PMTOASISClasses

ANIMALPHYSIOLOGY
MOVEMENT ANDLOCOMOTION

Kinesiology:Studyofbodymovement,Osteology:Studyofbones,myology(sarcology):studyofmuscles

Invertebrates,locomotionisassociatedwithskeletonandmuscles

SkeletonisfurtherclassifiedasExoskeletonandEndoskeleton

ExoskeletonisderivedfromEpidermis(e.g.,Scales,feathers,hairs,claws,nails,antlers,glandsetc.)

EndoskeletonismesodermalinoriginandderivedfromDermis

27

AxialSkeleton:Importantpoints
*

Vertebralcolumnismadeupof33vertebrae.VertebralformulaC7T12L5S(5)C(4)

InhumanvertebralcolumntherearefourcurvaturesCervical (convex),Thoracic(concave),Lumbar(convex)and
sacral (concave)

Joints
Classifiedintothreetypesonthebasisofmobility
A. Fibrous :No movement betweentheconcerned bonese.g.between thebones of skull(sutures), betweenteeth
andmaxilla
B. Cartilaginous:Slightlymovable e.g.,betweenvertebrae(intervertebraldisc),betweenpubicsymphysis,between
manubriumandbodyofthesternum
C. Synovial:Freelymovableduetopresenceofsynovialfluid(actsas lubricants),furtherdividedintofollowing
types
1.

Ballandsocketjoint:Permitsgreatestdegreeofmovement betweentwoarticulatingbones,e.g.,betweenglenoid
cavityofthepectoralgirdleandheadofthehumerusandbetweenacetabulumofpelvicgrrdleandheadofthefemur

2.

Hingejoint:Movementisrestrictedtooneplaneonlye.g.,elbowandkneejoints,betweenphalanges

3.

Pivot/rotatoryjoint/Trochoid: Oneboneisfixed(i.e.pivot)andotherrotatesoverpivot. e.g.,betweenatlasandaxis,

betweenradiusandulna

Ultrastructure of striated muscle fibre

*

Eachmusclesfibresaremadeupofalternatethinlightandthickdark band.

ThedarkbandisalsoknownasAband(anisotropicunderpolarizedlight)

AtransverselinefoundinthemiddleofdarkbandisknownasMline.Themiddlelighterregionofdarkbandiscalled
Hzone (Hensons zone)

ThelightbandisalsoknownasIband(isotropicunderpolarizedlight).AdarkmembraneinthecentreofAbandis
knownasKrausesmembraneorDoubies lineorZdisc(zwischenscheibeline)

ThelengthofthemusclefibresbetweentoZlineiscalledsarcomere(functionalunitofmuscle)

*Thedarkbandismadeupof myosin (primary myofilament)havingaminuteprojectionknownas crossbridges (spur)

*

Themajorpartofthinfilamentismadeup actin.Othertwoproteinswhichparticipatesare troponin and tropomyosin

Mechanism of muscle contraction and relaxation

*

ThemechanismofmusclecontractionisbestexplainedbyslidingfilamenttheoryproposedbyH.E.Huxley.

This theory beleives in the fact that when muscle contracts on stimulation, A band remains intact while I band
shortenand eventually disappear, H zones also disappear and Z line comes closer

Thusshorteningofmusclefibresarebroughtaboutbyslidingmovementofactinfilamentovermyosinfilamenttowards
Mlinebymeansofrapidlyformingandbreakingofcrossbridgesatmyosin.

Normally tropomyosin and troponin of actin filaments inhibits the formation of Actomyosin complex. However
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whena muscleis stimulated ca++ releasedfromsarcoplasmic reticulumbinds with troponin.As a result inhibitory
effectoftroponinisremovedandactinisnowfreetointeractwithmyosin.

Diagramaticrepresentationofsliding
filamenttheory(H.E.Huxley)

Energy for muscle contraction is derived from three sourcesATP, Phosphocreatinine and anaerobic respiration.

During relaxation Ca++ isforcedbackintosarcoplamicreticulum(energyisrequiredforthisprocess).Duetoremoval

ofca++,inhibitoryeffectoftroponinreappear,asaresultactomyosincomplex(formedduringcontraction)brokenand
actinnowreturnstoitsoriginalposition.

Muscle fatigue
*

Occursduetoaccumulationoflacticacid(formedasaresultofanaerobicrespiration)

Thereisareductionintheforceofcontractionduringfatigue

Fatiguedmuscleneedsextraoxygen(oxygendebt)todisposeoffexcesslacticacid

Muscle tone or Tonus

*

Acertainamountoftoutnesswhichusuallyremainsevenwhenmusclesareatrestisknownasmuscletone.

Itisduetothistonethatthebodydoesnotgolimpevenatcompleterest.

Stimulusformuscletoneisprovidedbyamotorneuronsofspinalcord,partlyunderthecontrolofbrainandpartlyby
impulsesthatoriginateinmusclespindleslocatedinthemuscleitself.

Isometric Vs Isotonic contraction

*

Musclecontractionissaidtobeisometricwhenthemuscledoesnotshortenduringcontractionandisotonicitdoes
shortenandwiththetensionofthemuscleremainconstant.

Twitch
*

Whenindividualfibersarestimulateditcontractsrapidlyandthenrelaxesslowly.Afterthismusclebecomesrefractory
duringwhichitdoesnotrespondtosecondstimulus.Thesingleisolatedcontractioniscalledtwitch.

Tetanus
*

When stimulus for contraction are given in quick succession then there is a complete fusion (summation) of all
contractionandthemusclegoesinsustainedcontraction.Suchasustainedcontractioniscalledtetanus.

HypertrophyAtrophy and Hyperplasia

*

Whentotalmassofamuscleenlargesthisiscalledhypertrophy,whenitdecreasesitiscalledatrophy.
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Underrareconditionofextrememuscleforcegeneration,theactualnumbersofmusclefibreshavebeenobservedto
increase.Thisincreaseinfibrenumbersiscalledfiberhyperplasia.

Rigor Mortis
*

Itispostmortemstiffeningofmuscles

The stiffening is caused by loss of all theATP which required to cause separation of cross bridges from the actin
filamentsduringtherelaxationprocess.

Antagonistic muscles
*

Thesemusclesactsinoppositiontoothermuscles.

Examples
1. Thebiceps(flexor)andtriceps(extensor)whichbends andstraightenthearm.
2. Theadductorsandabductorsmovethebodytowardorawayformthecentralaxis
3. Theelevatoranddepressors raise and lower parts of the body.
4. Thesphinctersanddilatorswhichdecreaseand enlargethesizeof anopening
Appendix

Longest muscle sartorius, largest muscle gluteus maximus smallest muscle stapedius

Longestbonefemursmallestbone stapes

Refractoryperiodofcardiacmuscleis0.10.2secandofskeletalmusclefibreis0.0020.005sec.

Weberianossiclesfoundincarps andcatfishesconnectstheairbladderwiththeinternalear

Theonlyvertebratewhoselongestboneistibiofibula,isfrog.

TheRedmusclefibresarerichinmyoglobin,haveslowrateofcontractionandperformsustainedworkataslow
ratebutforlongtime(e.g.extensormusclesonthebackofhumanbody,somefilghtmusclesofbirds)

TheWhitemusclefibresdonothavemyoglobin,havefastrateofcontraction,specializedforveryfastandstrenous
workforashorttimeonly(e.g.Flightmusclesinsparrow,musclesoftheeyeballmovement)

Periodbetweenapplicationofthestimulusandbeginningofmuscularcontractioniscalledaslatentperiod.

Tendon isatoughinelasticcordattachingamuscletothesheathofbone.Ligamentisastripofelastictissueholding
twobones together.

Mylagia:paininmuscle

Bursitis:inflammationofjoints

Sprain:involvesdamagetotheligamentssurroundingthejoint

Gout:aformofarthritisoccursduetoaccumulationofuricacidcrystalsinsynnovialjoint

Rheumatoidarthritis :inflammationofsynovialmembraneinsynovialjoints

The muscular dystrophy, which is inherited, is Duchenne dystrophy, it is due to the deficiency of protein
DYSTROPHIN. DystrophinistheproductofthegeneforDMD,afataldisorder,thatdevelopswhenmutationofgene
leadstotheabsenceofthisproteinDystrophin,firstdescribed(M,427000)in1987(Hoffmanetat1987)hasgene,
largest,yetdiscovered.ThisproteinisconfinedtothePERIPHERYofthemusclefibre.

MYASTHENIAGRAVIS:AnabnormalreleaseofchemicalNeurotransmitteratmyoneuraljunctionaffecting
the nerveimpulse conduction

Synergists : When many muscles work together to perform a particular function, e.g. in running (Gastrocnemius,
Extensordigitorlongus,Plantaris,Sartorius)

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NERVOUSSYSTEM

I. Olfactorylobes
II. Cerebrum
III. Diencephalon

I.Corporaqudrigemina
II.Cruracerebri

1.Cerebellum
2.Ponsvarolli
3.Medullaoblangata

Brain
*

Humanbrainweigh12201400gmsandhas100billionneurons

Enclosedinaseparatebox(cranium)intheskull,coveredfromoutsidebythreeprotectivemembranes(meninges)
duramater (outermost) arachnoid (middle) and piamater (inner)

BrainisformedoftwotypesofnervoustissueGreymatter(consistsofnervecellbodyandproximalpartofaxon)
andwhitematter(consistsofmedullatednervefibres)

Inmostofthepartofbraingreymatterisexternalandwhitematterinternalbutinthepost.partofmedullawhite
matterisexternalandgreymatterisinternal

InmanOlfactorylobesaresmall(welldevelopedinanimalshavinggoodsenseofsmall)

Cerebrum(telencephalon)islargestpartofbrain,consists oftwocerebralhemispheres joinedbycorpus callosum

(madeupofmedullatednervefibres).

