each to dry and sanding with fine sandpaper in between. Then take
41
42
Cennini, p. 67-68
Ibid., p. 69
30
a piece of fine linen fabric, dip it into the warm gesso. When it is saturated, lay it onto the panel
surface. Sand it lightly and continue applying 2-3 more coats of gesso over it until you cannot see the
grain of the fabric. This fabric will stabilize the painting surface and protect the gesso from cracking
away should your panel warp. The result will be a silky smooth, highly absorbent surface ideally
suited for used with tempera paints. This method of sizing and gesso is suitable for rigid wooden
panels but not for stretched canvas because the gesso surface is rigid and would crack under the normal
flexing of stretched canvas.
But slaking plaster stinks while the reactions are taking place. Vasari also describes this
process43 suggests making a plaster paste from bell earth44, a particular clay known for its pure, fine
grain and absorbent properties. In our current era, traditionalists prefer to use white marble dust that
can be purchased from shops that sell icon painting supplies. Titanium White is also used and can be
bought in quantity from specialty stores that sell pigments.
TEMPERA PAINT MAKING

Although nature has provided us with a great variety of colored substances with which to make paint, it
has always been something of a challenge to get them into a state in which they will flow easily onto
the desired surface, combine agreeably with the other colors, stay on the surface when they have dried,
and continue to look good while doing so. The Strasburg Manuscript is almost entirely devoted to
such recipes. The general term for the primary vehicle for mixing a pigment into a paint is called a
tempera. The principle job of a tempera is to bond the paint with the painting surface. It also matters
how flexible or rigid the tempera is. A vehicle that is appropriate for the solid surface of a panel
painting might not be flexible to remain durable on the parchment page of an illuminated manuscript.
Often the tempera of choice was egg yolks anyone can attest to its ferocious adhesion that has left the
breakfast dishes to dry before washing them. But at times a specific pigment or situation required a
different medium. Cennini has a small section devoted to this45 in which he refers to using the same
sheep parchment neck size that he specified for sizing panels and making gesso. He recommends this
43
Vasari, p. 249
Vasari, p. 230-231
45
Cennini, p. 68
44
31
specifically when tempering dark blues (that are notoriously difficult to get into solution) and also for
coating and retempering paintings in which the paints were not mixed correctly. He says that by
coating them with the clear parchment size, they will be completely restored and refreshed.
Theophilus describes using fish glue for preparing gold paint what is called shell gold
because it is specifically prepared in a seashell46. He says to carefully mix isinglass with powdered
gold in a shell. The advantage is that fish glue is worked cold and it can be worked in small quantities
without concern that it will gel and harden too quickly. He also cautions no to use too much glue or
the gold will blacken. Once these areas are dried they are durable enough to be burnished with a tooth
or bloodstone to bring out their luster. And in this case it is the egg that comes to the rescue if the glue
is not properly cooked. If the gilding starts to dust or flake away, it can be coated with egg white glair
to stabilize it, then repainted with gold and burnished.
46
32
VEGETABLE ADHESIVES
- GUM ARABIC, GUM TRAGACANTH & CHERRY TREE
GUM Lightest of the adhesives are the gums, useful not for holding great weights of wood or stone together,
but for binding the ephemeral dust of pigments and delicate tissue of gold leaf on both panels and
parchment. They are fluid in solution, dry in air and are resistant to moisture to a reasonable degree.
Their plasticity makes them suitable for painting on flexible surfaces such as book pages. They also
add a shine and luster to the colors. It is the adhesive quality of the tree gum that allows the paint
pigments to become bound to the page on which they are painted and to remain fixed there even after
they have dried.
Gums are hardened tree saps that are soluble in water. True gum arabic (also known as gum
senegal) comes from the sap of the acacia trees found in sub-Saharan Africa acacia arabica and
acacia senegal47. In period, however, a number of substances were traded as gum arabic, including
some not from Africa at all but of European origin. The gum from cherry trees, plum trees and even
almond trees swell up and become liquid in water and may well have been marketed under the general
name of Gum Arabic in medieval times48. They are not quite so fluid and manageable as the real
article, however49.
Gum Tragacanth, derived from several varieties of Astragalus, is mentioned in the Mappae
Clavicula as being an ingredient in a variety of gold paints. It seems that it is particularly well suited
to binding metallic compounds with other pigments and secondary ingredients to render the metallic
pigments into a paint that will flow freely from the pen or brush and retain its color after it has dried50.
Benvenuto Cellini, in his 16th century treatise on goldsmithing and sculpture, specifies it for holding
47
Thompson, Daniel V., The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, 1956, p. 57
48
Ibid.
49
Mayer, p. 394
50
Smith, Cyril Stanley and John G. Hawthorne., pp. 35, 36, 64, 66
33
filigree wires in place in preparation for soldering51 for which it is still used to this day. It is also used
today when enameling for securing the cloisonn wires.
Theophilus talks about mixing pigments with cheery tree gum to facilitate the painting
process. He describes how to pulverize the gum and set it in water in the sun to warm and liquefy52.
The Strasburg Manuscript recommends that cherry tree gum (1 part) be added to gum arabic (2 parts)
to make the colors bright and clear53. Cennini describes mixing both fine colors and ground metallic
dust in gum arabic for painting54 on parchment specifically.
Perhaps the most complete and detailed account of the use of gum arabic is the Strasburg
Manuscript55. It gives an entire section to the meticulous and sophisticated compounding of an entire
spectrum of colored paints. Each color requires its own set of ingredients to bring out the brilliance of
its color while rendering it easy to work with. The various additives include gall (to encourage the
pigments to go into solution) and honey (to make it flow more smoothly).
The following is a modern recipe drawn from Medieval ingredients that gives an excellent
paint cake.
- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A small saucepan

