Terrestrial upper atmosphere

EP 410
M. Zettergren

Outline

Content

Origin

Atmospheric layers

Mathematical models

Radiative energy balance

Composition and hydrostatic balance

Seasonal, solar cycle, and geomagnetic variability

Stability

Winds

Atmospheric composition

Origin and evolution

What's past is prologue - William Shakespeare, The Tempest

Origin and evolution: notes

Primordial atmospheric gases swept away

from Earth after formation (4.6 BYA) by
solar wind and meteoritic impacts.

Early atmospheric constituents likely a result

of outgassing via volcanic, seismic, and
other activity.

Initial carbon dioxide probably decayed due

to rock weathering processes (Atmospheric
CO2 dissolves in raindrops, which weathers
rocks and reacts with silicate).

Molecular oxygen (O2) largely produced by

photosynthesizing organisms. Started ~2.5
BYA.

Ozone layers formed around the same time.

Atmospheric layers
Classification
by composition

Classification
by temperature

Exosphere

Collisionless upper atmosphere

(continuum/fluid models no
longer valid)

Particle follow ballistic

trajectories

Same have sufficient energy to

escape (Jean's escape)

Continuum approximations
(hydro) break down

Hydrogen geocorona
L-alpha (121.6 nm) image, Apollo 16 (c. 1972)
H scattering of light

Aurora

Ozone layers

Mesospheric
ozone

Stratospheric
ozone

Solar energy absorbed by Earth's

surface

Sun is the main energy source for the Earth.

Fsolar = 1366 [W/m2 ]

Flux of solar energy

Fsolar da = Re2 Fsolar

Solar power impacting Earth

Earth reflects about 30% of the incident energy, which defines an

albedo of aE~0.3

Re
Pabsorbed = (1

aE ) Re2 Fsolar

Solar power absorbed by Earth

Radiation from Earths surface

Planck's law governs irradiance vs. freq. for a given

Re
temperature
3

2hf
1
I(T, f ) = 2
c e khf
bT

W
m2 sR Hz

Integrating over all wavelengths (frequencies) and solid

angles one gets:
Z

1
0

2
0

4
2 5 kB
4
I(T, f ) sin dd df =
T
15 c2 h3

Radiative power emitted by Earth (per unit area)

Radiative energy balance

Total energy radiated from surface of the Earth:

Pemitted =

4Re2

2
15

4
kB
4
T
c 2 h3

Surface temperature may be approximated by radiative balance between solar

energy absorbed and energy emitted through blackbody radiation.

(1

aE ) Re2 Fsolar

Pabsorbed = Pemitted
5 4

2 kB 4
2
T
= 4Re
2
3
15 c h

Calculation results in ~254 K

Not too bad considering the crudeness of this approximation the real value is
about 285 K. Differences are largely atmospheric (water vapor, CO2, and
O3).

Atmosphere absorption
Sun BB
radiation

Earth BB
radiation

0.

Altitude of unit optical depth (solar

EUV)

Temperature vs. altitude and EUV

absorption (qualitative)

Ozone absorption

Composition vs. altitude

From MHD to HD...

We shall not cease from exploration, and the end of all our exploring will be
to arrive where we started and know the place for the first time. T. S. Eliot

We do not need to account for an ionized component, so simplify back to

HD...

@m
+ r (m v) = 0
@t
@
(m v) + r (m vv) =
@t
@
@t

rp + m g + J B

1
1
m + m v 2 + w + r m + m v 2 v + S =
2
2

B
0

rE=

=J

@B
@t

r (pv)

JE

Steady-state atmosphere

To leading order the terrestrial atmosphere is in

hydrostatic equilibrium

Zero velocity and pressure/density profiles:

m (r) = m (r0 )e

kB T
H
mg

(r

r0 )
H

Scale height

Empirical models

Empirical models are based on fits to or averages of

large collections of data

MSIS00 (needs to be updated soon...)

HWM07 (now 14!)

Contrast this with a physical model which is based on a

numerical solution to some set of equations.

GCMs - CTIP(e), TIEGCM, GITM, etc.

