LEAK DETECTION METHODS IN TRANSMISSION

PIPELINES AND ERROR SOURCES

Taher. M. El-Shiekh
Process Design and Development Department
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
Email: elshiekh_8@yahoo.com

Abstract:
Leak detection in transmission pipelines is important for safe operation of
pipelines. The probability of leaks may be occurred at any time and location, therefore
pipeline leak detection systems play a key role in minimization of the occurrence of
leaks probability and their impacts. Today there are many available assortments of
modern technologies in the domain of leak detection. This paper provides the proper
methodology to facilitate the choice of leak-detection system. The paper deals with
external methods based on external measurements such as acoustic emissions, cable
sensors, liquid sensing and vapor sensing and with some internal methods based on
flow and pressure measurements in the pipeline: volume or mass balance method,
pressure wave detection method, and real time modeling were described.
Additionally, the discussion of error sources and final conclusions are presented.
Keywords: Leak Detection, Location, Transmission Pipelines
1. Introduction
The transportation of chemical products (natural gas, crude oil and many other
chemicals) is commonly carried out through pipeline networks nowadays. In the
transport of such chemical products by hundreds or even thousands of kilometers,
pipelines may cross highly populated regions, water supplies or natural reserves.
Peters J. [1] shows that the leak of pipelines may occur due to corrosion or erosion of
external and internal walls see Fig. (1), welding defects, accident. Also degradation of
the pipeline material may occurs as a result of stresses alterations that are caused by
changes of the pressure and the deformations of the pipeline caused by the soil
dislocations, which lead to the fatigue and forming of the micro-gaps. Also possible
terrorist attacks cannot be neglected. The treatment costs of the environmental
pollution may reach to several millions U.S. Dollars. The leak of pipelines will cause
not only product loss but also serious environmental damages which should be
avoided or minimized through careful pipeline supervision, fasting leak detection and
location followed by quick dispatcher reaction (stopping pumping, closing the valves,
repair the leak). Table (1) shows effect of different factors on pipeline behavior and
leak detection systems in liquids and gas pipelines.
2. Classification of Leak Detection Methods
Bilman L., Isermann R.[2], Stuart L., et al [3], show the methods of leak
detection can be divided to external and internal leak detection systems. Leaks
detection system of the gas pipelines should comply to leak detection, alarm
generation, leak localization and estimation of the flow rate of leaking medium.

Fig. 1. Numerical visualization of the leak caused by erosion according [1]

Table (1) effect of different

liquids and gas pipelines.
No.
1
2
Criterion inertia Compreof
ssibility
liquid

factors on flow behavior and leak detection systems in

Liquid

large

small

3
Elastic
deformations
of the pipeline
caused by changes
of pressure
Large

Gas

small

large

small

4
variability
of flow

5
Presence
of the
second
phase

steady, near to
nominal (except the
transient states)
Various between day
and night, depending
on the season

Large
influence
small
influence

It is very important to choice the suitable Leaks detection system. That means nongeneration of false alarms, caused by normal operation.
2-1 External Leak Detection Systems
Mateusz T. et al. [4] and Furness, R.A., and J.D. van Reet,[5], show that in
these methods the detection is done from outside the pipe through application of
specialized sensors or visual observation of the area and, if possible, sensing with
portable detectors of transported medium, also the use of the helicopters can give
faster leak detection but less accurate information. Kowalczuk Z. and Gunawickrama

K. [6]. And Stuart L. et al [7], show also these methods, some of these methods are
following;
2.1.1 Acoustic Emission Method
Leak detection in pipelines using acoustic method technology is based on
detection of noise generated by leak creates an acoustic signal as it passes through a
perforation in the pipe. Acoustic sensors affixed to the outside of the pipe monitor
internal pipeline noise levels and locations. These data are used to create a baseline
acoustic map of the line. When a leak occurs, the resulting low frequency acoustic
signal is detected and analyzed by system processors. Deviations from the baseline
acoustic profile would signal an alarm. The received signal is stronger near the leak
site thus enabling leak location. Acoustic sensing can be applied externally to buried
pipelines by using steel rods driven into the ground to conduct the sound to a sensor
mounted on the rod. The rods are inserted at intervals along the pipeline. Acoustic
methods enable leaks detection as small as for liquids and gases. The sensors must
however be spaced at short distance one from another - not greater that several
hundred meters. Moreover, in cases of large turbulent flows, the leaks effect may be
affected by background noise generated by the turbulence. Fig.2. represents the
scheme of leak detection by acoustic emission method.

