Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section 4:
Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Section overview
The first three sections of this module have presented you with an overview of cultural
diversity from a historical perspective, and provided a range of theories and models that
explain the complexities of cultural diversity, including how cultural identity develops and
changes in line with broader social conditions.
Now that we have a clearer conceptual understanding of cultural diversity we will explore
the social and organisational benefits that are derived from cultural diversity, the effect of
cultural values on our capacity to value diversity and two models for developing cultural
awareness.

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

define commonality and list the fundamental needs of people, regardless of their
cultural background or identity

outline the effect that national values (e.g. egalitarianism) may have on
commonalities and differences in the workplace

identify the benefits and contributions of people with ethnic and culturally diverse
backgrounds at societal and organisational levels

identify how cultural values and worldviews influence the capacity to value
diversity and relationships with people from diverse cultural backgrounds

describe how cultural bias influences a persons capacity to value diversity and
relationships with people from diverse cultural backgrounds

describe two models of developing cultural awareness

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section Contents
Section requirements ..................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 2
Commonalities between diverse groups ..................................................................................... 3
Dimensions of differences in cultural values ............................................................................. 5
Benefits of diversity ....................................................................................................................... 7
Values and appreciating diversity ................................................................................................. 9
Cultural bias ..................................................................................................................................10
Models for developing cultural diversity awareness ................................................................12
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................17

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section requirements
Activities
There are seven activities in this section.

Textbook
There is no set textbook for this module.

Readings
There are two readings for this section. You will find them in the readings
pack for this module:
9.

Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L., (2008). Culture and social behaviour, II:
Interpersonal and intergroup relations. In Culture and psychology (4th ed.,
pp. 356-394). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

10.

Dawson, E. (2008, March 31). Australias diversity advantage. Centre for

Policy Development. Retrieved March 21, 2009, from
http://cpd.org.au/article/australias-diversity-advantage

Self-Assessment
Please complete the self-assessment questions at the end of this section to test
your understanding and knowledge against the objectives stated in this section.

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Introduction
Now that we have a clearer conceptual understanding of cultural diversity we will explore
the social and organisational benefits that are derived from cultural diversity, as well as
valuing what is common to humanity.
Firstly, we will define what we mean by commonality and describe the fundamental
needs of people, regardless of their cultural background or identity. We then identify the
key dimensions of differences in cultural values to explain why employees have different
expectations and needs at work.
We will then explore some of the main benefits to the community and organisations as a
result of cultural diversity. Remember, that when we refer to cultural diversity, we are
referring to any group that identifies itself as a minority or different to the prevailing,
dominant culture. Typically, they include immigrants, refugees, and asylum seekers, but
might also include rural, gay or lesbian, aged, socially disadvantaged, or disabled Australians.
We then consider the effect of our personal cultural values, worldview and cultural bias
on how we appreciate diversity.
Finally, we review two models used to describe the development of cultural sensitivity
awareness, which is essential to valuing diversity.

Reading
Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L., (2008). Culture and social behaviour, II:
Interpersonal and intergroup relations. In Culture and psychology (4th ed.,
pp. 356-394). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
This reading provides an overview on the psychological processes that are
universal among humans, including the way we form impressions, love, sex
and marriage, cooperation, intergroup relations, aggression, and acculturation.
It also provides an overview of ingroups and outgroups, ethnocentrism and
prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination, which will assist you in the next
section.

Activity 4.1
Comment on the authors observations by comparing three of the processes
described in the reading with your experiences within your own culture.
You might have noticed the influence of values and culture on psychological processes
and the ways in which we conduct social activities. You may have noticed also that all
cultures produce and sustain ingroups and outgroups, and are capable of ethnocentrism
and prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Commonalities between diverse groups

Whilst the thrust of this module is respect for cultural diversity, it is important to
remember that there are also commonalities in all cultures. In particular, we humans are
social beings and need others with which to live, work, socialise and function in our
societies and cultures.
People of all cultures have a universal need to form meaningful bonds with
others, have intimate relationships, and to belong to social groups (Baumeister &
Leary, 1995, as cited in Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 357).
This is of particular relevance when we are working in a culturally diverse environment or
with clients from different cultural backgrounds, as we will see later in this section when
we look at the concept of mindfulness.
Albert Maslows well known hierarchy of needs model is one way in which we can
consider commonalities among diverse groups.