Mortar and Pestle or Muller and Marble (optional)
An airtight container such as a canning jar for soaking the gum Arabic overnight
A plastic palette tray in which to keep your finished colors
51
Cellini, Benvenuto, The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on Goldsmithing and Sculpture (1568),
Trans. C. R. Ashbee, Dover Publications, New York, 1967, p. 11
52
53
Borradaile, V. and R. The Strasburg Manuscript: A Medieval Painters Handbook. Tiranti, London:
1966., p. 43
54
Cennini., p. 102-103
55
Borradaile,. p. 5
34
BASE RECIPE FOR WATERCOLOR PAINT CAKES56

- INGREDIENTS Gum Arabic (or Gum Senegal) - 2 oz. (Mix 1 pt gum arabic to 2 parts distilled
water Let stand overnight)*
Boiling Water (distilled water preferred) - 4 fl oz.
Honey/Water mixture (mixed 1:1) - 1 fl oz. - 1.25 parts

Ox Gall (Wetting Medium) - 6-9 drops
Glycerin - 1 fl oz. - 1.50 parts

Oil of Clove (optional) a few drops
Prepare the gum Arabic solution ahead of time. Mix 1 part gum Arabic to 2
parts distilled water and let the mixture stand overnight so the gum arabic
absorbs the water. Make sure the crystals are fully hydrated and that the
solution is smooth and liquid before using.
* It is a blessing of our current era that we can purchase Gum Arabic solution
from art supply stores. This is commercially prepared and saves the trouble of
putting the gum crystals into solution, insuring a smooth consistent product.
Combine 2 parts gum arabic with 1.25 parts honey water. Add the resulting
liquid to pigment to using a muller and stone or mortar and pestle to form a
smooth thick paste. Add ox gall as needed to encourage the pigment to go into
solution. Modern recipes call for adding glycerin to prevent the cakes from
excessive drying and make the paints smoother to paint with. Oil of Clove is
also suggested to give the paints resistance to mold. Put the resulting paste into
a small palette tray and allow it to dry and harden. It should be noted that even
56
Mayer, p. 299
35
though these cakes will dry hard and be usable for a considerable time, they are
not permanent as are the watercolor cakes we buy at the art store. They will
deteriorate slowly and need to be replaced in about 6 months.
A NOTE ON OIL OF CLOVE AND OIL OF CINNAMON Occasionally you will see modern recipes for
glue or paints that call for the addition of Oil of Clove or Oil of Cinnamon. These essential oils are
used to deter molds and fungus. However, plentiful and accessible as they are today, in the Middle
Ages these commodities were rare and precious. No mention is made of them as being used in the old
manuscripts and their use in art supplies is highly doubtful.
36
WHEAT FLOUR PASTE