Fig. 2. The scheme of leak detection by acoustic emission method according [3]

2.1.2 Cable Sensors

Cable sensors are composed of two circuits Fig. 3. One of them is a continuity
circuit monitoring condition of the cable (checking possible physical damages). The
second one the alarm circuit is a normally open circuit, shorting only in the case of a
leak. There is a possibility to use various mechanisms. If transported medium is
conductive, the short happens naturally, because the conductive liquid facilitates
current flow between the cables. For hydrocarbons a special polymer is used as
insulation. The polymer degrades in the presence of the hydrocarbons allowing the
cables to touch. Measurement of voltage drops in the circuits enables to pinpoint the
position of the leak.

Fig. 3. Cable leak sensor according [4]

2.1.3 Liquid Sensing

Liquid sensing cables are buried beneath or adjacent to a pipeline and are
specifically designed to reflect changes in transmitted energy pulses as a result of
impedance differentials induced by contact with hydrocarbon liquids. Safe energy
pulses are continuously sent by a microprocessor through the cable. The change of
impedance alters the echoes returning to the detection system and release an alarm.
Liquid sensing leak detection is typically marketed as a self-contained leak detection
and location system, including all hardware and software. This method is relatively
high accuracy in determining leak location, no modifications to existing pipeline. But
it is very high installation costs and extensive power and signal wiring requirements.
2.1.4 Vapor Sensing
Hydrocarbon gas sensing systems are more frequently used in storage tank
systems but can also be applicable to pipelines. Leak detection using vapormonitoring techniques is a fairly straightforward concept. When a liquid seeps into
the soil, vapors migrate from into the surrounding soil pore spaces. Probes are
arranged in the soil so that a vacuum may be applied to them. The soil vapors are
collected for laboratory or field analysis.
3.2 Internal Leak Detection Systems
The internal leak detection is based on measurements and analysis of flow
parameters (mainly pressure and fluid flow rate/velocity, sometimes temperature and
density). Turner N.C. [8], Muhlbauer, K.W., [9], Daniel W. et al [10], show the main
category of internal leak detection in pipelines is known as computational pipeline
monitoring (CPM). CPM operates by providing an alarm and displaying other related
data to the controller who, in turn, would investigate the reason for the alarm and
initiate a response if the anomaly represents a product release. The basic types of
CPM are pressure analysis (rarefaction wave monitoring), volume (or mass) balance,
and real time transient modeling (RTTM).
3.2.1 Methods Based On Pressure Wave Detection
Mpesha, W [11], Didia C. et al [12,4], Show that this method is not practical
for long-range pipelines. Fig. 4 presents how gas pressure and flow rate along the
pipeline are changing after a leak has happened. At the initial instant (t1) at the leak
point a rapid pressure drop occurs, which propagate to both sides of the pipeline. The
flow rate at upstream the leak point increases and at downstream this point decreases.
The pressure wave propagates with the sound speed. The gas mass flow rate increases
upstream the leak point (instant t2 ), whereas downstream this point it increases on a

while, and then goes back to the primary value. After several minutes the new state of
the pipeline can be observed (instant t3). Upstream the leak point the mass flow rate
increases by the value of flow rate of leaking gas, and downstream returns it to the
primary value. Pressure gradient along the pipeline increases upstream the leak point,
and downstream the pressure gradient returns to its initial value. Method based on
pressure wave detection consists in pressure measurements at the selected points
distributed along the pipeline.

Fig. 4. Gas pressure and flow rate after the leak

If quick pressure change caused by acoustic (pressure) wave appears, one have
to verify, whether similar change will take place at subsequent points, and whether it
appears in the time resulting from the acoustic velocity and the distance between
measurement points. Sufficient quick pressure transducers must be installed at several
kilometers intervals see Fig. 5. To ensure precise synchronization of time
measurement usually the satellite navigation system GPS is used. It generates accurate
time information based on atomic clocks installed at system satellites. This method is
relatively fast (the leak detection and localization time is about few seconds). Fig. 5
represents the distance z from the beginning of pipeline 0; pressure sensors are
installed at points zi. Axis of ordinates represents acoustic wave propagation time tl as
a function of the distance from the leak point zl. Leak point is calculated as
intersection point L of A-L and L- B lines. Point A denotes the time of pressure wave
front transition to pipeline beginning and point B - transition time of pressure wave to
pipeline end. The accuracy of leak localization is about (2-3) cTo , where To is signalsampling period. Therefore, signal-sampling period should be as short as possible, at
least few times per second. Elimination of the stochastic noise becomes possible by
the use of various types of analogue or digital filters, and especially correlation
methods. This method makes it possible to detect and localize the leak, but it is
impossible to assess directly the leak intensity unless the amplitudes of pressure
waves will undergo further analysis