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Albert Maslow (1908-1970), an American psychologist, developed a hierarchy of needs
that he argued were common to all humans.
The lower-order needs include the physiological and safety needs, such as food, water,
sex, and safety needs such as shelter, security, protection, and stability.
The higher-order needs include social (love, affection, sense of belonging), esteem
(respect, recognition, and personal sense of competence) and self-actualisation (selffulfilment). The model suggests that some needs are more important than others, that is,
that the lower-order needs must be met before the higher-level needs can act as motivators.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Figure 5: Maslows hierarchy of needs

Source: Wood, J., Wallace, J., Zeffane, R., Chapman, J., Fromholtz, M., & Morrison, V. (2004).
Organisational behaviour: A global perspective (p. 144). Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons.

Maslows model is still used today, particularly in motivational theory. However, it is

important to remember that his theory was written in a Western context we know from
our earlier studies that a persons culture and frames of reference will influence the
importance of their needs.

Activity 4.2
Using Maslows model above, reflect on how your culture and frames of
reference influence the importance of your social, esteem, and selfactualisation needs.
Notwithstanding, research cited by Matsumoto and Juang (2008) suggests that, despite
the many differences across cultures in the ways in which people behave, there are also a
number of underlying similarities as well, including universal psychological processes and
universal needs and motives. They include the following themes:

culture and impression formation: the way we form impressions of people,

including attractiveness

love, sex and marriage

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

culture and conformity, compliance and obedience: the way in which we

develop the ability to cooperate

intergroup relations: the way in which we form ingroups and outgroups, display
ethnocentrism and prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination

aggression

acculturation

This suggests that not only should the counsellor, coach, or manager recognise that which
makes us different, but also the underlying similarities in dealing or working with people.

Dimensions of differences in cultural values

One way to appreciate how national cultures differ is to examine their values. In Section
2, we introduced Hofstedes dimensions of values which help to explain how
commonalities and differences are manifested in the community and at work.
The dimensions are:

individualism/collectivism

power distance

uncertainty avoidance

masculinity/femininity

long-term orientation/short-term orientation

Individualism: refers to how much an individual makes decisions and takes actions that
are accepted and encouraged by society. Some cultures view individualism as positive
and a basis for creativity and achievement. At the other end of the continuum is
collectivism which views individualism as disruptive and tends to value group decisions,
group action, and group work.
Power distance: refers to how much a culture accepts and sanctions power. If the
culture has a high degree of power distance, it will have an order and hierarchy, a
centralised decision-making body, and authoritarian leadership. If power distance is low,
organisations will be flatter with a democratic leadership style.
Uncertainty avoidance: refers to how much a culture is willing to accept and address
uncertainty and the unknown. Uncertainty can provide excitement and opportunities for
innovation, risk taking, and change. Other cultures value security and certainty and
minimise uncertainty through group consensus.
Masculinity: refers to an emphasis on traditional male values such as assertiveness,
performance, ambition, achievement, and material possessions. Femininity refers to
cultures in which sex roles are more fluid, and they often incorporate feminine values
such as a focus on the quality of life, the environment, and concern for the less fortunate.
Long-term orientation: refers to the emphasis on maintaining a long-range perspective
which does not expect quick returns. A short-term orientation is characterised by a
demand for quick results.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

It is important to recognise that individuals from different cultures will come together in
the same workplace with significantly different expectations of what will occur, what will
be recognised and what will be rewarded.
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961, as cited in Punnett & Ricks, 1992) identified five basic
areas that affect commonality and difference and in which problems may arise when we
work cross-culturally. These five problems are located in culturally determined and
mediated approaches to:
1.

human nature: looking at the character of human nature

2.

relationships: looking at the modality of peoples relationships

3.

the natural environment: looking at the relationship of people to nature

4.

a time orientation: looking at the temporal focus of human life

5.

an activity orientation: looking at the modality of human activities such as selfexpression