- GLUTEN Many of us are familiar with Flour or Wheat Paste in its modern forms as Library Paste and
Wallpaper Paste. Seen most often in jars with an application brush affixed to the lid, it is used to
stick paper to paper it both library and art room. In its more liquid form, it is known as Wallpaper
Paste and is used to stick wallpaper to large, flat surfaces. It is not surprising that both
Theophilus57 and Cennini58 include recipes for it. They describe its uses much the same as it is
used today, that is, for pasting parchments together and for adhering parchment to tin. Cennini
also recommends it to adhere cloth to cloth when making banners59and as a modeling paste when
mixed with liquid varnish for use on walls to be painted over 60. In general, it is used to adhere
light, porous surfaces to each other where you need a maximum amount of stickiness but tensile
strength is not an issue.
Anyone who has made bread can testify to the devilishly adhesive qualities of water mixed
with flour. It is extremely sticky when it is wet and stubbornly hard when dry. These qualities
come from a form of vegetable protein found in wheat, rye and barley called gluten. Of these
cereals, wheat has the highest percentage of gluten - about 80%61. Our word glue is derived
from the word gluten which was used in the Middle Ages as a general term for glue and also
for substances not easily permeable with water62. Heating releases the gluten to make the paste
much more sticky than just adding flour to cold water.
Flour paste will remain somewhat susceptible to moisture even when it has completely dried.
If your jar of paste dries out, you can restore it by adding some water back into it. If you wish to
loosen a join you have made, it can be softened by steaming or soaking with a damp cloth. This
can be a good thing if you have an application where permanence will ultimately not be an issue or
57
Theophilus, p. 122
Cennini., p. 65
59
Ibid., p. 105
60
Ibid., p. 78
61
Wikipedia contributors, "Gluten," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gluten&oldid=70987638 (accessed August 23, 2006).
62
Theophilus, p. 28, footnote 1
58
37
where you intend to have only a temporary join. But if you want the paste to hold, the object
should be protected from damp.
- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A saucepan or double boiler

CENNINIS WHEAT PASTE
- INGREDIENTS Water
Wheat Flour
Salt (optional)
Cenninis recipe is a simple one. Take a pan full of water and heat it to
nearly boiling. When it is about to boil, begin sprinkling in the flour a little
at a time, stirring constantly so that it does not clump. When it is the
consistency you want, set it aside to cool. You can make it thicker for
modeling paste or thinner for paper glue. Cennini also adds that you can
add a little salt to keep it from going bad. Store this in a closed container.
38
Other recipes recommend beginning with cold water and slowly adding the
flour until the mixture is a milky slurry63 like pancake batter64, then slowly
raising the temperature and stirring constantly until the batter thickens.
Using either method, care must be taken not to burn the paste. Some people
prefer using a double boiler. This takes somewhat longer, but its consistent
heat produces an excellent result.
ADDING ALUM
Alum is Aluminum Ammonium Sulfate and Aluminum
Potassium Sulfate. It is used in pickling as a soak to make cucumbers
crisp before pickling them, as a hardener for gelatin and as a mordant
for dyeing. Although neither Cennini nor Theophilus mentions any
further additives to flour paste, it is not unlikely that other things were
added from time to time to alter the pastes consistency, durability and
strength. A number of modern sources recommend adding alum as a hardener tsp. per pint of
paste65and some as much as a tablespoon. Alum was known from before the 1st century BCE.
Pliny the Elder discusses it in his Natural History, Book 33 chapter 8866, as does Dioscorides67,
63
Massey, p. 184
Mayer, p. 407
65
Mayer, p. 184
66
Pliny the Elder, The Elder Plinys Chapters on Chemical Subjects, Part 1, Trans. and Ed. by Kenneth
C. Bailey, Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1929, p. 206
64
39
mentioning its uses as a mordant for dying. The Mappae Clavicula describes using liquid alum to
dip a reed pen into before writing with gold ink68 and as a component of gold paste for making
seal material69. The 15th Century Strasburg Manuscript mentions it often as a component of
watercolor paints70. It was imported into England from the 15th century. So it is probable that it
was used in other minor applications for which we have no record. Use in artists pastes and glues
to increase hardness and reduce water permeability would have been well within the realm of
probability. It is currently available from stores that sell pickling supplies and dying supplies.
67
Wikipedia contributors, "Alum," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alum&oldid=71253869 (accessed August 23, 2006).
68
Borradaile, , p. 34
69
Op. Cit.
70
Ibid., , p. 31-41
40
APPENDIX A
COMMON KITCHEN WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon
2 tablespoons = 1 ounce
8 ounces = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
41
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES Borradaile, V. and R. The Strasburg Manuscript: A Medieval Painters Handbook, Tiranti, London:
1966.
Cellini, Benvenuto, The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on Goldsmithing and Sculpture (1568), Trans.
C. R. Ashbee, Dover Publications, New York, 1967
Cennini, Cennino D' Andrea, The Craftsman's Handbook. The Italian "Il Libro dell' Arte." Translated
by Daniel V. Thompson, Jr. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1960
Society, 1974
Pliny the Elder, The Elder Plinys Chapters on Chemical Subjects, Part 1, Trans. and Ed. by Kenneth
C. Bailey, Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1929
Theophilus, On Divers Arts, Trans. John G. Hawthorne and Cyril Stanley Smith, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, 1979
Vasari, Giorgio, Vasari on Technique, Trans. by Louisa S. Maclehose, Dover Publications, New York,
1960.
CONTEMPORARY SOURCES Baker, Tim, Glue, The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 1, Bois dArc Press, Lyons & Burford,
Publishers, New York, 1992
Ford, Frank, Ill Stick With Hide Glue,
http://www.frets.com/FretsPages/Luthier/Data/Materials/hideglue.html
Make-Stuff.com, How to Make Your Own Glue, http://www.make-stuff.com/formulas/glue.html,
Accessed 7-27-06
Massey, Robert, Formulas for Painters, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York, 1967
Mayer, Ralph, The Artists Handbook of Materials and Techniques, Third Edition, The Viking Press,
New York, 1979.
Missouri Department of Conservation, Missouri Vegetation Management Manual, edited by Tim E.
Smith, Botanist, Natural History Division, http://mdc.mo.gov/nathis/exotic/vegman/index.htm,
Accessed: 9-13-06
The Mongolian Bow, http://www.coldsiberia.org/monbow.htm Accessed: 7-27-06
Petukhova, Tatyana, A History of Fish Glue as an Artists Material: Application in Paper and
Parchment Artifacts, The Book and Paper Group Annual, Vol. 19, 2000, The American Institute for
Conservation, http://aic.stanford.edu/sg/bpg/annual/v19/bp19-29.html Accessed: 7-19-06
42
Petukhova, Tatyana, Potential Applications of Isinglass Adhesive for Paper Conservation, The Book
and Paper Group Annual, Vol. 8, 1989, The American Institute for Conservation,
http://aic.stanford.edu/sg/bpg/annual/v08/bp08-06.html Accessed: 7-19-06
Strauss Family Creamery, Make Your Own Curds and Whey,
http://www.strausmilk.com/index.php?mod=curds Accessed: 7-12-06
Accessed: 7-12-06
Thompson, Daniel V., The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York., 1956.
Thompson, Daniel V., The Practice of Tempera Painting: Materials and Methods, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York., 1962.
Wikipedia contributors, "Alum," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alum&oldid=71253869 (accessed August 23, 2006).
Wikipedia contributors, "Animal glue," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_glue&oldid=66837012 (accessed August 23, 2006).
Wikipedia contributors, "Casein," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Casein&oldid=70698045 (accessed August 23, 2006).
Wikipedia contributors, "Casein paint," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Casein_paint&oldid=58926494 (accessed August 26, 2006).
Wikipedia contributors, "Gluten," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gluten&oldid=70987638 (accessed August 23, 2006).

