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Unit 1: Semiconductors & Diodes
Unit 1: Semiconductors & Diodes
SEMICONDUCTORS &
DIODES
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
In order of conductivity: superconductors,
conductors, semiconductors, insulators
conductors: material capable of carrying
electric current, i.e. material which has
mobile charge carriers (e.g. electrons,
ions,..)
e.g. metals,
liquids with ions (water, molten ionic
compounds), plasma
insulators: materials with no or very few free
charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most covalent
and ionic solids, plastics
semiconductors: materials with conductivity
between that of conductors and insulators;
e.g. germanium Ge, silicon Si, GaAs, GaP,
InP
superconductors: certain materials have
zero resistivity at very low temperature.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
semiconductor = material for which
gap between valence band and
conduction band is small;
(gap width in Si is 1.1 eV, in Ge 0.7
eV).
at T = 0, there are no electrons in the
conduction band, and the
semiconductor does not conduct
(lack of free charge carriers);
at T > 0, some fraction of electrons
have sufficient thermal kinetic energy
to overcome the gap and jump to the
conduction band;
fraction rises with temperature;
e.g. at 20o C (293 K),
Si has 0.9x1010 conduction electrons
per cubic centimeter; at 50o C (323 K)
there are 7.4x1010 .
Intrinsic semiconductor
electrons moving to conduction band
leave hole (covalent bond with
missing electron) behind;
under influence of applied electric
field, neighboring electrons can jump
into the hole, thus creating a new
hole, etc. holes can move under
the influence of an applied electric
field, just like electrons;
both
contribute to conduction.
in pure Si and Ge, there are equally
many holes (p-type charge carriers)
as there are conduction electrons (ntype charge carriers);
pure semiconductors also called
intrinsic semiconductors.
N-Type material
donor (n-type) impurities:
dopant with 5 valence electrons (e.g.
P, As, Sb)
4 electrons used for covalent bonds
with surrounding Si atoms, one electron
left over;
left over electron is only loosely
bound only small amount of energy
needed to lift it into conduction band
(0.05 eV in Si)
n-type semiconductor, has
conduction electrons, no holes (apart
from the few intrinsic holes)
example: doping fraction
of 10-8 Sb in Si
yields about 5x1016 conduction
electrons per cubic centimeter at
room temperature, i.e. gain of 5x106
over intrinsic Si.
N-TYPE MATERIAL
P-TYPE MATERIAL
acceptor (p-type) impurities:
dopant with 3 valence electrons (e.g. B,
Al, Ga, In) only 3 of the 4 covalent
bonds filled vacancy in the fourth
covalent bond hole
p-type semiconductor, has mobile
holes, very few mobile electrons (only
the intrinsic ones).
advantages of doped
semiconductors:
cantune conductivity by choice of
doping fraction
can choose majority carrier (electron
or hole)
can vary doping fraction and/or
majority carrier within piece of
semiconductor
can make p-n junctions (diodes) and
transistors
P-TYPE MATERIAL
DIODES
p-n JUNCTION:
p-n junction = semiconductor in which
impurity changes abruptly from p-type to ntype ;
diffusion = movement due to difference in
concentration, from higher to lower
concentration;
in absence of electric field across the
junction, holes diffuse towards and across
boundary into n-type and capture electrons;
electrons diffuse across boundary, fall into
holes (recombination of majority carriers);
formation of a
depletion region
(=
region without free charge carriers)
around the boundary;
charged ions are left behind (cannot move):
Diode
PN Junction
DIODE
diode = biased p-n junction, i.e. p-n
junction with voltage applied across it
forward biased: p-side more positive
than n-side;
reverse biased: n-side more positive
than p-side;
forward biased diode:
the direction of the electric field is from
p-side towards n-side
p-type charge carriers (positive
holes) in p-side are pushed towards
and across the p-n boundary,
n-type carriers (negative electrons) in
n-side are pushed towards and across
n-p boundary
current
flows across p-n boundary
DIODE
FORWARD BIASED
REVERSE BIASED
diode only conducts when positive voltage applied to pside and negative voltage to n-side
diodes used in rectifiers, to convert ac voltage to
REVERSE BIASED
ZENER DIODES
ZENER DIODES
The simplest of all voltage
regulators is the zener diode
voltage regulator.