These are not dissimilar to the dimensions of values identified by Geert Hofstede that
we discussed earlier.
It is essential that practitioners and managers recognise and accept that there are various
ways to cope with these problems and different cultural groups have adopted different
solutions. These are generalisations and we need to accept that particular individuals will
deviate from this general preference.
The first problematic area is basic human nature. Some cultural groups believe people
are primarily evil or bad. Therefore they focus on controlling behaviour through codes
of conduct and sanctions. Some cultures, for example, the Japanese, believe that people
are basically good and can be trusted and relied upon. Societies who see people as mixed
with both good and evil believe that people can change and therefore focus on ways to
modify behaviour. North Americans and Australians tend to reward good behaviour and
attempt to modify bad behaviour through punishment.
The second problem area is human relationships. Some cultures believe that
individuals should be independent and take responsibility for their actions. Western
cultures tend to be individualistic. Lineal societies are concerned with family line and the
power structures that underlie a hierarchy. The Indian society is largely lineal and places
emphasis on the individuals lineage. Co-lineal orientation emphasises group
interactions and actions. The Japanese culture, for example, is predominantly co-lineal.
In terms of the third problem area, there are many views toward peoples relationship to
nature. Some cultural groups view life as preordained, where people are not masters of
their own destinies. Therefore any attempts to change the future are futile. Finally, there
are groups who believe the human race is supreme over nature.
The fourth area that creates problems is time orientation. Some cultures, like the
Chinese, look to the past for solutions to present dilemmas. Societies that are oriented to
the present consider the immediate effects of their actions. The American value for
instant gratification suggests an orientation for the present. Other cultures, such as the
Japanese, focus on the future and look at the long-term results of todays events.

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

The fifth area is activity orientation. Some cultures are oriented to emotions and their
people react spontaneously with what they feel at the time. The Latin temperament is
essentially emotional in orientation. There are those who focus on moderation and the
desire for balance in life, like the British. Then there are cultures that strive to achieve
and are driven by the need to accomplish difficult tasks.

Activity 4.3
If you are an overseas student, please adapt the activity to a large city or urban
centre in your country.
Sayori, a Japanese-born woman, works for a large bank. She believes that her
Australian colleagues are too focused on their own careers rather than what is
best for the organisation. She has observed that they appear to believe that
the organisation exists to serve them and not the other way around.
1.

What do you think is the cultural issue behind these statements?

2.

Do you think the statements are true? Are they fair?

You may have observed that Sayoris observations might reflect what we consider
Japanese values of collectivism and the feeling that the group and society should
receive top priority not the individual. The comments are reflective of organisations in
Australia and other countries, including the US, Canada, and New Zealand, with a
strong sense of individualism.

Benefits of diversity
When we consider the benefits of cultural diversity, it is possible we first think of the
living artefacts such as dance, customs and dress, and physical artefacts such as
architecture, art and decoration. However, the benefits of diversity are broader and
include those at the social and organisational levels.

Social cohesion
Unlike the policies of many other countries, which saw immigrant populations as
separate from the mainstream, Australias approach to multiculturalism always involved
an equal emphasis on cultural rights and social responsibilities. The Australian model
offered respect for individual cultural identity and the embrace of diversity in return for a
commitment to the rules and mores of the new nation and an active contribution to its
cultural development and social cohesion (MacLeod, 2006; Dawson, 2008).
For more than two decades, this covenant put Australia in the vanguard of the
international approach to managing cultural diversity and one that has that produced the
harmonious multicultural society that is now held up as a model for other, more
culturally fractured, Western nations (Dawson, 2008).

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Indeed, MacLeod (2006) commenting on the 2005 riots in Sydney noted the global
reactions of people who considered Australia as among the worlds most multiethnic
countries and one which had made the transformation with remarkably little violence:
from 1947 to December 10, 2005, there were no race riots in Australia
although the country took in five million immigrants during this period and they
came from every continent (p. 1).
The current Labor Government is developing policies and programs that seek to build
human and social capital, to increase productivity, and to encourage innovation in business
in order to compete in a global economy. According to Dawson (2008) embracing
diversity is the only sensible approach by which to make progress on these goals.
In the same way, the contributions of other cultural groups, including those of differing
gender identities or sexuality, also contribute to our cultural fabric. The Gay Mardi Gras,
for example, is a cultural event that contributes greatly to the economy, particularly in
terms of tourism.
As well as the benefits cultural diversity affords the general community, there are specific
business and organisation benefits.