Eachcerebralhemisphereisfurtherdividedfourlobesfrontal,parietal,temporalandoccipetallobes.

Thesurfaceofeachcerebralhemisphereshowsmanyconvolutionscalledgyriseparatedbydepressionscalledsulci
Gyriincreasesthesurfaceareaofthecerebralcortex.

Theroof,floorandsidesofthediencephalonarecalledepithalamus,hypothalamusandthalamusrespectively.The
epithalamusisnonnervous,itformsAnt.Choroidplexus(secretescerebrospinalfluid)

Midbrain(mesencephalon)consists ofopticlobes,whichmaybetwoinnumber(corporabigemina)as inlower

vertebrates,orfourinnumber(corporaquadrigemina)asfoundinhighervertebrates.

Cruracerebriorcerebralpedunclesaretwothickfibrouswhitemattertractsontheventralandlateralregionsof
midbrain

Hindbrainis madeupofcerebellum(metencephalon) medullaoblongata(myelencephalon)andpons varolli

Incerebellumgreymatterandwhitematterarehighlybranchedformingastructureknownasarborvitae (treeoflife)

The roof of the medulla oblongata is known as Post. Choroid Plexus (telechoroidea) which secretes cerebrospinal
fluid

Ponsvarolliformsabridgebetweentwohemispheresofcerebellum.

Medullaoblongata,ponsvarolli,midbrainanddiencephalonarecollectivelycalled brainstem

Ventriclesarethecavitiesofbrain,filledwithcerebrospinalfluid

Cerebrospinalfluid(CSF)actsasashockabsorberforthebrainandalsonourishesthebrain

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IMPORTANTFUNCTIONALAREASINTHEHUMANBRAIN

SPINALCORD

About42to45cm.long,protectedinthevertebralcolumn,extenduptosecondlumbarvertebrawhereittaperstoa
point knownasconus medullaris,fromwhere ariseaconnectivetissuefibre knownasfilum terminale.

Caudaequina(horsetail)isataillikecollectionofrootsofspinalnervesatthepostendofspinalcord

Coveredfromoutsidebysamethreemeningeswhichalsocoverthebraini.e.duramater,arachnoidandpiamater.

Likebrainitisalsoformedofgreyandwhitematterbuttheitsdistributionisoppositetothatofbraini.e.theformeris
internalandthelatterisexternal

Spinalcordalsoenclosesacavityknownascentralcanal,filledwithcerebrospinalfluid(continouswiththebrain)

Itconductsimpulsesofmanyspinalreflexresponseswithoutinvolvementofbrain.

Reflex, actions occur through the reflex arc are formed by five members known as receptors, sensory roots,
grey matter ventral roots and effectors.

Reflex arc may be monosynaptic (sensory and motor neurons) or polysynaptic (sensory, association neurons and
motorneurons)

Reflexactionsareoftwotypessimplereflex(unconditioned),whichareinbornandacquiredreflex(conditioned)
whicharenotinborn

Examples of simple reflex Knee jerk, closing eyelids, coughing, sneezing and yawning

DemonstrationofconditionedreflexwasfirstmadebyRussianPhysiologistIvonPavlovinhungrydog

Examples of conditioned reflex are dancing, cycling, swimming etc.

PERIPHERALNERVOUS SYSTEM
*

It includes spinalandcranial nerves

Inanamniotes,andamniotes,noofcranialnervesare10and12pairsrespectively

Olfactory(I)Optic(II)Auditory(VIII)arepuresensorycranialnerves

Oculomotor(III),Pathetic(IV),Abducens(VI),Spinalaccessory(XI)andHypoglossal(XII)arepuremotornerves

Trigeminal(V),facial(VII),Glossopharyngeal(IX)andVagus(X)aremixednerves(bothsensoryandmotor)

Hypoglossalandspinalaccessoryareabsentinanamniotes

No.ofspinalnervesinfrog,rabbitandmanare10pairs,37pairsand31pairsrespectively

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Eachspinalnervesare mixed (sensoryandmotor)andhastworoots(dorsalandventral).Motornervefibres(efferent)

comefromventralrootandsensorynervefibre(afferent)gointodorsalroot.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

*

Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic system (antagonistic)

Inautonomicnervoussystem,CNS is connectedtovisceralorgans bytwoset ofnervefibres preganglionicand

post ganglionic

In sympatheticsystem, preganglionicnervefibresemergesfromthoracicandlumbarregionofspinalcord(thoracico
lumbar)

Insympatheticsystem,preganglionicnervefibresareCholinergicandpostganglionicnervefibresareadrenergic

Inparasympatheticsystempreganglionicnervefibresemergesfrombrainalongwith(III,VI,IX,X)andsacral
regionof spinalcord (craniosacral)

Bothpreandpostganglionicnervefibresofparasympatheticsystemarecholinergic

Differencesbetweensympatheticandparasympatheticnervoussystem:
Characters

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

acetylcholineandsympathin
increase
constrict
dilate
dilate
dilate
Stimulate
increase
stimulate
increase
dilate
relax
decrease
decrease
decrease

acetylcholineonly
decrease
dilate
constrict
constrict
constrict
inhibits
decrease
inhibit
decrease
constrict
contract
increase
increase
increase

Secretion
Bloodpressure
Bloodvesseltoskin
Bloodvesseltoheart
Bloodvesseltolungmuscle
Pupilinstronglight
Lacrymalgland
Heartbeat
Adrenalsecretion
BreathingandBMR
Nostrils
Urinarybladder
Saliva
Digestion
Gutperistalsis

Nerve impulse : Mechanism of generation and conduction

*

Theconductionofimpulsealongneuronisessentiallya electrochemicalprocess

Axoplasm(cytoplasmofaxon)isK+ richwhileextracellularfluidisNa+ andCl rich

Inrestingcondition,cellmembraneismoderatelypermeabletoNa+ butabout50100timesmorepermeableforK+
andCl.Asaresultcellmembranebecomeselectricallypositiveoutsideandnegativeinside.Thisdifferenceisknown
aspotentialdifference(70to90mV)

Sincethispassiveexchangeisapotentialdangerforosmoticequilibrium,allcellscontinuouslyexpelout3Na+ inECF
andtakein2K+ fromitbyactivetransport(energyisconsumed).ThisisdonebyNa+ K+ pump

Whenthenervefibreisstimulatedbythresholdstimulus,permeabilityofaxolemmatoNa+ increases,which depolarizes

thememb.andbringsaboutreversalinmembranepotentialcausingapotentialof+45mVoninnersideinrespecttoout
side.Thestateofreversepolarizationofaxolemmaiscallednerveimpulse(spikepotential)

Afterspikepotential,permeabilityofaxolemmaforNa+ suddenlydropsandK+ permeabilitystartsincreasing.Nowthe

cellmemb.againbecomesnegativeinsideandpositiveoutside(Repolarization)

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Synaptic transmission
*

The termsynapse was givenbysherrington

Itisanarrowspacebetweenaxonterminalanddendritesofotherneuron

Synaptictransmissiontheorywasgivenby SirHenryDale.Accordingtothistheorynerveimpulseistransmittedfrom
one neuronto anotherby means of somechemical (neurotransmitter)

Neurotransmittermaybeexcitory(acetylcholine)orinhibitory(glycine,GABA,etc.)

Neurotransmitterreceptors arepresent ondendrites.

TheacetylcholineishydrolyzedbyCholinesterase,presentinthesynapticfluid.

InmyelinatednervefibreionicexchangeisaffectedatNodesofRanvier(sincemyelinsheathactsasinsulator).
Impulsesinmyclinatednervefibrejumpsfromnodetonode.ThisisknownasSaltatoryconduction

Thespeedoftransmissionofnerveimpulsealsodependuponthediameterofthefibre.Fiberswithbiggerdiameter
conductsimpulsefaster.

Saltatoryconductionisaboutfiftytimesfasterthantheimpulseconductioninnonmedullatednervefibres.