A zener diode is a special
diode that is optimized for
operation in the breakdown
region.
Simplest rectifier
Simplest rectifier resistive
load
Simplest rectifier
VOLTAGE REGULATION
A voltage regulator circuit
automatically maintains the output
voltage of a power supply constant,
regardless of
a change in the load
- a change in the source voltage
Unit-2
TRANSISTORS AND
AMPLIFIERS
TRANSISTORS
(bipolar) transistor = combination
of two diodes that share middle
portion, called base of transistor;
other two sections: emitter'' and
collector;
usually, base is very thin and lightly
doped.
two kinds of bipolar transistors: pnp
and npn transistors
pnp means emitter is p-type,
base is n-type, and collector is ptype material;
in normal operation of pnp
transistor, apply positive voltage to
emitter, negative voltage to
collector;
TRANSISTORS
PNP TRANSISTOR
PNP TRANSISTOR
if emitter-base junction is forward biased,
holes flow from battery into emitter, move
into base;
some holes annihilate with electrons in ntype base, but base thin and lightly doped
most holes make it through base into
collector,
holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current
flows whose size depends on how many
holes have been captured by electrons in
the base;
this depends on the number of n-type
carriers in the base which can be
controlled by the size of the current (the
base current) that is allowed to flow from
the base to the emitter; the base current is
usually very small; small changes in the
base current can cause a big difference in
the collector current;
PNP TRANSISTOR
Operation as amplifier
Transistor acts as amplifier of base
current, since small changes in base
current cause big changes
in
collector current.
transistor as switch: if voltage applied to
base is such that emitter-base junction is
reverse-biased, no current flows through
transistor -- transistor is off
therefore, a transistor can be used as a
voltage-controlled switch; computers use
transistors in this way.
Triacs
A triac is a bi-directional
thyristor used to control the
power in ac circuits.
A triac has two leads
designated MT1, and MT2 or A1
and A2.
A triac has a gate lead which is
used to control its conduction.
A triac is equivalent to two SCRs
in parallel.
Triacs
TRIACS
Unijunction Transistors
The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a
three-terminal semiconductor device
that has only one p-n junction.
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two
base leads, B1 and B2 and an emitter
(E) lead.
The interbase resistance, RBB of a UJT is
the resistance of its n-type silicon bar.
The ratio RB1/(RB1 + RB2) is called the
intrinsic standoff ratio, designated .
UJTs are used in conjunction with SCRs
and Triacs to control their conduction
angle.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHARACTERISTICS
Negative resistance is illustrated
in the emitter characteristic
curve shown in Fig. 32-12.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHARACTERISTICS
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Application
Fig. 32-13 shows how a UJT
can be used as a
relaxation oscillator.
Because the voltage
waveform, VB1 is a sharp
pulse of short duration, it is
the ideal gate triggering
source for either an SCR or
triac.
Unit-3
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL
Digital system is known as
any
electronic system that
handle and
process electrical signals in
the form of
0s and 1s, no more analog
signals
used here.
Logic gates
A logic gate is an elementary
building block
of a digital circuit. logic gate is
an electronic
circuit can perform specific
processing on the input
signals.
Logic gates have two inputs
and one output.
EX-OR GATE
A
NAND GATE
A
A+1= 1.
A+0= A.
A.0= 0.
A.1= A.
A+A= A.
A+= 1.
A.A= A.
A. = 0.
A+AB= A.
A+ B= A+B.
A=A.