Fig. 5. Leak localization method based on pressure wave detection

3.2.2 Volume Or Mass Balance Methods

Liou, J.C.P, [13], Farmer, E.J., et al [14], show volume or mass balance
method of leak detection, also known as line balance, this method is based on
measuring the discrepancy between the input and output product volumes or mass of a
particular pipeline segment. During a unit time interval, the volume of product that
enters a pipe may not be equal to the measured volume exiting the pipe. The
difference is calculated by uncertainties in line pack and flow measurement using the
following equation:
dV
Qin Qout dQm + s ... eq.(1)
dt
Where,
Qin = Measured Inflow
Qout = Measured Outflow
dQm = Bound of uncertainty in flow measurement
dVs = Bound of uncertainty in line pack change over a time interval t
If a leak exists it can only be detected if the following relationship is fulfilled:
dV
Ql = Qin Qout dQm + s
...eq.(2)
dt
Where:
Ql = Flow rate of the leak
Ultrasonic systems detect leaks via transient-compensated volume or mass
balance; therefore, they are included under this heading. These systems typically
operate through accurate tracking of flow rate, computation of pressure, temperature,
and product characteristics and determination of sonic profiles using external clamp
on instruments configured with data processing equipment.
3.2.3 Real Time Modeling (Analytical Methods)
The most sensitive, but also the most complex and costly leak detection
method, the basis of these methods is modeling in the real time the phenomena inside
a pipeline with the use of suitable mathematical models [15,4], and comparison of the

values calculated from the model with values acquired from the real pipeline. When
the differences between the measured and calculated values are high than allowable
acceptable value, the alarm is generated and procedures of leak localization are
activated. Both static and dynamic models are acceptable, however it must be
proceeded by careful analyze.
For gas the static model based on conservation of mass principle (which can
be written as continuity equation) and known from hydraulics formulas for pipelines
has a following form:
wA = q v = q m = const
.eq.(3)
qm =

D 2
4

p12 p 22
....eq.(4)
p1
L
2 ZRT ln
+

p 2 2 Dp

where :
q m = stream of mass, kg/s
p1 and p 2 absolute pressure at input and output of the gas pipeline, Pa
D = inner diameter of the gas pipeline, m
Z = compressibility factor, dimensionless
R = gas constant, J/(kgK)
T = absolute temperature, K
L = length of modeled gas pipeline section, m and = linear losses factor.
A dynamic model for gas pipeline can be expressed by a set of partial differential
equations, which may be derived from conservation of mass and conservation of
momentum principles
A p q
+
= 0 .eq.(5)
c 2 t z
1 q p
c 2 q q g sin
+
=

p ...eq.(6)
A t z
c2
2 DA 2 p
In resolution of dynamic model it is possible to check if the dynamic model is really
necessary by calculating the value of the term related to the change of momentum in
time, therefore
1 q m 1 ( q v ) ( w) ( w)
..eq.(7)
=
=

A t
A t
t
t
Comparing it with other terms of the equation. If its value is negligible, the simple
static model can be used.
For liquid pipelines, because of larger transported masses, usually dynamic
model has to be applied. In order to describe the liquid pipeline dynamics for the
modeling purposes the pipeline is arbitrarily divided into sections at xi points where
measuring transmitters were installed on the real pipeline. It enables the direct
comparison of the variables values obtained by simulation with the real ones,
recorded in the real pipeline. Additionally, each pipeline section between xi and xi +1
points has to be divided into shorter, equal parts x j . Every segment fulfils a set of

partial differential equations as a result of the law of mass and momentum

conservation. In the case of a leak-proof pipeline (that is a pipeline for which neither

mass decrement nor momentum decrement are observed) and taking into account
that w( x, t ) c , where c is the sound speed, these equations, can be written as
w( x, t ) 1 p( x, t )
+
= 0 .....eq.(8)
x
E t
f ( x) ( x)
p( x, t )
w( x, t )
= ( x) g sin
w(t ) w(t ) ..eq.(9)
+ ( x)
t
2d
x
and the sound speed of a liquid in a pipeline is given by the following equation:
Ec
c=
....eq.(10)
DEc