Appendix

Refractoryperiod:Theperiodduringwhichnervecantgenerateanactionpotential.Itlastsfor16millisecond

Synapticdelay:Thetimetakenbyanimpulsetocrossthesynapse(0.5second

Taysachs diesease : is a cerebral nervous affliction that brings death before the age of 5. It is caused by neural
degenerationofthecentralnervous system

Parkinsonsdisease:isadiseaseofbasalgangliadeepinthebrainthatcontrolmovement.Itusuallyoccursinlate
middleage.Characterisedbytremorsandprogressiverigidityoflimbscausedbydegenerationofbrainneuronsand
a neurotransmittercalleddopamine

Electroencephalogram(EEG):It is arecordofbrainwaves
waveproducedinnormalawakecondition
waveproducedinactivecondition
waveproducedindeepsleep
waveproducedinChildren

Multiplesclerosisis thedestructionofmyelinsheathofneurons ofCNS

Amnesiaislossorlackofmemory

Aphasia isinabilitytospeakorwritebecauseofalesioninthebrain

Apraxia isinabilitytocarryoutpurposefulmovementsintheabsenceofparalysis
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Alexia isinabilitytoreadbecauseofalesioninthebrain
Synapticfatigueoccursduetodepletionintheamountofneurotransmitter

SENSORYSYSTEM
[A] EAR(statoacousticorgan)
*
(1)
*
*
*
*

Humanearisdivisibleintoexternal,middleandinternalear
External ear
It comprises Pinna and external auditory meatus
Pinnaismadeupofelasticcartilageandmeantforcollectionofsoundwaves
Inman,Pinnamuscleisvestigeal.Insomemammals(aquatic)itisabsent
Externalauditorycanalislinedwithhairandceruminous(wax)gland.Ceruminousglandismodifiedsweatgland
whichsecreteearwaxwhichpreventstheforeignbodiesenteringtheear
(2) Middle ear
* Aeardrum(tympanicmembrane)ispresentatthejunctionofmiddleearandexternalear
* Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity) encloses three ear ossiclesmalleus, Incus and stapes. These bones are
homologicallysimilartoarticular,quadrateandhyomandibularofother vertebrates.
* Middle ear is connected to internal ear by two openingsupper fenestra ovalis (oval window) and lower fenestra
rotundus (round window).
* Tympaniccavityisalsoconnectedtopharynxbyeustachiantube,whichserves toequalizetheairpressureoftwo
sidesoftympanum.
* Middleearossiclestransmitsthesoundwavesfromexternaltointernalear.
(3) Internal ear (membranous labyrinth)
* Membranouslabyrinthcomprises followingparts
a. Semicircularducts:Three(ant,post.andlateral).Itsswollenpartisknownasampulla,whichcontainsensorycells
called crista.
* The cristae send informationto brain about accelerating androtational movements.
b. Utriculus and sacculus
* The body proper of membranous labyrinth is further differentiated into upper, larger utriculus and lower smaller
sacculus
* Thesacculusgivesoffasmallslenderendolymphaticduct,endingblindlyagainstthecraniumintoanendolymphatic
sac
* Bothutriculusandsacculuscontainsspecialgroupofsensorycellscalled macula,withfineprojectinghairs.Thehairs
areembeddedinajellyalsocontainingparticlesofcalciumcarbonatecalledotolith
* Maculahelptheanimaltomaintainthebodypostureorpositionofhead.
c. Cochlea
* Itisspirallycoiledlikesnailsshell(2turn)
* In cross section, cochlea shows three chambersscala tympani, (lower), scala media (middle) and scala vestibuli
(upper)
* Upperandlowerchambercommunicatearoundthetipofthespiralbysmallopeningcalledhelicotrema.
* Middlechambercontainstheorganofhearing(organofcorti)
* Roofof thescala mediais calledReissners membrane,floor is calledBasilar membrane
* Athingelatinoussheetcalledtectorialmembrane,overhangshaircallsofbasilarmembrane.
Hearing
* Sound waves collected by Pinna and travelling down the external auditory meatus, strike and cause the tympanic
membranetovibrate
* Fromtympanicmembrane,thevibrationsaretransmittedmechanicallyacrossthemiddleearthroughearossiclesand
fenestraovalisintoperilymphofinnerear
* Theforceofvibrationsreceivedbytheperilymphisincreasedmanyfold(about20times)duetoleveractionoftheear
ossicles
* Thevibrationintheperilymphpassthroughscalavestibuli,crossthescalamediatoreachthescalatympaniandescape
throughfenestrarotundabackintomiddleear.
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Thealternatingpressurechangesintheperilymphsettheendolymphandbasilarmembraneintosympatheticundulations.
The vibratins causethe tectorial membrane floating in theendolymph of scala media to brushthe processes of the
sensoryhaircellsoftheorganofcorti.
* Thenerveimpulsesproducedarecarriedthroughcochlearbranchoftheauditorynervetothebrainwheretheseare
interpretedassound.
Deafness
1. Conductiondeafness:duetoaccumulationofwaxordestructionoftympanicmembranes
2 Nerve deafness : due to damage of nerve fibres. Nerve fibres are damaged by excessive exposure to loud noise,
tumors,pathogens,ageingetc.
Defects of Ear
1. Otalgia:painintheear
2.
Labyrinthine disease: malfunction of inner ear
3. Otitismedia:acuteinfectionofmiddleear
4.
Menieresdisease: lossofhearingduetodefectincochlea
Appendix
Hearingiscontrolledbyauditoryareaofthetemporallobeofcerebralcortex
Human ear is sensitive to sound frequency 5020,000 cycles/sec
Ear is most sensitive to frequency 10003000 cycles/sec
Children can detect frequency upto 40,000 cycles/sec
Themeasuringunitofsoundintensityisdecibel

[B] EYES (organofsight)

*
*
a.
*

Eyeballisheldinthepositionby4rectusand2obliquemuscles,innervatedbyIIIrd,IVth andVIth cranialnerves

Walloftheeyeballismadeupofthreecoatsouterfibrous,middlevascularandinnermostnervous
FIBROUS COAT
Post.PartoffibrouscoatisknownasSclera(whiteoftheeye).Itisopaqueandlightcantpassthroughit.Ant.part,
knownascornea,istransparentandlightcanpassthroughit
b. VASCULAR COAT
* ItisdistinguishedintoChoroid,cilliarybodyandiris
* Choroidishighlyvascular,pigmented,foundadheredtosclera.Itpreventsinternalreflection
* Cilliarybodyiscomposedofciliarymusclesandciliaryprocesses(secreteaqueoushumour)
* Irisismadeoftwotypesofsmoothmusclescircularandradialwhichcontrolamountoflightenteringtheeye.Iris
hasaholeinthecentrepupil
c. NERVOUS COAT
* Itissoftestbutmostcomplicatedcoatofeyeball
* Maculalutea(yellowspot)liesexactlyoppositethecentreofthecornea.Ithasashallowdepressionknownasfovea
centralis.Ithasonlycones(areaofmostacutevision)
* Blindspotislocatedbelowyellowspot,socalledbecauseoftheabsenceofphotosensitiverodsandcones.
* Total no. of rods (contain Rhodopsinor visual purple) in human retina 110 to 125 millions and cones (contain
Iodopsin orvisualviolet)6.3to6.8millions
LENS
* Itisheldinthepositionbysuspensoryligament
* Itisbiconvex,composedofepithelialcellshavingcytoplasminformoffibres
* Lens,ciliarybodyandsuspensoryligament dividetheeyeintoant.cavity(filledwithaqueous humour,secretedby
ciliaryprocesses)andpost.cavity(filledwithvitreoushumour,secretedbyretinaitself)
WORKINGOFEYES
* Cornea,aqueoushumour,lens,vitreoushumouraretherefractorypartswhichbendthelightrays
* Theimageformedonretinaissmalland inverted.Sensoryimpulsesoftheimagearecarriedtothebrainbyopticnerve
fibrestothecentreofsightlocatedoncerebralcortexwhichanalyseandcoordinatetheimpulse
* Theadjustmentofaneyetoenableittofocusuponobjectsatvariousdistancesisknownasaccomodation.
* Forseeingnearobject,ciliarymusclecontracts,tensioninsuspensoryligamentrelaxed,lensbecomesmoreconvex
* Forseeingdistantobject,cilliarymusclerelaxed,suspensoryligamenttaut,lensbecomeslessconvex.
* Lightanddarkadaptation isthefunctionofrod.Forseeinginthedark,highconcentrationofrhodopsinisnecessary
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intherods.Inbrightlightrhodopsinisbleachedintoitsconstituents(retinineandopsin)
Colourvision isthefunctionofcones.Itisofthreetypeserythrolable(sensitivetoredlight),chlorolable (sensitive
togreenlight)andcyanolable(sensitivetobluelight).Blendingofthesecoloursinvariouscombinationsenablesthe
animalstohavevisionforvariousothercolours.
Inmanandotherprimatesbotheyesfaceforward,sothattheyformtwoseparateimagesofthesameobject.Buttwo
imagesarenotseenduetooverlappingoftheirfieldsofvision.Asaresulttheobjectisseeninthreedimensionswhich
alsogivesasenseofdistanceoftheobjectinview.Thistypeofvisioninwhichthedepthordistanceisalsojudgedis
called binocular or stereoscopic vision

COMMON OPTICAL DEFECTS

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Glaucoma:Duetoincreaseinintraocularpressureoftheeye
Strabismus (squint):Whenextraocularmuscle becomes shorterorlonger
Cataract:Lens fibres becomes opaque
Hyper metropia (farsightedness) : Eye ball becomes short in anteroposierior direction. Person can clearly see
distant objectsonly.Imageofthenearobjectfalls behindretina.Correctedwiththehelpofconvexlens.Whenthis
conditionresultsfromlossofelasticityofthelens,itisknownaspresbyopia.
Trachoma:Chroniccontagiousconjunctivitiscausedbybacteriumchlamydiatrachomatis
Myopia(shortsightedness):Eyeballbecomes longerinanteropostdirection.Personcanclearlyseenearobject,
imageofthedistantobjectformedinfrontofretina.Correctedwiththehelpofconcavelens.