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- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED Small Saucepan

INGREDIENTS 1 cup cottage cheese

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

Put the curds in the colander and rinse under

Drain the clean curds thoroughly, then put

Put the curds in a bowl and add lime about

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

The lime will give your glue a smooth strong

Apply to one or both surfaces of the material you

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

!!! CAUTION !!!

INGREDIENTS 1 part Quicklime

When you are ready to make your glue, mix 1

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

- INGREDIENTS 1 pint fat free milk (By beginning with fat

Heat milk on low heat adding vinegar and

Strauss Family Creamery, Make Milk Glue, http://www.strausmilk.com/index.php?mod=glue

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

Put the curds into the bowl and add the

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

ANIMAL / HIDE GLUE

Wikipedia contributors, "Animal glue," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A large saucepan

CENNINIS HIDE GLUE RECIPE

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

If you live in a humid climate, it may be

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

HIDE GLUE FROM PARCHMENT CLIPPINGS26

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

- INGREDIENTS 1 ounce parchment or rawhide clippings

Boil parchment scraps and clippings in

HIDE GLUE WOOD FILLER

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

Gelatin glue is much stronger than regular hide

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

While you are working with hide glue you

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

FISH GLUE & ISINGLASS

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

FISH GLUE TRACING PAPER -

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

- EQUIPMENT YOU WILL NEED A large saucepan

CENNINIS TRACING PAPER RECIPE

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

the bones of the head of a pike if this is not

THEOPHILUS ISINGLASS RECIPE

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO MEDIEVAL ADHESIVES

APPLYING METALLIC LEAF