Organisational benefits
DuBrin, Dalglish, and Miller (2006) note that the business case for diversity is compelling
and cites research that suggests that managing for diversity brings an organisation a
competitive advantage in four important ways.
1.

Marketing advantages: a diverse and representational workforce facilitates the

identification of new business opportunities and the development and marketing of
goods and services to new or emerging national and global markets. In addition,
such employees are better able to prepare a marketing strategy to reach a specific
cultural audience.

2.

Recruitment and retention of staff: organisations with a diverse workforce are

able to take advantage of the skills and experience of a much broader pool of talent
and greatly expand their supply of potential candidates.

3.

Problem-solving and decision-making: creative solutions to problems are more

likely to be found when studied by a diverse group of people with different
perceptions, values, and experiences. Indeed, with a culturally diverse group, there
is less possibility of groupthink the tendency of members in highly cohesive
groups to lose their critical evaluation processes.

4.

Innovation and creativity: some would argue that the greatest economic benefit
is the generation of new ideas and innovative entrepreneurship:
Instead of following the conventional wisdom, immigrants tend to have a
different point of view as outsiders, they are more determined to succeed
(Legrain, 2007, as cited by Dawson, 2008, para. 14).

Fields (2009) cites the following example of a disabilities taskforce at one company that
identified ways to make their products accessible to people with disabilities. As a result,
the organisation won several contracts from government agencies with a mandate to
make accessibility a criterion in their vendor selection.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

As the labour force in countries such as Australia decreases, organisations are attempting
to define (or redefine) themselves as an employer of choice. Valuing diversity is often a
key plank in an organisations effort to become seen as such an organisation. When an
organisation builds a reputation for valuing diversity, it will often do better than its
competitors at attracting and retaining valuable employees.
Other organisations encourage diversity and equal opportunity simply because it is a
socially responsible action.
DuBrin et al. (2006) however note that diversity can be a double-edged sword if not
managed carefully. Whilst diversity offers benefits to an organisation, too much diversity
within sub-units can mean less cohesion where members may fail to identify with the
group. Others question whether enough research has been conducted that proves
conclusively that the claims of benefits brought by diversity are real.
We will look more closely at managing cultural diversity effectively in Section 8: Issues
and Opportunities for the Workplace.

Activity 4.4
List three ways a workplace demonstrates the following:

valuing cultural diversity

devaluing cultural diversity

Ways in which organisations show they consider cultural diversity a benefit might include
having recruitment and selection policies that take into account cultural diversity (for
example, flexible hours for working mothers or carers of elderly parents); ensuring that
the diversity of its customer base is reflected in employee profile; and conducting
diversity audits on an annual basis. Other practical strategies include: cultural
competence training for managers, language audits, and executive commitment to
increasing diversity. Devaluing cultural diversity might be demonstrated by an
organisation that makes no effort to accommodate differences or to encourage diversity
amongst its employee base.

Values and appreciating diversity

In section 2, we learnt that cultural norms are influenced by the values, beliefs and
attitudes of a culture and may lead to particular stances about how things ought to be or
should be done in a particular society.
In this topic, we consider values as they relate to appreciating commonalities and diversity.
The values we hold are translated into behaviour and are the filters we use when receiving
information and communicating with others. We learn these values over a long period of
socialisation in our family, school, and religious and social environments. These cultural
values not only influence our appreciation of diversity, they also influence our behaviour.
However, values are not static and as people become more aware they become more
knowledgeable, more skilful in adapting to their environment, and appreciate the
inherent worth of diversity.

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Worldview
Every individual has a worldview, the lens through which the world is viewed and
assessed. Worldview can also be defined by using a value orientation. For example, one
may strongly value being an individual or may strongly value being a member of a group
or may value both to a more equal degree. By understanding the values that underlie
ones worldview, practitioners and managers will better understand and appreciate
cultural difference at both the community and individual levels. We will return to the
topic of worldview shortly.