[A] GUSTATORECEPTORS
*
*
*
a.
c.
[B]
*
*
*

Locatedinthebuccalcavityandtongueandareresponsiblefortaste
Itfunctionsaschemoreceptori.e.stimulatedbychemicalinsolution
Inmanthetastebudsareoffourkindsdependingupontheirdistribution
Sourtastereceptors:ontheedgeoftongue
b.
Salttasterecepors:onthesides
Bittertasteresptors:atthebase
d.
Sweettastereceptor:atthetip
OLFACTRORECEPTORS
Thesearelocatedintheupperpartofnasalcavity,linedbyolfactoryepithelium(schneiderianmembrane)
Dogshaveacuteolfactorysense.Itcantrackpeoplebecauseofitsabilitytodistinguishbetweentheodoursofdifferentpersons
OrganofJacobson (vomeronasalorgan)presentintheanteriorpartofnasalcavity(welldevelopedinsnakesandlizards)isconcernedwith
smell

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ENDOCRINESYSTEM
HORMONES
*

Hormones arechemicalmessengersecretedbyonepart ofthebody(byendocrineglands)inresponsetochanges in

externalorinternalenvironment andcarriedbybloodtoanotherpart(target organs)wheretheystimulateorinhibit
specific physiological processes.

Secretin(secreted by mucous membrane of duodenum)was the first hormone discovered byBayliss and Starling.
Thetermhormonewascoinedbystarling.

Chemicallyahormonemaybeanaminoacidderivatives,(epinephrine,norepinephrine,thyroxine) shortpeptides
(oxytocin,vasopressin),longpeptides(insulin,glucagon),proteins(hormonesofant.pituitary)steroids(hormones
fromadrenalcortex,testes,ovariesetc.).

Hormonesaregenerallyslowinactionbuteffectiveinverylowconcentration.

Unlikeenzymestheyareusedupintheirregulatoryaction.

Steroidhormonescanpassthroughcellmemb,thereforeactwithincell.Otherhormonescantpassthroughthecell
membranesoactsonthesurfaceofthecellviaCAMP (2ndmessenger).

Hormones are releasedfrom theendocrineglands bythreetypes ofstimuli (1)Specificmetabolites(eg :excess of

glucose causes the release of insuline from pancreas) (2) Other hormones (eg : ACTH released by ant. pituitary
stimulatesadrenalcortextoreleaseitshormones)(3) Nervousimpulse (eg:Duringstress,nerveimpulsefromautonomic
nervoussystemstimulatestheadrenalmedullatoreleaseadrenalinandnoradrenalin.)

The father of endocrinology is ThomasAddison. The first endocrine disease reported was Addisons disease
causedbydestructionofadrenalcortex.

[A] PITUITARY GLANDORHYPOPHYSIS

*

Smallestbutmostimp.glandofthebody,attachedtothehypothalamusofthebrainbyinfundibulum.

HormonesecretingcellofAdenohypophysisareoftwotypes acidophils(Growthhormoneandprolactinsecreting
cells)andbasophils(restofthecells).

Post.pituitarydoesnotsecreteanyhormone.Infactitservestostoretwohormones(oxytocinandvasopressin)secreted
byneuronsofhypothalamus.

Hormones fromAdenohypophysis
*

Adenohypophysis secretes seven protein hormones. Secretion of these hormones is controlled by certain regulatory
factors(orhormones)secretedbyhypothalamusthesefactorsaretransportedtoadenohypophysisbyhypothalamo
hypophysial portal vein.

1.

Growthhormones(GH)orsomatotrophin(STH):Stimulatescellulargrowth

2.

Prolactin(PRL)orluteotropin(Hormones ofmaternity)(LTH):Stimulates growthofbreasts duringpregnancy

andsecretionofmilkafterbirthofchild.

3.

Folliclestimulatinghormones(FSH):stimulatesgrowthofovarianfollicleandoogenesisinwomanandgrowthof
seminiferous tubules andspermatogenesis inmen.

4.

Luteinizinghormone(LH,orinterstitialcellstimulatinghormone,ICSH):Inmen,itstimulatescellsofLeyding
tosecreteandrogens,(whichregulatesthedevelopmentofsecondarysexualcharacter).Inwomanitstimulatesovulation
anddevelopmentofcorpusluteuminovaries.

FSH and LH together known as gonadotrophic hormones. Its secretion is initiated byGenetic Biological clock
locatedinthehypothalamus.

5. Adreno corticotrophichormone (ACTH): Stimulates adrenalcortex to releaseits hormone.

6. Thyroidstimulatinghormone(TSH):Stimulatesthyroidglandtoreleaseitshormone.
7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) : Secreted by intermediate lobe of pituitary. Its secretion is doubtful in
man.Inlowervertebrates,itaffectswiderdistributionofmelaningranulesinthechromatophores,sothatskincolour
darkens.
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Hormones from Neurohypophysis

1.

Vasopressin (Pitressin)orantidiuretichormone(ADH)issocalledbecauseitpromotesreabsorptionofwaterinDCT
andpreventsdiuresis.Thehormoneisalsoknownasvasopressinbecauseitincreasesbloodpressurebycontracting
blood vessels.

2.

Oxytocin (Pitocin):Itinducescontractionsofsmoothmusclesofthemammaryglandstocausereleaseofmilkduring
sucking of the infants. Oxytocin is commonly known as Birth hormone It also stimulates contraction of uterine
muscleduringchildbirth.

[B] THYROID GLAND

*

Largestendocrinegland,locatedintheneckregionuponventralaspectoflarynx.Itissinglebutbilobed,thetwolobes
areconnectedby nonglandular isthmus.

Itisendodermalinoriginandprobablyhomologoustoendostyleoflowerchordates.

Thyroidsecretesiodinecontaininghormones.Iodineis obtainedfromfood.

Adailyintakeof100to150gofiodineissufficienttomaintainnormalthyroidfunction.

Thyroidsecretesthreeimp.hormones

(1) Tetraiodothyronine(T4 orThyroxine)65to90%

(2) TriiodothyronineT3 10to35%Boththesehormonesarederivedfromtyrosineandperformfollowingfunctions
* Controlgeneralmetabolismofthebodybyregulatingrateofoxidation.
* Promotesgrowthofthebodytissuesanddevelopmentofmentalfaculties.
* Affectsmetamorphosisoftadpoleintoanadultfrog.
* Alsocontrolstheworkingofkidneys.
(3) Calcitonin:SecretedbyCcellsorparafollicularcells(presentoutsidethethyroidfollicles)
* Itregulatestheconcentrationofcalciumandphosphorousintheblood.
* Itissecretedwhenconcentrationofcalciumrisesinblood.Itthen lowers theconcentrationofcalciumandphosphorous
intheplasmabydecreasingtheirreleasefromthebones.
[C] ADRENALGLANDORSUPRARENALGLAND
*

Liesonthetopofkidneys,differentiatedintooutercortex(mesodermal)essentialforlifeandinternaladrenalmedulla
(ectodermal)not essential

Hormones of adrenal cortex

1. Mineralo corticoids (aldosterone) : Salt retaining hormone, upgrades sodium ion concentration in the ECF by
promotingreabsorptionofsodiumionsfromrenaltubulesandexcretionofpotassiumioninurine.
2.

Glucocorticoids(cortisolandcorticosterone):Promoteintakeofglucose,FFAsandaminoacidsbycellsofLiver.
PromotesGluconeogenesis(synthesisofglucosefromnoncarbohydratesources)TheyalsohaveantiInflammatory
andantiallergic effects.

3.

Sexhormones(androgens,oestrogens):Regulatesdevelopmentofsexorgans.

Hormones of adrenal medulla

*

Chromaffincellsofadrenalmedullasecretetwomainhormonesadrenalin orepinephrine(80%)andnoradrenalin
or norepinephrine (20%).

These two hormones are released into blood in stress conditions (fear, anger, intense pain, emotional upset, mental
tension,anxiety, poisoningetc.)

Theroleofadrenalinismuchmoresignificantinemergencyreactions.Itseffectsareasfollows
* Increasetherateofheartbeat,pulserateandcardiacoutput.
* Constrictsthevesselsofskin,connectivetissuesandkidneys,etc.,raisingbloodpressure.
* Dilatesthevesselsofskeletalmuscles,heart,Liver,Brain,increasingactivitiesoftheseparts.
* Itrelaxesthesmoothmusclesofintestine,retardingdigestiveactivities.
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* Contractsthesmoothmusclesofspleen,sothatspleensqueezesoutitsreservestockofblood.
* Contractsthearrectorpillimusclesofskin,raisingthehairs.
*

Theaboveroleofadrenalineandnoradrenalineisoftencalledfightorflightreactionbecausethepersonconcerned
eitherfacesthesituationboldlyorescapesawayfromit.

[D] PANCREAS
*

Endodermalinorigin

Pancreas is a mixed gland (exocrine and endocrine). Its endocrine part is known as Islet of Langerhans (after the
nameofdiscoverer).ItscellsaredistinguishedintofourtypesBetacells(60%),alphacells(25%)Dcells(10%),
F cells (5%).

Bcellssecretes insulin(namedbyschaefer)ananabolichormone,whichconvertsexcess glucoseintoglycogen.

Alpha cells secrete glucagon, a catabolic hormone which convert glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) when
glucoselevelfallsintheblood.