( x)1 +
bE
R

where
E c =the elasticity coefficient of a liquid (Pa),
E R =the direct elasticity coefficient of a pipeline material (Young's modulus) (Pa),
b= the pipeline wall thickness (m),
D = the pipeline inner diameter (m),
(x) = the pipe friction factor and = the angle of inclination of a pipeline segment.
The mathematical model should however also reconstruct as accurately as
possible the static and dynamic characteristics of all other elements of a pipeline
system as well as interactions between these elements. No matter if a model is static,
dynamic, for liquid or gas, it should be completed with procedure of pipe friction
factor calculation. It is a function of roughness k and the Reynolds number Re. In
cases of more complex pipeline system the friction factor can be calculated from the
following equations:
In Smooth pipe (Laminar flow), seldom applicable to natural gas transmission lines.
1
= 4 log10 Re 0.6
...eq.(11)

In Rough-pipe (fully-turbulent), characterizes natural gas transmission operating.

1
3.7 D
....eq.(12)
= 4 log10

k
4- Error Sources of Leak Detection Methods, and How to Reduce Them
There are some errors such as in case of analytical methods a fundamental
source of errors are uncertainties of liquid properties measurement or
calculation. True liquid properties (density, flow resistance) may differ from
properties used to calculation. Uncertainties of density calculation or
measurement and of pipe diameter measurements have a direct influence on
model precision. Moreover, uncertainties of viscosity, diameter and pipeline
roughness assessment affects indirectly. Sensitivity of analytical methods
increases dramatically together with increase of the flow rate in a pipeline, as a
consequence of square relationship between the pressure drop and the flow
rate, which is shown in the Fig. 6. At larger values of flow rate effects of leak
(pressure change P2 ), caused by an leak of value q, are distinct, while at
small flow rate this effect ( P1), caused by identical leak, is significantly
smaller and the threshold of detection ability, and detection errors could
achieve.

Fig. 6. Effects caused by the same leak for various flow rates as pressure drop changes.

Gas inclusion in liquid has a radical effect on an elasticity module of liquid pipeline system, downgrading vitally model precision. Gas bubbles in about
1% quantity of whole volume can increase even several hundreds times
compressibility of such mixture. Liquid phase inclusions in gas are not so
important, although they should not be disregarded in case of large quantity of
liquid phase in gas.
Next errors source is due to the fact that the temperature along the pipeline is
not constant. Temperature of the ground changes, influencing the density and
viscosity. The temperature depends on ambient temperature and other
conditions such thermal conductivity of the ground (wet - dry), so from the
weather. Computed density and pipe friction coefficient values for temperature
measured at pipe ends may then differ from real values.
Obvious source is uncertainty, especially instability (drift) of measurement
transducers.
Data entered into a model are always charged by some errors - so data
correction is a necessity.
In each step one should introduce only little correction. Usually the recursive
formulas are applied for this purpose. Although physically the corrected
parameter is usually the pipe friction factor , in fact all slowly varying
factors (i.e. instrumentation drift) are corrected.

CONCLUSIONS
This study provides the proper methodology to facilitate the choice of leakdetection system. The study deals with some external methods based on external
measurements and internal methods based on flow and pressure measurements in the
pipelines. As shown in Fig.7.each leak detection method covers a specific range of
detection times and mass or volume rates. The external detection methods are able to
detect very small leaks, but require a considerable period of time. Pressure monitoring
methods are able to very rapidly detect large leaks. Used in combination a wide range
of leak conditions can be detected. Because of every system has some disadvantages,
it is worthwhile to install two systems working in parallel, complementing one
another. For example, analytical method for large flows could be supplemented by
mass balance method in cases of small flows. It applies particularly pipelines for