Cultural bias
Values, expectations and behaviours all influence our capacity to value diversity, and
hence our own approaches to relationships. However, we cannot claim to be value-free,
or culturally neutral. Therefore, the more aware people are of cultural bias the better able
they are to appreciate the social and organisational benefits provided by a diverse
community and workforce.
There are several levels at which cultural bias may influence ones appreciation of people
from diverse cultural backgrounds and the contribution they make to the community and
workplace. Some of these biases described below are subtle, and we may only become
aware of them with feedback and honest introspection:

prejudice: when we hold negative opinions about people from particular groups

discrimination: when we act on the basis of prejudice to withhold positive input

from people from particular groups

stereotyping: when we make assumptions about people on the basis of particular

features rather than individual knowledge

assumptions of superiority: when we make assumptions about the superiority of

our own culture and the pervasiveness of our values

Furthermore, these biases may affect personal and professional relationships between a
practitioner or manager with a client or employee. The following information pertains to
counselling but could equally apply to a coaching or management environment.

Reading
Dawson, E. (2008, March 31). Australias diversity advantage. Centre for Policy
Development. Retrieved March 21, 2009, from
http://cpd.org.au/article/australias-diversity-advantage
This reading argues that after more than a decade of leadership that
relentlessly pushed conformity on the Australian people, it is time to reassert
the power and potential of cultural diversity.

10

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Activity 4.5
If you are an overseas student, adapt the following activity to your own
country.
Reflect on Dawsons suggestion that Australia needs to establish an Office for
Diversity and Social Cohesion to promote creative diversity and economic
growth within a socially cohesive and peaceful Australia.
List three reasons this suggestion has merit.

Three reasons this suggestion has merit include: social justice and equity reasons, to link
effective cultural diversity to social cohesion, and to reposition attention on cultural
diversity as contributing to Australias well-being rather than a drain on the countrys
resources, as was often depicted under the Howard government.

Cultural bias and counselling

Judith Katz (1985) devised a frame of reference for looking at cultural components of
counselling in relation to the values and beliefs of a Western frame of reference. As a
professional you may wish to make some changes to their suggestions or set some
reasonable limits. These components are listed below.

The individual is the primary focus, has primary responsibility, is independent and
values autonomy, and psychological problems are rooted in childhood and family.

Clients can master and control their life and their environment. They can take
action to resolve their own problems. There is generally a bias against a client
being passive or inactive.

Many Western practitioners believe that Western strategies are best, the
practitioner is the expert, and credentials are essential.

The communication processes valued by Western practitioners are verbal, direct

eye contact, and reflective listening.

Goals include insight, self-awareness, personal growth, improved social and

personal efficiency, increased ability to cope, adaptation to societys values, and
changed behaviour.

Linear problem-solving is used. Cause and effect relationships are considered.

There is a reliance on quantitative evaluation and testings and problems are labelled
using diagnostic categories.

The nuclear family is the ideal.

Appointments are scheduled and clients should adhere to their appointments.

Paul Pedersen (1987) outlines several other assumptions:

The measure of normal behaviour that we use is universal.

Individuals are the basic building block of society.

Independence is desirable.

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

11

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Everyone depends on linear thinking to understand the world around them.

Practitioners need to change individuals to fit the system rather than challenge it.

It is necessary to consider the relevance of history for a proper understanding of

contemporary events.

Practitioners are aware of their cultural biases and assumptions.

Some would argue that the only way to eliminate bias is to ensure that the practitioner
and client are matched for culture. However, this debate can ignore the differences
that exist between people of the same culture differences such as gender and life
experience that may be more fundamental to the therapeutic relationship than the
broad category of culture.
However, Khorshed Khisty (2001) concludes:
The therapists awareness of and sensitivity to the transcultural experience can be
more crucial than whether or not she/he shares the clients culture of origin (p. 17).

Activity 4.6
1.

Please review the following list of cultural values and determine which
values are positive and which are negative.

directness

aggressiveness

assertiveness

superiority

naivety

passivity

respect

equity

harmony

arrogance

openness

secrecy

resourcefulness

initiative

eye contact

2.

Explain why you rated the above values as either positive or negative.

3.

How would these values influence an encounter with someone who

holds opposing values?

The way you have rated these values will in a large part reflect your
communitys values. For example, directness and assertiveness will be valued
highly in countries that are high on masculinity, such as Australia, New
Zealand, Japan and India, and less highly in more feminine countries such as
Sweden or Spain. The potential for miscommunication increases when
encounters between people with opposing values take place.