DcellssecreteSomatostatin(SS)whichslowdownandregulateabsorptionofdigestednutrientsintothebloodfrom
gut.Italsoretardthesecretionofinsulin,glucagonandpancreaticpolypeptide.

FcellsSecretepancreatic polypeptide (PP) whichrestricts the secretionof somatostatin fromD cells.

[E]

PARATHYROID GLAND

Fourinnumber,endodermal inorigin,situatedinthebackofthyroid.

Secrete single hormone Parathormone (PTH) also known as Collips hormone.

ParathormoneregulatestheamountofcalciumandphosphateionsinECF.

Parathormonepromotesabsorptionof calciumfrom foodin theintestineand itsreabsorption fromnephrons inthe

kidneys.

Simultaneously,itaccelerateseliminationofphosphatesinurine.

Maintenanceofpropercalciumlevelinfactacombinedfunctionofparathormone,thyrocalcitomin,andvitD.

[F]

THYMUSGLAND

Bilobed,endodermal inorigin,locatedinthemediastinumjustinfrontofheart.

Thymus is haemopoietic (produces Tlymphocytes) as well as endocrine (secrete thymosin).

Majorfunctionofthymusisproliferationanddifferentiationoflymphocytesintovarietyofclonesdifferentlyspecialized
todestroyantigenandpathogens.

Thymosine(ahormone)acceleratescelldivision(growth)duringearlylife.It alsostimulates theproliferationofT

lymphocytes,increasingresistancetoinfection.

Thyroidisprominentatbirth,butgraduallyatrophiesintheadult(Immunitytheoryofageing).

[G] PINEALGLANDOREPIPHYSIS
*

Itisverysmall,ectodermalinorigin,liesundercorpuscallosumbetweentwocerebralhemisphereatthetipofpenial
stalk.

Thehormonesecretedbypinealglandisknownasmelatonin.

The effect of melatonin is an antagonistic to that of MSH of pituitary, i.e. it stimulates concentration of melanin
granulesinthecentreofmelanophores,lighteningtheskincolour.

Melatoninhasbeenprovedtobeaninhibitoryfactorforsexualmaturationandexcitation.Probablyitregulatesthe
periodofpubertyandseasonalandcircadian(daily)sexualbehaviourinaccordancewithlightcondition.

Childrenblindfrombirth,attainpubertyearlierbecauseoftheabsenceoflightstimulation.

Inmanthepinealglandstartsdegeneratingaftertheageofabout10yrs.becauseofitscalcification.

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[H] GASTROINTESTINAL MUCOSA

[I]
*

KIDNEY
Itproducestwohormonenamely
Renin:ControlsaldosteronesecretionthroughReninangiotensinpathway
Erythropoietin:StimulatesRBCsproduction

[J] GONADS
*

Gonads are specializedto secretesexhormones (steroids). It is alsoproduced byadrenal cortex

Sex hormones

[K] PLACENTAL HORMONE

*

Secretes many hormone like Chorionic gonadotropin, Placental lactogen, estrogens, progesterone, relaxin
etc.

PresenceofHCGintheurineformsthebasisofallpregnancydiagnosis

HCGcanbedetectedasearlyas14daysafterconception

Relaxin secretedbyplacenta(absentinhumanfemale),causesrelaxationofligamentofpubicsymphysisforeasybirth

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IMPORTANT HORMONALDISORDERS

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41

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42

SOME OTHER CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

*

Pheromones or ectohormones : Released into environment to convey information to other members of the same
species.Example:CertaininsectssecreteBombykolorgyplureforattractingmatingpartners.Certaininsects
secretegeranioltotransmittheinformationoffoodsourcesordangeroftheirfellows.

Prostaglandins : These arelipid and secretedby many organs (kidneys,gonads, prostate glands,seminal vesicles,
brain etc.) and regarded as most active compound of the body. Some prostaglandins stimulate smooth muscle to
contractandotherscausesittorelax.Somecausecontractionofcapillariesandotherscausesdilation.

NeurohormonesorNeurohumors:Secretedbynervecellsandreleasedintotissuefluidnearsynapseandtransmit
nerveimpulsefromoneneurontoanother.Twomainneurohumours areAcetylcholineandnorepinephrine.

Localhormones(Kinis):Itissecretedbythecellsinresponsetoslightchangeinthetissue.Itimmediatelydilatethe
localbloodvesselstoreducebloodpressureandincreasebloodsupplycausingamildlocalpain.

REPRODUCTION
FORMS OF REPRODUCTION
(A) Asexual :Itismonoparental,involvesonlymitoticdivisionandensuresrapidincreaseinnumbers.Individualsare
identicaltoparent.
(a) Binaryfission:Divisionoftheparentintotwonearlyequalsizeddaughterindividuals.
1. Irregularbinaryfission

In amoeba

2. Longitudinalbinaryfission

InEuglena

3. Transversebinaryfission

In Paramaecium

(b) Multiple fission : Divisionofparentintomanydaughterindividualssimultaneously e.g.: Plasmodium(schizogony&

sporogony)Amoeba(inunfavorablecondition)
(c) Budding

: Formationofdaughterindividualfromsmallprojection,thebudarisingonparentbody. e.g.:Sponges
(sycon), Coelenterates (Hydra) etc.

(d) Plasmotomy

: Divisionofmultinucleateindividuals intotwomultinucleatedaughterindividuals.e.g.: Opalina

(amultinucleateprotozoan)

(B) Sexual : Itisusually biparental, involvesmeioticdivisioninformationofgametesandmitoticdivisionduringdevelopment

ofzygoteintoanoffspring.Basicallyitisofthreetypes.
(a)Syngamy:Completeandpermanentfusionofgametes.
Withregardtosourceoffusinggametesitmaybeoftwotypes
(i) Endogamy

Uniparental,selffertilization.e.g.Taenia

(ii) Exogamy
:
Biparental,crossfertilization.e.g.Man
Withregardtostructureoffusinggametes,syngamymaybeoftwotypes
(i)Isogamy

Fusinggametesaresimilarinshapeandsize,e.g.Monocystis(aprotozoanparasitefound
intheseminalvesicleofEarthworm)

(ii)Anisogamy

Fusinggametesaredissimilarinshapeandsize,e.g.Man,Plasmodium.

(b) Conjugation:Temporarypairingoftwoparentsforexchangeoftheirmalepronuclei.e.g.Paramaecium
(c) Parthenogenesis:Modifiedsexualreproductioninwhicheggdevelopsintocompleteoffspringwithoutfertilization
(Itismonoparental).Itisoftwotypesonthebasisofchromosomeset.
(i) Arrhenotoky:Haploideggsgrowtoformhaploidmales.e.g.Arachnids.
(ii) Thelytoky: Diploideggsgrowwithoutfertilizationintodiploidindividualsgenerallyfemales, e.g. Gallfly
Parthenogenesiscanbenaturalandartificial
(i) Natural parthenogenesis : two types
(a)Obligatoryorcomplete:Nomales,onlyfemalesdevelopparthenogeneticallye.g.Rotifers,Typhlinabrahmina,
Lacerta sexicola
(b)IncompleteorCyclic:Bothsexualandparthenogeneticformsarepresent.e.g.Honeybee,aphids,ants,etc.
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(ii) Artificial or Induced : Sugars, salt, alkaloids, heat, cold, pricking and other stimuli can stimulate eggs to form
parthenogeneticembryos.e.g.eggsofseaurchin,seastar,frogs,henetc.
MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
*

Primarysex organs : It gives rise tosex cells (gametes)and secrete sexhormones. Testes inmale andovaries in
female.

Secondarysexorgans:transportgametesincludesgenitalducts,reproductiveglandsandacopulatoryorgan.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Testes
*
*

Paired,intraabdominalduringembryonicdevelopment,descenddownandcomestolieinthescrotalsacjustbefore
birth
seminiferoustubuleislinedbygerminalepitheliumhavingtwotypesofcells

(a) Smaller(cuboidal)butmorenumerouswhichformssperms(byspermatogenesis)
(b) Larger(pyramidal)but less numerous sertolicells,nourishes thesperms andsecreteInhibin
*

In the connective tissue between seminiferous tubule, lies small groups of large polygonal cells interstial cells or
Leyding cells which secrete male sex hormone, (testosterone)

Gubernaculumisaligamentousconnectivecord(elasticcord)whichconnectstestestoscrotalsacsposteriorly

GENITALDUCTS
*

Allseminiferoustubulesofatestiscometogetherandformaplexusretetestis

Fromtheretetestis arises adozenfineduct knownasefferentductules

Efferentductulesunitetoformhighlyconvolutedduct(about6meter)knownasepididymis.Itstoresthespermsprior
toejaculation.Itistheplacewherespermsattainmotility.

Thedistalendofepididymisopensintovas deferens,whichpass throughinguinalcanalintoabdominalcavityand

joinstheductfromseminalvesicletoformejaculatoryduct,whichopensintourethra.