-De Morgan's law:
Microprocessor Communication
and Bus Timing
To understand how the
microprocessor operates
and uses these different
signals, we should study
the process of
communication between
the microprocessor and
memory during a memory
read or write operation.
Demultiplexing AD7-AD0
From the above description, it becomes
obvious that the AD7 AD0 lines are
serving a dual purpose and that they
need to be demultiplexed to get all the
information.
The high order bits of the address remain
on the bus for three clock periods.
However, the low order bits remain for
only one clock period and they would
be lost if they are not saved externally.
Also, notice that the low order bits of the
address disappear when they are
needed most.
To make sure we have the entire address
for the full three clock cycles, we will use
an external latch to save the value of
AD7 AD0 when it is carrying the address
bits. We use the ALE signal to enable this
latch.
Demultiplexing AD7-AD0
8085
A15-A8
ALE
AD7-AD0
Latch
A7- A0
D7 - D0
The ALU
In addition to the arithmetic &
logic circuits, the ALU includes
the accumulator, which is part
of every arithmetic & logic
operation.
Also, the ALU includes a
temporary register used for
holding data temporarily during
the execution of the operation.
This temporary register is not
accessible by the programmer.
Z-zero flag
Set if the result of the ALU operation is 0.
Otherwise is reset. This flag is affected by
operations on the accumulator as well
as other registers. (DCR B).
AC-Auxiliary Carry
This flag is set when a carry is generated
from bit D3 and passed to D4 . This flag
is used only internally for BCD
operations. (Section 10.5 describes BCD
addition including the DAA instruction).
P-Parity flag
After an ALU operation if the result has
an even # of 1s the p-flag is set.
Otherwise it is cleared. So, the flag can
be used to indicate even parity.
CY-carry flag
Discussed earlier
Memory interfacing
There needs to be a lot of
interaction between the
microprocessor and the
memory for the exchange of
information during program
execution.
Memory has its requirements on
control signals and their timing.
The microprocessor has its
requirements as well.
RAM
Input Buffer
WR
Address
Lines
Address
Lines
CS
CS
Output Buffer
Output Buffer
Data Lines
RD
Date
Lines
RD
Interfacing Memory
Accessing memory can be
summarized into the following three
steps:
Select the chip.
Identify the memory register.
Enable the appropriate buffer.
Address decoding
The result of address decoding
is the identification of a register
for a given address.
A large part of the address bus is
usually connected directly to the
address inputs of the memory chip.
This portion is decoded internally
within the chip.
What concerns us is the other part
that must be decoded externally
to select the chip.
This can be done either using logic
gates or a decoder.
Interfacing concepts
Interfacing concepts
together
A15- A10
Chip Selection
Circuit
8085
CS
A15-A8
ALE
A9- A0
AD7-AD0
WR RD
IO/M
Latch
A7- A0
1K Byte
Memory
Chip
D7 - D0
RD
WR
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
There are three basic types of controllers: onoff, proportional and PID. Depending upon the
system to be controlled, the operator will be
able to use one type or another to control the
process.
On/Off Control
An on-off controller is the simplest form of
temperature control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle
state. An on-off controller will switch the output
only when the temperature crosses the setpoint.
For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off
above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses
the setpoint to change the output state, the
process temperature will be cycling continually,
going from below setpoint to above, and back
below. In cases where this cycling occurs
rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors
and valves, an on-off differential, or hysteresis,
is added to the controller operations.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
This differential requires that the
temperature exceed setpoint by a certain
amount before the output will turn off or
on again. On-off differential prevents the
output from chattering or making fast,
continual switches if the cycling above
and below the setpoint occurs very
rapidly. On-off control is usually used
where a precise control is not necessary,
in systems which cannot handle having
the energy turned on and off frequently,
where the mass of the system is so great
that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for a temperature alarm. One
special type of on-off control used for
alarm is a limit controller. This controller
uses a latching relay, which must be
manually reset, and is used to shut down a
process when a certain temperature is
reached
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