MSIS-00 example

Solar maximum, northern hemisphere winter

All of the following examples are from 500 km alt.

Noon local time (note

several hour lag in
response)

Seasonal temperature variation

Left: winter, north; Right: summer, north

Winter, northern hemisphere

Summer, northern hemisphere

Solar cycle temperature variation

2007 vs. 2012 (controlled through f10.7 index)

Solar max

Solar min

Seasonal/solar cycle oxygen

densities

Solar min, northern winter

Solar max, northern winter

Solar max, northern summer

Note that the oxygen

density maximizes in the
winter!!!

Dependence on geomagnetic
activity
Low magnetic activity (Ap = 0)

Geomagnetic storm (Ap = 250)

Stability of the atmosphere

Is the atmosphere
stable to convection?

V0

Mostly, but not

everywhere

dT 0
>
dz

m , T +

0m , p0 , T 0
rT

1 mg
kB

Stability criteria
(note: g > 0, and T is
background temperature)

Fbuoyancy = (m gV )displaced = 0m gV 0
Fgravity = m gV 0

p 0 , T0

!25

Stability in atmospheric regions

Positive temperature gradients always stable.

Negative temperature gradients may not be.

Instability explains constant mixing ratios in homosphere (below ~ 100km)

Stable

Possibly unstable
Stable
Possibly unstable

Turbopause
The atmosphere is very wellmixed below 100 km due to
marginal stability and
prevalence of turbulence.
Nearly constant mixing ratio up
to 100 km
Diffusive separation above this
altitude, i.e. each gas
assumes a different scale
height (according to mass)

k B Ts
Hs
ms g

Buoyancy oscillations: Brunt-Vaisalla

frequency

In a stably stratified
atmosphere a parcel of air
displaced upwards
experiences a downward
force since it will weigh more
than surroundings

V0

m , T +

rT

Similarly a parcel displaced

downward, experiences an
upwards force since it
weighs less than
surroundings
The system can oscillate:
2

d z
2
+
!
Bz = 0
dt2
0

g dT
dT
2
!B 0
T
dz
dz

0m , p0 , T 0

Fbuoyancy = (m gV )displaced = 0m gV 0
Fgravity = m gV 0

p 0 , T0

!28

Hydrodynamics in a rotating
atmosphere

In a non-inertial, rotating frame of reference additional `forces'

are required in momentum equation

For a single particle/object the EOM in rotating frame is:

X
d0 v 0
m
=
Fi
dt
i

2m v0
Coriolis
force

m ( r)
Centrifugal
force

Accordingly we may write the fluid momentum equation in a

rotating atmosphere with the extra `forces' added
@
(m v) + r (m vv) =
@t

rp + m g

2m ( v)

m ( r)

Coriolis force on a sphere

Consider an observer on the surface of a rotating planet (sphere)

Fc

vrot
v

Fc

Coriolis force pulls moving

volume of air to the right
in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the
southern hemisphere

Rossby number
Convenient representation of whether or not Coriolis
forces matter.

|mv rv|
v
Ro =
=
|2m v|
2` sin '
Large where scale sizes are local and rotation is
unimportant (e.g. tornado)
Rotation of the atmosphere plays a dominant role at large
(viz. global) scales (e.g. hurricane, geostrophic balance).

Rossby numbers for different

atmospheric phenomena
Tornado
l ~ 0.5 km
v ~ 60 m/s
Ro = 825
Hurricane
l ~ 500 km
v ~ 60 m/s
Ro = 0.83

Hurricanes and the Coriolis force

pressure force

Coriolis + pressure

Centrifugal force on a sphere

Consider an observer on the surface of a rotating planet (sphere)

( r)
Centrifugal force is
`outward

vrot
r

HWM-07 example

Solar max, winter northern hemisphere

Arrows indicate winds, colorbar is oxygen pressure

200 km alt.

Winter northern hemisphere

Summer northern hemisphere

Geostrophic winds

Steady-state winds at high altitudes are nearly a balance between pressure and coriolis forces

Winds in upper atmosphere tend to follow lines of constant pressure (isobars)

200 km alt.