Models for developing cultural diversity

awareness
We have looked at the need for cultural diversity awareness and why diversity has grown,
including the impact of increased migration and globalisation. We will now consider two
contemporary models for dealing with increased cultural complexity, and appreciating the
diversity in our community and workplaces.
12

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Cultural intelligence
Cultural intelligence (CQ) can be defined as:
The capability to deal effectively with people from different cultural
backgrounds is a multifaceted competency consisting of cultural knowledge,
the practice of mindfulness, and a repertoire of behavioural skills (Thomas
& Inkson, 2004, p. 183).

Knowledge
The culturally intelligent practitioner requires knowledge of cultures and the principles
of cross-cultural interaction. This means not only knowing what culture is and what it
isnt but also how they affect behaviour.

Mindfulness
Mindfulness is essentially paying close attention to context and being aware of
differences. Mindfulness also recognises that despite cultural differences there will also
be similarities, and that the cultural differences that do exist do not matter all the time.
Thomas and Inkson (2004) suggest that in cross-cultural interactions, mindfulness means
simultaneously:

being aware of own assumptions and perceptions

noticing what is apparent about the other person and their assumptions and
behaviours

using all senses to perceive a situation

viewing the situation from other perspectives with an open mind

attending to the context

creating new mental maps of the persons personality and cultural background

seeking out fresh information to confirm or un-confirm the mental map

using empathy to understand a situation and the feelings of the client or employee,
from the perspective of their cultural background, not ours

Similarly, the work of psychiatrist Daniel Siegel and psychologist Daniel Goleman are
having a positive effect on the human service industry. Siegels most recent work The
mindful brain (2007) integrates the theories of interpersonal neurobiology with the theories
of mindfulness practice. Siegel proposes that mindfulness practice is a highly developed
process of both inter and intra personal attunement.
Emotional intelligence or EQ is a relatively recent behavioural model, rising to
prominence with Daniel Golemans book Emotional intelligence (1995). The premise of EQ
is that to be successful requires the effective awareness, control, and management of
ones own emotions, and those of other people.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Behavioural skills
A behavioural skill encapsulates both social and interpersonal skills. More importantly,
it means knowing when to use these behaviours in different cultural settings. For
example, whilst it may be appropriate in an Australian workplace for a male employee to
ask a female colleague to go out for a coffee, this may be inappropriate if the womans
cultural background discourages eating in public with men outside the family.
In other words, acquiring the skills of cultural intelligence is more about extending
the range of skilled behaviours and knowing when to use them and less about
becoming more skilled in a particular behaviour (Thomas & Inkson, 2004, p. 55).
The process of developing cultural intelligence involves these three components of
knowledge, mindfulness, and skills. It is not sequential but requires experiential learning
that can take considerable time (Thomas & Inkson, 2004, p. 69). The process is
iterative and can be considered a series of S curves as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 6: Gaining cultural intelligence

Source: Thomas, D. C., & Inkson, K. (2004). Cultural intelligence: People skills for global business (p. 69). San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Activity 4.7
1.

Which of the three components of the cultural intelligence models

would you personally find most challenging: knowledge, mindfulness,
or behaviour?

2.

Identify and briefly describe three strategies that would improve your
knowledge and skills for the component you selected.

Your answer will depend on which component you have selected.

Improving your cultural intelligence (CQ) can best be done through learning from social
interactions (Thomas & Inkson, 2004). Activities might include participating in crosscultural groups, attending religious services different to your own or attending a meeting
of an interest group that represents a set of beliefs to which you do not subscribe.
14

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Cultural diversity competence

According to Hogan (2007) cultural awareness coupled with the skills needed to interact
successfully with people of diverse cultural backgrounds living and working in the same
place is called cultural diversity competence.
Mikel Hogan (2007) argues that to take advantage of the rich human resource of our
cultural diversity, competence in this area is essential. As such, cultural diversity
competence is defined as:
The ability to function with awareness, knowledge and interpersonal skill when
engaging people of different backgrounds, assumptions, beliefs and behaviours
(p. 3).
Hogan (2007) provides a holistic process for developing four basic skills relevant to
personal, interpersonal, and organisation-wide levels. These fours skills are listed below.