transmission of expensive or dangerous (because of its explosive properties, or

because of possibility environmental contamination) media. Also it applies where the
exterior of the pipeline can not be directly inspected. The advantages and
disadvantages of each method are shown in Tables (2,3).
Table (2) Advantages and disadvantages of some external leak detection methods
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Acoustic In this method Leak location can be done using interrogation techniques and it
Emission does not require shutdown for installation or calibration. But for high flow rates,
the background noise will mask the sound of a leak
Cable
This method can be used as a distributed sensor and is non-metallic in nature.
Sensor
The cable must be air dried after exposure to gasoline and other highly volatile
hydrocarbons and Sensor may interfere with the working of pipelines cathodic
protection system.
Liquid
This method is relatively high accuracy in determining leak location, no
Sensing
modifications to existing pipeline, and easy software configuration and
maintenance. But it is very high installation costs and extensive power and
signal wiring requirements.
Vapor soil This method can monitor pipelines operating under single and multiphase flow
and leak detection is unaffected by earlier leaks thus false alarms are minimized.
While the disadvantages are not applicable to above ground or underwater
pipelines and the tracer technology becomes cost- prohibitive for long pipelines
because of the number of sensors and chemicals required.
Table (3) Advantages and disadvantages of some internal leak detection methods
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Mass
It is commercially available and has been used on oil pipelines. Currently this is
balance
the most widely used technology for leak detection. Mass balance method is a
method
software system relying on the existing pipeline instrumentation and SCADA
system. Hence there are no costs associated with data acquisition and extra
instrumentation. Unlike transient models, it does not rely on detailed pipeline
simulation. Hence it does not require long hours of tuning and controller
training. While The Mass Balance system responds to the leak only after the
pressure waves corresponding to the leak have traveled to both ends of the line.
Depending on the size of the leak this may take a long time. It is dependent
upon the accuracy of the pipeline instrumentation.
Pressure
This method can be used as a distributed sensor and is non-metallic in nature.
analysis
On development, fiber optic technology can offer advantage for sub-sea leak
detection. Most volume balance and RTM leak detection systems use pressure
analysis to locate leaks. On the other hand it has been a proven technology for
arctic environment, subsea -pipelines and multiphase applications. Software
incorporating two independent methods, Pressure Point Analysis and Mass
Balance method are being combined to give a more effective leak detection
system.
Real Time Analytical Methods can compensate for monitoring during packing and
Modeling unpacking of the line. It can minimize false alarms by adjusting alarm
(Analytical thresholds according to current operating conditions. It can detect leaks of less
Methods) than 1 percent of flow. While Real Time Transient Method is a very expensive
technology. It requires extensive instrumentation for real-time data collection.
Models are complex and require a trained user. Models may require full time
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) support.

10

10%

Pressure
Loss

L
E
A
K
S
I
Z
E

Mass Balance
And Real
Time
Modling
External
Methods

1%

0.1%

Second
0.01%

Minutes

Hours

Detection Times

Fig.7. Operation range of some leak detection methods

REFERENCES
[1] Peters J. Guidance on erosion in pipework, Tidings, Issue 38. 2003.
[2] Bilman L., Isermann R. Leak detection methods for pipelines, Automatica, 23, no.
3, 1987, pp. 381-385,..
[3] Stuart L. Scott, and Maria A. Barrufet, Worldwide Assessment of Industry
Leak Detection Capabilities for Single & Multiphase Pipelines, Department of
Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University,Agusts-6, 2003..
[4] Mateusz T., Andrzej B. and Marcin Stowikowski Methods and Systems of Leak
Detection in Long Range Pipelines, Journal of Automation, Mobile Robotics and
Intelligent Systems, 1, no. 3, 2007., September.
[5] Furness, R.A., and J.D. van Reet, Pipe Line Leak Detection Technologies in Pipe
Line Rules of Thumb Handbook, 4th Edition. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
Texas,1998.
[6] Kowalczuk Z., Gunawickrama K.. Detection and localization of leakages in
industrial pipelines, Chapter 21, Warszawa: WNT Publishing House, 2002.
[7] Stuart L. Scott and Maria A. Barrufet, Worldwide Assessment of Industry Leak
Detection Capabilities for Single & Multiphase Pipelines. Project Report Prepared for
the Minerals Management Service, 2003..
[8] Turner N.C., Hardware and Software Techniques for Pipeline Integrity and Leak
Detection Monitoring, SPE paper 23044 presented at the Offshore Europe
Conference, Aberdeen, Sept. 3-6, 1991.

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[9] Muhlbauer, K.W., Pipeline Risk Management Manual, 2nd Edition. Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, Texas,1996.
[10] Daniel W. Ngla, and Moncef Boufaida. The Importance of Online Viscosity
Measurement For Leak Detection and Other Simulation Applications, Proceedings of
IPC, International Pipeline Conference, 4-8 October, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 2004..
[11] Mpesha, W. Leak Detection in Pipes by Frequency Response Method, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, Feb, 2001..
[12] Didia C., Helena R., Betamio A. 2005. Standing Wave Difference Method for
Leak Detection in Pipeline Systems, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, December.
[13] Liou, J.C.P, Leak Detection by Mass Balance Effective for Norman Wells Line.
Oil & Gas Journal, 94:17, 1996.
[14] Farmer, E.J., Edwards, G., Wallis, D.F.., Byrom, J.A., and Kennedy, T., LongTerm Field Tests Completed on Pipe Leak Detector Program, Offshore, August, 1991.
[15] Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation), Technical Review of Leak
Detection Technologies Report, 1999.

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