Theurethraoriginatesfromurinarybladder.Fromthepointitisjoinedbyejaculatoryduct,itcarriesurineaswellas
semen(urinogenitalduct)

PENIS
*

Itistheexternalcopulatoryorganthroughwhichurethraruns

Itcontainsthreecolumnsofspongytissues(2corporacavernosa,1corpusspongiosum)

Nearthetipofpenis,corpusspongiosumisenlargedtoformasoftglanspenis(mostsensitivepart),whichiscovered
byprepuce(retractablefoldofskin)

ACCESSORY SEXGLANDS
1. Seminal Vesicles : LocatednearampullaofVasdeferentia,secretesslightlyalkalineviscousseminalfluid(contains
fructose,prostaglandinsetc)
2. Prostate glands

: Itsurroundsthefirstportionofurethra.Secretesmilkyalkalinefluid(containscitricacid,
lipids, fibrinogen, phosphatase etc.) Enlargement of prostate results in prostitis (difficult
urination)

3. Cowpers glands : Liebeneaththeprostateglands.Secretealkalinemucus.Alsoknownasbulbourethralgland.

4. Preputial gland(gland of Tyson) :Lie inprepuce, producesebaceous substancesmegma
5. Perinealglands:LyingbehindthecowpersglandinRabbit(absentinhumanbeing)secretesaodoroussubstance
serves as sex attractant
*Semen: Secretionofaccessarysexglandisknownasseminalfluid.Seminalfluidandspermstogetherknownassemen
*

PHofsemen7.357.5

Eachdropofsemencontains 300,000,000sperms.Oftheseonlyonespermcanfertilizeeacheggcell.Therestdie
withinthreedays,retainingtheirfertilizingabilityforonly24hrs..
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Malesthatproducelessthan25millionsofsperms/mlofsemenaregenerallysterile

Typicallymammalianspermisflagellated,consistingofhead,neck,middlepieceandtail

Headconsists ofspermnucleusandacrosome(formedby golgicomplex)whichcontain enzymehyaluronidase

Neckhastwocentriolesproximal(requiredforfirstcleavage)anddistal(formaxialfilamentofthesperm)

Mitochondriafromdifferent partsget arrangedaroundmiddlepiece(nebenkern)

Tailess,nonflagellate,amoeboidspermisfoundintheroundwormAscaris
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

*
*
*
*

Ovaries
Twoinnumber,unliketestesintraabdominal,liesoneithersideofvertebralcolumnbehindkidneysinthepelviccavity.
Eachovaryisattachedtodorsalabdominalwallthroughmesovariumandovarianligament.
Eachovaryisprincipallycomposedofstromaoffibrousconnectivetissueandislinedexternallyatitsfreesurfaceby
germinalepitheliumofcuboidalcells.
* Thegerminalepitheliumproliferatesthousandsofprimordialfolliclesduringembryoniclifeofanindividualbutlessthan
10%matureinthelifeoffemale,remainderdegenerateintoatreticfollicle.
* Eachovaryisroughlydifferentiatedintooutercortexandinnermedulla.Theformercontainsfolliclesandcorporalutea
invariousstagesofdifferentiationandthelattercontainsonlythelargebloodvessels.
* Eachprimaryfollicle consists ofprimaryoocytesurroundedby singlelagerofcell(follicular epithelium),thelatter
becomesmanylayeredbyproliferation.It isnowknownassecondaryfollicles .
* The surface layer of secondary follicle is known as theca externa and inner layer is known as theca interna
.Meanwhile,theoocytesinthememb.acquirestwononcellularlayerinnerthinvitellinemembraneandouterthick
zonapellucida . The latter is surrounded by enlarged follicular cellscorona radiata. Now it is known as tertiary
follicle .
* Afluidfilledcavityantrum,appearsinthegreaterpartoffollicle.Thefollicleisnowmatureandknownasgraffian
follicle.
* Whengraffianfollicleburst(duringovulation),itreleasesoneegg,theremainingfollicletransforminto corpusluteum
(anendocrineorgan)whichsecreteprogesterone&estrogenduringpregnancy.Lateritconvertsintocorpusalbicans
(white)
Fallopian tubes
* Itisabout10cm.long,differentiatedintofunnelshapedinfundibulum,Ampulla(long,wide)anduterinepart(communicates
withtheuterus).
* Fallopiantubesconveystheeggfromovarytotheuterusandalsoprovidestheappropriateenvironmentforitsfertilization.
Uterus
* Somewhatlargerin multiparouswoman(whohasbornetwoormorechildren)thanthe nulliparouswomen(whohas
notborneanychild)
* Differentiated into upper dome shapedfundus (which receives the fallopian tubes), middle large body (main part),
lowernarrowcervix(communicates with vagina).
* Thecavityofuteruscanexpandmanytimesduringpregnancy(10cm3 to500cm3)
* Theuterusreceivestheovumfromthefallopiantubes,formsplacentaforthedevelopmentofthefoetus,andexpelsthe
youngoneatbirth.
Vagina
* Itisabout7.5cm.long,opensintovestibulebyvaginalorifice
* Thespacebetweenvaginalwallandthecervixiscalledfornix.
* Thevaginahasnospecialglands.Themucuslubricatingitcomesfromtheglandsofthecervix.
* Thevaginaisadoptedforreceivingthemalespenisduringcopulation,forallowingmenstrualflowandservingasabirth
canalduringcopulation.
Externalgenitalia(Vulva):Itincludesfollowing
* Vaginalvestibule:inwhichexternalopeningofurethraandvaginaarelocated
* Vestibuleisenclosedbytwoliplikestructureouterlabiamajoraandinnerlabiaminora.
* Asmallerectileorganclitoris(homologoustopenis)ispresentattheapexofvestibule.
* Monsveneris:toptriangularfattypadcoveredwithpubichairs.
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A pair, bean shaped, Bartholins glands (homologous to cowpers gland of male) are present on either side of the
vaginalorifice.Thesesecreteaprecoitallubricatingfluid.
* Thespacebetweenvaginalorificeandanusiscalledperineum.
* Vaginalorificeinavirginfemaleisborderedbyafoldofmucusmembranecalledhymen.
* Thehymenisusuallyrupturedduringsexualintercourse.Howeveritisnotalwaysso,itmayberupturedaccidently
duringexerciseasanwomengymnasts,oreveninbicycling.
Breasts
* Breastconsistsoffattyandconnectivetissueandmammarygland.
* Mammaryglandinprototherians(egglayingmammals)representmodifiedsweatgland.
* Inmetatherian(pauchedmammal)andeutherianmammal(Placental)mammaryglandrepresent modifiedsebaceous
gland.
* Mammaryglandofmetatheriansandeutherianhasanipple(absentinprototherians),surroundedbypigmentedarea
areola.
* At pubertyand in the adult virgin a rapid andextensive deposition of fat occurs in mammary glands resulting into
developmentofbreasts.Themammaryglandsdevelopfurtherduringpregnancy.
* Mammaryglandbecomesfunctionalinordertoproducemilkinthelaterpartofgestationperiod.
* Lactogenesis(Milksecretion)occursintwostagesColostrogenicstageandlactogenicstage.
* Colostrumisyellowviscousfluidsecretedbythealveolitowardstheendofpregnancy.
* Afterdeliverywhenthebabyisputtothebreast,thinproteinrichfluidisallthattheinfantgetsuntilabout3rdto5th
day,whenthemilkcomesin(Lactogenicstage).
* Humanmilkcontainabout88%water,1.2%threeessentialproteins(casein,Blactoglobulins, lactoglobulins)6.5%
oflactoseandgynolactose(mixtureof14sugars)3.5%fat,0.2%inorganicmaterials.
* Secretionofmilkisunderthecontrolofprolactin (Secretedbyantpituitary)andejectionofmilkisunderthecontrol
ofoxytocin(secretedbypostpituitary)oxytocinisalsoknownasmilkletdownfactor.
* Duringoldage,thebreastsbecomesmallsincefatsdisappearandconnectivetissuebecomeafibroussystem.
GAMETOGENESIS
* Includesspermatogenesis(formationsofsperms)andoogenesis(formationsofova)
* Bothspermatogenesisandoogenesiscomprisessimilarphaseofsequentialchangesi.e.Multiplicationphase,growth
phaseandmaturationphase.Thesetwoprocesses,howeverdifferfromeachotherinmanyrespect.
Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

OVARIAN (REPRODUCTIVE) CYCLE

*
*

Therearetwotypes ofcycleoestrus(innonprimates)andmenstrual(inprimates)
In menstrualcyclebleedingoccursattheendofcycle,brokendownendometriumpassedout,andtherearenocyclic
changesinthesexurgeofthefemale.
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ANIMALPHYSIOLOGY

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In oestruscyclebleedingdoesnottakesplace,brokendownendometriumisreabsorbedandtherearecyclicchanges
inthesexurgeofthefemale.
Thoseanimalsthathaveonlyasingleestrousduringthebreedingseasonarecalled monoestrus(e.g.Dog,Fox,Deer,
Bat etc).
Theanimalsthat havearecurrenceofestrous duringbreedingseasonarecalledpolyestrous(e.g.Mouse,Squirrel,
Cow,Sheep,Pig,Horse,etc.)