Skill 1: Understanding culture as multi-level

This refers to culture operating on several levels simultaneously, at both the micro-level
of the individual (a persons assumptions, values, beliefs, and behaviours which are
learned); the meso or group level; and the macro-level which refers to the structures
and processes of organisations and social institutions. According to this model, the 12
aspects of culture are:
1.

history

2.

social status factors

3.

social group interaction patterns (within and between groups)

4.

value orientations

5.

language and other communication (verbal and non-verbal)

6.

family life processes

7.

healing beliefs and practices

8.

religion

9.

art and expressive forms

10.

diet and foods

11.

recreation

12.

clothing

Skill 2: Understanding the six barriers

Like skill 1, skill 2 fosters understanding in relation to group interactions. However, skill
2 focuses on the six barriers to effective communication and relationships. The six
barriers can be classified as:
1.

language (verbal communication)

2.

nonverbal communication

3.

preconceptions, stereotypes and discrimination

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

4.

judgments

5.

stress

6.

norms, policies, procedures, and programs unfriendly to cultural diversity

Skill 3: Practicing culturally centred communication skills

This third skill sets out a list of 14 personal competencies, such as awareness of values,
listening skills and empathy which are essential for establishing effective relationships
across cultural diversity. Hogan (2007) argues that daily practice of these competencies
builds a personal foundation for communication and conflict-solving in a culturally
diverse environment.
These cross-cultural communication skills will be explored in Section 6: Cross-cultural
Communication and Language.

Skill 4: Designing and implementing organisational-cultural

competence
The last skill pulls together the previous three skills by engaging people in organisational
problem-solving activities where all three levels become activated. Again, we will not
consider this skill in any depth here but will return to issues and opportunities for
workplaces in Section 8.
As you can see, essentially both models have the same objective conscious awareness
of the possible effects of cultural variation in ones behaviour and that of others. In
addition, both models believe that an individual can learn to become more culturally
aware.
Thomas and Inkson (2004) nominate the following characteristics as making an individual
more motivated and able to increase his or her cultural diversity awareness. They are:

Integrity: this refers to individuals with a well developed sense of self and
understanding of how their belief system motivates their behaviour. They are not
likely to be threatened by views or behaviour different from their own

Openness (humility and inquisitiveness): this refers to showing respect and a

willingness to learn from others.

Hardiness: this refers to the ability to cope with stress, ambiguity, tension, and
emotion all of which can occur in cross-cultural settings or situations.

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Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Conclusion
This section explored the social and organisational benefits that are derived from cultural
diversity, as well as valuing what is common to humanity.
Firstly, we defined what we mean by commonality by describing the fundamental needs
of people regardless of their cultural background or identity. For example, people of all
cultures have a universal need to form meaningful bonds with others, have intimate
relationships, and to belong to social groups. Maslows hierarchy of needs model was
presented as a way in which we can consider commonalities among diverse groups.
We then identified the key dimensions of differences in cultural values to explain why
employees have different expectations and needs at work.
We learnt that there are many benefits to the community and organisations as a result of
cultural diversity, including market advantages, recruitment and retention of staff,
problem-solving, and innovation and creativity.
We considered the effect of our personal cultural values, worldview, and cultural bias on
our ability to appreciate diversity.
Finally, we reviewed the cultural intelligence and cultural competence models as a way to
improve our effectiveness in working with people from diverse cultural backgrounds. An
important step to valuing commonalities and diversity is cultural awareness. This requires
understanding your own behaviour and how it affects your interpretation and appreciation
of the behaviour and contributions of people from other cultural backgrounds.

Self-Assessment
Did you achieve the objectives for this section? To test your knowledge,
write brief answers to the following questions:
1.

Select one category from Matsumoto and Juangs (2008) list of

universal psychological processes, needs and motives. Briefly explain
why you agree or do not agree that the category is universal. Support
your answer with examples.

2.

Identify three examples from your country where cultural diversity has
been beneficial.

3.

Identify an occasion when you held a negative opinion about people

from a particular group or stereotyped a group of people? Briefly
describe and then identify three strategies to avoid this in future.

4.

In your own words define cultural intelligence? Identify one strategy

for improving your skills in the following areas:
a)

knowledge

b)

mindfulness

c)

behaviour

Section 4: Valuing Commonalities and Diversity

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