Menstrualcycle
* Menarche:1stmenstruation(withtheonsetofpuberty)
* Menopause:permanentcessationofthecycle
* Durationofthecycle:28days(average)
* Phasesofthecycle:Fourphases
1.Proliferativephase(follicularphases):Stageofrepairandproliferation.
* During this phaserepairing of endometrial lining ofthe uterus (which was sloughed offduring menstruation) takes
placeandafunctionalliningisreappearedintheuterustoreceivethefertilizedegg.
* Thisphaseismainlyinfluencedbyoestrogensecretedbyfollicularcells.
* Thisphaseextendsfromtheendofmenstruationtoovulationandgenerallyinvolvestendays.
2. Ovulatory phase
* Noconspicuouschangesoccurinuterusendometrium.
* Ovulationoccursatthisphase(midwaybetweentwomenstrualperiods)
* OvulationiscausedbyhighamountofLuteinizinghormone(LH)andlowamountofFSH.
3. Secretory phase
* Thisphaselastsfor13to14daysandismarkedbyhypertrophyofuterineendothelium.
* This phase in also known as Progestational phase or luteal phase as it is under the control of progesterone and
oestrogensecretedbycorpusluteum.
* Thisphaseisalsoknownas Progravidphase asthisphasepreparestheendometriumforpregnancyandimplantation.
* Ifpregnancydoesnotretainitisfollowedbymenstruation.
4.DestructionPhase
* Thisphaseisalsocalledthestageofmenstrualflowandlastsforfourdays.
* Duringthis phaseendometrialliningofuterus issloughedoffandbleedingalsotakes placeduetoruptureofblood
vessels.
* Ifimplantationoccurs,themembranessurroundingthedevelopingembryoembeddedintheuterineliningcontributeto
the formation of placenta and begin to secrete a progesterone like hormone that finally replaces that produced by
corpusluteum.Thispreventstheuterineliningfromsloughingandsupportspregnancy.
* Ifimplantationdoesnotoccurtheninresponsetolowlevelofovarianhormonesthelevelofpituitarygonadotroplins
begintoriseagainfollowedbydevelopmentofanewfollicleandariseinoestrogenasthenextmonthlycyclebegins.
Typesofegg
(a)
1.
2.
3.
4.
(b)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Onthebasisofamountofyolk
Alecithal:almostnoyolk(e.g.,metatheriansandeutherians)
Microlecithal:verylessamountofyolk(e.g.,Amphioxus)
Mesolecithal:moderateamountofyolk(e.g.,forgs,andtoads)
Macrolecithal:veryhighamountofyolk(e.g,insects,fish,reptiles,birdsandprototherianmammals)
Onthebasisofdistributionofyolk
Homolecithal :Yolkisuniformlydistributedalloverthecytoplasm(e.g.,microlecithalegg)
Telolecithal:Yolkis concentratedinthevegitalhalf(e.g.,mesolecithalegg)
Meiolecithal:Yolkoccupiesmostofthepartofegg(e.g.,macrolecithalegg)
Centrolecithal:Yolkinthecentre(e.g.,insectsegg)

SOMEIMPORTANT TERMS:
*
*
*
*

Amenorrhoea:Lossofnormalmenstruation
* Hysterectomy:Surgicalremovalofuterus
Orchidectomy:Removaloftestes
* Salpingectomy:Cuttingoffallopiantubes
Oophoritis:Inflammationofovary
* Gynecomastia: Enlargedfunctionalmammaryglandinmale
ProstaticHypertrophy:Enlargementofprostategland,causesdifficulturination.
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Cryptorchidism:Aconditioninwhichtestesdonotdescendintoscrotum.Itcausessterility.
Protandry:Spermmatureearlierthanovary(insexualanimals).
Protogyny:Ovamatureearlierthansperms(inbisexualanimals).

DEVELOPMENTALBIOLOGY
Phylogenetic development : Evolutionary development (historical) of a species.
Ontogenicdevelopment: TransformationofsinglecelledZygoteintomulticelularOrganism.Studyofontogenicdevelopment
ofanorganismisknownasEmbryology.
Blastogenesis&Embryogenesis:Theformeristhedevelopmentofnewindividualfromasexualreproductivebody(i.e.
bud,gemmule,bodyfragment)andlatteristhedevelopmentofanewindividualfromthefertilizedeggorZygote.
STEPSIN THEONTOGENETICDEVELOPMENT
(1) Fertilization:It includesthefollowing.
i. Encounterofspermandovum,eitherinside(inthefallopiantubeofhumanfemales)oroutsidethebody(asin
amphibian)
ii. Fertilizin (Secretedbyegg)andAntifertilizin (secretedbysperm)reactionestablishthecontactbetweensperm
andova.
iii. Acrosomereaction :Theenzymehyaluronidase,presentintheacrosomeofspermdissolvesthecoronaradiata,
whichsurroundsthemammalianeggfromoutside.
iv. FormationoffertilizationCone:Theconeisformedbyoutpushingofeggcytoplasm,whichengulfsthespermas
awholeincaseofmammal.
v. CorticalReaction:Itinvolvesformationofafertilizationmembranearoundeggafterentryofspermintoegg.
Themembranepreventsthefurtherentryofsperms.
vi Amphimixis:Fusionofmalepronucleiwiththefemalepronuclei,asaresultaZygoteisformed.
*

Thefastblocktopolyspermydevelopsinresponsetotheopeningofsodiumgatesintheplasmamembrane

Aslowblocktopolyspermydevelopsinresponsetofertilizationmembrane

Abnormal fertilizations
a. Polyspermy : penetration of many sperms into an ovum simultaneously. Only one of the spermatozoa will be
successfulwithfemalepronuclei
b. Polygyny:Whentwofemalepronucleiunitewithamalepronucleus
c. Polyandry:Conjugationoftwoormoremalepronucleiwithafemalepronucleus
d. Androgenesis:Nonparticipationoffemalepronucleusinfertilization
e. Gynogenesis:Activationofeggbyspermbutthereisnofusionofitspronucleus
Significance:
a.

Itensurestheusualspecificdiploidyoftheorganismsbythefusionofmaleandfemalepronuclei.

b.

Itintroducesgeneticvariationsinthespecies.

(2)

c.

It activatestheeggforcleavage.

Cleavage

Cleavageisbasicallyaphaseofrapidmultiplicationtoformlargenumberofcellsforfuturedevelopmentalevents.

Itisamodifiedmitosis,inwhichthereisnogrowthphasebetweentwosuccessivedivisions,sosizeoftheblastomeres
gradually decreases.

N/Cratiograduallyincreases.

CleavageconvertstheZygoteintocompactmassofblastomerescalled MORULA, Whichisultimatelytransformed

into BLASTULA,havingaspace BLASTOCOEL.

TypesofCleavage
A.AccordingtotheconceptofPotency.
i.

Determinate:Fateoftheblastomeresareveryrigidlydefined(determinate)andifaparticularcellisdisplaced,the
correspondingfuturepartismissinginthelaterembryo.
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Example : Invertebrates (except echinoderms).

ii.

Indeterminate:Fateoftheblastomeresarelessrigidlydefined.Sothatthedisplacementofacellofearlystagedoes
nothaveverypronouncedeffectuponthelaterdevelopmentalstages.
Examples:EchinodermataandChordate.
B Onthe basis of amount anddistribution of yolk
A P

i.

Holoblastic :Whentheentireeggdividesbyeachcleavagefurrow.Itisoftwotypes.

a. Equal holoblastic :When the holoblastic cleavage occurs in microlecithal and isolecithal egg, it
producesequalsizedblastomeres.
Examples:Amphioxus,Metatheria,Eutheria
VP

b. UnequalHoloblastic: Inmesolecithaleggs,theholoblasticcleavageproducesunequalsized
blastomeres.
Examples:LowerFishesandAmphibians.
2.
Meroblastic:Cleavagefurrowsdividethesmallamountofactivecytoplasmofanimalpoleand
mostoftheyolkyportionofthevegetalpoleorcentralportionremainsundivided.Itisoftwotypes.
a. Discoidal : Cleavageremainsrestrictedtodiscshapedactivecytoplasmofanimalpole.
Examples:CartilaginousandBonyfishes,Reptiles,BirdsandPrototherians
b.Superficial:

Cleavageremainsrestrictedtotheperipheralcytoplasmicinvestmentofegg.

Examples:Arthropods(especiallyInsects).
Cleavage in mammalian zygote
*

Theprocessofcleavageinmammalianzygoteoccursduringjourneyofzygotefromfallopiantubetouterus.

Successivecleavageplanesconvertthesinglecelledzygoteintoasolidcellmass(morula).

Inthe uterus outer cellof morullaabsorb theuterine fluidand becomes larger. It is nowknown astrophoblast or
trophoectoderm. In the meantime, a cavity known as blastocoel, develops and the embryo is now known as
BLASTULA.

Intheblastula,thetrophoblastremainsseparatedfrominnercellmassexceptatonepoint.ItisknownasCELLSOF
RAUBER.

Trophoblastgives risetoextraembryonic membranesandInner cell mass, theembryo proper.

Mammalianblastulalookslikeacystsoitisalsoknownasblastocyst.

Implantation
Itistheattachmentofblastocysttotheuterinewall.Itisaffectedbythecombinedeffortofbothuterusandblastocyst.
(3)

Gastrulation

Itinvolvesmovementofblastomerestotheirrespectivepositionintheblastulasoastoformthreegermlayers(viz,ecto,
meso andendoderm). Movement of cellis knownas Morphogenetic movement whichmay be offollowing types
1.

Epiboly:Surfacemovement ofthecells.

2.

Emboly:Cellsofthesurfaceleavetheirplaceandgoinside.Itisoffollowingtypes
a.Invagination:Entirelayerofaplacemovesinside.

b. Involution:Cellsmovebyrolling.

c.Ingression :Cellsleavethesurfaceandsinksintounderlyingcavity.d.Covergence : Inward rotation of cells.

e.Divergence : Opposite to covergence.
Gastrulation in mammal
*

Cellsoftheinnercellmasswhichliesincontactwiththeblastocoelproliferatesandformacirclearoundblastocoel.It
isknownasendoderm.Thosecellsoftheendodermwhichliesincontactoftheinnercellmassformsembryonicgut
(archenteron)andremainingcellformsyolksac.

Afterformationofendodermtheremaininginnercellmassrearrangetoformembryonicdisc(orepiblast).

Mesodermisestablishedbyproliferationofcellsofcaudalregionofembryonicdisc.

Therestofthecellsofembryonicdiscgivesrisetoectoderm.
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Fate of the germ layers

A. Ectoderm:Central nervous system, Internalear,Hypothalamus, Pinealgland, Cutaneous glands, Salivaryglands,
Epidermalderivatives.
B.

Mesoderm: Connectivetissue,muscle,Notochord,Skeleton,Blood,Bloodvessels,Heart,Urinogenitalsystem,Lining
ofthecoelom.

C.

Endoderm:Liver,Pancreas,Middleear,Eustachiantubes,Respiratorysystem,Parathyroid,Thyroid,Liningofthe
vaginaandurethra,Digestiveglands.

Organs having double Origin

i.

Skin:Epidermis(ectodermal)Dermis(mesodermal).

ii.

Teeth: Enamel (ectodermal), Dentine (mesodermal).

iii.

Adrenal:Cortex(Mesodermal).Medulla(ectodermal).

iv.

Pituitary:Adenohypophysis(oralectoderm)neurohypophysis(neuralectoderm).

v.

Eyes:Cornea,lensandretina(ectodermal),restoftheparts(mesodermal).

(4) Organogenesis : Development of tissues and organs from germ layers.

(5) Morphogenesis :Assumption ofmorphological features by theembryo.
(6) Differentiation:Theprocess bywhichthecells becomes differentfromeachotherwithregards toshape,sizeand
functions.
Foetal Membranes (or extra embryonic membrane)
*

These membranes surrounds the embryo of amniotes (Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) from outside and meant for
protectionandnourishment.

Therearefoursuchtypes ofmembraneYolkSac,Amnion, ChorionandAllantois.

All membranes have got double origin. Somatopleurae (formed by ectoderm and somatic mesoderm) gives rise to
Anmion andChorion.Splanchnopleurae(formedbyendodermandsplanchicmesoderm)givesrisetoYolkSacand
Allantois.

YolkSac:Firsttobeformed,servesas ayolkreservoirinegglayingamniotes.Inplacentalmammals itworks as

haemopoieticorgan.

AmnionandChorion: Bothareformedtogether.Amnionimmediatelysurroundstheembryo.Chorionistheoutermost
extra embryonic membrane..

Allantois: Itisformedinthelast.InReptilesandbirdsitservesasaurinarybladderbutinmammalsitisalsoinvolved
intheformationofplacenta.

Placenta
Placentaisastructurethatconnectsthefoetusfrommothersbody.
Basicallyitservesasabarrierbetweenmaternalandfoetalbloodbutvarioussubstances(respiratorygases,nutrients
pathogensetc.)canpassthroughit.
Functions
1.

Anchorage

2.Physiologicalexchange(nutritive,excretory,respiratory,endocrine)

3.

Asabarrier

4.NegativeroleHarmfulsubstances(bacteria,virus,sedatives)canpassthroughplacenta.

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Appendix

Eggmembranes
Primary :formedbyeggitself.e.g.,vitellinemembrane,zonapellucida
Secondary :fromedbyovarianfollicles.e.g.,coronaradiata
Tertiary :formedbythegland(nidamentalgland)presentinoviduct.e.g.,Calcareousshell,shellmembrane
Cleidoiceggs Theseeggsarefullyladenwithyolkandsurroundedbyalbumenandawaterproofshell,madeupofcalciume.g.
ReptilesandBirds
Ectopicpregnancy(tubalpregancy)Thedevelopmentofafoetusatasiteotherthanwomb.Ataboutthe6thweekthetuberupture,
constitutringasurgicalemergency
Organizers(spemann)Whenanembryonicparttransmitsachemicalstimulustootherembryonicparttoformaorganwhichother
wisewouldhavenotcomeintobeing,themorphogeneticeffectthusproducedisknownas induction.Theembryonicpartwhich
exertsuchaneffectisknownas inductor(ororganiser)
Gestationperiods: Rabbit: 2832days, Cow: 275290days, Elephant :607641days, Horse: 330345days, Man: 270290days,Mouse:
1920days,
Planesofcleavagemaybe meridional (passingthroughanimalVegetalpole), Vertical: (paralleltomeridionalplane), equatorial
(passingthroughcentreofegg)andtransverse: (paralleltoequatorialplane)
Zonapellucidaremainstillcleavageisfinished,cellsofcoronaradiatadispersejustbeforeimplantation
Ofalltheorgansystemstodevelop,thecentralnervoussystemisthefirstappearingasearlyasthe3rdweekofdevelopment
Thefirsttwomonthsofdevelopmentiscalledembryonicperiod,aftersecondmonthembryoisreferredtoasfoetus

GROWTH,REPAIR,REGENERATION, AGEING ANDDEATH

[A] Growth Importantpoints
*

Growthisdefinedastheincreaseinsize,weightandsynthesisofnewprotoplasm

Growthoccurswhenanobolismishigherthancatabolism.Degrowthtakesplacewhencatabolismishigherthan
anabolism

The steps involved in cellular growth are cell division, cell enlargement, cell differentiationand maturation

Ahumanfoetusoranewbornhumanbabyhasaheaddisproportionatelylargerthantherestofitsbody.Ascompared
towholebody,theheadofatwomonthfoetusis1/2,newbornbabyis1/4andadultmanis1/8.

Inhumanbeingsarmsattaintheirproportionatesizesoonafterbirth,legsattaintheirproportionatesizeattheageof
ten years.

Maximumgrowthinthehumanfoetusoccursatfourmonths.

Therateofgrowthinthemanfrombirthto1013yrs.ofageisquiteslow.

Inhumanbeing,growthstopscompletelyattheageof2223yrs.

Inhumanbeings,brainshowsthemaximumincreaseinweightfrombirthtoadulthood(400gmto1.4Kg).Muscles
showthemaximumincreaseintheweightfrombirthtoadulthood(0.8Kgto30Kg)

Ascomparedtoadultmale,thefemalehasmorefat.

Growthinthefirst1013yrsofageiscontrolledby thymosine.Growthattheendofchildhoodandduringpubertyis
controlledbythyroxineandsomatotropic hormone

[B] Repair and Regeneration Important points

*

Healingofcutsandwoundisrepair.Thewornoutcells,tissues,organsetc.canberepairedbythebody.

Regenerationis thereplacement or reconstructionoflostparts.

Regenerationwas firstdiscoveredinhydrabyTrembley

Repairative regeneration is common in both invertebrates and vertebrates.

Restorative regeneration is common in some invertebrates and vertebrates

Morphallaxis isreconsititutionofthewholebodyfromasmallfragmente.g.Hydra

Epimorphosisistheproliferationofthenewtissuecellsfromthesurfaceofwound,e.g.,limbsandtailofsalamander
andlizard
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Autotomy isthevoluntarycastingofapartofthebodywhenananimalisattacked e.g.,tailinlizards,armsinstarfish,

e.g.,legsincrabs

Theregenerationiscontrolledbytherenalandhormonalfactors.

Inmammals,liverhasextensivepowerofregeneration

Thesequenceofeventsduringregenerationare dedifferentiation,celldivision,cellmovement and tissuedifferentiation

REGENERATION ABILITY IN ANIMALS

[C] AgeinganddeathImportant points

*

ThebranchofsciencedealingwithageingisknownasGerantology

Ageing maybedefinedasdeteriorationinthestructureandfunctionofthebodycells,tissuesandorgansofananimals.

Ageingischaracterisedbydeclineinmetabolicactivity.

Thepumpingcapacityofheartin70yrs.oldpersonascomparedto30yrs.oldpersonis65%.

Declineinhearingpowerbeginsaftertheageof10yrs.

Onanaverage,20%ofnervecellsinthebraindieat theageofseventy.

Thepartsofthelungaffectedby ageingarealveoli,pulmonaryarteryandpulmonary veins.

Duringageing,collagen presentinintercellularspacesbecomeslesspermeable,rigidandinsoluble.

Appendix

Blastemaisacuplikestructurewhichisformedbytheregenerationofcells

Wernersyndrome is a raredisorder in whichthose affectedshow signs of advanced ageingin their20s. werners

cellshaveanexcessofcollagenandfibronectin,asdoageingcellsingeneral

Eutely isaconditioninwhichthenumberofcells(ornucleiinsyncytia)areconstantbothfortheentireanimalandfor
eachgivenorganexceptinthegonad.

Ageingoccursthroughoutthehumanlifetimeascellsdie.Ageingusuallybecomesapparentafterage30.Adultonset
geneticdisordersmayappearinonesforties

Ahumancelldividesamaximumofabout50times.Therecouldbeageneticoffswitchthatcausescellstoloseability
todivid

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